24 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3ceb07a24f543cc8b5b46ce8dd13002b.pdf 2d99555f3dc1582d9d23aceaa929545d PDF Text Text Hollowing out the canoe: a reflection of the society Luz Elena G. Cervantes Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH) Distrito Federal, Mexico, 04360 Mexico E-mail: luz_elena_c@hotmail.com Abstract The dugout canoe is an important element in a lot of maritime societies all over the world. It’s not only a small boat made by hollowing a tree with particular characteristics, but it is the reflection of the society in which the canoe was made. A canoe represents the interaction of ideology, tradition, economics and purpose, as well as environment and material resources. Mexico is no exception; the canoe was the best aquatic transport in pre-Hispanic communities, both for coastal and inland waters. So, the canoe can bring us a lot of archaeological information about pre-Hispanic cultures, its traditions and its environment. It is impossible to access the social explanation of the canoe if we are not able to describe it formally. So, a registration strategy will give us the possibility to store data for a social explanation of the boat. In addition, using this strategy, it is possible to accumulate general and specific data from which it can be proposed a typology of dugout vessels. This research is a step forward of a typology proposal for dugout canoes in Mexico, which aims to grow as more canoes are found, both in archaeological contexts and inside public and private institutions, museums and private collections. Key words: Americas, dugout, ethnography, methodology, Mexico, nautical 1 �Introduction The presence of water bodies as part of the ancestors life, made them to develop ways to take advantage of these resources. They needed a transport that allowed them to travel through the water. In most of the maritime communities, the canoe was the aquatic transport by excellence, for both, coastal and inland waters. This is the case in many of the pre-Hispanic communities in Mexico. Usage of the dugout canoe, the one made by hollowing out a single wooden trunk, has great importance in pre-Hispanic societies, as it is reflected on written and pictorial sources of information, as well as the preservation of several specimens found in actual communities. Therefore, the canoe could provide us with much archaeological information about pre-Hispanic cultures, as well as of their traditions and environments. How can the canoe be the reflection of the society in which it was built? The dugout canoe is an important element for maritime societies all over the world. It’s not only a small boat made by hollowing a tree with particular characteristics, but it is the reflection of the society in which the canoe was made. For this, Adams (2001) mentioned that the manufacturing process observed in each canoe, reflects the complex social activity around this. The boats can be seen as a manifestation of the maritime needs and aspirations of society, this is achieved by considering the characteristics that represents the interaction of ideology, tradition, economics, purpose, environment and material resources, which are reflected in the shape, structure, appearance and use of each vessel.  In terms of ideology and tradition, Adams notes that on the boat you can see a set of ideas about what ships mean for society, the importance they have and how they should be designed and constructed. That's why they have their own characteristics in terms of the design parameters and the ways in which they carry out various aspects of construction. In this work, despite failing to fully understand the tradition of a canoe, due to the scarce archaeological information about dugout canoes in Mexico, it can be observed similarities and differences in the physical properties of these vessels, which helps us to infer periods and 2 �geographic regions in which the canoes were built. It is like this how we can identify "types" of boats and with these, building traditions.  The economy, understood in terms of manpower and wealth can be reflected in the construction of vessels, both in size and materials used, and specific characteristics of the boat. These features have a close relationship with the material resources and with the purpose.  The purpose, understood as the function of the boat, is also observable in the physical characteristics of the vessel. The canoe has multiple functions in the indigenous life: transportation (of people, goods, materials, and ideas), resource exploitation (hunting and fishing), ceremonies, rituals and military confrontations.  Regarding the environment for which the boat is manufactured, it is reflected in the dimensional characteristics of the vessel, as if a boat is built for lakes or protected coasts, you will not need the same properties of stability and robustness that you need for a boat built for open water. Similarly, the canoe has architectural features which are defined by the place for navigation.  Finally, material resources, both natural and manufactured. This means that the available resources in part determine the size of the vessels, and also provide properties relating to the buoyancy and shipload capacity. That is how the material resources maintain their close relationship with the purpose of the boat. Similarly, manufactured material resources (such as tools) define some specific manufacturing features of the canoe; it is another feature that can provide us with information about timing and place of construction. It is impossible to access the social explanation of the canoe if we are not able to describe it formally. So, a registration strategy will give us the possibility to store data for social explanation of the boat. In addition, registration under this strategy, it is possible the accumulation of general and specific data, from which it can be proposed a typology of dugout vessels. How to approach the canoe? There are some specific problems in Mexica n archaeology which has resulted in an underdeveloped study of the canoes. A common problem has been to consider the canoe as a perishable material, and other important issue has been the inability to 3 �recognize the different objects frequently found in archaeological contexts. Because of this, it is very difficult to study the dugout canoe from an archaeological approach. While the lack of specific studies can be explained from the apparent absence of materials in archaeological contexts, there are different strategies with which to have a closer knowledge about the manufacture of canoes of indigenous tradition and with this, try to give a social explanation around the canoe. In addition to the ethnography and the study of written sources, you can use the direct study of dugout canoes located in museums, institutions and private collections, from which to obtain information about their manufacturing. Also, with this strategy, a classification can be developed based on the specific construction elements of each canoe, generating increasingly complex types. This is why apart of this strategy, a recording methodology which allows us to formally describe the canoe and recognize both their manufacturing characteristics, including structural elements, and the way it was manufactured, is proposed. This methodology is divided into four stages: A) The first is to fill a description and identification form of each canoe. These forms were made in the context of the methodology proposal described here. The information recorded in the files is as follows:  Identification canoe information.  Type of vessel.  Traditional Name.  Information on who performs the registration  Registered date.  Identification of photographs and drawings.  Location (institution or individual custody, responsible and place of origin)  General measures (Length, Width and Depth)  Building materials.  General method of construction.  Number of stems. 4 � Nailing.  Diameter of the wick stick (sail propulsion)  Evidence of manufacture.  Evidence of construction elements.  Evidence of propulsion.  Decoration.  Repairs. Fig. 1 Axes for the Topographic survey, based on the  State of preservation. Anderson’s lines. Author: Luz Cervantes  General Sketch. B) The second step is to make a record as detailed as topographical surveys. That is, sampling point is done from calculated measurements from three axes (X, Y and Z), which, together, make a three-dimensional model of the canoe. The distribution of these axes is based on survey lines of Anderson (1988): Water lines, which are horizontally distributed along the canoe, parallel to the water or flotation line; Buttock lines, which are distributed vertically along the canoe, parallel to the major axis, and Sections which intersect the canoe perpendicular to the major axis or length. (Fig. 1) This data is stored in registration forms to have a good control and management. C) The third step is to perform a specific photographic record, with which the previous information will be complemented. For the photographic record the following strategy is proposed. It is important to place a scale, the orientation of the canoe relative to the bow or the stern and an identification chalkboard. Obviously, if the boat is into an excavation context, in addition to the guidance on the bow and stern, it must be indicate the orientation from north. The scale is needed to show the size of the canoe. The orientation fits to better locate the features described in relation to the archived images. And the board is the best resource for material identification; here it is included information of where the canoe is located, the date on which it was registered, the person who registered, and identification number of the piece. 5 �The strategy for the photographic record consists in how to take the photos. This has been done in two phases. The first consists in photographs of general views, which is to archive the shape and size of the boat. The second includes specific detail views to note building elements, decorations, manufacturing marks and repairs, if they exist. For the first phase of the photographic record, the following photographs are proposed (Fig. 2): Fig.2 General views for photographic record. Author: Luz Cervantes  A photograph taken in front of the bow and stern, respectively, from which the entire rim line is observed, it is taken at the height of a standing person. If the canoe is larger, and the rim cannot be observed, shall be taken from above, with the help of a ladder or bank.  A totally front photograph, where observe only the bow or stern and bands perspective. This will be taken at the height of a person kneeling or squatting. If the canoe is larger, shall be taken with the person standing. 6 � A side view photograph of port and starboard, where canoe maximum length can be observed. This photo is usually taken kneeling or squatting, to appreciate the canoe in full.  A photograph taken in an isometric perspective, usually from the bow, loaded into one of the bands. The purpose of this view is to perceive the construction details of bow and stern height relative to the length and width of the canoe. The second phase consists of photographs of details (Fig. 3), it is important to portray all possible elements of construction, use and repairs. These photographs must be taken with a scale and in a macro mode, so can be appreciated the most possible characteristics. D) The fourth step methodology is to registration survey of the make a on a technical drawing. The purpose is to provide sufficient information to facilitate analysis, help design possible future and develop reconstruction and maintenance of the vessel. Fig. 3 Photographs of details. Author: Luz Cervantes The drawing must contain a representation in plan, profile and the body of the boat. The drawing should be clearly indicated by its size dimensions, the scale must be indicated, it should contain a record field (identification, date and name of the artist) and the three projections are needed to provide more information about the canoe (Fig. 4). For drawings of boats is proposed the scale 1:10, because at this it can be possible to appreciate the details of the vessel, and a very large format and unwieldy paper is not required. 7 �With these drawings, in addition to fact charts and specific pictures, it is possible to make a comparison between canoes belonging to the recorded simple and propose different types of boats. Fig. 4 Example of drawing. Author: Luz Cervantes A preview of the type proposed for the dugout boats in Mexico, which aims to grow as found more evidence is found, both in archaeological excavations, and public and private institutions, museums and private collections is presented in Fig. 5. This typology is completely open to be improved or modified, as pre-Hispanic navigation studies within archaeology, will increase. What is happening with the canoes in Mexico? After this analysis of dugout canoes of indigenous tradition, it is necessary to talk about this "apparent" absence of canoes as archaeological material in Mexico. For this, two dilemmas arise: the first of them leads us to ask if there really is an absence of any archaeological material belonging to canoes in Mexico. If this were the case, why is there a record of canoes with the same characteristics in other parts of the world? And why are there archaeological features of the same material of the canoes (wood) in many regions of the country? The second, focusing in the term archaeological material, are there no canoes as archaeological material in Mexico? If this were the case, all the canoes no longer used that have been abandoned in the mangroves, in shipyards, in museums, in public institutions and in many more places should be taken into account. Michael Schiffer considers that every element at the end of its life, assuming that is not reused, becomes waste so it changes from its systemic context (use) to an 8 �archaeological context (non-use). So, I believe that these “unused” canoes have not been studied from an archaeological perspective because they have not being "found" in archaeological underground contexts, and they have been discarded and not included as archaeological material. Conclusions As mentioned at the beginning of this work, archaeology in Mexico has been focused on investigations of other aspects, such as the monumental sites, and has been ignored small aspects, but these are of great importance to past societies. One of these aspects that archaeology has left aside is the water transport in and out of the country's land. The canoe in Mexico is considered as the "transport by excellence" because the water in its various forms, was distributed throughout the country and in the case of rivers, connects together large regions. Thus, here is reflected the importance of vessels in prehispanic Mexico, therefore the registration of these at an archaeological Fig. 5 Typology. Author: Luz Cervantes level, requires the necessary specialization to understand this importance. That´s how, this work it aims to raise awareness among Hispanic culture researchers in Mexico to the relevance of studying indigenous tradition on canoe construction and use. At the same time, it tries to demonstrate that there are methodological tools which help 9 �us to get closer to objects and materials that unfortunately in Mexico have been understudied due to their scarce presence in archaeological excavations. References Adams, J, 2001. Ships and Boats as Archaeological Source Material. World Archaeology, Vol. 32 (3): 292-310. Anderson, R., 1988.Guidelines for recording of historical ships,National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Béat, A., 1995.Pirogues monoxylesd'Europecentrale 
construction, typologie, évolution, us e cantonal d arch ologie (Archéologieneuchateloise), Francia. Biar, A., 2011. La navigation Mexica Dans la lagune de Mexico : navigation et prise du pouvoir.Thèse de Master, Université Paris1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Paris, Francia. Greenhill, B., 1976.Archaeology of the boat. A new introductory study, Adam and Charles Black, London. Lira, N., s/a. Canoas monóxilas en el centro-sur de Chile. Navegando sobre los árboles. Memoria para optar al título profesional de arqueólogo, Departamento de Antropología, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Chile. Schiffer, M., 1990.ContextoArqueológico y ContextoSistémico, Boletín de Antropología Americana, Num. 22: 81-93. Torres, L., 1964. Tratamiento empleado para la conservación de una canoa prehispánica, Boletín de Antropología, INAH, Num18: 10-13, México. Wendt, C., 2007. Los olmecas, los primeros petroleros. Arqueología Mexica naNum 87: 56-59 , México. Biography Luz Elena G. Cervantes is an archaeologist who graduated from the Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia in Mexico and she`s member of the Nautical Archaeology Society. She has taken some courses in maritime archaeology and she has dedicated her studies to pre-Hispanic navigation, specifically of water transport. She is making a dugout canoes compilation, in order to form a complete typology of canoes in Mexico. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 14: Pre-Hispanic Navigation Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 14 Chair Carlos Ausejo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Navigation was not unknown in the Americas, at the Spaniards arrival different kind of vessel were in use both in the Pacific and the Atlantic shores, as well as in lakes or rivers. Canoe, reed rafts, balsa log raft and others skin based watercraft have been described mainly on historical records and gave us an idea of this technologies. Although it is clear that long and short distance maritime trade routes were in use and watercraft were also involve in war activities and other maritime activities, archaeological evidence related with actual boats has been elusive to find. Still some of these traditions have survived time and in use with some changes and others were incorporated to European navigation traditions. During the last decades an increasing interest among researchers in addition to new and different approaches from a broad spectrum of perspectives, including archaeology, history, ethnohistory and ethnography, has brought new and better understanding about these technologies. In spite of this, venues of dialogue to present and discuss about these traditions has been practically inexistent. The aim of this session is to show research advances on this topic mainly in the Pacific shores and inland waters through different perspectives up to the Spanish arrival. It will focus primarily in the Andean and Mesoamerican region, however other regions would be accepted. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hollowing out the canoe: a reflection of the society Description An account of the resource The dugout canoe is an important element in a lot of maritime societies all over the world. It’s not only a small boat made by hollowing a tree with particular characteristics, but it is the reflection of the society in which the canoe was made. A canoe represents the interaction of ideology, tradition, economics and purpose, as well as environment and material resources. Mexico is no exception; the canoe was the best aquatic transport in pre-Hispanic communities, both for coastal and inland waters. So, the canoe can bring us a lot of archaeological information about pre-Hispanic cultures, its traditions and its environment. It is impossible to access the social explanation of the canoe if we are not able to describe it formally. So, a registration strategy will give us the possibility to store data for a social explanation of the boat. In addition, using this strategy, it is possible to accumulate general and specific data from which it can be proposed a typology of dugout vessels. This research is a step forward of a typology proposal for dugout canoes in Mexico, which aims to grow as more canoes are found, both in archaeological contexts and inside public and private institutions, museums and private collections. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Luz Elena G. Cervantes, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 14 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d2b1eb07309e48775bfe94f4080ea761.pdf 98a7bba5c02588eeab63501b71740fec PDF Text Text How atob came to be - the evolution of stone tidal weir in the Philippines Cynthia Neri Zayas, Ph.D. Professorial Lecturer, Center for International Studies, University of the Philippines ABSTRACT Stone tidal weirs suggest evolutionary stages of how the human-natural world interacts. From it, “commons” is reflected in the social and cultural milieus among indigenous/local communities.  In the Philippines, an atob is a stone tidal weir built on a gradually sloping reef by piling up stones as a barrier to sift sea creatures carried by the receding tide. This presentation is based on three data sets that will explain how atob came to be. The first set consists of the atob itself. The second set is composed of four related versions of the atob: (a) a simpler weir namely atob-atob 1, a fish aggregating device (FAD) of stones where fish are caught by hand, (b) panihod which is like atob-atob 1, except that fish is caught thru a basket, (c) atob-atob 2 which is not exactly a trap, but an enclosure like a pool to stock live fish for later use, and (d) the mirakolhol (miracle hole), a dug-up hole like a basin. The third set is the panapok (< pang- ‘instrumental affix’ + tapok ‘to pile up’) or pangatob, (< pang- + atob ‘to trap’) built in shallow waters that combines FAD with an encircling net dropped from the boat.  Panapok or pangatob is the missing link to the evolution of the atob. Two methods of analysis are utilized, i.e., a comparative study of material culture, and a semantic analysis of the terms used in naming and describing the weirs. In archaeology, the simplest artifact is often identified as the oldest. Could these weirs with the same features - stone structure, reliance on the tide, and an enclosure - be one and the same, differing only in the stages of their development as trappers reckon their natural world?  My data came from field research between 1990 and 2010, historical materials, and ethnography.   List of Figures Figure 1 Metemorphosis Figure 2 Etyomology and Stone Figure 3 Imitating Nature INTRODUCTION Traps such as atob are intended to lure fish like an aggregating device. The means of gathering the fish vary in many ways. Three data sets are presented here to connect them as an associated method of fishing, thus answering the possible transformation from a simple to a complex atob. The first set of data describes how the atob, in principle, can trap fish. An example of an atob with a catchment or mouth is presented. The second set includes atob-atob 1, panihod, atob-atob 2, and mirakolhol. For fish to take shelter and become stuck when the tide recedes, the atob-atob 1 waits for the tide to come in. A similar method, the panihod involves breaking up or scattering the stone pile in order to direct the fish toward a basket of the same name. Atob-atob 2, on the other hand, is a man-made pool surrounded by stone walls used to store live fish. In a similar manner, a mirakolhol is a man-made hole filled with tree branches and some coconut leaves to entice fish into seeking safety and thus, get trapped. The third set is composed of panapok or pangatob, piled-up the stones that are two fathoms below the water. Left alone for weeks, fishers return in a boat with a net after some time. A net is dropped around the pile of stones, then divers scatter the stones for the fish to swim toward the net. 1.0 Atob, stone tidal weir On progressively sloping reef tides, long stone walls known as atog or atob are constructed in the form of a horseshoe. The stone walls are breached by seawater during high tide, confining the nearby marine life as the tide recedes (Zayas 2023). The "mouth" or taun, a crucial catchment element, is located at the lowest ebb. These fish weirs were constructed along the coastline of a few islands in the Central Philippines. Designed to catch fish swimming above the pools as the tide comes in and release 1 �them as it goes out, imitating the ability of even the most primitive people to catch fish with their hands in natural pools, Nishimura described the weir as: a man‐made [sic] replica of the natural hollow found in rock or coral reef, which the ebbing tide fills with water. Copying the principle of the natural pool, in which even the most primitive [sic] people are able to catch fish by hand, piled‐up stones are used to form artificial basins and are so positioned that fish swimming above the pool at tide are caught in the weir as the tide recedes. The more complicated construction of the stone fish trap, which also relies on the ebb and flow of the tide, includes a stone wing that forces the fish to enter the catching base (Nishimura 1968, 23). There are four features of a stone tidal weir: it is dependent on the ebbing tide; it has a natural hollow or constructed basin on the reef; it has piled-up stones; and it has a wing (leader) that directs fish into the catchment (mouth). These features that can be gleaned in some of the fish traps in the following sections. Figure 1 Metemorphosis 1.1 Origins of the term atob Atol is a cognate term of atob. Atol is mentioned in 1711 CE a river fish trap in Mateo Sanchez's Vocabulario de la lengua bisaya. Francisco Alcina (2004) used a similar word, atub, to describe a large animal deadfall trap or snare roughly 60 years before Sanchez. Alcina described it as a device that forms a narrow passage with stakes and sets a trap between the stakes, adding some large stones on top for greater weight. The trap is suspended and falls by walking over or touching a smaller stick, which they refer to as gisui, catching the crocodile below and crushing it with the smaller stick. Figure 2 Etyomology and Stone 2 �1.2 Etymology of the term Atol is cognate word for atob or atog in Eastern and Western Visayan languages. The English word atoll, defined as a ring of coral rock arranged around a lagoon, is a word that has been borrowed from the Austronesian languages where Philippine languages belong. Atob, atog, antol, and its variations are characterized as a coral stone wall built along tidal flats for the purpose of collecting fish during ebb tide. The two Hispanic sources mentioned above offer an intriguing perspective on the true purpose of the trap. The atol of the sea and the atub of the marshland alludes to specific concepts about trapping technology that may provide a hint to the theory of the genesis of hunting implements among pre-Hispanic peoples. Or, possibly, they allude to anything regarding a cultural tradition of the lithic age and the connection between land-based and marine traps. This is inferred from a belief that Megalithic culture originated in Southeast Asian mountains during the Mesolithic Period. Linguistically speaking, the nautical equivalent of the megalithic civilization on land is a stone tidal weir (Zayas, 2004:560). 1.3 Atob from proto-Philippine *batúʔ ‘stone’ It has been established that the word atob comes from the proto-Philippine *batúʔ ‘stone’ which is bato in many Philippine languages (Paz 1988). It undergoes metathesis, resulting in the initial consonant b ending up in final position, i.e., bato > atob. 1 Three fundamental components of a tidal trap are revealed by analysis of names given to variants of atob, such as hubas and sada, which are also close to the definition of the atoll. These components are a stone wall, an enclosure, and an ebbing tide. This suggests, based on linguistic data, that an atob can only be made of stone and that it may be one of the earliest types of fishing equipment in the Philippines, if not the oldest (Zayas 2004, 56-57). It is noted that atob construction is very versatile. As it is small-scale, it can be modified using other materials such as nets, bamboos and/or wood. I shall describe these later. Figure 3 Imitating Nature 1.4 Atob of stone, reliance on tides, and an enclosure An atob structure is made of stone. It is also a barricade of stones, a mound of stones, and a fish corral of bamboo matting reinforced with piles of stones. Its reliance on the tide can be gleaned from the Bikol languages that refer to ebb tide, i.e., hubas ‘ebb tide’, hubasan ‘place of ebb tide’, and unasan 1 In my conversation with the linguist Yamada Yukihiro, he surmised that the metathesized form atob from bato, mentioning the word stone might have some taboo element. 3 �‘ebb tide’. Finally, as an enclosure, the terms panada, sada, sara and serada are Bikol loan words from the Spanish word cerrar ‘to close’. These terms are defined as stone barricade built on reefs near the shore for catching rockfish during the receding tide. Literally, the term means the act of fishing with the sada or reef barricade (Umali 1950, 130, 147, 151, 152). 2. Atob-atob 1, Panihod with Atob-atob 2 and Mirakolhol Along the tidal flats of Dumaguete City's renowned coastal promenade, Nisi Banay-banay's atob-atob 1 is piled high. When the tide is low, he visits these piles to collect any fish or other aquatic life that sought refuge. He scatters the stone to drive the fish out of the pile. He would later reconstruct his atob-atob after switching from one pile of stone to another. Nearby is an atob-atob owned by Antonia Teves. I learned that her catch in one pile consisted of a variety of coral fishes, native abalone, sea urchins, and a few shells. Akin to Banay-banay’s pile of stones, there is a mention of a similar method of fishing, except that a basket of the same name, panihod, is used as reported by my colleague Ms. Mary Jane Calderon-Hayhow (1994, 431, 458) on the same coast. Atob-atob and panihod are similar, but panihod harvesting requires knee-deep water and a basket. Pan-+ ihod/sahod is a Bisayan expression that means ‘to catch through the flow of anything with a container’. To guide the fish toward the container, the basket is placed between the fisherman's knees. Despite sharing the same name as atob-atob 1, atob-atob 2 is designed to store fish for later consumption or to raise undersized catch for future use. It is built of stone piles, much like an atob (Zayas 1964, 91-92). Meanwhile, mirakolhol (< miracle hole) is a term given by those who introduced the weir from a government agency. It is a hole that has been dug, lined with stones, and filled with coconut leaves and tree branches. Its purpose is to draw captive fish into the pit, where they can find protection even if the rising tide forces them to leave. Because they are not constructed on sloping tidal flats, atob-atob in Gigantes and Dumaguete are stone fish traps rather than stone tidal weirs. In addition, there are no stone walls with a horse-shoe shape there. The mirakolhol has elements of FAD incorporated in the shape of old tires and tree branches while physically resembling an atob. It also serves as a pond for stocks of live fish (Zayas 20004, 64). 3. Atob and taun, the commons, and other inhabitants A non-return valve hidden in the deepest part of the stone walls is the taun, a bamboo trap owned by Tranquilino Chavez. Chavez's atob at Tinigbas, Antique was shaped like a crescent moon and measured roughly 109 meters long and 59 meters wide. Children, mothers, and some elderly folks gathered here during low tide for their supper's side dish. Not against the law for these gleaners to enter the atob, they picked up shells, little octopuses, prawns, and seaweed with their hands or some basic tools. However, they are forbidden from touching Mr. Chavez's taun. When the catch is good, he does share these with his family and neighbors. The atob is not privately owned, but the taun is (Zayas 2011, 72-73). An atob, per se, cannot be owned by anyone. The village owns the reefs and intertidal flats as common property. The stone tidal weir's “accidental” presence does not imply ownership of the area. However, the builder can claim the catchments, known as taun, and the stones used to construct the weir as his, giving him the appearance of ownership because he can harvest from his taun and sell the stones if he so chooses. Sometimes, stones are just picked up and used again to construct a new atog. (Zayas 2009, 126). Until recently (about 2006), family members and neighbors shared the fish, shells, and other items trapped in the weir after the owner had his fill. While adults collected shells clinging to the stacked stones, children would play inside the weir. Essentially, weir construction is community-based on 4 �large or small scales. Communities’ social formation often revolves around the atob’s construction, repair, production, and distribution of catch. Ownership is not about the relationships among members of the community and the weir per se, but about customary relations among people that evolved as a result of constructing the weir and using it for their own benefit (Zayas 2011, 72-73). Sharing the goods without having access to that area suggests that nobody truly controls the sea. Users never act as owners, just as stewards. The concept of the commons for weir owners partly involves sharing fish during ritual activities with other people, as well as with sea spirits. Fishermen think spirits or other beings who are not like us also inhabit the sea. Extensive festivities are held to usher in the fishing season. In a place with humans, spirits live alongside them. CONCLUSION A stone tidal weir called an atob is used in the Philippines to screen marine creatures brought ashore by the receding tide. It is built on a reef that slopes. Simpler traps, such as a mound of stones broken up to drive out fish and catch them by hand, or a similar pile of stones but with the disaggregation aimed at a waiting basket, a pile of stones can also show how an atob works. Specifically, it has a mouth where a taun basket, where the water emerges from the barricade's lowest point, is situated. As the name suggests, atob is shown here as the stone fish tidal weir. Looking at this trap's evolution from simple to complicated reveals how local expertise has enriched its more complex form across a range of situations. It isn't implied that this is how the atob evolved; rather, it merely describes some of the ways it might have progressed as the environment required. At first, there was a heap of stones at the coast, waiting for the ebbing tide to trap aquatic life. The identical pile of stones is then spread in a different manner when the tide is knee-deep. Organisms in the trap are steered toward a basket that is positioned between the trapper's legs. The same-named trap's panihod basket serves as a description of what it is. Two examples of innovations or adaptations to the environment are: (1) dispersing stones when the water is below the knees in place of dry tidal flats; and (2) using a panihod, a basket, to catch fleeing species. In deeper water of two fathoms, panapok or pangatob, the same stone pile is repeated. However, the divers' practice of spreading the stone while enclosing the pile in a double net is novel. Eventually, a traditional stone tidal weir resembling an atob or atog is created. This trap has the same features as the earlier ones. reliance on the tide, use of a stone barricade in place of a pile to scatter fish, removal of stones from the pile to replace the panihod basket, the replacement of the surrounding net with a stone barricade intended to trap fish, and finally, the return to the fundamentals of bato becoming atob, show how trappers have imitated nature. This paper used the association of parts and functions of the weirs to show how similar fishing techniques can shed light on an ancient fish weir's origin and potential evolution. The Philippine counterparts are smaller in scale than the enormous ones found in the Penghu archipelago. It is also an individual or household-type managed fishing method, not clan- or community-based. Due to its portability, it may be modified according to the islands’ weather, wind, and vegetation. In retrospect, the Philippine islands have this type of weir, which is characterized by small-scale stone tidal weirs. Due to their size, they can easily be recycled after usage or transformed into a different type of weir using various materials. Think about how little stones (in comparison to those in Taiwan) can be combined with bamboo and a net. By adding additional power in this way, it becomes stronger. The redesigned weir can also be relocated from one spot to another based on wind or current movement. The presence or absence of mangroves has an impact on where the fish trap is placed as well. The latter is crucial since over the past few decades, mangrove habitats have been transformed into fishponds because of demands from overseas. In particular, shrimp are in high demand. When mangroves are eliminated, fish stop reproducing because they no longer have a place to hide and food to eat. In the Philippines, stone tidal weirs function as fish aggregation devices and draw varied marine creatures, encouraging biodiversity both within and beyond their boundaries. 5 �This communal fish weir embodies the notion of the "commons." To be clear, an atob per se cannot be owned by anybody; the reefs and intertidal flats belong to the village as common property. The “accidental” presence of the stone tidal weir does not suggest ownership of the territory. But since he can harvest from his taun and sell the stones if he so chooses, the builder can claim ownership of the catchments, or taun, and the stones used to build the weir give him the illusion of ownership. To build a new atob, stones are occasionally just taken up and put back together (Zayas 2009, 126). Acknowledgments Field research in Panay was undertaken with the assistance of Lilian dela Peña in 1992 and 2006. BIBLIOGRAPHY Agustin Umali, Guide to the classification of fishing gear in the Philippines. Washington, D.C.: Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Series. Research report (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service); (1950) 17. Alcina, Ignacio Francisco. History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands 2 (Translated, edited, and annotated by C. J. Kobak and L. Gutierrez. Manila: UST Publishing House (Originally published in 1868 as Historia de las Islas e Indios de Bisayas). 2004. Nishimura, Asahitaro. Living fossil of oldest fishing gear in Japan. In: VIIIth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, Tokyo and Kyoto. 1968. Paz, Consuelo J.  Appendix: A dictionary of proto‐Philippine morpheme, in A Reconstruction of proto‐Philippine Phonemes and Morphemes, The ARCHIVE. Diliman: Department of Linguistics University of the Philippines.1988. Zayas, C. N. Importance of Stone-weir Heritage in the Arch of Instability- Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines. Paper presented during the workshop on the project, Indigenous People, Traditional Ecological Knowledge, and Climate Change: The Iconic Underwater Cultural Heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs, June 11-17, 2023, sponsored by the National Central University, Taoyuan, Taiwan, and the Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH), Government of Taiwan.2023. Zayas, C. N. Stone tidal weirs rising from the ruins: cultural scenes from the seascapes of the Pacific Islands. In Journal of Ocean & Culture 2 (2019):88-109. With minor corrections and an addendum, this present text is an updated version of the book edited by Rila Mukherjee in 2017 entitled, living with Water - People, lives, and livelihood in Asia and Beyond. Delhi: Primus Books. Zayas, C. N. Describing stewardship of the common sea among atob fishers of the Pacific Rim Islands – cases from Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines. South Pacific Studies 31, no. 2 (2011): 71-80. Zayas, C. N. & C. Selerio “Innovation of Stationary Fishing Gear in Guimaras Island, Central Philippines". Philippine Quarterly of Culture & Society 37 (2009):19-34. Zayas, C. N. 海の畑　―　ヴィサヤ諸島・澎湖 (プンフー) 諸島・流球諸島の石干見　(Umi no hatake – stone tidal weirs in the Visayas (Philippines), Pescadroes (Taiwan), and the Ryukyus (Japan)― 2009. In 海の回廊と文化の出会い。橋本　政治 (ed) 。Osaka: Kansai Univ. Press, (2009): 247-281. Zayas, C. N. Bato nga tinumpok”- Stone tidal weirs as representations of “kabilin”, knowledge heritage, and cultural landscapes. Aghamtao 18 (2009):24-33. Zayas, C. N. “Atob and bato– two sides of Philippine lithic tradition.” Studies in Philippine stone tidal weir. Pilipinas 43 (2004): 55-70. Zayas, C. N. Pangayaw and Tumandok in the Maritime World of the Visayas Islands, In The Fishers of the Visayas. The Fishers of the Visayas [Visayas Maritime Anthropological Studies I, 1991-93]. Edited by Iwao Ushijima and C. N. Zayas. Diliman: CSSP Publications Office and the U.P. Press.1994. Zayas, C. N. et. al. Maritime Anthropological Survey in Panay. Report Submitted to the Institute of Fisheries Policy and Development Studies, College of Fisheries, University of the Philippines, Miag-ao, Iloilo. Manuscript. 1993. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource How atob came to be - the evolution of stone tidal weir in the Philippines Description An account of the resource Stone tidal weirs suggest evolutionary stages of how the human-natural world interacts. From it, “commons” is reflected in the social and cultural milieus among indigenous/local communities. In the Philippines, an atob is a stone tidal weir built on a gradually sloping reef by piling up stones as a barrier to sift sea creatures carried by the receding tide. This presentation is based on three data sets that will explain how atob came to be. The first set consists of the atob itself. The second set is composed of four related versions of the atob: (a) a simpler weir namely atob-atob 1, a fish aggregating device (FAD) of stones where fish are caught by hand, (b) panihod which is like atob-atob 1, except that fish is caught thru a basket, (c) atob-atob 2 which is not exactly a trap, but an enclosure like a pool to stock live fish for later use, and (d) the mirakolhol (miracle hole), a dug-up hole like a basin. The third set is the panapok (< pang- ‘instrumental affix’ + tapok ‘to pile up’) or pangatob, (< pang- + atob ‘to trap’) built in shallow waters that combines FAD with an encircling net dropped from the boat. Panapok or pangatob is the missing link to the evolution of the atob. Two methods of analysis are utilized, i.e., a comparative study of material culture, and a semantic analysis of the terms used in naming and describing the weirs. In archaeology, the simplest artifact is often identified as the oldest. Could these weirs with the same features - stone structure, reliance on the tide, and an enclosure - be one and the same, differing only in the stages of their development as trappers reckon their natural world? My data came from field research between 1990 and 2010, historical materials, and ethnography. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cynthia Neri Zayas Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Zayas, Cynthia Neri . 2023. “How atob came to be - the evolution of stone tidal weirs in the Philippines.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Paul Montgomery, and Bill Jeffrey. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2012 Asia-Pac Session 11 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hsüan-tsung (reign 712-56) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Denis Twitchett Denis C. Twitchett Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Denis Twitchett Editor Denis C. Twitchett Item Type Book Section Book Title Sui and T’ang China Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Pages 333-463 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series The Cambridge History of China Title A name given to the resource Hsüan-tsung (reign 712-56) Volume 3 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/26ac59ff7503fcb9c6bd4d7ee84d336d.pdf 2653f9513523ff5df8dbfbe9e1d6b632 PDF Text Text Human remains on underwater cultural heritage: Ethics, values and law Elena Perez-Alvaro Ironbridge International Institute for Cultural Heritage College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham UK Email: exp140@bham.ac.uk Abstract All of the factors and complexities of the issues regarding the management of underwater cultural heritage reveal the narrow dependence between its management and the historical, sociological, cultural and traditional particularities of every country. Catastrophes creating shipwrecks frequently also cause deaths, ranging from single fatalities to disasters claiming hundreds of lives. However there is not a specific legislation dealing with the treatment of the human remains on shipwrecks. Nevertheless, the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage includes in its definition the term human remains, which means that the same guidelines for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage preservation in situ for the public benefit - are also applicable to human remains. In this regards, this paper will justify that declaring shipwrecks as funerary monuments or underwater cemeteries in most cases attracts tourism, apart from the own meaning of these sacred places, and also complies with the 2001 UNESCO Convention principles. In addition, the possibility of the treatment of human remains as intangible heritage can lead to a new whole vision for its protection and management. Underwater cultural heritage can be not only monuments to the great journey or heroic combat, but also a tool to shape the collective memory. Underwater cultural heritage can act as a trigger for a set of emotions and memory narrative. Key words: Human remains, UCH, Submerged cemeteries, Watery graves, 2001 UNESCO Convention Introduction The management and protection of human remains as part of the underwater cultural heritage is a complex ethical issue – as it is in land archaeology - entangled with technical considerations for being underwater. And although human remains can be found at sites that are several hundred years old (Dromgoole, 2013), its preservation depends on different factors and environmental conditions. Different issues arise from the issue, which requires a lot of unpacking before offering possibilities. The establishment of the respect for the deceased or the development and education for the future faces complicated moral questions. One of the 1 �justifications of archaeologist and museum managers for the recovery and/or exhibition of human remains is the appeal to science and education, which raises other ethical issues. In addition, the definition of respectful treatment is different in different cultures. Problems with those who believe on live after death are also a complicated aspect on the management of human remains. The international community must establish clear rules about how to protect shipwrecks containing human remains. Different attitudes to underwater cultural heritage The current tendencies on the protection of underwater cultural heritage show differences in the protection between countries determined by aspects of culture, such as tradition, mentality or habit. States may also manage and protect their underwater cultural heritage to shape public memory through the memorial forms, sites, references and public rituals (Nora, 1996). As a result, the different countries develop their protection policies according to their system of collective values, which work as guides to decide what deserves to be preserved and how it has to be managed. As part of this heritage, shipwrecks can also represent different meanings for different people in different cultures, so their actions to enable preservation show a real complexity because of these differences. The complexity of the issue has led to similar complexities on the procedures to preserve. Since most of the Earth is covered with water, burial at sea has long been the accepted norm for mariners all over the world. Most of those burials are accidental as a consequence of a casualty. Says Delgado (2011): Despite years of shipwreck exploration as a maritime archaeologist and a decade as director of a maritime museum, Titanic was never high on my list of lost ships to visit. I'd never considered it an archaeological site, but rather an underwater museum and memorial. However, some authors are opposed to the treatment of shipwrecks as cemeteries (Bryant, 2001). This school of thought support its theories by three main assertions: It is argued that neither history nor the law treats shipwrecks, historic or otherwise, as protected underwater cemeteries, stating that the historic, social, scientific, and monetary value of historic shipwrecks dictates that they should not be treated as underwater cemeteries protected from salvage or recovery. This fact is well documented: neither history nor the law treats shipwrecks as protected underwater cemeteries. However, if as we will claim, human remains are underwater cultural heritage, they are protected and managed by the 2001 UNESCO Convention 2 �(Convention hereinafter), meaning that they have to be preserved in situ. According to the Convention, the use of these shipwrecks as underwater cemetery will make the history for future generations. It is also suggested (Bryant, 2001) that since underwater shipwrecks are unnatural and do not belong on the bottom of the sea -they belong at their home ports and intended destinations - neither do human remains belong on the bottom of the seas there. As a consequence, recovery is acceptable where circumstances permit: the reason being that while cemeteries are the intended resting places for the dead, shipwrecks are not, and because shipwrecks have other diverse values, they should not glibly be labelled as cemeteries and kept off-limits to salvors and others. Historic shipwrecks containing human remains deserve respect, although not so far as to treat them as underwater cemeteries that cannot be salvaged, Bryant concludes (2001). In this regard, it is open to debate that, while cemeteries are the intended resting place for the dead, shipwrecks are not. Throughout history, cemeteries have changed their context according to the circumstances: from churches - which are not meant to be cemeteries - to main squares in the village when there are mass deaths. Therefore, fatalities and deaths on board - of the now shipwrecks - has converted them into submerged cemeteries. Finally and more importantly, it seems that declaring shipwrecks as underwater cemeteries is generally the result of a need to enhance the cultural identity of a nation, region or group, something not well accepted in some circles, since it is highly selective in terms of what is portrayed as worthy of being remembered. In this sense, the topic of heritage as a tool to shape the collective memory has been well studied (Nora, 1996; Viejo-Rose, 2011). It seems true that heritage can become an evocative national symbol, acting as a trigger for a set of emotions and memory narrative. During a period of deciding what to preserve, efforts are made to shape public memory through memorial forms, sites, references and public rituals (ViejoRose, 2011). As a consequence, the heritage can be manipulated by the rulers to remember history in a different way. In the case of the shipwrecks, it is the idea of those who died for us, for their country. Legal approach The Convention defines underwater cultural heritage as: all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at 3 �least 100 years such as: (i) sites, structures, buildings, artefacts and human remains, together with their archaeological and natural context; (ii) vessels, aircraft, other vehicles or any part thereof, their cargo or other contents, together with their archaeological and natural context; and (iii) objects of prehistoric character. This definition appears to represent that human remains are underwater cultural heritage, regardless of whether they are contained on a shipwreck or just lying at the bottom of the sea. In other words, human remains under water for at least 100 years are objects according to the Convention. As a consequence, every article and every rule of the Convention is applicable to human remains. Any direct citation to human remains in the rest of the text is redundant and expresses differences with the rest of the cultural heritage discriminating against - or emphasizing - human remains with respect to sites, structures, buildings, artefacts, vessels or other vehicles lying at the bottom of the sea. The term is used in two more articles. Human remains are also explicitly named in Article 2.9: States Parties shall ensure that proper respect is given to all human remains located in maritime waters. This article suggests a respect in any case or activity when dealing with human remains. The last mention of human remains is found in the Annex, Rule 5, where it is specified that activities directed at underwater cultural heritage shall avoid the unnecessary disturbance of human remains or venerated sites. This last reference deals with human remains contained within the other underwater cultural heritage, for instance a shipwreck. However, none of these articles directly states the best conditions to manage human remains, for instance in cases where the shipwreck is going to be excavated and/or raised. The Convention does not describe whether the bodies should be recovered with the ship and reburied, or should remain at the bottom of the sea. It is also not stated if the human remains should repatriated to their country of origin if the shipwreck is, for instance, salvaged by a private company. The Convention mainstays are: 1. Preservation of underwater cultural heritage for the benefit of humanity; 2. In situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage; 3. Prohibition of commercial exploitation of the underwater cultural heritage; 4. International cooperation in the preservation of underwater cultural heritage. 4 �In this regard, if we finally agree that human remains are in fact underwater cultural heritage, the same terms are applied. As a consequence, human remains have to be preserved for the benefit of humanity, they cannot be commercially exploited and an international cooperation must occur in order to preserve them. The Convention also establishes what to do with the underwater cultural heritage – and therefore with human remains - once it has been discovered (Article 18. 4): A State Party which has seized underwater cultural heritage shall ensure that its disposition be for the public benefit, taking into account the need for conservation and research [...] the need for public access, exhibition and education [...] in respect of the underwater cultural heritage concerned. Leaving aside the economic definition of public benefit, it is worth to remember that families may need a place to pray, to honour the victims of the shipwrecks. This demand is part of the public benefit. Article 18.4 is complemented in the Annex of the Convention consisting on Rules concerning activities directed at underwater cultural heritage: Rule 1. The protection of underwater cultural heritage through in situ preservation shall be considered as the first option […]. Rule 4. Activities directed at underwater cultural heritage must use non-destructive techniques and survey methods in preference to recovery of objects. If excavation or recovery is necessary for the purpose of scientific studies or for the ultimate protection of the underwater cultural heritage, the methods and techniques used must be as non-destructive as possible and contribute to the preservation of the remains. As a consequence, none of the instruments dealing with the protection of underwater cultural heritage deal specifically with human remains and how to manage them, but since human remains are underwater cultural heritage, the same rules are applicable; the most important direction is the preservation in situ for the benefit of the public. However, since the two articles refer to human remains in specific terms, the Convention sows doubts about its specific distinction and consequently, about the specific treatment. Other instruments, like the Vermillion Accord on Human Remains (1989) that remarks respectful treatment and consideration of indigenous communities and the Tamaki Makau-rau Accord on the Display of Human Remains and Sacred Objects (2005) that establishes ethics on the display of human remains are not specific to human remains on shipwrecks, although they can be combined. 5 �Watery graves The community is relaying its history, its past and in some way its future in the hands of archaeologists. How those elements are going to be managed and manipulated will build the history of an individual, a community or a nation Archaeologists have also to respond to an ethic of cultural dignity, which may include obtaining permission from the descendants of the human remains. The biologically and culturally related groups must have a substantial role in the decisions and the treatment of their ascendants. In this sense, there has been an apparent growth of the notion of shipwrecks as graveyards and memorials, some with traditional notions of burial at sea, and requiring recognition and respect beyond the protection of the archaeological remains (human and otherwise) contained within. Among the reasons of such interest, it is necessary to consider both the controversial aspect of this option and the effectiveness showed in some countries. In the first of these two aspects, the controversial one, a group of elements are combined: from the purely technical to those of ethical or human nature. In this sense, the recovery of human remains (sometimes with a high number of civil or military victims) is a source of controversy on the way that both the bodies and the shipwrecks containing them should be managed. With these controversies, there are conflicts without a clear solution, where some opinions are opposed to the treatment of human remains while other ones are related to the need of the historians and public opinion to understand the facts, and through these gain knowledge of history. Bryant (2001) remarks that it is widely acknowledged that gaining knowledge about the past requires examining ruins of earlier cultures, including human skeletal remains. On the other side to those technical matters, the ethical background includes some other facts of a particular complexity which determines the actions of the management and the protection of certain countries. Wight (2009) observes that the issue of remembering tragedy and oppression in heritage sites is at the centre of an academic debate surrounding “truth” or “authentic” narratives. Truth, he continues, depends on a number of ethical codes codified through cultural background, and religious or secular beliefs. Among these matters, the cultural ones dominate the picture: The consideration of death, where there are usually superstitious perceptions, and a general attitude to the “respect to the dead” and their remains. 6 �- The religious considerations with transcendental character, and its impetus in life after death. - The consideration of memories as an instrument to continue life after death. - The consideration of the past as an example (positive or negative) for the present and for the future, associated with the collective memory of the human being. One particular way of this consideration is the one who use the memories as a tool for the benefit of the social cohesion, to create or strength a national, regional, local… identity, as explained before. The concepts of monument and hero acquire, in those contexts, an emotive capacity which can strengthen the goals and the actions for the protection of the heritage (Nora, 1996). Shipwrecks as cemeteries It is necessary for the international community to leave an open option to preserve shipwrecks with human remains as watery graves. That option will depend both on the collective interest to remember the tragedy, and the weight of the attitude to consider the shipwrecks as a sanctuary for the dead people. Anyway, the diversity of countries of origin and the nationalities of the victims on some shipwrecks reduces the consideration of an emotional answer to an attack or national identity, although there is still an attitude of collective awareness of the realities of our times. War graves have a different consideration (Williams, 2005). They have a particular legal status which establishes a degree of protection from disturbance: it is a mixture of salvage principles and legislation relating to military remains. The difficulty comes when those human remains are something that some want to forget, rather than remember. Watery graves as memorials Part of our identity is based in our cultural property identity. This is the feeling of a group of people, or of an individual which are influenced by their culture. As Renfrew and Bahn (2008: 546) remembered, ethnicity today is a living force, and heritage is an important tool in the definition of national identity. Declaring a shipwreck as a cemetery can be considered as part of this enhancement of the national identity. Memorials are highly selective in terms of what they portray as worthy of being remembered. 7 �Watery graves attracting black tourism Management of shipwrecks as watery graves can lead to dark tourism, attracting tourists to a place with special meaning to the friends and relatives of the people who lost their lives in the disaster. Tragedies can be then exploited, not only to convey political messages, but also for commercial gain (Sharpley, 2009). Dark tourism is defined as a different type of tourist attraction. It is the act of travel and visitation to sites of death, disaster and the seemingly macabre (Stone, 2009). It has to be analyzed if declaring shipwrecks as watery graves will attract this kind of tourism. Conclusion All the factors and the complexities of the issues on the management of the underwater cultural heritage reveal the narrow dependence between its management and the historical, sociological, cultural and traditional particularities of every country. The 2001 UNESCO Convention includes the term human remains within its definition of underwater cultural heritage. As a consequence, the same principles applicable to the underwater cultural heritage – no commercial exploitation, preservation in situ, preservation for the benefit of the mankind and international cooperation- are also valid for human remains. Preservation in situ of human remains means the treatment of shipwrecks as underwater cemeteries. The recovery of those remains would contravene the Convention. On the other hand, benefits from the study of human remains would come to an end if some of those human remains are not recovered and/or studied. The complexity arises from the choice of those remains that will be disturbed. Declaring shipwrecks as funerary monuments or underwater cemeteries can be attractive not only because of the controversy, but also for the effectiveness of preservation. Delgado confirmed (2004: 56) that “the best and largest museum of all lies in the bottom of the sea”. It can also be the largest cemetery of the world. Acknowledgements The present work benefited from the input of J. Carman, C. Forrest, M. AznarGomez, and M. Manders, who provided valuable comments to the writing of the research summarised here. 8 �References Bryant, C. R., 2001. The archaeological duty of care: the legal, professional, and cultural struggle over salvaging historic shipwrecks. Albany Law Review, Fall 2001: 97-145. Delgado, J., 2004. Adventures of a Sea Hunter: In Search of Famous Shipwrecks. Douglas and McIntyre, Vancouver. Delgado, J., 2011. Diving on the Titanic. Archaeology, Vol. 54 (1) (January/February): 34-41. Dromgoole, S., 2013. Underwater cultural heritage and international law. Cambridge University Press, New York. Nora, P., 1996. Realms of Memory. (English Translation: L. Kritzman), Columbia University Press, New York. Renfrew, C., and Bahn, P., 2008. Archaeology: theories, methods and practice. Thames & Hudson, London. Sharpley, R., 2009. Dark Tourism and Political Ideology: Towards a Governance Model. In R. Sharpley and P. R. Stone (Eds.), The darker side of travel: The Theory and Practice of Dark Tourism, Channel View Publications, Bristol: 145-163. Stone, P. R., 2009. Dark Tourism: Morality and New Moral Spaces. In R. Sharpley and P. R. Stone (Eds.), The darker side of travel: The Theory and Practice of Dark Tourism, Channel View Publications, Bristol: 56-72. Tamaki Makau-rau Accord on the Display of Human Remains and Sacred Objects, 2005. From http://www.worldarchaeologicalcongress.org/site/about_ethi.php. Vermillion Accord on Human Remains, from http://www.worldarchaeologicalcongress.org/site/about_ethi.php. Viejo-Rose, D., 2011. Reconstructing Spain: cultural heritage and memory after civil war. Sussex Academic Press, Sussex. Wight, C., 2009. Contested National Tragedies: An Ethical Dimension. In R. Sharpley and P. R. Stone (Eds.), The darker side of travel: The Theory and Practice of Dark Tourism, Channel View Publications, Bristol: 129-144. UNESCO., 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural- heritage/2001-convention/official-text/ Williams, M., 2005. “War graves” and Salvage: Murky Waters? International Maritime Law, June/July 2000, Vol. 7 (5): 151-158. 9 �Biography Elena Perez-Alvaro is a PhD candidate in Underwater Cultural Heritage at University of Birmingham, UK. She holds an undergraduate degree in History of Art and MSc in Heritage and Museum Studies at University of Portsmouth and LLM in Maritime Law at University of London. She has studied a Masters Research Degree at University of Cambridge, being the title of her dissertation ‘Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Spain’. Her work on ‘Unconsidered Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage: Laying Submarine Cables or Experiments on Particle Physics using underwater cultural heritage: the dilemma’ has been published in Rosetta Journal. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 1: UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Cooperation Description An account of the resource The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the UN. It has 195 Member States. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted in 2001 is the international community’s response to the destruction of submerged archaeological sites by treasure hunters and industrial activities. It reflects the growing recognition of the need to ensure the same protection to underwater heritage as that already accorded to land-based heritage. It provides legal protection, enables States Parties to adopt common approaches to preservation and provides effective professional guidelines on underwater cultural heritage. The Convention and its Annex have been officially endorsed by most professional associations of underwater archaeologists. The 2001 Convention entered into force on 2 January 2009. Today it has been ratified by 44 States. The objectives of the UNESCO session are to: * Enhance understanding of the 2001 Convention in terms of its background, its benefits, its ethics and its potentials for contributing to sustainable development, * Identify a strategy for enhancing capacity in the protection and research of underwater cultural heritage, * Identify a way forward for increasing ratifications of the 2001 Convention by the countries in the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Etienne Clement Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Human remains on underwater cultural heritage: Ethics, values and law Description An account of the resource All of the factors and complexities of the issues regarding the management of underwater cultural heritage reveal the narrow dependence between its management and the historical, sociological, cultural and traditional particularities of every country. Catastrophes creating shipwrecks frequently also cause deaths, ranging from single fatalities to disasters claiming hundreds of lives. However there is not a specific legislation dealing with the treatment of the human remains on shipwrecks. Nevertheless, the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage includes in its definition the term human remains, which means that the same guidelines for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage preservation in situ for the public benefit are also applicable to human remains. In this regards, this paper will justify that declaring shipwrecks as funerary monuments or underwater cemeteries in most cases attracts tourism, apart from the own meaning of these sacred places, and also complies with the 2001 UNESCO Convention principles. In addition, the possibility of the treatment of human remains as intangible heritage can lead to a new whole vision for its protection and management. Underwater cultural heritage can be not only monuments to the great journey or heroic combat, but also a tool to shape the collective memory. Underwater cultural heritage can act as a trigger for a set of emotions and memory narrative. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Asia-Pac Session 1 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0bcaa6a4fbff3cc85187fa646e41d65c.pdf cf7829962d072ed65d8cc003e45a353d PDF Text Text Human Resources Development in Indonesia's Underwater Archaeology Judi Wahjudin Abstract The Indonesian archipelago position is located in a very strategic position at the crossroads of world maritime trade between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. According to archaeological and historical research, there is evidence that Indonesia has had a maritime nautical culture since prehistoric times. Some evidence of Indonesian maritime cultural civilization can still be found scattered on the ocean floor, including approximately 463 ancient ship location points according to data from the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, which is the Indonesian government agency that handles the field of culture, now has approximately 80 staff divers. Only a fraction of that number have competence in the field of underwater archaeology, so it is necessary to improve the knowledge and skills, not only in the field of diving but also the ability to conduct surveys, mapping, data recording excavation, and conservation. In the last five years, efforts to increase human resources in underwater archaeology in Indonesia continue to be done through various education and training, whether conducted in Indonesia or abroad facilitated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), such as in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. The effort is certainly not optimal and systematic, so it is necessary to develop appropriate strategies both in quantity and quality. Indonesia needs an underwater archaeological development centre that will prepare a teaching module, instructor, certification and partnerships (networking), as well as supporting facilities and infrastructure. Through this institution we can expect human resources of underwater archaeologists to have the following abilities: (1) diving, (2) various regulations relating to underwater cultural heritage, (3) development of management plans, and recording and documenting sites, (4) procedures, methods, principles and ethics of underwater archaeology, (5) artifact conservation and storage, (6) traditional knowledge, and (7) publications and exhibitions. In the last five years we have implemented several training programs to further underwater archaeology in Indonesia where participants have acquired skills in diving, survey and conservation. More skills would greatly empower Indonesians in managing their underwater cultural heritage, particularly at an advanced underwater archaeology theory and practice level. Introduction Indonesia as an archipelago has a vast territory that stretches from 95 ° to 141 ° East Longitude and between 60 ° N latitude and 110 ° LS. The total area of the Indonesian Exclusive Economic Zone's marine waters are approximately 7.9 million square kilometers (km2). When calculated, the length of the beach that surrounds the entire archipelago was recorded at approximately 81,000 km, and the number of people living in coastal areas are more than 40 million. Based on existing data on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS '82), Indonesia covers an area of waters of the ocean area covering 3.1 million km2, which consists of the archipelagic waters and an area of 2.8 million km2 of sea area covering 0.3 million km2. The position of Indonesia is as a very strategic island nation, which is located at the crossroads between lanes of traffic and world trade, between the Pacific and Indian Ocean (Pramono 2005:2). Based on Djoko Pramono's (2005: 3-6) study of archeology and history, there is evidence that the nation of Indonesia since prehistoric times has been �recorded in the nautical culture sailboat paintings found in prehistoric caves in the rock islands of Muna, Seram, and Arguni which are estimated to have been made in the year 10 000 BC. On the note of historical development of culture Nusantara civilization later found various kingdoms in the archipelago that has the basic maritime cultural values, such as the Kingdom of Sriwijaya and Majapahit Kingdom. Srivijaya kingdom was based on mastery of the political kingdom lanes and trade routes and control of strategic areas that are used as a base power of the sea. Majapahit kingdom established in the region Pull Raden Wijaya, the Brantas River near Port Canggu Sea (now in the eastern city of Mojokerto). Majapahit are renowned for their strength and fame as a maritime empire. Majapahit's political strategy was to unify the archipelago under his rule and prioritize the construction of a formidable navy. Maritime policy of the strong Majapahit had been confirmed in Amukti Palapa Oath of Gadjah Mada Mahapatih that essentially wanted to unite the whole archipelago under the Majapahit. At present most evidence of Indonesia's maritime culture peak is still scattered on the ocean floor, including sunken ships and cargo. According to data from the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. There are around 463 points of known ancient ship locations based on information from: Chinese historians, in the tenth - twentieth centuries around thirty thousand Chinese ships sailed into the territory of Indonesia but did not return; and archives in the Netherlands, which hold records of 245 Verenidge Oost Compagnie (VOC) ships sunk in Indonesian waters (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2011). These data must be verifiable by conducting surveys and field mapping conducted by staff who are professionals in the field of underwater archeology. The Indonesian government institution in-charge of culture, namely the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, currently has approximately eighty divers. Only a fraction of that number have competences in the field of underwater archeology, so it needs to improve knowledge and skills, not just in the diving but also the ability to conduct surveys, mapping, excavation data recording, and conservation. The government of Indonesia has made efforts to increase human resources in the field of underwater archeology through various education and training programs. Facilitated by UNESCO these programs have occurred within Indonesia and abroad, such as in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. The effort is certainly not optimal and systematic, so it needs proper human resources (HR) development strategies both in quality and quantity. For that Indonesia needs to development a center in underwater archeology. This institute will prepare teaching modules, instructors, certification and hierarchy, partnerships (networking), as well as supporting facilities and infrastructure. Through this institution it is expected that successful HR will entail the following:  have knowledge and skills of diving,  understand the various regulations related to Underwater Cultural Heritage (locally, nationally, and internationally),  understand and be able to create a management plan and site plan, � understand and be able to implement procedures, methods, basic principles and ethics of underwater archeology,  understand and are able to conserve, document. manage and store  publications and public outreach, such as: exhibitions and mass media (print and electronic). In the last five years, the Government of Indonesia has conducted training programs gradually and continuously to improve HR in the field of underwater archeology, but this is still limited due to the need to improve skill and abilities in the field of diving, survey, and conservation. A rich maritime Archaeological resource Indonesian waters have become a graveyard of ships from ancient times. Based on data from the Directorate of Underwater Heritage (2010) estimated there were 1234 ships sunk, and until now only 463 known location. Referring to these data, the government of Indonesia has conducted surveys in several locations. Tables 1 and 2 provide the details of when and where the survey has occurred, as well as what was found and at what depth. Table 1. Survey Data (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU* YEAR 1 2006 2 2006 3 2007 4 2008 5 2009 6 2009 7 2009 8 2009 9 2009 10 2010 11 2010 12 2010 13 2010 14 2010 LOCATION Selayar, South Sulawesi Barang Lompo, South Sulawesi Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatera Sagori, Buton, Southeast Sulawesi Nangka Islands, Bangka Belitung Wayame, Ambon Bay Lembe straits, Bitung, North Sulawesi North Halmahera, North Molucas Tidore, North Molucas Genting Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Seruni Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Kemojan Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Parang Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Kumbang Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java DEEP FINDING 21 m Chinese ship 32 m Japanese ship 22 – 28 m Iron ship 7m VOC ship 28 m Iron ship 17 – 35 m Aquila ship 20 – 28 m War ship (Mawali) 3-7m Tosimaru ship 50 m Iron ship 2m ceramics 10 m Iron ship 15 m Indonor ship 34-38 m Timber ship 2-13 m Iron ship �15 2010 16 2010 17 2010 Taka Manyawakan Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Geleang Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Menjangan Kecil Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java 3-9 m Iron ship 48 m Timber ship 28-30 m Timber ship Table 2. The survey by the National Committee (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU YEAR LOCATION 1 2004 Tegal Waters, Central Java 2 2004 Cirebon Waters, West Java 3 2005 Sumpat Bay, North Bintan 4 2005 Natuna Waters, Thousand Islands 5 2005 Maspari Waters, South Sumatera 6 2006 Selayar Waters, South Sulawesi 7 2007 Karang Baginda, South Bangka 8 2007 Karimata Waters, West Kalimantan 9 2008 Karang Baginda, South Bangka 10 2008 Tanjung Menjangan, South Sumatera 11 2008 Cermin coast, North Sumatera 12 2008 Belitung Waters, East Belitung 13* 2008 Mandalika Waters, Jepara Central Java 14* 2008 Kerawang Waters, West Java 15 2009 Gelasa strait, Bangka Belitung 16 2009 Subang Waters, West Java 17 2010 Bangka Belitung Waters Survey activities conducted by the Directorate of Underwater Heritage, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, (see Table 1) helped to establish a framework of cultural resource preservation potential under water. If the survey has significant value to science, history and culture, then the existence of such sites must be preserved and protected by the Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2010 on Heritage Act, which was published to replace the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects. Meanwhile, the survey by the National Committee Appointment and Use of Valuable Cargo Ships Sink origin (see Table 2) was performed in order to determine the potential of underwater cultural resources for the sake of exploration. If the survey results have indicated high economic value, then they were followed up with the activities of the appointment. National Committee Appointment and Use of Valuable Cargo Ships Sink origin was established by Presidential Decree. 43 of �1998. Under this rule, the appointment must first be selected for the collection of State and deposited at the museum. The rest can be traded and resulting income partly added to the state treasury. Since the opening of the first appointment until the last, there have been no sales activity in which the results benefit the Government of Indonesia. The appointment of activities that have been done are as follows. Table 3. Removal of Ceramic Data (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU LOCATION THE NUMBER OF TILES 1 Crocodile Islands, Riau 16.031 2 Batu Hitam, Belitung and Tuban 10.757 3 Thousands Islands (Eks Intan Cargo) 664 4 Blanakan Islands, Subang, West Java 13.590 5 Karimata Bay (Karang Cina) 31.029 6 Java Sea, North Cirebon 271.834 7 Karang Heliputan Waters,. Riau 21.521 8 Sumpat Bay, Riau 15.461 9 Java Sea, North Karawang 14.814 10 Java Sea, North Karawang 6.442 11 East Belitung Waters 34.680 12 Ujung Waters , Pamanukan 18.469 13 Gelasa Strait, Bangka Belitung 32.150 14 Jepara, Central Java 328 Total 487.770 The magnitude of the potential of underwater cultural resources in Indonesia attract many foreign and local businessmen. They assume the archeological remains under water are a treasure trove of unknown owners. Underwater Cultural Heritage Management of underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia has not been done optimally. This condition is caused by several things, as follows:  Harmony between some regulations related to the handling of UCH. Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects was formed to mandate the use of education, science, culture, religion, and tourism; while the Presidential Decree No 43 of 1998 on the National Committee for Salving and Exploiting Valuable Objects Retrieved from Shipwreck gives permission for exploitation activities of UCH for monetary �reward. Institutionally, there are several government organizations that are not synergistic in the management of UCH. For example: the government agency in charge of culture and environmental conservation prioritize aspects of sustainability, while the government agency in charge of fisheries and maritime affairs, as well as local governments, prioritize commercial use. Efforts have been made the rectify these inconsistencies by the Government of Indonesia in the recently issued Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2010 on Heritage, in lieu of the Republic of Indonesia Law No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects. In which law? (Article 1, point 1), "the cultural heritage that is protected by law is not only the land but also in the water (including under water)". In addition it is also mentioned in (Article 1, point 33) that, "its use should still maintain its sustainability". Mandate of this law in accordance with the UNSCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in particular related to the Annex of the general principles (rule 1) which states, "in situ conservation is a priority", and (rule 2) that, "the UCH can not be bought and sold as commercial goods, nor be of other uses that could undermine its sustainability".  Community understanding of the responsibilities and mandate of the Underwater Heritage Directorate is still limited. The high level of violations on UCH indicates that the level of understanding about the importance and variety of regulations have not been socialized with optimal management, so various efforts need to be done to improve it. The Government of Indonesia has been working with stakeholders (government agencies, universities, museums, and community). It has conducted various activities both in the form of exhibitions and publication.  More synergy in the management programs on UCH among government agencies, academia, and society. The Government of Indonesia is working to improve coordination and cooperation with various parties. Our more successful improvement of HR competencies in the field of underwater archeology have been through collaboration with universities and professional divers. 1) Mapping and survey have been done in cooperation with the Coordinating Agency for Surveys and Mapping, Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesian University, Hasanuddin University, Gadjah Mada University, Diponegoro University, and fishing communities. 2) Protection of UCH has been coordinated through cooperation with the Ministry of Forestry, the Navy (Indonesian Military), Local Governments, and the fishing communities. 3) Public awareness involves cooperation amongst museums, mass media, local government, and society.  Our HR competence in the field of underwater archeology is still limited. Until recently the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, particularly in institutions that deal with UCH, has a total diver count at 87 people: consisting of level 1 (42 people), level 2 (37 people), and level 3 (8 people) . 30 persons of the divers �are trained in underwater archeology. Likewise, the equipment for underwater archeology is still limited to the diving equipment and some survey tools, documentation, and conservation. To enhance human resource capacity in the field of underwater archeology Government of Indonesia since 2006 has conducted various training initiatives (see table 4). It also collaborates with several universities in Indonesia and sent several people to follow the Underwater Cultural Heritage Training, UNESCO. Table 4. Training Activities Data (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU YEAR 1 2006 2 2007 3 2008 4 2008 5 2009 6 TRAINING PARTICIPANTS 26 2009 Diving Underwater Archaeology Excavation Underwater Archaeology Photography Conservation Underwater Archaeology Photography Ship Identification 7 2010 Diving 16 8 2010 Conservation 25 27 20 25 15 15 In 2012 the Directorate of Underwater Heritage is working on realizing the concept of establishing a formal training center for underwater archeology in Indonesia. Underwater Archaeology Training Center In 2011 the Government of Indonesia is preparing the establishment of the Underwater Archaeology Training Center (Training Center) aimed at improving the ability of archaeologist and conservationist personnel in the handling of UCH. The Training Center is expected to generate HR who not only have the capabilities in the protection of UCH, such as data recording, conservation, and case study management but who are also capable of conducting activities towards the development and information sharing for the benefit of society. Specifically, people who can work on development activities through research programs, publications and exhibitions. Public awareness could be more engaging through cooperation with educational institutions and tourism. This is due to the fact that UCH has a value of history, science, and culture. It can be studied by research and education institutions, as well as having recreational value and the draw of adventure. All these activities still have to prioritize conservation so that sustainability is maintained The framework plan for the establishment of the Training Center include: �a. Subject Matter and Trainers Course subject matter being prepared is not only related to diving and underwater archeology, but includes material about the various regulations concerning the protection of UCH. The course subjects under consideration include: management and site plans, nautical-architecture, history, anthropology, museology, and publications. b. Participants' Criteria The minimum criteria for people to participate are that they must be able-bodied, have interest in the development of knowledge and skills in UCH and its preservation, and are actively working in the field of the protection of UCH. The criteria should be determined carefully so that the output of the training is in accordance with the principle of 'the right man on the right place', so it can improve performance in the field of the preservation of UCH. c. Equipment and Accommodation The equipment must be prepared not only to support practical activities (such as diving, survey, excavation, removal, documentation, and conservation) but also include data processing equipment, transportation, and communications. Accommodation for the various needs of the Training Center need to be prepared including: classrooms, laboratories, equipment rooms, data processing space, artifacts storage space, teaching rooms, and dormitories. d. Education Level and Time Level and time for training is being arranged. Given the output of this training is focused on the development of skills, the time will be focused largely on practical field training than on classroom learning. e. Location Location must be strategic for accessibility and security. The criteria for location includes access to convenient transportation, close to the various supporting agencies (such as museums, research institutes, hospitals, navy, and rescue teams), not far from underwater archaeological sites. Thus the participants can practice on site. Conclusions Territory waters of Indonesia have UCH rich and valuable for science, history, and culture, so its existence must be protected and utilized for various purposes that are not in conflict with sustainability. For that we need regulatory harmonization efforts coordinated under the Underwater Heritage Directorate management, so there are no rules that overlap or contradict each other. Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2010 on Heritage expressly states that cultural heritage protected by law includes UCH. When working with this valuable material we must always consider the �best method to ensure its sustainability. This is in accordance with the 2001 Convention, in particular, to the Annex which gives priority to conservation in situ and bans commercial sale of objects. We aim to improve networking among stakeholders, both domestically and abroad, in the form of cooperation programs in the field of human resource capacity building, provision of equipment underwater archeology, dissemination and publication, as well as monitoring and securing the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Regulation and networking will not run properly without the support of competent HR. For that we have increased efforts towards HR in the field of UCH management according to the needs and potential of UCH in Indonesia. The establishment of a training center is our method to increase capacity building in HR specialized in the field of underwater archeology who have the ability to protect, develop and utilize the UCH based on principles of conservation and for the overall benefit of society. Bibliography Directorate of Directorate of Underwater Archaeology Profile, Directorate Underwater General of History and Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Archaeology and Tourism, Jakarta (not yet published) 2011 Law of The Republic of Indonesia Number 11 of The Year Ministry of 2010 Concerning items of Cultural Property Cultural and Tourism 2010 Budaya Bahari, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. Pramono, D., 2005 Convention on The Protection of The Underwater Cultural UNESCO Heritage 2001 Presidential Decree No. 43 of 1989 on the National Presidential Committee for Salving and Exploiting Valuable Objects Decree No. 43, Retrieved from Shipwreck 1989 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Human Resources Development in Indonesia's Underwater Archaeology Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource The Indonesian archipelago position is located in a very strategic position at the crossroads of world maritime trade between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. According to archaeological and historical research, there is evidence that Indonesia has had a maritime nautical culture since prehistoric times. Some evidence of Indonesian maritime cultural civilization can still be found scattered on the ocean floor, including approximately 463 ancient ship location points according to data from the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, which is the Indonesian government agency that handles the field of culture, now has approximately 80 staff divers. Only a fraction of that number have competence in the field of underwater archaeology, so it is necessary to improve the knowledge and skills, not only in the field of diving but also the ability to conduct surveys, mapping, data recording excavation, and conservation. In the last five years, efforts to increase human resources in underwater archaeology in Indonesia continue to be done through various education and training, whether conducted in Indonesia or abroad facilitated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), such as in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. The effort is certainly not optimal and systematic, so it is necessary to develop appropriate strategies both in quantity and quality. Indonesia needs an underwater archaeological development centre that will prepare a teaching module, instructor, certification and partnerships (networking), as well as supporting facilities and infrastructure. Through this institution we can expect human resources of underwater archaeologists to have the following abilities: (1) diving, (2) various regulations relating to underwater cultural heritage, (3) development of management plans, and recording and documenting sites, (4) procedures, methods, principles and ethics of underwater archaeology, (5) artifact conservation and storage, (6) traditional knowledge, and (7) publications and exhibitions. In the last five years we have implemented several training programs to further underwater archaeology in Indonesia where participants have acquired skills in diving, survey and conservation. More skills would greatly empower Indonesians in managing their underwater cultural heritage, particularly at an advanced underwater archaeology theory and practice level. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Judi Wahjudin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/80f1e497584bc9fecc48c9026acf2bda.pdf 8f0df9b4e4facd3b90711aaf0cb39183 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 8: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in South East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract South East Asia is an Asian Sub Region with 11 countries with an area of 8.94 million square kilometres, and its water areas covering the China Sea, the Java Sea, the Sulu Sea, the Philippine Waters, the Celebes Sea, the Banda Sea, the Flores Sea, the Arafura Sea, the Timor Sea, and the Andaman Sea. With a total area of 2.5 % of the surface of all oceans in the world, South East Asia is a large sub region in the world which its waters and coastal areas are very rich in underwater and maritime cultural heritage. Underwater heritage in South East Asia are diverse and come from various times, namely from ancient Southeast Asian kingdoms, the European colonialism period, to World War II, which consisted of traditional ships of the South East Asian countries, Chinese junks China, Spanish Galleons and Naos, ships from the Middle East, VOC and EIC vessels; historic ships, planes, submarines during World War II; and also the remains of human settlements in the past or submerged landscape. The session will explore the richness of maritime history and the legacy of underwater and maritime cultural heritage in the countries of South East Asia. This South East Asian Session also seeks papers to be presented on the current development of underwater and maritime archaeology in South East Asia including the latest results of researches, studies, and projects of protection, preservation, sustainable use of underwater heritage, and the development of innovation and technology applying in the fields of underwater and maritime archaeology in various institutions in South East Asian countries. Moreover, the challenges, current threats, and any shortcomings that are currently being hot issues facing by South East Asian countries regionally, such as massive plundering of historic wrecks, destructive activities on shipwreck sites, natural disasters affecting underwater and maritime heritage, lack of long-term site monitoring and inappropriate management of underwater heritage will also be the focus of discussion in this session. This South East Asian Session also encourages the presentation of studies or projects on community engagement and opening access for the public in managing a sustainable underwater heritage in South East Asian countries, where the role of the local community is significant and can assist in determining the sustainability or the destruction of underwater and maritime heritage sites. Session Organiser: Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hydro-Oceanographic Modelling Use in Underwater Archaeological Research of Shipwreck Site Discovered in Abang Island Waters, Riau Archipelago, Indonesia Description An account of the resource In 2020, the Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV) conducted an underwater archaeological survey in Abang Island waters, Riau Archipelago Province, Indonesia. The wreck site location is 64.14 km from Batam Island, and the archaeological remains lie at a depth of 20 meters. The underwater findings consist of hundreds of earthenware storage jars and ewers produced in Thailand and some blue-white porcelain plates from the Ming Dynasty era. The hydro-oceanographic data and ocean dynamics back-tracing modelling in the 1600s, along with the sedimentation and bathymetry profiling has been used to predict the sailing route of the ship, sunk in Abang Island waters. The sailing ships in the past would have relied on nature-based generators such as waves, tides, currents, and winds. According to the hydro-oceanographic modeling result, the extreme current flow generated by tidal and winds in the South China Sea in the 16th century AD peaked at 1.3 m/s during the northeast monsoon. This state could be more weakened during the southeast monsoon. According to the tidal phase delay and asymmetry and the presence of cargoes originating from China and Thailand, the ship was possibly sailing from the north via the South China Sea and cut through the Riau Archipelago from Bintan, which passed through a group of islands, including Abang Island to sail whether toward the north Malacca Strait or Bangka Belitung and Java. Additionally, based on the sediment transport model, the possibility of unidentified artifacts buried by sediment at the depth 60 cm beneath the surface bottom was sufficiently high. An excavation is recommended to prevent the archaeological remains from local looting and natural erosion. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ulung J. Wisha Nia N. H. Ridwan Widodo S. Pranowo Wisnu A. Gemilang Guntur A. Rahmawan Stanov Purnawibowo Agus Sudaryadi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wisha, Ulung J., Nia N. H. Ridwan, Widodo S. Pranowo, Wisnu A. Gemilang, Guntur A. Rahmawan, Stanov Purnawibowo, and Agus Sudaryadi. 2021. “Hydro-Oceanographic Modelling Use in Underwater Archaeological Research of Shipwreck Site Discovered in Abang Island Waters, Riau Archipelago, Indonesia.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/689 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ibutsu/Iko kara mita sagami wan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Toshiaki Hayashibara Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Toshiaki Hayashibara Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Pages 86-97 Publication Title The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies Title A name given to the resource Ibutsu/Iko kara mita sagami wan Volume 1 Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Iconographic Evidence on the Development of Boat and Ship Structures in India (2nd C. B.C.-15TH C. A.D Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deloche, Jean Himanshu Prabha Ray Jean-François Salles Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Manohar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Deloche, Jean Editor Himanshu Prabha Ray Jean-François Salles Item Type Book Section Book Title Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place New Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Manohar Title A name given to the resource Iconographic Evidence on the Development of Boat and Ship Structures in India (2nd C. B.C.-15TH C. A.D India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Iconographic Evidence on the Development of Boat and Ship Structures in India (2nd C. B.C.-15TH C. A.D Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deloche, Jean Himanshu Prabha Ray Jean-François Salles Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Manohar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Deloche, Jean Editor Himanshu Prabha Ray Jean-François Salles Item Type Book Section Book Title Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place New Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Manohar Title A name given to the resource Iconographic Evidence on the Development of Boat and Ship Structures in India (2nd C. B.C.-15TH C. A.D India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a2d61e9895bb43aab704ef74a85f7214.pdf 6fe2bf1dfe0fde1aaa85c31569d1979d PDF Text Text Identification of export porcelains from early 17th Century VOC shipwrecks and the linkage to their cultural identification1 Christine Ketel2 Abstract Ceramics recovered from sunken vessels have drawn much attention in recent years. They are significant historical and aesthetic items but only a few reports have been made for scholarly purposes; many have been salvaged for commercial gain. Porcelain shards from underwater sites can be used as identification material for cultural heritage: porcelain was an important trade commodity of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and had an enormous impact on the cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Europe. The VOC trade routes included inter-Asian markets and the transport of porcelain to these ports also had an influence on the local cultural heritage. This paper will give an insight on the distribution routes by VOC ships with porcelain cargoes and the shards from some VOC shipwrecks as identification material of such porcelain. During a recent symposium in Hong Kong, it was evident that researchers in China and Taiwan consider the porcelain trade of export wares for the western market as part of their cultural heritage. For example, a certain type of export porcelain known as kraak ware has been found in several tombs in China. There was a discussion on the value and usage of this porcelain: was it used as a „gift‟ for the deceased? Or was it a show of being well-to-do? Other topics such as the influence of orders of porcelain for the western market on the inland markets and economy were also discussed. Another discussion was the value of ceramics discovered at underwater sites. Chinese researchers have done enormous work at sites on the maritime trade routes. Only token shards were salvaged for study purposes and shards have no value on the collectors market. Another issue discussed concerned the salvage of historic shipwrecks, a continuing debate between archaeologists, who value wrecks largely for their historical value, and profit-motivated salvage companies, who care only about their market value. We discussed how can we preserve shipwreck materials and documentation for future research in an ethical manner. The author suggested the following: In the past years there have been numerous archaeological researches, on land as well as from shipwrecks. The best way to preserve this knowledge is to put together all the results into one global Internet platform which would give the opportunity to leave and discuss drafts, ongoing research and reports. It could also host an agenda of events and links to useful websites. In this way researchers can keep in touch and keep each other updated. The Civilisation Centre of the City University of Hong Kong has agreed to cooperate and others will surely follow. Introduction The study of the cargos of the ships and shipwrecks of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) are an important asset to the history of maritime trade between Asia and Europe and within Asia itself. However, it is just as important to study archaeological excavations because these are also a time capsule. In the past ten years many young archaeologists have been able to undertake excavations in different countries in East and South East Asia. Conferences have been held where the results have been presented.3 1 This paper is part of the research for the PhD. Thesis at Leiden University. Phd. Candidate Leiden University, Independent researcher, Centre for International Heritage Activities, Leiden, Email: c.ketel@heritage-activities.nl 3 See papers given at conferences Singapore, March 2007, Hong Kong, June, 2007 and Taipei, November 2007. 2 1 �In order to achieve a view of the porcelain trade network it is therefore necessary to link together the research done by international maritime and landarchaeologists with historical data from documents. This paper will give an insight on the early years of the VOC trade in porcelain based on ceramics from three VOC shipwrecks, supported by archives of the VOC with information on the ships‟ movements, their cargoes, and destinations. As the Portuguese were the first Europeans to import products from Asia to Europe, Dutch merchants were dependant on the commodities of spices, silks and porcelain brought to Lisbon. After 1581 Portugal and Spain were at war with Holland and these became difficult to obtain (for details see Boxer 1965: chapters 1 and 2). From 1595, Dutch traders set up their own private trading companies which were incorporated into one single official company, in 1602, the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie -VOC). The main ambition of the VOC was to take over the monopoly of the Portuguese trade by taking over their trade routes and trade posts. At the start of the !7th century, porcelain was a scarce trade commodity but became very much in demand. In order to understand the growth of this trade commodity, (which has sadly been neglected in literature) the question rises: what were these porcelains? The lists on ships‟ invoices give amounts and indicate sorts such as plates, dishes, cups, bowls etc. but this does not give us a tangible identity. The finds from shipwrecks and land sites are essential to analyse the types, their usage and consumers. Therefore the following aspects are studied: 1. Identification of the shipwreck and its cargo: how much porcelain was part of the cargo (from VOC ships‟ invoices and salvage information). 2. Identification of the production area: where was this particular type of porcelain produced? (from archaeological finds at kiln sites) 3. Identification of the trade route: which transport routes were used to bring porcelain to the buyers? Where were the overhaul posts? What were the destinations? (VOC documents and site finds) 4. Identification of the consumer: who were the consumers? What did they use porcelain for? What are the cultural links? (Inventories /tomb finds in China) identification of the shipwrecks and its porcelain cargo As ceramics, especially porcelain is a material which can endure hundreds of years of sea water, these finds are often the only available tangible items remaining at a shipwreck site. In the case of these early 17th century VOC shipwrecks, the porcelains have given a great amount of information about the date of production, the variety in types (coarse or fine), and the consumers‟ demand. Three early 17th century shipwrecks containing ceramics and porcelain have been analyzed: the Mauritius, sunk in 1609, the Witte Leeuw, sunk in 1613 and the Banda, sunk in 16154 (see Table 1). 4 Other shipwrecks with kraak porcelain such as the so-called Wan-li shipwreck and the Hatcher cargo(1643-46?) have not been dated accurately as the salvage has not been documented correctly and are therefore unusable. 2 �Table 1. porcelain from VOC shipwrecks Types Plates with flat rim - 50 cms diam - 30-38 cms - 20-21 cms - 14 cms Dishes without rim-20cms. Diam. Klapmuts: - 17 cms. dia - 14cms diam Crowcups Bottles Kendi Betelboxes Other types: - teacups - winecups - rice bowls Plates with special design Zhangzhou martavaans other Grey pots Mauritius: 1609 WitteLeeuw 1613 Banda+Geuinieëerde Provinciëen:1615 20:unglazed base 5 29 38,of which 29x14cmsD. 30;unglazed base none 40 50 6-10 55-70 none none 17 70 15 50 5-10 30 4-6 10 2-3 Yes,same as WL. Also with stem several many yes 20-30 50 30 15x20cms.D. ? yes yes Various size Chinese bowls 5-10 pieces ? The Mauritius, sunk in 1609 in the Gulf of Guinée was excavated by Michel L‟Hour in 1985 (L‟Hour 1993). The ship contained various commodities from the East and only a small supply of porcelain, probably a private purchase or a private order. Of the about 215 pieces about 165 pieces are of the kraak-ware type. There are only 7 pieces of Zhangzhou ware and some typical Chinese type stem cups. The first salvaged shipwreck of the VOC with a substantial amount of porcelain is the Witte Leeuw, one of four ships that formed the return fleet from Bantam to Holland in 1613. During a stopover at Saint Helena Island to take in fresh water and goods, the fleet encountered several Portuguese ships. In the fight that followed, one of the cannons on the Witte Leeuw exploded and the ship sank. The Belgian marine archaeologist, Robert Sténuit discovered the wreck in 19765. The 200 – 300 kilos of shards, apart from the 290 complete pieces, as well as specific quantities of identical types and shapes, clearly point to a bulk cargo. There is however, no list of any porcelains on the invoice of the Witte Leeuw. This is rather a mystery as the records of the VOC are usually very accurate. However, on the invoice of the Vlissingen , another ship of the fleet of which the Witte Leeuw was also part, the amount of 38,641 pieces is listed, and it may very well have been possible that part of its cargo was transferred onto the Witte Leeuw before leaving Bantam. 5 A complete account of the salvage and the finds is published in Van der Pijl-Ketel (ed) 1982. 3 �The shapes mentioned on that list coincide with the shapes salvaged from the Witte Leeuw. There was clearly a mixture of Chinese (minyao) wares and kraak wares. The third case is that of the Banda, which was part of the fleet that left Bantam bound for Holland together with the Delft, the Geünieerde Provincieën and the Gelderland. The fleet arrived at the island of Mauritius beginning of March 1615 where an enormous hurricane shipwrecked the Banda. Documents show that the cargo contained cloves, nutmeg and a certain number of Chinese porcelains. These were sets of plates and dishes, and small shallow bowls, a „set‟ of tiny wine cups and a wine bottle, all identical to those from the Witte Leeuw. As one of the passengers was Governor Both, who was returning home, these porcelains were most probably his personal possession6. Types of porcelains From the finds of these three shipwrecks, it is possible to get an idea of what kinds of porcelains were available for sale at the trade post of Bantam around 1610-1615, a period when the V.O.C merchants did not yet place orders with the merchants on mainland China. The varieties in the types of porcelain also show what was produced and transported by the Chinese merchants to be sold to the western merchants at that time. (See Table 2) Table 2. Types of Porcelain from the Witte Leeuw Types of kraak ware Types of Chinese ware (minyao) Serving dishes: Large dishes/basins with a flattened rim(lampetschotel)(type.1.1.1 Witte Leeuw) Bowls: large or full-sized,small, half-sized,third and quarter-sized(groote/heel commen, cleijne commen, halve commen, drielinge commen,) (for example, types 3.2-3.6 and 3.9 and 3.10, Witte Leeuw) . Plates(schootels):plates with a flattened rim, (type 1.1.2-1.1.4 Witte Leeuw) Bowls with lids, (Type 3.8 of the Witte Leeuw) dishes (saucieren ): dishes without a flattened rim and moulded round medallions (type 1.2, Witte Leeuw) cups and cups for drinking brandy(pimpelkens). (Witte Leeuw, type 2.0) 6 the Gelderland and the Geunieerde Provincieen were also shipwrecked. The numerous porcelain shards washed on the shores of Mauritius clearly came from these ships. 4 �Klapmuts (Clapmuts):. (Type 1.3, Witte Leeuw) Wine pots (kannekens): small sized with covers (Witte Leeuw, type 3.11) Pots with lids: (potgens) (Witte Leeuw, type 3.12) Small jugs with spouts: (olie- en azijn kannetjes,/ tuytpottekens) for oil and vinegar (Witte Leeuw,type 3.17) Crow-cups: (kameelscop): Kendi‟s (kan, kannekens) Bottles for brandy:(Persiaensche fleeschen) (type 1.7.1 and 1.7.2 from the Witte Leeuw). Flatware:small saucers a. minyao: typical Chinese wares. Such porcelain items have been and are still used daily in China and other parts of Asia. They include : rice bowls, soup bowls, bowls with lids as well as small saucers (for pickles), small cups for wine/wine pots, small cups of various sizes, teapots, covered pots (for ginger or pickles). b. . western shapes especially made for the European market: kraak ware (figure 1). The term kraak ware has become a regular term to be applied to a specific type of export porcelain made in Jingdezhen kilns for the western market. 7 These include: plates, dishes, shallow bowls, bowls and bottles, all with a specific panel design. During the compilation of the catalogue of The Ceramic Load of the Witte Leeuw, it was decided to make a clearer definition of what should be depicted as kraak porcelain. There are still continuing discussions on this definition but most 7 the word was not applied to porcelain by the VOC but only to the Portuguese ships, whilst the Portuguese only used the word nao for their ships, not carracas. 5 �researchers now use the typology made at the Rijksmuseum in 1982 (Van der PijlKetel 1982). Figure 1. Kraak Ware c. Zhangzhou wares (figure 2): A variety of provincial types of wares were found the above mentioned VOC shipwrecks, an indication that not only fine export quality was included in their cargoes. Still, the relatively few pieces from the Witte Leeuw indicate that the pieces were probably either owned by crewmembers or used in the ship‟s galley (This ware being of a thicker type of porcelain, it would withstand a galley‟s daily usage.) Most originate from the kilns around Pinghe, Fujian province, and are now known as Zhangzhou wares (Tan 2007). This type of ware was not produced for the European market but was constantly in demand for the South East Asian and Japanese markets. Figure 2. Zhangzhou wares. d. Stone ware jars (martavans/martaban 8 ) have regularly been found amongst western shipwreck finds9. The majority of these types originate from kilns of Southern China; most are covered with a dark brown glaze, some having a stamped square mark with a Chinese character. Stoneware jars from Thai kilns are also known as martabans. These jars were used for fresh water, wine or preserving food on the long voyages. VOC documents regularly list them filled with ginger or pickled goods or even opium.10 Figure 3. Stone ware jars. 8 this term can be misleading as it has been associated with jars made in the vicinity of Martaban, which was an export port on the coast of what is now called Myanmar (Gulf of Siam, Burma). In the VOC archives there are numerous references to this port. However, stoneware jars were not produced there but were transported from Thai kilns overland to this port. 9 Nossa Senhora dos Martires(1600) and the Spanish trader, the San Diego (1600); the Witte Leeuw had several sizes and sorts. 10 Several documents mention martavan pots filled with opium (1610, invoice of the Griffoen from Bantan) 6 �Identification of production sites from porcelain finds As the production of Chinese porcelain has a long written history, it should not be difficult to identify the types of porcelains found in and around shipwreck sites. However, in the case of early VOC wrecks, the porcelains found were not always easy to analyse; in the 1980‟s not much archaeological research had been carried out in China. Kiln sites producing porcelain dating from early dynasties had the main attention of Chinese archaeologists at that time; plain minyao ceramics were not interesting. At the time of writing the catalogue of the Witte Leeuw., in 1980-82, several museums in China were asked whether they had any of this kraak type in their collections: their answer was that this was not Chinese porcelain as it had never been seen in China. Gradually some pieces came to light during the research at tombs and excavations at the porcelain production areas of Jingdezhen city and Chinese researchers, stimulated by the finds from the Witte Leeuw, became interested. From 1999 there have been several discoveries in and around Jingdezhen of this typical export porcelain (Cao Jianwen and Luo Yifei 2006:16-24). Even this year, in May, several papers were given on the subject of kraak ware. 11 Identification of the trade routes which transport routes were taken to bring porcelain to the buyers? Where were the overhaul posts? What were the destinations? In order to understand the flow of trade commodities, in this case export porcelains, it is important to know where the VOC set up their trade posts and which shipping routes were used. These can be divided according to specific regions. 12 The major aim of the VOC was to purchase pepper and spices for the home market, but there were also a limited amount of luxury items such as silk, precious stones and porcelains bought. It was also necessary for the VOC to partake in intraAsian trade in order to fund the operations in Asian and to purchase the return cargoes. Consequently ships had to sail inter regionally to trade and collect the requested cargoes but also trade commodities not meant for the European market. 13 11 International conference. May 28-30, 2011. The Eastern quarters: - between Batavia and the Indonesian Archipel;- from 1632-1658 TaiwanJapan-Batavia and back to Holland;- Siam(Thailand)/Vietnam The NW region: westerkwartieren:-West coast of India: Goa/Surat :as entrepot serving Persia and Arabia The NE region: Gulf of Bengal/East coast of India: Coromandel area/Ceylon (Galle: overhaul station 1640-1650‟s) ( Parthesius 2010) 13 Another trade route was along Patani and Siam towards Japan. From 1610 trade contacts with Quinam and Tonckin (in present day Vietnam) were held for inter-Asian trading purposes. From about 12 7 �The Director was responsible for dividing the cargoes between the ships of the specific VOC Chambers and ensure that they had the correct ratio for the internal distribution.14 Furthermore, the return fleets had to depart on time to avoid storms and to arrive at favourable auction times in Holland. During the first years of trade, there were as yet no specific orders for porcelain from Holland and invoices of the return ships show hap hazard amounts. (see Table 3). The VOC depended on what the Chinese junks brought to be sold to foreign merchants at Bantam or Patani and from 1612, Batavia, and what they could capture: as they were granted the right of booty the Dutch realised that a lucrative way to acquire Chinese merchandise was in fact to capture the vessels, sailing for the Spanish and Portuguese, carrying these goods.15 In this way, large profits were made from cargoes captured from the Chinese junks. Table 3. Invoices of Early VOC Ships Name of ship Invoice date Amount of porcelains Gouda Bantam Mauritius(sank 1609) Roode Leeuw met Pijlen Wapen van Amsterdam Vlissingen Witte Leeuw(sank 1613) Zwarte Leeuw+ter Veere Gelderland Banda(sank in 1615) Geuinieëerde Provinciëen 1608 1608 1 barrel with 8 large dishes 278 large porcelain dishes, two broken 1610 1612 1612 1612 1614 1614 1614 1614 9227 pieces 5 barrels, each with 5 dishes 38,641 pieces* Same fleet as above 4277 corgees (each=20 pieces) 69,057 Rotterdam Mauritius Dolphyn Hart Gouda. Leeuwinne van Jacarta Mauritius Walcheren 1616 1616 1616 1616 1622 1622 1623 1623 Together with the Banda shipwrecked at island of Mauritius 8014 + 27,997 23,023 7679 3730 17,500 6361 62,931 pieces 10,845 pieces Inter-insular trade As porcelain was not a primary commodity for inter-insular shipping, the VOC took sporadic amounts of porcelain just to fill their ships and make a sale whenever possible; these were mainly Zhangzhou wares. There were, however, some demands for specific „fine porcleians‟. 16 In 1637, a total of 161,419 pieces were shipped to various destinations in the archipelago, including gifts, "Sent to the regent of Tegal by the Company: 3 large dishes as gift" (Volker 1957:196). 1620, the VOC was able to establish trade posts at Suratte and Persia (Gamron) and Mocha. From Batavia, porcelain was also transported to these posts. 14 Porcelain was packed in bundles (of straw)/tubs (wooden barrels)/packages of 20 pieces (corgees) and often packed „lose in the pepper‟. 15 Hugo de Groot wrote a special law for „the right to booty‟: De Jure Praedae . 16 in 1636: King of Acheen orders: coarse porcelains: receives a total of 120,400 pieces! 1636:;each month porcelain, mainly coarse ware is sent from Batavia to Java/Bali/Sumatra/Borneo and Jambi 8 �Formosa The turning point in the porcelain trade started from 1624, when the Dutch started a steady trade from Formosa, where the trade post Fort Zeelandia was built. It took another ten years before a regular flow of porcelain took place: from the kilns of Jingdezhen to the merchants at the seaports of Fuzhou, Quanzhou and Guangzhou and from there by the junk trade to Formosa. The VOC needed extra vessels to transport goods to and from the trade post to the larger ships at the Pescadore islands as the roadstead at Zeelandia was too shallow to dock at and often had dangerous weather conditions. „Captured‟ Chinese junks were used for this and other transports. Many invoices with porcelains state …‟bought at the River of Chincheuw‟ or „ captured‟, again proof of the VOC‟s rigorous continuation of pirateering.17 Most of the shipments went to Batavia where it was transshipped onto homeward bounders. Other shipments went to Japan and, from 1638, directly to the Coromandel coast and Surat. The shipments to Japan had to coincide with the strict dates set by the Japanese authorities and the monsoon period. From Japan the shipments had to arrive on time at Batavia for the return fleets at Easter and Christmas. Japan The VOC established its first trade post in Japan at Hirado in 1609, ;from 1640, the Dutch were forced to trade from an enclosed island of Deshima in the bay of Nagasaki. Most export porcelain found in this area are Japanese copies of kraak ware but several original kraak pieces from China also have been found , including Zhangzhou ware (Kawaguchi 2007), but these were shipped to Japan by the Chinese junk trade as indicated by several VOC documents.18 IDENTIFICATION OF THE CONSUMER: links between the products and the consumers Holland VOC records show that between 1604-1657, VOC ships transported about 3 million pieces of porcelain to Holland. This would indicate a large offset market there. However, porcelain was considered a scarce, luxury good in the first half of the 17 th century and was certainly not possessed by the majority of the population, but limited to the upper classes. This is proven by archaeological finds from rubbish pits and inventories of nobility and VOC merchants who bought porcelain as private „trade”. As Mark Staniforth (1996:13-18) mentions porcelain had, "..an important role not only for utilitarian purposes but also as a means to display socio-economic-status (or class) to demonstrate good taste and allow people to negotiate and construct their place in society". The usage is a following puzzle.The names which are written in early 17 th c. Dutch on invoices with amounts and types are often difficult to link to the actual shapes, considering that there are numerous ways of indicating a plate( 17 examples: in 1626: the Shiedam has 12,814 porcelains „bought at the River of Chincheuw‟ (Quangzhou).Another list shows 75 corgees with porcelain dishes from a captured Portuguese ship the Nossa Sig.na d'Assencon.In 1627, it is noted that the Hollandia and the Frederich Hendrick have: ‟16 tubs of captured porcelain‟ and the „Wapen van Delft‟ has „ 9440 various porcelains partly captured, partly bought at the River Chincheuw‟. 18 1642:Chinese junks to Nagasaki from Fu Chou : 130 teapots;1643:Chinese junks to Nagasaki: 11 barrels of porc. + from Fu Chou teapots;1644:-Chinese junks from Fu Chou: teapots+porcelain+coarse porc.; 13 junks with 802 teapots,etc. 9 �schootels,saucieren), bowl (kop, kameelscop), shallow bowl (klapmuts). Only by comparing the shipwreck shards to the nomenclature, is it possible to decipher what is meant by a name. Due to typology made from the large amount of shards from the Witte Leeuw, it was possible to attempt an interpretation. Early 17th century Dutch and Flemish still life paintings depict porcelain pieces with butter, cheese, fruit, lobsters (see Table 4). So not only do these paintings give the aesthetic value but they also show in some way what the pieces were used for. Table 4. Consumption: Shapes linked to paintings. Types hele schotel: dish with a flattened rim. diamete r 50 cms. halve schotel :dish with a flattened rim. 29- 36 cms. een-derde( one third):dish with a flattened rim. 21-23 cms. Boterschootel (butter dish): saucer dish with moulded round medallions instead of straight panels. 10- 12 cms. Saucier:saucer dishes (singel and double) 14 -16 cms. 20-22 cms. Klapmuts clapmuts: Hele klapmuts: (whole) 20 – 24 cms. shapes 10 �Halve klapmuts:(half) 12- 14 cms. Cop, commekens: Bowls Hele (whole) 14-16 cms. Halve (half-sized) 12-14 cms. Japan Excavations at the Hirado trade post site have revealed Chinese minyao types such as bowls and cups, as well as western kraak type porcelain, 19 an indication that the export of kraak ware to Japan was a fact during this period. When the Chinese kilns stopped their production around 1650, the Japanese took over and used the kraak style for porcelain ordered by the VOC merchants. Since the 1970‟s around 1000 sites have been excavated in present day Tokyo, revealing a limited amount of Western artefacts( Beardman jars, glass and parts of clay pipes), as well as Chinese export porcelain. These were possibly gifts from VOC merchants to Japanese dignitaries but could also have been private trade goods (Horiuchi 2007). Besides requests for Chinese porcelain from the Japanese dignitaries, there were also demands for Dutch ceramics! 20 So this is a clear case of cultural links where the Japanese came to appreciate the daily ceramic ware used by the Dutch as well as using Chinese porcelain for producing their own kraak type of porcelain. China The increase in demand from western merchants resulted in higher production and output at the Jingdezhen kilns. Because of the closure of the imperial kilns after riots in 1608, many skilled workers went to the „common‟ workshops. This resulted in a mixture of very finely potted and finely painted pieces with a coarser type with sketchily drawn designs. Gradually kraak type became a mass-production with many pieces of lower quality.21 The establishment of the Formosa trade post also effected the production as can be seen from the increase in amounts on VOC invoices and stocks at Fort Zeelandia. 22 The numerous finds of kraak porcelain found in tombs in Jiangxi province led researchers in China to question the usage of these pieces (Bao Ping 19 Hirado Archaeology Department for example, in 1640, the Daimyo of Kaga requests pottery from Holland.(Volker 1954:122)/ Daimyo Arima orders 10-12 dishes of Dutch earthenware and fine Dutch white clay . 21 the so-called “Wan li” shipwreck and the „Hatcher cargo‟ has examples. 22 stocks at Zeelandia: 1636:212,144 pieces/1638:890,328 pieces/1645:163,716 pieces. 20 11 �2011). Most were misfired pieces but were discovered in tombs from commoners to provincial commissioners. One interpretation given ….they were probably sold, along the route of transporting from Jingdezhen to coastal ports for exporting, to local people for mere funeral purposes, at a much reduced price. This view is supported by a burial custom popular in Ming-Qing period Jiangxi, whereby porcelain plates may be placed under the head of the deceased as pillows, which are called shoupan or “longevity (i.e. afterlife or funeral) plates (Bao Ping, et al. 1993:3) The interest in the link of a western type of porcelain being used as a funerary object was discussed by several researchers at the Hong Kong symposium. Conclusion The change in the value of Chinese export porcelain. From the start of the 20th century, travels to the Far East were made and because China was struggling economically, uninterested in their cultural past, it was easy to buy and bring back all kinds of porcelains, from the early dynasties to the last, for next to nothing. During the period of about 1900-1950, porcelain collectors were able to buy precious porcelains from the country whose museums now have to buy them back at exorbitant prices at auctions. 17th century blue and white export ware, including kraak ware was labelled „provincial ware‟ by art historians and collectors looked down on these types. Art historians and collectors gradually became aware that porcelains from a dated shipwreck is the only guarantee for an end date as they are sealed in time capsules, and fairly precisely datable. As Richard Kilburn (Sheaf and Kilburn 1988:76) stated, “It is often difficult to be sure in which century ceramic wares were made, so that being able to associate specific pieces with a datable event such as a shipwreck is a valuable start towards establishing a chronology for them”. This was first done with the porcelain finds from the VOC ship the Witte Leeuw. The 200 kilos of shards were valueless and luckily the Rijksmuseum‟s department of history was willing to take them over for research purposes. A group was formed and the pieces were sorted out; for the first time a typology was made which resulted in the catalogue The Ceramic Load of the Witte Leeuw. This is still being used world wide for research purposes. However, shipwrecks also increased their value. The massive auctions at Christie‟s in 1984 and 1986 of undocumented and unethically salvaged Chinese porcelain caused a „hype‟ in collecting shipwreck porcelain.23 Even common export wares became unaffordable for research purposes. At the time of the auctions, China had begun to develop their maritime archaeology and just started in shipwreck salvages and salvaged items, because it is part of their cultural heritage. As a Chinese maritime archaeologist noted :‟ we were given 3000$ to buy some pieces but were unable to cope with the bidders at these auctions, and so returned emptyhanded‟. 23 As these salvages were not properly documented, there was protest from historians and a symposium was organised: Pillage or Enrichment of maritime history? There was much discussion on whether items which had been salvaged in an unethical way should be taken up in national museums as gifts( paying off?); how we can keep national heritage without pillage, and much more. 12 �=============================================================== EPILOGUE: HOW TO PRESERVE RESEARCH RESULTS. In the past years there have been numerous archaeological researches, on land as well as from shipwrecks. The best way to preserve this knowledge is to put together all the results into one global database. By forming a working group with participants from all countries taking part in this type of research, results can be kept. Each participant will be able to log into the website to place his research results and keep them updated. In this way we can keep in touch and keep each other updated. Bibliography Bao Ping, 2011 Bao Ping, Xue Qiao and Liu Jinfeng, 1993 Boxer, C.R., 1965 Cao Jianwen and Luo Yifei, 2006 Chen Lili, 2004 Desroches ,J.P., and Goddio, F., L‟Hour, M., Dupoizat, M.F., Pourvoyeur, P., 1994 Dumas, J., 1981 Exchange of material culture over the sea, 2007 Horiuchi, H., 2007 L‟Hour, M., 1989 International Conference Hong Kong 2011 Kawaguchi, Y., "Kraak porcelain from tombs and kiln sites in China", Paper at symposium Chinese Export Ceramics in the 16 and 17th centuries and the spread of civilisation, Hong Kong City university, Chinese Civilisation centre, may. "Cultural relics unearthed in south Jiangxi and the change in export routes of Jingdezhen porcelain during the transitional period of Ming and Qing dynasties", in Relics from The South, pp.3. The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800, Hutchinson and Co. London. "Kraak Porcelain discovered at some kiln sites in Jingdezhen City in recent years", in Oriental Art, Vol.I, nr. 4. "Kraak porcelain plates and burial customs", in Minsu yanjui (Folklore studies), 4. Le San Diego. Un trésor sous la mer, AFAA, RMN, Paris. Fortune de Mer a l’Ile Maurice, Atlas Films S.A., Paris. Exchange of material culture over the sea. Contacts between Europe and East and Southeast Asia in the 16 th to 18th centuries. Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, (to be published). "The Material Cultural Interaction from an Archaeological Point of View, the artefacts excavated from Edo sites focused on trade ceramics", Paper given at symposium: Exchange of Material culture over the Seas, Taipei, 2007 Le Mauritius. La mémoire engloutie, Grenoble. Cross the Sea: Chinese Export Ceramics in the 16th and 17th centuries and the spread of Material Civilisation, Chinese Civilisation Centre, City University Hong Kong, May, 2011 (to be published). "Archaeological results of Nagasaki in the 16-18th 13 �2006 National Archives Parthesius, R., 2010 Sheaf, C., and Kilburn, R., 1988 Seminar, 1991,1994 Staniforth, M., 1996 Symposium , Singapore, 2007 Tan, R., 2007 Van der PijlKetel,C.L., (ed.), 1982 Volker, T., 1954 centuries", in Trade Ceramics Studies, nr. 6.1987(in Japanese). National Archives of the VOC, The Hague. Dutch ships in Tropical Waters. Amsterdam University Press. The Hatcher Porcelain cargoes: the complete record, Oxford, p. 76. China and the Maritime Silk Road, Unesco Quanzhou International Seminar 1991. Maritime silk road studies Vol.1; Vol.2. "Tracing artefact trajectories- following Chinese export porcelain", in Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 20, 1, pp.13-18 Chinese Export Ceramic Trade in Southeast Asia, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore, (unpublished papers) Zhangzhou ware found in the Phillipines, Oriental Ceramic Society of the Philippines. The Ceramic Load of the Witte Leeuw (1613), Rijksmuseum. "Porcelain and the Dutch East India Company as recorded in the Dagregistes of Batavai Castle,those of Hirado and other contemporary Papers 1602-1682", in Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum van Volkenkunde, nr.11, Leiden. 14 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Identification of export porcelains from early 17th Century VOC shipwrecks and the linkage to their cultural identification Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource Ceramics recovered from sunken vessels have drawn much attention in recent years. They are significant historical and aesthetic items but only a few reports have been made for scholarly purposes; many have been salvaged for commercial gain. Porcelain shards from underwater sites can be used as identification material for cultural heritage: porcelain was an important trade commodity of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and had an enormous impact on the cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Europe. The VOC trade routes included inter-Asian markets and the transport of porcelain to these ports also had an influence on the local cultural heritage. This paper will give an insight on the distribution routes by VOC ships with porcelain cargoes and the shards from some VOC shipwrecks as identification material of such porcelain. During a recent symposium in Hong Kong, it was evident that researchers in China and Taiwan consider the porcelain trade of export wares for the western market as part of their cultural heritage. For example, a certain type of export porcelain known as kraak ware has been found in several tombs in China. There was a discussion on the value and usage of this porcelain: was it used as a ‘gift’ for the deceased? Or was it a show of being well-to-do? Other topics such as the influence of orders of porcelain for the western market on the inland markets and economy were also discussed. Another discussion was the value of ceramics discovered at underwater sites. Chinese researchers have done enormous work at sites on the maritime trade routes. Only token shards were salvaged for study purposes and shards have no value on the collectors market. Another issue discussed concerned the salvage of historic shipwrecks, a continuing debate between archaeologists, who value wrecks largely for their historical value, and profit-motivated salvage companies, who care only about their market value. We discussed how can we preserve shipwreck materials and documentation for future research in an ethical manner. The author suggested the following: In the past years there have been numerous archaeological researches, on land as well as from shipwrecks. The best way to preserve this knowledge is to put together all the results into one global Internet platform which would give the opportunity to leave and discuss drafts, ongoing research and reports. It could also host an agenda of events and links to useful websites. In this way researchers can keep in touch and keep each other updated. The Civilisation Centre of the City University of Hong Kong has agreed to cooperate and others will surely follow. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Christine Ketel Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4