24 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/114ebf151676569cb80a84ff884b7f44.pdf 1a72028a879ec98ebb971ae731962644 PDF Text Text The Early Ninth-Century ‘Ban Khlong Yuan’ Lashed-Lug Boat of Chaiya, Peninsular Thailand: comparisons, contrasts and capabilities Wongsakorn Rahothan (Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, Thailand) Dr Tom Vosmer (University of Western Australia, and Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Museum) ABSTRACT The Underwater Archaeology Division of Thailand conducted an archaeological expedition in 2019 to trace the wreck sites in the southern peninsula. As a result, the Ban Khlong Yuan boat (BKY) was found in Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand. The area supported an urban town and seaport of the Srivijaya Kingdom between the seventh and twelfth centuries. The remains of the BKY boat were recently re-articulated. The focus of this paper is to present a brief overview of the reconstruction process, highlight analytical materials found in the wreck, and make comparisons of the BKY boat with other lashed-lug vessels of the region. A lines plan will be derived from the reconstruction of the BKY boat and the basic naval architectural data presented. AMS dating and identification of shipbuilding materials demonstrate that the BKY boat is an early ninth-century lashed-lug boat built of genus Hopea timber, with boatbuilding techniques comparable to the Punjulharjo boat (Central Java, Indonesia), the Chau Tân boat (Quang Ngai Province, Central Vietnam), and the Butuan boats (Northern Mindanao, Philippines). Comparisons of lashedlug designs and boatbuilding techniques among these vessels will be explored. The sophisticated boat represents a boatwright’s intellect of indigenous people in Peninsular Thailand during the ninth century. The widespread lashedlug boats found across Southeast Asian waters reflect skilled local boat-builders, mariners and middlemen who effectively engaged in transoceanic trade between the east and west at the ports of the dominant polity. Keywords: lashed-lug boat, maritime archaeology, Chaiya List of figures and table Figure 1. (a) Location of BKY boat and archaeological and ethnographic lashed-lug sites (after Manguin 2019). (b) BKY planks re-aligned. (c & d) BKY planks re-articulated. (e) Preliminary outline of BKY hull. Figure 2. (a) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of Butuan 1 and 5. P. quadrialatus (Philippine rosewood) is confined to the southern Philippines. (b) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Intan and Cirebon ships. (c) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Punjulharjo boat. (d) The Ban Khlong Yuan boat was discovered near the centre of the ranges of its timbers. Figure 3. (a) Boats with continuous plank ridges. (b) Lug configurations of four Butuan boats (after Lacsina 2016). (c) Scan of Ban Khlong Yuan keel plank showing dowel and lashing holes. Figure 4. (a) Remains of a composite anchor on the Belitung shipwreck site. Courtesy Michael Flecker. (b) Two of the Binh Chau anchors from Vietnam. Courtesy Ian McCann. (c) Reconstruction of a Binh Chau composite anchor. (d) Edge-drilled timber on the Phanom-Surin site in Thailand. (e) Close-up of an edge-drilled timber from the Phanom Surin vessel. (f) Process of converting a lashed-lug plank into timbers suitable for use as stringers, such as on the Phanom-Surin ship. Table 1. AMS radiocarbon dating results of BKY boat samples INTRODUCTION Southeast Asian maritime and underwater archaeology is still developing and in-depth watercraft studies have until recently been somewhat neglected, research criteria not always rigorously applied. For a relatively new area of enquiry an emphasis on data collection and classification is crucial (Bass 1983, 97). 1 �Boats which feature a ‘lashed-lug’ construction technique are firmly considered to be an archetype of Southeast Asia (Miksic 2017, 566, Manguin 2019, 408; 2021, 137; Staples and Blue 2019, 275). Even though the form of the lugs among the boat remains vary, the lugs of the eponymous ‘lashed-lug’ boats are their primary defining feature. Structural features of lashed-lug boats follow an easily recognizable paradigm, but there are features that differ among vessels. This may be due to their date, region of construction, religious, spiritual or cultural traditions, regional sea and weather conditions, their intended purpose, the specific species of timbers or bindings used or even the personal preference of builders. The Ban Khlong Yuan boat conforms to the general model of lashed-lug vessels: double-ended (i.e. pointed at each end in plan view), a keel plank rather than a standard keel, carved planks with lugs spaced at regular intervals, left proud on the inside surface, to which frames are lashed, planks edge-joined with blind dowels and (sometimes) individual discrete lashings binding planks together, no stem or stern posts but the ends of strakes connecting to carved V-shaped ‘wings’ at bow and stern, and longitudinal stringers lashed to the inside of frames. The lugs are spaced at regular intervals except in about amidships, where the keel and two planks on either side are lacking lugs. Ethnographic examples and the remains of the seventh century Punjulharjo ship (Mochtar 2018) suggest that beams or thwarts were fitted to which temporary decking could be lashed. Manguin has done an admirable job of decerning and describing the evolutionary path of lashed-lug boats over a period of centuries from those stitched together without the use of dowels through a gradual transition to a few dowels, to more dowels and less stitching, and finally to dowels only, the discrete stitching having completely disappeared (Manguin 2019, 2021). The Ban Khlong Yuan boat lies in the middle of this evolution, displaying a pair of L-shaped holes for individual lashings on either side of the lugs and four dowels in way of the lugs and four dowels in the space between the lugs. DISCOVERY OF THE BAN KHLONG YUAN BOAT The Ban Khlong Yuan (BKY) boat was first discovered in 2002 in Khlong Yuan village, Chaiya District, Surat Thani Province, located on the east coast of Peninsular Thailand. The unexpected find occurred when the owner of a plantation was excavating a reservoir and stumbled upon the boat's timbers. This significant discovery was later mentioned in a field survey report included in Plengmetha Khawnuna's Master's thesis (Khawnuna 2014, 183-4). In March 2019, the Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, Thailand, visited the boat timbers kept by villagers in a palm plantation. The wood-crafting techniques demonstrated by the preserved wood remains showed that the archaeological remains were from an ancient lashed-lug boat.These planks represent part of a group of about forty lashed-lug boat and ship remains in Southeast Asia dating from the 1st millennium through the first half of the 2nd millennium CE (Figure 1). Relatively few of these regional lashed-lug boat remains were found underwater—most were in waterlogged terrestrial sites, which in some cases led to relatively well-preserved remains. Unfortunately, much of the information on some of these remains is incomplete and a few of the sites have been destroyed or are inaccessible. The Punjulharjo boat from Indonesia is the most well-preserved and accessible and a classic example. Protected by mud, at least two of the Butuan boats in the Philippines are also fairly well preserved. The Ban Khlong Yuan boat tends toward the other end of the spectrum. After the planks were 2 �Table 1. AMS radiocarbon dating results of BKY boat samples. Conventional Calibrated Age Radiocarbon Age (IntCal 13 datasheet using OxCal 4.4) 86.75 ± 0.32 1260 ± 30 BP 668 – 779 CE 724 CE dowel 86.45 ± 0.32 1170 ± 30 BP 771 – 918 CE 845 CE shell plank 86.12 ± 0.26 1200 ± 24 BP 768 – 890 CE 829 CE Site Sample Type Submitter ID Percentage Modern Carbon BKY Organic cord BKY Wood BKY Wood Median Age recovered by villagers they were not conserved, but stored outside and allowed to dry, leading to some shrinkage, deterioration and possible distortion. Three samples were sent for AMS radiocarbon dating, the results demonstrating manufacture during the eight to ninth century CE (Table 1). One plank was identified as (Hopea sp), a dowel as Terminalia mucronata. BKY PLANKS The BKY remains comprise the lower portions of both wing-ends and nine planks—the keel plank, with five planks on one side of the keel plank and three on the other—extending from one of the preserved wingends over a distance of about 8.5 metres. Additionally, smaller plank fragments were collected, making a total of eighty-four disarticulated timbers. CHALLENGES IN RECONSTRUCTING THE BAN KHLONG YUAN BOAT The process of reconstructing the Ban Khlong Yuan boat presented significant challenges due to the degraded and disarticulated state of the timbers. For clues, the lugs on the adjacent strakes must align transversely across the planks. Secondly, dowel and stitching, holes in adjacent planks must match holes. Thirdly, the keel plank and two planks each side were missing lugs in one place. A gap without lugs, or a wider spacing of lugs at one point is a common feature of lashed-lug construction, designating midships, they would need to be aligned. Following this process, we successfully aligned all the planks and one of the wing-ends (Figure 1). The next step involved assembling the timbers into the appropriate shape, using sandbags to support the structure. After the reconstruction, a recording of the boat was taken, revealing that nearly half of the original remains were missing, making it challenging to determine the boat's full length. With the planks reassembled sections spaced at one-metre intervals were derived from direct measurement to the inside of the planking and refined to smooth anomalies. 3 �LINES PLAN Part of our investigation was aimed at creating a Lines Plan from the existing remains, then running the resulting hull form through a number of naval architectural analyses to determine basic hydrostatics. The lines plan requires a number of assumptions to be made and reference to other extant lashed-lug boats. Figure 1. (a) Location of BKY boat and archaeological and ethnographic lashed-lug sites (after Manguin 2019). (b) BKY planks re-aligned. (c & d) BKY planks re-articulated. (e) Preliminary outline of BKY hull. Lashed-lug boats are double-ended and roughly symmetrical in plan, so if the form of the existing hull remains could be determined, a mirror image could be created, paired with the existing hull form and integrated to the shape of the remaining isolated wing-end, which had a sharply-raked profile. The greatest height of the extant planking was estimated to be at about the presumed waterline. With upper planking missing, the topside sectional form, the height and shape of the sheerline, as well as the maximum length and beam could only be estimated, based on boats of similar size and shape. The wings-ends provided reliable information on the form of each end. As remarked earlier, a gap in the lug spacing near amidships is typical. The midline of this gap was about 6.87 metres from the preserved end, which suggested a keel length of about 13.74 metres. However, Lacsina states “The boatbuilders also fashioned one end of the boat on either side of the midships gap to be longer than the other side.” (Lacsina 2016, 224). Midships on Butuan 2 is 53 percent of its length from the bow, on the ship 54 percent from the bow end of the keel (Liebner 2014), on the Punjulharjo boat 55 percent of the overall length from the bow. We therefore assumed that the likely distance from amidships to the bow 4 �end of the keel on BKY was approximately 54 percent of the overall length. Since the distance from stern end of the keel to the ‘midships’ point was 6.87, the length ahead of that point on the keel would be: 6.87 46% = X 54% X = 8.06m ∴ keel length = 6.87 +8.06 = 14.93m Knowing the angle of the isolated wing-end which attaches to keel, we can then estimate the overall length of the boat. Here we have to take some guidance from ethnographic and archaeological examples as well as naval architecture. Work toward a final hypothetical hull form is ongoing but a number of general observations can be made. BKY has a relatively flat bottom, with little deadrise and a gently curving bilge, not unlike Butuan Boat 2 in the Philippines. The ends are fine and hollow. The keel profile is relatively flat through much of its length, with bow end slightly higher. Integrating the angled wing end into the form of the Ban Khlong Yuan hull produced a vessel about 17 metres long. The overall length of the BKY boat is nearly the same as Punjulharjo but given that about two metres of the length of BKY is in the raked bow, and the ends of Punjulharjo are essentially vertical, BKY could be proportionally a 15-metre vessel, 94 per cent of the length of Punjulharjo. Our preliminary reconstruction produced a maximum beam of 3.34, waterline beam of 2.93 metres, depth from gunwale of 1.4 metres and waterline length of 15.46 metres on an estimated draft of .77 metres. These dimensions are very preliminary but refinement of the Lines Plan will enable hydrostatic calculations to be done with naval architecture software. However, a rough estimate of the displacement can be made on the basis of the hull form we have so far. The rule of thumb for vessels with moderately fine ends is: displacement equals waterline length times waterline beam times draft times 0.5 (Flecker 2002, 138). Applying this formula to our dimensions: Displacement = 15.46 X 2.93 X 0.77 X 0.5 = 17.44 tonnes These dimensions and calculations are very preliminary but refinement of the Lines Plan is continuing and will enable hydrostatic calculations to be done with naval architecture software. RELATIONSHIPS TO OTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Our research has attempted to draw relationships among the many lashed-lug boat remains in the region and how they may relate to the BKY boat, based on specific structural features or materials used but faced a lack of detailed information as most sites have not been examined or reported in detail, their materials not identified; nor structure accurately reported, dating information lacking. That most of the timber and fibre species are widespread in Southeast Asia and were widely traded in antiquity colours the analysis. A comprehensive project to revisit sites and record data on a granular level is needed. However, there are some species whose range is more limited, which could perhaps narrow regions of origin of some craft. Butuan 1 and 5 used timbers that, among other species, grow exclusively in the Philippines (Lacsina 2016, 196) (Figure 2). The native range of Durio species, identified in the Intan shipwreck, was native to Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, as were Punjulharjo timbers Palaquium gutta 5 �and Scorodocarpus borneensis. The Ban Khlong Yuan boat used a Hopea species ranging over Southeast Asia, but a dowel was identified as Terminalia mucronata. STRUCTURAL ANALYSES Specific features such as dowel and lug spacing, presence or absence of plank lashings, configuration of lugs, or a ridge connecting lugs might provide clues to origin, technological transfer or developmental paths. Figure 2. (a) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of Butuan 1 and 5. P. quadrialatus (Philippine rosewood) is confined to the southern Philippines. (b) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Intan and Cirebon ships. (c) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Punjulharjo boat. (d) The Ban Khlong Yuan boat was discovered near the centre of the ranges of its timbers. The keel plank of the BKY boat possesses rectangular carved lugs with a continuous raised ridge running through the centre of the plank, a feature shared with other lashed-lug vessels such as Butuan 4 & 5 (Lacsina 2016), Chau Tân (McCann 2019, 52), the San Isidro wreck (Goddio et al. 1996, Lacsina 2016, 140), the Kolam Pinisi boat (Manguin 2019, 407), the Flying Fish wreck (Flecker and Tai 2020) and the Sungai Limau Manis boat remains (Yahya 2005, 8). The large Cirebon wreck had two planks on each side at the turn of the bilge displaying the continuous ridge (Liebner 2014, 383). Strakes above that have individual lugs, while all of the strakes below the turn of the bilge had a continuous wide ridge. 6 �It is speculated that boatbuilders may have incorporated the ridge to increase resistance to bending. Lacsina (2016, 213) suggests that the ridge could provide structure for lashing holes drilled all the way through its width, evident on Butuan 4 and 5, and some Cirebon planks. The keel ridge could also serve as a convenient baseline from which to measure the distance from side to side as building progressed, thereby maintaining symmetry. Lamalera boatbuilders explained that the ridge protected the hull from being worn thin when bailing water (Barnes 1985, 347; 1996, 206) but does not explain the ridge over the entire length of planks. All these keel and plank ridges appear in widespread geographical locations and bear widely separated dates (Figure 3), lending little to illuminating any direct relationship. LUG CONFIGURATION The shape and spacing of lugs may reveal some relationships among boats. The rectangular lug, such as on the BKY boat is the most common. That four Butuan boats display four different keel plank lug patterns (Lacsina 2016, 211) (see Figure 3) is unexpected, especially in watercraft of the same technical tradition, built at approximately the same time, and discovered in the same area. Boats 1 and 2 have multiple narrow lugs at each lug position, while Boats 4 and 5 (and possibly Boat 3) utilised a continuous raised ridge. The earliest lashed-lug boat discovered, the Pontian boat in Malaysia, had rounded and conical-section lugs. Pairs of discrete lashings held planks together, with a single dowel fitted between them (Manguin 2019, 402, 409). Pontian shares this style of lug with the Kuan Luk Pad and Khok Yang boat remains in Thailand. FRAME LASHING Ethnographic examples show frames lashings on individual lugs but the Punjulharjo and Flying Fish show frame lashings crossing from one plank to another (Flecker and Tai 2020, 9; Mochtar 2018). Structurally, this would make sense, as such a lashing would bind the planks more tightly together. Unfortunately, lashing of frames on the BKY boat have not survived so there is no basis for comparison. DOWEL SPACING AND NUMBER Dowel spacing or number could offer clues to origin, dating and cross-cultural exchange. Maguin has documented an evolutionary path over centuries from the use of lashing only, to the sparse use of dowels coupled with plank lashings, to increasing use of dowels and the eventual disappearance of plank lashings (Manguin 2019, 402; 2021, 138). The fifth to sixth century Kuan Luk Pad timbers and Khok Yang timbers in Thailand (undated) show no evidence of dowels, while the Pontian boat (third to fifth centuries) displays only a single dowel between lashings. The seventh to eighth century Sambirejo and Punjulharjo boats show dowel numbers increasing. The BKY boat dos not have locking pins but boasts a huge number of dowels, generally four in way of each lug and four between lugs. This number of dowels seems to be a relatively late development linked with the gradual disappearance of lashings fastening the planks. The BKY boat demonstrates perhaps the height of dowel fastening prior to the abandonment of plank lashing (see Figure 3). 7 �COUNTER-PEGGING In the 9-10th c. Butuan boats plank lashings have disappeared, replaced with dowels only, sometimes secured with locking pins. Locking pins are evident on Butuan 1 and 5, a plank from Sambirejo, the Cirebon ship, Paya Pasi. The practice exists today, such as with the Lamalera whaling boats of Indonesia. All are widely spaced geographically and temporally. MARITIME CULTURAL EXCHANGE Examples of interaction can be highlighted which unexpectedly involve lashed-lug vessels and rare sewnplank ‘Indian Ocean style’ vessels in Southeast Asia: the 9th-century Belitung shipwreck and the 8-9thcentury Phanom-Surin shipwreck (Komoot 2021). Both show design and construction features associated with western Indian Ocean tradition. The two raise questions about the development of boat-building in Southeast Asia as well as the patterns and intensity of Indian Ocean trade and cultural exchange. Figure 3. (a) Boats with continuous plank ridges. (b) Lug configurations of four Butuan boats (after Lacsina 2016). (c) Scan of Ban Khlong Yuan keel plank showing dowel and lashing holes. On board the Belitung ship was a peculiar composite anchor, a type never before seen (Flecker 2001, 344) comprising a long wooden shank, iron arms and an iron or lead collar sandwiched between them (Figure 8 �4a-c). More recently, remains of anchors of this type, the Binh Chau and Chau Tân anchors, apparently associated with 1st millennium lashed-lug vessels were recovered in Vietnam. McCann states that there is enough evidence to conclude that these anchors and the Belitung anchor are of the same type (McCann 2019: 53). Materials used in the Phanom-Surin sewn-plank ship are indigenous to Southeast Asia (Jumprom 2019, 243). Intriguingly, there appears to be a direct connection between the Phanom-Surin ship and lashed-lug vessels. Rectangular-section timbers have been noted on Phanom-Surin, drilled with blind and diagonal holes (Figure 4d-f) resembling lashed-lug planks. Cutting out the centre where the lugs are, one is left with long rectangular-section timbers suitable for use as stringers, pre-drilled for lashing to frames or for securing cargo. That Phanom-Surin shipwrights were aware of the lashed-lug tradition is clear. What is puzzling is that, while edge dowels were such a significant feature of lashed-lug construction, dowels are totally absent in Phanom-Surin and Belitung. Figure 4. (a) Remains of a composite anchor on the Belitung shipwreck site. Courtesy Michael Flecker. (b) Two of the Binh Chau anchors from Vietnam. Courtesy Ian McCann. (c) Reconstruction of a Binh Chau composite anchor. (d) Edge-drilled timber on the Phanom Surin vessel. (f) Process of converting a lashed-lug plank into timbers suitable for use as stringers, such as on the Phanom-Surin ship. CONCLUSION Despite there now being many lashed-lug remains in the region, we still do not have the detailed information required to discern meaningful technological interactions or local developments. Despite detailed reports by scholars such as Horridge (1978, 1981, 1982) Liebner (2014), Lacsina (2011, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2022) Manguin (1985, 2009, 2012, 2019, 2021), Mochtar (2018) and Purnawibowo and Mochtar (2021) which 9 �have greatly advanced our understanding, until we amass a body of more detailed data it is difficult to define relationships or pinpoint the BKY boat’s place in the milieu. The BKY boat represents a regional trading vessel that thrived during the prosperous maritime activity of Southeast Asia in the eighth to ninth centuries and is a key illustration of the structural features marking the transition from lashed and doweled construction to boats with dowels-only near the end of the first millennium CE. The sophisticated boatbuilding techniques observed on the BKY boat are comparable to those found in other lashed-lug boats across the region, indicating the intellectual prowess of in Southeast Asian boatwrights, reflecting keen interest in experimentation and in developing technical solutions to the challenges of producing viable sea-going watercraft. These techniques represent a shared knowledge among the ancient peoples of Southeast Asia. Lashed-lug boats are thus not solely the cultural heritage of one nation but a shared cultural heritage of Southeast Asia. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to acknowledge the Underwater Archaeology Division of the Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture in Thailand for their support, cooperation and encouragement in the Ban Khlong Yuan boat reconstruction project. We also thank the Archaeology Department of the University of Western Australia and the Department of Maritime Archaeology of the Western Australian Museum. 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Yahya, Matzin bin Haji) The Boats of Brunei Darussalam, Brunei: Brunei Museums Department, 2005. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Early Ninth-Century ‘Ban Khlong Yuan’ Lashed-Lug Boat of Chaiya, Peninsular Thailand: comparisons, contrasts and capabilities Description An account of the resource The Underwater Archaeology Division of Thailand conducted an archaeological expedition in 2019 to trace the wreck sites in the southern peninsula. As a result, the Ban Khlong Yuan boat (BKY) was found in Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand. The area supported an urban town and seaport of the Srivijaya Kingdom between the seventh and twelfth centuries. The remains of the BKY boat were recently re-articulated. The focus of this paper is to present a brief overview of the reconstruction process, highlight analytical materials found in the wreck, and make comparisons of the BKY boat with other lashed-lug vessels of the region. A lines plan will be derived from the reconstruction of the BKY boat and the basic naval architectural data presented. AMS dating and identification of shipbuilding materials demonstrate that the BKY boat is an early ninth-century lashed-lug boat built of genus Hopea timber, with boatbuilding techniques comparable to the Punjulharjo boat (Central Java, Indonesia), the Chau Tân boat (Quang Ngai Province, Central Vietnam), and the Butuan boats (Northern Mindanao, Philippines). Comparisons of lashedlug designs and boatbuilding techniques among these vessels will be explored. The sophisticated boat represents a boatwright’s intellect of indigenous people in Peninsular Thailand during the ninth century. The widespread lashedlug boats found across Southeast Asian waters reflect skilled local boat-builders, mariners and middlemen who effectively engaged in transoceanic trade between the east and west at the ports of the dominant polity. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wongsakorn Rahothan Dr Tom Vosmer Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rahothan, Wongsakorn and Tom Vosmer. 2023. “The Early Ninth-Century ‘Ban Khlong Yuan’ Lashed-Lug Boat of Chaiya, Peninsular Thailand: comparisons, contrasts and capabilities.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1944 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c324f807126d85486f05e06ece461e66.pdf 8f528ef644788043b01fc83bbe99327b PDF Text Text The Introduction of Conservation Treatment of Maritime Artifacts in Korea Dr Whan-suk Moon1 Abstract Since 1976, the underwater excavation program, which began with the Shinan ship, has yielded some 94,500 relics and eleven shipwrecks (including two foreign ships) from 18 sites in Korea. To conserve each material appropriately conserved on site and then the artifacts salvaged from the sea were safely moved to the laboratory. In particular the hulls of the ships were salvaged by separated pieces. Treatment of PEG 2-step method was applied for several years. The two ship hulls (Shinan and Wando) have been displayed after conservation treatment, and one is being prepared for a new display. We first tested pre-conservation treatment for safe stabilization and then have applied the best method of pre-study results to the ceramics, wooden tags, metallic objects, bones, crops etc. We excavated many bamboo artifacts after 2009, and are currently studying preconservation treatment. 1. Introduction The dominant maritime relics found in Korea are shipwrecks and their artifacts. They represent specific points in history, which like time capsules, clearly assert the culture of previous eras. The number of declared maritime discoveries in Korea has spanned approximately 242 cases since 1971. Underwater scientific research began in 1976 with the excavation of the Shinan artifacts. To date, there have been 18 excavations of underwater sites which have yielded 94,500 artifacts, 11 vessels, including 9 Korean vessels from the Goryeo dynasty, as well as 2 Chinese vessels. Underwater salvaging was implemented after determining which areas had the greatest spread of artifacts. The Mokpo Conservation Center was established for the conservation of the Shinan shipwreck site in 1980, and has taken full charge of the relics since then. This paper describes the introduction of conservation treatment of maritime artifacts salvaged in Korea. 1 Chief of Underwater Excavation & Conservation Division, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH), KOREA, moon118@hanmail.net �2. Conservation treatment and management of maritime artifacts 2.1. Types of underwater artifacts So far, the salvaged underwater artifacts are predominately the vessels themselves as well as the porcelains contained within the site. In the case of the Shinan shipwreck, interest from several international maritime institutes led to its collaborative excavation in 1970. During that excavation, 20,000 Chinese ceramics, red woods (native plants in India and west Asia), 28 tons of coins, pewter bars, wooden tablets (shipping manifest), and the vessel kitchen utensils were recovered. At the Taean underwater site over 29,000 Goryeo porcelains, grains, salted foods, and small portable dining tables made of bamboo were salvaged. Scholastically speaking, the ship's manifest in the form of wooden tablets were of the most interesting. These recorded a sailing time, an owner of the cargo ship, the quantity of goods, as well as other important data. Also in the Mado vessel excavation at Taean, more than 62 stone anchors were salvaged, which demonstrates the frequency of marine accidents in the area. Historical documents from that era note a lack of national finance as a direct result of these frequent maritime accidents. 2.2. Conservation treatment of an organic materials 2.2.1. Conservation treatment of old vessels If it is the case that a salvaged ship is not identified in Korea, then it is named after the region (the sea) where it is excavated. To date, 10 vessels have been salvaged, which includes the Shinan, a 14th century merchant vessel from China. Salvage operations on Mado vessel number 3 are currently underway. The vessel's hull was normally made of pine, but the nails were made of more durable oak. Because wooden nails were used in the vessel's construction, this made it easier to separate the boards during the salvage operation. The boards were then cut into smaller sections and labeled. Similarly, the Shinan was cut into four sections to facilitate its recovery. The base plate of Mado vessel number 2 was also made of oak. The Jindo ship was constructed with camphor wood. In the first stage of the preservation process the hulls of the ships were placed in a desalination tank for 2~5 years. A consolidation process was also necessary because of serious deterioration. The ships had been in tidal flats for hundreds of years attacked by marine borer, bacteria, and soft rot. The percentage of water content was up to 500%. The outer surface was substantially deteriorated, but the interior remained consistent to that of green woods. In the consolidation process, the wood is first impregnated with 5~20% of PEG 400 (Polyethylene glycol) at 40 , to begin the consolidation with PEG. In the second stage the wood is saturated with 25~70% of PEG 4000 for 5~10 ℃ �years. The conservation process of two ships is now complete, and they are currently being exhibited. The third ship is being stored after the second stage of the consolidation treatment. The fourth ship is now being dried after consolidation. The Jindo ship, which is made of camphor wood, requires special care and is being dried using the fixative FRP to prevent deformation and warping. The drying conditions are being closely monitored. Figure 1. Storage and desalination in pool (NRIMCH) Figure 2. PEG treatment tanks for salvaged ship (NRIMCH) Figure 3. Display condition after reconstruction of Shinan ship (NRIMCH) 2.2.2. Conservation treatment of wooden tablets From the underwater excavation at Daesom, Taean in 2007, bamboo tables and wooden tablets (ship's manifest), which describe the type of cargo, the quantity, the place of shipment, and the receivers were excavated. These tablets and tables were constructed with bamboo, pine, ash, and chestnut wood. Several kinds of small tools were used to remove mud from the surface of the wooden tablets, and the wood was immersed in a 2% solution of EDTA-2Na. Next, a low concentration (5~40%) of PEG#4000 (in t-butanol) was used to �make the inscriptions on the wood more visibly distinct for accurate translation. After that, a vacuum freeze-dry conservation treatment was applied. For sufficient stabilization of the tablet dimensions, the PEG density of the immersed tablets was gradually increased in stages over 15~20 days. 2.2.3. Conservation treatment of crops At the Taean Mado 1 site many crops such as rice, buckwheat, and millet, were salvaged. Only the husks remained because the crops’ main component of starch had dissolved and disappeared after more than 800 years of being underwater. The safest conservation method for the crops, was chosen among the waterlogged wood conservation treatments, using Sucrose, PEG immersion, PEG (in t-butanol), a vacuum freeze-dry conservation treatment, an high quality alcohol method (cethylalcohol,1 : 1 = cethyl alcohol : stearyl alcohol), which involved distoetion, color change, by visual observation, and surface observation using a stereoscopic microscope. It was determined impossible to keep the logged crops in a consistent dry form without conservation treatment first. Shrinkage was evident at 9.34% in length, and 26.0% in width. In such cases, it is essential to apply conservation treatment prior to the drying process. The formation and color of crops were well preserved in high quality alcohol method (cethylalcohol). Also the impregnation was concluded in 70% grade, since there was no difference between 70% and 100%. Figure 4. After conservation treatment (NRIMCH) 2.3. Conservation treatment of metals Most of the salvaged metals at the site were shipboard utensils such as metal pots, copper dishes, and spoons. These were processed for conservation treatment by initial examination, desalination, stabilization, consolidation and restoration. In the case of metal pots, 0.5M NaOH was used to desalinate and eliminate rust on it. Specifically, cast metals might have been severely damaged �because cracking can occur during the drying process if the artifact is not prepared properly. Cracking was prevented and reduced with the addition of adhesive. 0.1M Sodium Sesquicarbonate was used to desalinate and wash the bronze dishes and spoons. It was also noted that a Citric acid wash easily removed debris from coins; especially debris on the many salvaged coins dating back to the Chosun Dynasty. The coins were then treated to prevent corrosion, dried, and consolidated to complete the conservation process. 2.4. Conservation treatment of pottery As this paper previously mentioned, the staple of underwater excavation is porcelains. The salvaged pottery was mostly intact with defined forms, but when it was damaged, restoration was completed on speculation and through reconstruction as best could be determined. The pottery that had shells fixed to their surfaces were placed in HCI, and the shells were removed using a bamboo knife. They were set in 60 immersion for desalination. After that the acid was removed by placing the artifacts in flowing water. Fragments of similar shaped porcelains were recovered in large quantities, thus making the reconstruction process in the laboratory difficult. However, the more technical and high quality fragments, such as inlaid celadon, were restored and colored as well. ℃ 2.5. Management conservation and subsequent change research after There are two methods for managing finished conservation artifacts in Korea; one method is to exhibit the artifacts, and the other method is to keep the artifacts in storage. The latter method keeps the relics stabilized at a constant temperature and humidity. The Shinan and Wando vessels are currently on exhibition after completion of the conservation treatment. However soon after the exhibition of the Shinan vessel, corrosion began to occur for two reasons. First, the metal nails the shipbuilders used to connect the parts of the vessel began to corrode. Secondly the PEG used as consolidant appeared to increase the metal corrosion. This type of phenomena was observed in the Vasa, Mary Rose timber, Batavia and other vessels. Experts are now conducting investigative research to help prevent this sort of event from occurring. Likewise, we have also been monitoring the state of change regularly since September 2010. The two ships in exhibition are currently being monitored. This involves measuring temperature and humidity, time-lapsed photographic comparison to check the state of change, and illumination photometry. Oxidization of the Shinan ship became apparent about a year after it was first exhibited in 1995. PEG was leeching out of both the Wando and Shinan vessels. But until currently the amount of the PEG has been small enough to be removed. Based on the monitoring research results, our Institute is assured of the budget to improve the constant temperature and humidity of exhibition spaces. �3. Conclusion To sum up, this paper has dealt with the introduction of conservation treatment of underwater excavated artifacts in Korea. Conservation of underwater relics began with the Shinan vessel excavation. At first, our Institute was in charge of vessel conservation treatment only, but has treated all types of other artifacts as well. The primary step in conservation of salvaged artifacts is on-site preliminary processing, and the treatment of the artifacts prior to laboratory applications. In Korea, underwater archaeologists and laboratory conservators must work together to ensure complete treatment and conservation of the Korean maritime heritage. For this purpose, a new conservation facility in Taean near the excavation site, now processes everything immediately in conjunction and cooperation with the conservation treatment centered at our division. However, even with the addition of this new facility at Taean, the diverse variety and large amount of materials makes it difficult to deal with conservation of all artifacts perfectly. For this reason a collaborative research project has been instituted through an exchange program of personnel with other foreign maritime conservation organizations; Western Australia Museum being one. Both institutions are working on research projects set up together. We are specifically trying to solve the corrosion problem in the Shinan vessel. This will improve not only our capacity to better treat maritime artifacts, but also their overall safer conservation treatment in general through global cooperation and exchange of knowledge. Bibliography Bowens, A., (ed) 2009 Underwater Archaeology - The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice.. Cultural Heritage Administration. 1984 The Wando Wreck Underwater Excavation. Cha, M. Y., in press Conservation of shipwrecks in Korea, International Meeting on Protection Presentation and Valorisation of Underwater Cultural Heritage, UNESCO and Chinese Academy of Cultural heritage, Chongqing, November 2010. Cha, M. Y. and Yonn, Y. H., 2011 Conservation of Waterlogged Archaeological Rice Seeds. The 33rd National Conference of the Korean Society of Conservation Science of Cultural Heritage, Korea: 123-124. Cultural Heritage Administration. 1988 The Shinan Wreck Underwater Excavation �Mokpo Conservation Report on The Excavation of Jindo Log Boat. Institute for Maritime Archaeological finds. 1993 Moon, W. S., B. K. Kim, I. J. and S. S. On-Site Conservation of the Underwater Objects Excavated, Conservation Studies 25, National Research Yang., Institute of Cultural Heritage. 2004 National Maritime Museum. 1999 Report on The Excavation of Talido Shipwreck. National Maritime Museum. 2004 The Conservation and Restoration Report of Ship. National Maritime Museum. 2005 The Underwater Excavation of the sea off Sibidongpa Island, Gunsan. National Maritime The Excavation of Anjwa ship. ․ Museum Sinan-gun. 2006 National Maritime Museum. 2008 Nation Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. 2009 Pearson, C., 1987 Ansan Daebudo Ship Sea Site Submarine Excavation. ⅠⅡ Taean Treasure ship , - Submarine Excavation. Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Introduction of Conservation Treatment of Maritime Artifacts in Korea Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource Since 1976, the underwater excavation program, which began with the Shinan ship, has yielded some 94,500 relics and eleven shipwrecks (including two foreign ships) from 18 sites in Korea. To conserve each material appropriately the artifacts salvaged from the sea were safely conserved on site and then moved to the laboratory. In particular the hulls of the ships were salvaged by separated pieces. Treatment of PEG 2-step method was applied for several years. The two ship hulls (Shinan and Wando) have been displayed after conservation treatment, and one is being prepared for a new display. We first tested pre-conservation treatment for safe stabilization and then have applied the best method of pre-study results to the ceramics, wooden tags, metallic objects, bones, crops etc. We excavated many bamboo artifacts after 2009, and are currently studying pre-conservation treatment. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr Whan-suk Moon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6ac0b2aed14538957784317705f8198b.pdf 44061e57d93e02e2e57a27f676bdbce7 PDF Text Text JPAC Underwater Geographic Information System (UGIS) Stefan Claesson, Ph.D. Andrew Pietruzska, Ph.D. Richard Wills, M.A. Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command U.S. Department of Defense Honolulu, HI http://www.jpac.pacom.mil JPAC conducts global search, recovery, and laboratory operations to identify unaccounted for Americans from past conflicts in order to support the U.S. Department of Defense’s personnel accounting efforts. Phase 1: Inventory Distribution of U.S. Military Aircraft Losses in Asia-Pacific Region A primary goal of UGIS is to develop a comprehensive inventory of all underwater U.S. military losses including aircraft and ships from World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War and Cold War for the entire Asia-Pacific region. Inventory and environmental data are used to quickly access and identify geospatial information pertaining to U.S. military losses in marine, lacustrine, riverine, estuarine, and aquaculture environments. These data are digitally warehoused in UGIS and used to support JPAC underwater investigation and recovery missions.  Assess, analyze, identify and manage underwater military losses and archaeological site information.  Determine the environmental feasibility of conducting underwater investigation and recovery activities.  Prioritize investigation and recovery efforts in order to achieve the best possible accounting results.  Deliver mission planning and post-mission reports and map products.  Access and distribute geographic information to JPAC sections, and investigation/recovery teams in the laboratory and/or field. OTHER <4% INDONESIA 32% PHILIPPINES 6% KOREA, NORTH 7% PAPUA NEW GUINEA 12% JAPAN 9% VIETNAM 12% Total: 1,900 Phase 2: Analysis UGIS provides a composite map or layers of historical, remote sensing, environmental, and political geo-spatial features that can be used to assist in the planning, management and recovery of U.S. missing persons from past conflicts. Vector data sets developed in UGIS include: Vietnam War (15%) Korean War (11%) INDONESIA 37% CHINA 6% SOLOMON ISLANDS 7% World War II (74%) MICRONESIA 4% NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS 4% VIETNAM 7% JAPAN 10% SOLOMON ISLANDS 14% Total: 6,446 Cold War (<1%) Historical Records Remote Sensing  Locations: features derived from historical records such as witness observations and aerial photographs.  Targets: features derived primarily from remote sensing survey operations.  Areas: survey or recovery areas proposed for investigation or recovery operations based on locations, targets, and other environmental (e.g., bathymetry, sediments) and political information (e.g., marine boundaries). Environmental Data Composite map of UGIS data sets include base maps such as nautical charts, loss incident locations as recorded in a legacy database system, targets or anomalies as identified in remote sensing surveys, and historical observations. Based on analysis of the combined data, JPAC plans investigation and recovery operations. Jurisdiction/Political Boundaries  Preservation and loss prevention of historical information and knowledge, including storage and warehousing of underwater investigation survey and recovery data. Underwater Casualties (by Country) OTHER <4% Loss Incidents: Why create an Underwater GIS? Underwater Loss Incidents (by Country) Phase 3: Recovery Planning Investigation Excavation Identification Closure Contribute to UGIS! JPAC seeks the support and cooperation of AsiaPacific nations, underwater cultural heritage specialists and the regional diving community to assist with the inventory and protection of U.S. military archaeological sites under water through the sharing of national or regional archaeological inventory data. Please contact us to support our mission. Contact Information: Stefan Claesson (stefan.claesson@jpac.pacom.mil) Andrew Pietruzska (andrew.pietruzska@jpac.pacom.mil) Richard Wills (richard.wills@jpac.pacom.mil) Currently, JPAC’s underwater archaeology team conducts three investigations (or surveys) and three recoveries (or excavations) around the world each year. Factors such as weather, terrain, site accessibility, and various logistical concerns influence how and when JPAC teams deploy to each specific site. Underwater investigation teams (UIT) utilize a variety of tools and methodologies to locate and correlate crash sites with specific loss incidents and unaccounted for individuals. These include remote sensing technologies such as side-scan sonar, multi-beam sonar, and magnetometer, witness interviews, and diver groundtruthing. If enough evidence is found, a site is then recommended for recovery. Underwater excavations and recovery teams (URT) are directed by a JPAC underwater archaeologist. The recovery teams consists of specialized U.S. military personnel including Navy/Army divers, combat photographers, medics, linguists, life support analysts, and support staff. Recoveries are conducted according to the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors – Laboratory Accrediting Board (ASCLD-LAB) crime scene standards. Human remains and material evidence recovered from the field are returned to JPAC’s Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) in Hawaii, where they undergo analyses. Positive identifications are formulated on the basis of multiple lines of evidence including skeletal and dental analysis, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and associated material evidence. The final outcome, and the goal of every JPAC mission, is the repatriation and transfer of accounted for remains and associated personnel items to a soldier’s surviving family members. More than 1,800 Americans have been identified as a direct result of the work undertaken by JPAC and its predecessors since accounting efforts began in the 1970s. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9bb65c8f519a3a5333876620c04b72c9.jpg ad90ed50bd2f81f400da2311f054ef59 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 593 Height 446 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource JPAC Underwater Geographic Information System (UGIS) Description An account of the resource The mission of the U.S. Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) is "to achieve the fullest possible accounting of all Americans missing as a result of the nation's past conflicts." To support this mission objective, JPAC is developing an Underwater Geographic Information System (UGIS) that will be used to inventory, manage and analyze a complex historical record, integrate numerous disparate databases, and analyze marine remote sensing and environmental data sets related to underwater military losses. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Stefan Claesson Dr. Andrew Pietruzska Richard Wills Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command US Department of Defense Asia-Pac Poster https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f32ebf2048448829bf4a7d75c0d95d75.pdf 95f06d1b1a32a5a1f708c32d0530e9e0 PDF Text Text A Phenomenology of Oceanscapes: Aquatic Lifeworlds and Sustainability Dr. Anja Krieger (Independent Researcher) ABSTRACT This paper is included in ‘Session 3 Decade of Action, the call for Oceans’ Past to Bridge our Communities’ to address the encounter with experience and understanding of humans and their aquatic surroundings, i.e. the phenomenology of oceanscape. Defined as the human perception and experience of the ocean, this concept includes both tangible and intangible events and encounters. The notion of the sea as a blank, formless and featureless space has often been evoked in scholarly writings. Recently, however, researchers have made compelling arguments against this point of view by recognizing the materiality and temporality of the sea itself. Even though the ocean as a fluid space lacks the firm surface of the land, it is not without recognizable structures in various forms. After introducing and examining a theoretical framework for the phenomenology of oceanscape, and exploring the experience of encountering a vast body of water, this paper uses the analysis of (contemporary) human interactions with the ocean that are firmly rooted in the past to address sustainable concepts of human-ocean interaction in the present. The Haenyeo in South Korea and the Ama in Japan, both representatives of invaluable and intangible East Asian maritime heritage, exist in the space between past and present and between land and water. Based on centuries-old tradition and knowledge, their present understanding of their maritime environment can contribute to a better understanding of social and mutual humanocean entanglements and thus contribute to ocean literacy as defined by UNESCO. Keywords: phenomenology, marine cultural heritage, sustainability, East Asia List of abbreviations IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission OL Ocean Literary TEK Traditional Ecological Knowledge INTRODUCTION In this paper, it is argued that ocean literacy and sustainability efforts require an objective comprehension of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), which is derived from past human experiences within aquatic lifeworlds and oceanscapes. Such knowledge serves as a basic building block and should be considered for a successful sustainable future. By examining how individuals and cultures perceive and interact with the ocean as a vital component of their lifeworld, and recognizing it as an integral part of their past, present and future, one gains insight into the ocean’s role in socio-cultural, political, and economic transformations. This in turn prompts the development of crucial strategies for conserving it. Several studies have explored the role of fisheries in the socio-cultural fabric of coastal towns, highlighting their significance for communities facing new policies, environmental shifts, and other challenges (see, for example Lim, Ito, and Matsuda 2012; Khakzad and Griffith 2016; Axon 2019; Chisholm Hatfield and Song 2019; Henderson et al. 2019). I contend that these individuals or groups should be included in discussions alongside national governments, local coastal communities, and business and private sector stakeholders, rather than being limited to sustainable tourism and educational initiatives. The world’s oceans influence the climate, the weather, food consumption and the circulation of goods. Yet, this important part of human lives is under dire threat. Coastal zones especially are rapidly deteriorating as a result of changing environmental conditions, human development and climate change (IOC/UNESCO 2011). Recognizing this, UNESCO has proclaimed a Decade of Ocean Science for sustainable development (2021–2030) aiming to reverse the decline in ocean health and promote sustainability. UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) developed a roadmap, outlining preliminary objectives and identifying stakeholders. Initially, maritime/marine archaeology and underwater cultural heritage did not feature in the implementation plan. Thanks to a concentrated effort led by the National 1 �Museum of Denmark, cultural heritage and marine archaeology were recognized as essential to Ocean Decade’s goals. Understanding an ocean’s past and the past and present lifeworlds of coastal communities contributes invaluable knowledge to sustainability efforts and resilience building (UNESCO 2019; Trakadas et al. 2019). However, all efforts to implement long-lasting changes in coastal areas concerning sustainability must take a bottom-up approach and take human geographies and specific local conditions into consideration as top-down approaches risk marginalizing local communities and are more prone to failure (Axon 2019; Henderson et al. 2021). To help promote sustainability efforts and to include local stakeholders, UNESCO makes use of the promotion of ocean literacy (OL). OL was developed over the past two decades, gaining significant traction among marine biologists and environmental educators before becoming a prominent factor in the Ocean Decade (Worm et al. 2021). The term is defined as ‘the understanding of human influence on the ocean and the ocean’s influence on people’ (IOC/UNESCO 2020, 23). OL is meant to enable and scale up actions in all sectors of society regarding ocean sustainability and identifies four priority areas: policy formulation, formal education, corporate action, and community engagement. The IOC/UNESCO implementation plan mentions specifically aquariums, zoo and museum operators, the education of children and the general public as groups and areas of interest but makes no mention of ocean literacy in paragraphs addressing national governments, local coastal communities, and business and private sector stakeholders, even though holders of local and indigenous knowledge are later mentioned as essential partners (IOC/UNESCO 2020). This seems at odds with Goals 12, 13 and 14 of SDG 14: sustainable consumption and production patterns, the pressing requirement to combat climate change and conservation and sustainable use of the oceans (Santoro et al. 2017), neither of which can be implemented successfully without involving coastal communities, businesses and governments. It is equally concerning that it is seldom mentioned that the term ‘literacy’ denotes as much scientific knowledge and educationally acquired knowledge as TEK. OL needs to include diverse perspectives of human interaction with the ocean and must be tailored to regional cultural contexts (Worm et al. 2021). A Phenomenology of Oceanscape The concept of phenomenology, employed as a tool to describe the character of human experience and the encounter between humans and their surroundings, was originally introduced as part of landscape studies (Johnson 2012) featuring an immersive bodily approach (Tilley 1994; Thomas 2006; Johnson 2012; Tilley 2012) and understands ‘landscape’ as a social construct or context for social actions rather than as solely physical or geographical (Gosden and Head 1994; Darville 1999; Knapp and Ashmore 1999; Ingold 2000; Ashmore 2004; Ingold and Vergunst 2018). Phenomenology means in its basic definition the human encounter with and the experience and understanding of one’s surroundings. The experience relies on context: one needs to be able to transform something that happened or something one’s senses tell one into something that becomes recognizable or memorable. Therefore, the maritime experience is rooted within the ocean itself and needs to be analysed and interpreted within that context. Marine exploitation conducted using ships, boats, nets and fishing lines is likely to yield different experiences than harvesting by diving where the body serves as the means of production. Experience includes both tangible and intangible encounters and events. Some can be traced through the materials employed, whereas others cannot be directly traced, like tacit knowledge regarding good fishing grounds, safe diving techniques, oral traditions, myths and beliefs. Thus, to be able to understand experiences with the oceans, one has to make use of an array of sources. The two case studies discussed in this article primarily utilise information obtained through ethnographic surveys using participation-observation and interviews, that address local traditions, both past and present experiences, maritime heritage and concerns for the future (Hong and Rahn 1967; Kato 2007, 2009, 2019; Lim, Ito, and Matsuda 2012; Chisholm Hatfield and Song 2019; Song 2020). 2 �Phenomenological studies in archaeology have been met with critiques of subjectivity (Thomas 2006), similar arguments can be made for anthropology or ethnography. The same landscape can be seen in multiple ways through the lens of a variety of people. However, by embedding interpretations into a framework of external references and by establishing a firm context in which interpretations happen, subjectivity can be kept at a manageable level. Phenomenology as a method of examining past and present experiences with the ocean can be enhanced by combining it with other theoretical approaches. The origins of phenomenological studies in landscape studies have resulted in a primarily terrestrial perspective, which has marginalised the ocean, viewing it only as a backdrop or boundary to land, rather than recognizing it as a space in its own right (Farr 2006). A common theoretical approach to study aquatic lifeworlds is the seascape, although the definition of what that term means can vary. Westerdahl and Cooney put emphasis on the relationship between land and sea while Ford sees the sea in its own right (Cooney 2003; Ford 2011; Westerdahl 2011). The author defines a seascape as a middle ground between land and water, viewable as connected and existing independently. As the two case studies presented here are located in the Pacific and in line with the focus on oceans promoted in the Ocean Decade, ‘seascape’ will be replaced by ‘oceanscape’ henceforth. However, although phenomenology proves useful for analysing human experiences with their aquatic lifeworlds, adjustments need to be made. Unlike landscapes, the sea neither yields material remains on its surface nor is it easily explored through a researcher’s body (Berg 2007). Oftentimes, the ocean has been called a blank, formless or featureless space in scholarly writings and the research of seascapes has been marginalised in academic discourses (Wigen 2007). Recently, however, compelling arguments have been made to recognise the materiality and temporality of the sea. Individuals and cultures understand and experience the ocean as a space that has character and agency and even a personality by itself (Anderson and Peters 2014; Steinberg and Peters 2015; Peters and Steinberg 2019; Campbell 2020). To an experienced sailor, the surface of the ocean becomes readable through wave patterns, for example, and changes in colour can indicate reefs, shallows or sudden depths (Lewis 1971; Riesenberg 1972). This indicates a much-needed shift towards the ocean as the centre of human geography instead of placing it at the margin and a strong recognition that the ocean is its own world with embodied human experience. The longstanding binary between land and sea needs to be overcome. Instead, one should focus on fluidity, both in terms of the materiality of the ocean and its definition as a space (Anderson and Peters 2014; Peters and Steinberg 2019) while being cautious of going too far and trying to label everything as ocean or ocean-adjacent (Anderson 2019). CASE STUDIES: AQUATIC LIFEWORLDS AND SUSTAINABILITY Diving women have a long tradition on the shores of the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Archipelago. Archaeological remains indicate that the practice began in the 4th Century. These women practise freediving. Two different approaches are used, unassisted (cachido) and assisted (funado) dives, the former usually dives to a depth between 4 to 6 metres and the latter to a depth between 7 and 15 metres. The Ama of Japan The term ‘Ama’ was first used in the 12th Century to describe a fisherperson. Initially, the term was used for both men and women, but over the years the term became primarily associated with female divers. According to a survey in 1989, the largest number of Ama or found in Chiba, Mie, Nagasaki and Iwate prefectures. They dive for seaweeds, shellfish, urchin, lobster, oyster, octopus and abalone, the latter being the preferred catch. Over the past decades, several surveys have been conducted amidst groups of Ama (see, for example, Maraini 1962; Hong and Rahn 1967; Martinez 2004; Kato 2007, 2009, 2019; Lim, Ito, and 3 �Matsuda 2012). Lim, Ito and Matsuda, for example, conducted a study among the Ama of Yahataura village of Ashibe Town, Iki City, Nagasaki prefecture, using participant observation, focus group discussion and interviews. During their study, with data collection in 2008, the authors found that most Amas were in the age bracket between 50 and 60, and numbers were projected to decline over the coming years. This is a steady trend that began decades ago. In 2004, there were 54 Ama in Yahataura (Lim, Ito, and Matsuda 2012) compared to 120 in 1972 with ages ranging from 17 to 65 (Sato 1973). They identify three main factors that contribute to the issues Ama has to face in the present: dwindling resources, risks and health hazards due to increased pollution, and the marginalisation of women in the fishing industries. The Ama in Yahataura made the conscious decision not to wear wetsuits, the reduced diving time is meant to counter the dangers of overharvesting resources and the fishing season for abalone, turban shells and sea urchin has been shortened (Sato 1973; Lim, Ito, and Matsuda 2012). The adoption of scuba gear could drastically increase their harvest but would threaten the environment in the long-term. Some villages in Japan have outlawed the use of wetsuits to prevent overharvesting for that reason (Hong and Rahn 1967). The Ama possesses an acute sense of ethics: what they fear most is uncontrolled harvest, not any dangers from the ocean, which explains the initial resistance to new diving equipment (Kato 2007, 2009). More pressing, however, is the fact that the Ama are not involved in the structural organisation of the Fisheries Cooperative Association (FCA) which regulates access and control to fishery resources, and therefore have no say in the administrative and managerial decision-making process (Lim, Ito, and Matsuda 2012). The effort to have Ama divers included in UNESCO’s intangible cultural heritage list is ongoing, a first step towards reaching this goal was the registration as an Important Intangible Folk Cultural Property within Japan. Their coexistence with the ocean through sustainable fishing makes them an important part of ocean heritage as a whole. Their deep awareness of the marine ecosystems they rely on, leads them to responsible and sustainable harvesting and they are important members of the coastal communities they live in. The hope is that by recognising their importance to the nation or even worldwide, the profession becomes revived and their knowledge will continue to ensure sustainable harvesting of marine resources (Ishihara 2017). Traditional practice of women divers has become a popular tourist attraction in recent years. However, the real power of the Ama lies in their knowledge, most of it tacit. Ethnographic fieldwork between 2015 and 2017 in Toba, Mie Prefecture; Minami-cho (Abu, Izari), Tokushima Prefecture; Iki Island in Nagasaki, Kuji in Iwate, and Chikura in Chiba Prefecture to elicit oral histories of Ama, showed that among the study participants, many were involved in tourism activities, where they would offer Ama cuisine and cultural experiences combined with storytelling, centred around the Ama hut, or offer an Ama experience including diving and harvesting shells. However, stereotypical images prevail and Ama sometimes gets idealised or is placed in a ‘fixed tourist scape of romanticised heritage’ (Kato 2019, 949). The Haenyeo of South Korea The Haenyeo of South Korea has been part of UNESCO’s List of Intangible Cultural Heritage since 2016. Haenyeo fisheries on Jeju are dispersed over 102 fishing villages and geographically cover fishing grounds within a distance of 1.5 kilometres (km) from the coastline and a depth of seven meters (m) at low tide. As of 2017 they produced 90 per cent of all shellfish exported from the island, thus being a driving force of the local economy (Song 2020). The Haenyeo face comparable challenges to the Ama. Their numbers have decreased from 14,000 in the 1970s to 4,500 in 2015. Women are hesitant to pursue the line of work of their foremothers due to its great physical strain. In the 1970s, the government initiated funding for wetsuits in order to alleviate the cold and enhance the diving time to boost harvests. Despite this, according to one Haenyeo’s assessment, their culture could disappear within approximately thirty years (Mundy 2015). The TEK of the Haenyeo is connected to changes regarding climate change and island culture. It is based on a lengthy oral history transmitted over generations. Haenyeo can be seen as stewards of seascapes and landscapes. A field study by Chisholm Hatfield and Song conducted on Cheongsando, Yeosodo, Jeju, Saengildo, and Udo showed the importance 4 �of Haenyeo in regard to sustainability efforts. The Haenyeo are a source of information about environmental issues, having developed an acute sense for change. The resources they harvest, shellfish, seaweed and abalone, for example, are steadily declining. The Haenyeo react by implementing countermeasures such as planning sustainable harvest collections, reseeding ocean resources or moving to other islands. Their diving techniques are non-intrusive and, similar to the Ama, they adhere to strict guidelines to ensure this remains the case, even with the use of wetsuits. They understand precisely what is at stake, therefore upholding their tradition and history in the present and future. However, their environmental knowledge is not as highly appreciated as their economic impact or role in tourism. (Chisholm Hatfield and Hong 2019). Their knowledge of the harvesting season was developed through observation with the goal of keeping marine biodiversity alive. The system they developed over time is made sustainable by adhering to specific harvest seasons and size restrictions for shellfish, designation of fishing grounds and ensuring ecological and social stability but these factors need to be maintained continuously to ensure smooth running in the future. Local policies on conserving and managing the ocean cannot succeed without taking their expertise into consideration (Song 2020). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Both Ama and Haenyeo are endangered groups of people due to various factors. Despite recognising them as bearers of intangible maritime cultural heritage and indispensable parts of oceanscape, much work still needs to be done. Other than trying to bolster the numbers through social measures, they need support to grapple with external factors that they have no means of controlling. The consequences of pollution and climate change, erosion due to coastal development, and marginalisation are all factors that can and need to be amended if Ocean Decade’s sustainability goals want to be reached. The relationship between human and nature becomes sustainable when it is reciprocal, whether that means a practical, symbolic or conceptual relationship. Connectivity with the natural world is sensory, and grounded in everyday experiences (Kato 2007, 2009). These women have a trove of experience in dealing with the oceanscape in a sustainable way and they prove it every day. They feel the waters with their bodies, they subject their livelihood, their beliefs, their past, present and future to the ocean and have proven throughout their long history that they are ocean literate in the literal sense. The oceanscape allows people to help recognise their place in relation to the surrounding environment, caring for it and being cared for in return. The Ama and Haenyeo, despite being recognised as living intangible heritage, live in a present that is under threat due to dwindling numbers, pollution, and social and economic issues. These issues are not limited to their local coastscape nor caused by their communities. They are embedded within the larger context of the global oceanic environment. Their vital role should not be seen only or mostly as a heritage preserved through museums or as part of tourism and education efforts, but they need to be actively involved in all discussions together with stakeholders from policy and business and private sectors. They immerse their body in the ocean every day multiple times, their lives tied to it in many ways and adhering to a strictly sustainable harvesting cycle of their own volition. Their long history grants them the necessary authority for successful long-term sustainability ventures. Moreover, their focus on maintaining the ocean instead of exploiting it has been demonstrated time and time again. Bibliography Anderson, Jon and Kimberley Peters, “ ‘A Perfect and Absolute Blank’: Human Geographies of Water Worlds.” In Water worlds: human geographies of the ocean, edited by Jon Anderson and Kimberley Peters, 3–19. Farnham: Ashgate, 2014. 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Title A name given to the resource A Phenomenology of Oceanscapes: Aquatic Lifeworlds and Sustainability Description An account of the resource This paper is included in ‘Session 3 Decade of Action, the call for Oceans’ Past to Bridge our Communities’ to address the encounter with experience and understanding of humans and their aquatic surroundings, i.e. the phenomenology of oceanscape. Defined as the human perception and experience of the ocean, this concept includes both tangible and intangible events and encounters. The notion of the sea as a blank, formless and featureless space has often been evoked in scholarly writings. Recently, however, researchers have made compelling arguments against this point of view by recognizing the materiality and temporality of the sea itself. Even though the ocean as a fluid space lacks the firm surface of the land, it is not without recognizable structures in various forms. After introducing and examining a theoretical framework for the phenomenology of oceanscape, and exploring the experience of encountering a vast body of water, this paper uses the analysis of (contemporary) human interactions with the ocean that are firmly rooted in the past to address sustainable concepts of human-ocean interaction in the present. The Haenyeo in South Korea and the Ama in Japan, both representatives of invaluable and intangible East Asian maritime heritage, exist in the space between past and present and between land and water. Based on centuries-old tradition and knowledge, their present understanding of their maritime environment can contribute to a better understanding of social and mutual humanocean entanglements and thus contribute to ocean literacy as defined by UNESCO. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Anja Krieger Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Krieger, Anja. 2023. “A Phenomenology of Oceanscape: Aquatic Lifeworlds and Sustainability.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Abhirada Komoot. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1932 Asia-Pac Session 3 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/408c6b696503dcb0ad2d9a18773efb3b.pdf 14759500d63d9ebe5ad97e2519c30663 PDF Text Text Recoding the Nautical Archaeology: Virtual Museum of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Turkey Dr. Guzden VARINLIOGLU1 Abstract The preservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) requires availability and access to data produced by nautical archaeology alongside tools for analysis, visualization and communication. Although numerous archaeological surveys and excavations have been carried out in the past decades in Turkey, there is no publicly available information system integrated to nautical archaeology. This paper proposes a framework of a virtual museum of UCH. For the creation of this framework, a data collection methodology for underwater surveys has been formulated and a webbased information system has been designed to store the collected data. This paper explores the methods of analysis, visualization and communication embedded in this online system towards the development of a virtual museum. Virtual museum (VM) incorporates the practices of collection, preservation, research, visualization and exhibit, thus offering new approaches to the preservation of cultural heritage. In this paper, a web-based information system has been developed for a model of a virtual museum using the data collected during underwater surveys conducted on the coastal region of Kaş, Turkey in 20072010. Divers from a variety of professional backgrounds followed the practice of in situ preservation. They collected visual, geographical and descriptive data using structured datasheets. Through the analysis of these non-destructive methods, an open-content information system is designed aiming the contribution of all interested parties in a collaborative manner. The system currently contains information on 22 sites in the form of sketches, measurements, drawings, photographs of finds. Combined with Google Maps, the database illustrates the initial technological steps towards the development of a virtual museum. Divers, archaeologists and other interested users of this information system participate in the musealization of information through separately applied analysis, visualization and communication tools by open software programs. These initial steps demonstrate the methods for the automation of data analysis and visual documentation, the visualization of information and the communication of this knowledge. Futuristic concepts of automated, immersive and interactive design redefine the virtual museum of UCH as well as offer different approaches to the discipline of nautical archaeology. Keywords: nautical archaeology/ underwater cultural heritage/ database/ digital/ virtual museum/ information system /in situ preservation/ museology/ Kaş. Research aims The research responds to the lack of systematic methodology for the collection, preservation and dissemination of data in cultural heritage studies. Although numerous underwater archaeological surveys and excavations have been carried out in Turkey since the 1960’s (Bass 2005), there is no publicly available information system for nautical archaeology. This work comes within the context of research conducted as part of the Ph.D. thesis entitled “Recoding the Nautical Archaeology: Virtual Museum of Underwater Cultural Heritage” (Varinlioglu 2011). The author proposes the creation of a virtual museum, in other words, a framework of a digital repository of underwater cultural heritage. Within this framework, a data collection methodology for underwater surveys has been formulated. Data collection using this 1 Güzden Varinlioğlu, PhD, Bilkent University, Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture; Principal Manager of Kaş Archaeopark Projects on behalf of SAD (Sualtı Araştırmaları Derneği, Ankara, Turkey, (Underwater Research Society), e-mail: arkeopark@sad.org.tr. �methodology is stored in a web-based information system specifically designed for this purpose. Furthermore, the methods of analysis, visualization and communication are explored to enable the development of a virtual museum in the second phase of the project. The virtual museum is not in place yet, however, basic information on the field studies called Kaş Archaeopark Projects is publicly online on www.sanalmuze.org.tr. In the near future, a model of the system is expected to be online on this webpage. Introduction The widespread use of information technologies brought new challenges to the preservation of cultural heritage as well as to museology. A new concept of virtual museum has emerged from a need to acquire, store, research, communicate and exhibit the digital heritage data. Drawing parallel lines between the virtual and underwater environments, this paper aims to explore the conceptual framework for a virtual museum of underwater cultural heritage. The objectives of the study are to formulate a framework for the collection of data on underwater cultural heritage using the non-destructive process of in situ preservation methodology and documentation, and explore the methods of transferring, storing and sharing the collected data in the digital domain. The information system is designed to store various types of data and also allows collaborative analysis, visualization and communication. Furthermore, at a conceptual level, the digital technologies of the future are explored to promote a framework of a virtual museum and to develop a tool for the archaeology. Theoretical framework This paper questions the so-called “brick and mortar” (Schweibenz 2004:3) museum and its practices. The International Council of Museums (ICOM) founded in 1946 defines the museum as a “non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its development, open to public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment” (ICOM 2010). These activities of musealization include the collection, conservation and research of museum objects through exhibition for better communication with the public. Separated from its context, however, is isolated from its meaning; the cultural heritage is enclosed in a single place, which may be termed a heterotopian space (Foucault 1998:178). Once an object is detached from its original context and placed in a museum environment, the archaeologists categorize, classify, and derive meaning in order to impose a new order on artifacts. As an alternative to this decontextualization, a virtual museum is proposed as a product of the revolutionary changes in digital reproduction, which led to the emergence of new definitions in the field of museology (Kalay 2008). The digital reproduction of the heritage is one of the most attractive ways in which computer technology can be employed in the field of archaeology (Forte 1997). The use of this technique allows visual reproduction of the data through representation, modeling, and display. These methods of display allow the creation of virtual exhibitions in the web environment. The virtual domain, unlike the “brick and mortar” museum, is a flexible medium for sharing information in various formats, such as digital images, video recording, hyperlinked texts, etc. Moreover, the digital domain recodes the way the information is displayed in such a way to move it from a passive to a more interactive style. �Literature Review In the field of heritage preservation, five digital repositories stand out with their applications of the practice of virtual repositories: Historical American Building Survey (HABS) dealing with acquisition of building documentation data in the US (Burns 2004); Turkish Archaeological Settlements Project (TAY) focusing on the conservation of archaeological data through archival documentation of publications in Turkey (TAY 1998); Nautical Archaeology Digital Library (NADL) designed as a research tool on multilingual manuscripts in Texas A&M University, Nautical Archaeology Program (Castro 2006); Institute for the Visualization of History (VIZIN) projects about visualization of the artifacts discovered in various archaeological excavations (VIZIN 2003); and Virtual Museum of Canada (VMC), a user-centered virtual museum network of the Canadian museums (CHIN 2009). These digital projects illustrate the diverse applications of cultural heritage management. The digital repositories focusing on three main types of underwater remains, namely anchors, amphoras, and sites are respectively Big Anchor (NAS 2008), Roman Amphorae (Keay 2005) and VENUS (2006) projects. Although none of these three examples can be considered within the category of virtual museum, it is worth mentioning that these three are the most prominent information systems on nautical archaeology. Their assessment is a useful exercise to conceptualize the information system for the virtual museum of underwater cultural heritage. A digital cultural heritage repository of a virtual museum is a medium that allows the heritage professionals to preserve, manage, and make the data accessible to the public. Even though the digitization of the repositories challenges the heritage professionals in technical terms, these issues are being gradually solved with technological progress. The construction of knowledge in virtual space involves hyperlinks between different types and aspects of information, which is, in essence, groups of data. Within this general framework, a model in virtual space illustrates the concept of the museum as an interactive, recurrently re-interpretive, and experimental experience. The aim here is to form a platform of knowledge building through the collaboration of multiple authorities with different backgrounds and a variety of interests. In order to achieve this aim, the initial stage of operation is forming a web-based information system. Information System The deficiencies and drawbacks of information systems currently used in the field of cultural heritage are related to the establishment of databases for archaeological sites using collection methods other than in situ preservation. Currently, there is no information system satisfying the needs of this data collection methodology. Furthermore, the analysis and visualization of the collected data through a collaborative method necessitated an online system of data storage and sharing. The idea was then to propose an information system for underwater cultural heritage, which aimed notably to avoid the difficulties mentioned before. By the help of three computer programmers, a tool was developed for the management of the data collected during the surveys conducted since 2007. Essentially an online database for systemic data collection, description, and interpretation, the system currently contains information on approximately 600 finds through sketches, measurements, drawings, and photographic entries of individual finds, in addition to regional descriptions and observations made by divers. Combined with the GPS locations of sites and findspots, the result of integrating the database with Google Maps illustrates the distribution of �sites along the Kaş shoreline. The process of gathering and recording data for the Virtual Museum has been interactive and continually increasing. Figure 1. Screenshot from the information system showing the distribution map of the findspots (G. Varinlioglu based on Google Maps) Field Studies The field surveys were preceded by the introductory training of the divers on the survey and documentation methodology to be followed. After this brief introduction, divers from a variety of disciplines were assigned various tasks in order to fill datasheets, test the database, and collect visual data. These field surveys were followed by primary data analysis. This was the first interaction between divers and archaeologists. As a result of this evaluation, datasheets and database were modified according to user needs. Following the data produced by field surveys, the information system was designed and developed. As a result of the comprehensive research on and study of available tools, financial and technological contingencies, the information system was selected to be used as a tool for the virtual museum implementation. With the participation of almost one hundred divers, the author and her team developed a data collection system for recording, preserving, sharing, presenting and analyzing the underwater cultural heritage in the coastal region of Kaş (Varinlioğlu 2011). Considering the costly nature of research on the sea and underwater, the project intends to rely on a team of divers using simple and standard tools for scanning the bottom profile and recording underwater features in datasheets. While using these data collection methods, the main concern was the in situ preservation. The constraints of in situ preservation without dislocating the material culture helped to develop optimized solutions to data collection methodology (UNESCO 2001). These constraints are considered as challenges for the design and realization of a unique archaeological survey all along Kaş coastal area. A Model of Virtual Museum As mentioned before, the virtual museum is not in place yet. However, basic methods necessary for the creation of the virtual museum are investigated as well as the methods that are followed and the examples that are created by online users working in collaboration. Thus, the users of this information system participated in the musealization of information through independently used open source analysis, �visualization and communication tools such as Gimp, QCAD, Picasa, Hugin, SketchUp etc. The first step in the data analysis is the definition of the sites and finds, the analysis of the collected data, the distribution maps of the finds and the statistical study of these maps. Figure 2 Panoramic view of a cargo site discovered during the surveys (G. Varinlioglu based on Hugin software) Once meaningful information is driven from these analyses using different software programs, the data was visualized. The drawings and 3D models were driven from the measurements and typological data. The images were created using digital darkroom that is processing and enhancing photographs through digital photo editing programs. In addition, photogrammetric, panoramic and photomosaic images were generated from of the photographs. The last step was the communication of data through geo-referenced maps. Figure 3 Solid modeling of an amphora (G. Varinlioglu based on Google SketchUp software and handdrawings ). Analysis of the systematically collected data is a necessity for further research in the field of archaeology. As analysis tools are not yet integrated to the system, the analysis is driven manually from the information system. The archaeological questions answering the distribution map of the findspots and of the find types, some statistical approaches to distribution maps and to dating of the artifacts, description of the sites, environment, and finds should have adequate query mechanisms. The comments of users showed that collected data should be displayed on the same page. As the system stores and displays all the collected data, there are inconsistencies between the measurements and observations of different users. Archaeological measurements have discrepancies related to the skills of divers measured objects and measurement tools. As separately stored entities, these ambiguities and inconsistencies should not be eliminated, but rather, a statistical mechanism should be integrated to standardize the data. Similarly, the visualizing of �the data should have some automated tools for producing drawings, for enhancing photographs, and for stitching images to create the photogrammetric representation of the sites and objects. The application of visualization tools to archaeological data is part of both analysis and exhibition of the artifacts. Initially the applications are implemented by computer-knowledgeable interested parties. Advances in experimenting with these tools show that archaeologists tend to replace the traditional conventions with new recording strategies. As the ease of use of adequate software programs is taken into account, these tools would be largely used not only for visualization but also for analysis and interpretation. Automated 3D tools, as well as panoramic and photomosaic, would enhance the level of interaction with the depicted objects. To date, there is no exhibition tool integrated to the information system. The Google Maps, listing tools, and preview images of the visual materials such as photographs, images, sketches, and drawings are used as the main navigation pattern in the information system. However, a variety of exhibition strategies should be added to the system, coupled with an interactive interface that will attract the attention of the users from different backgrounds. Conclusion The survey on the Kaş shoreline followed closely the principles of in situ preservation, which prohibits the dislocation of material culture. This constraint introduced challenges in designing and conducting an archaeological survey. Hence, it necessitated the development of optimized solutions for data collection, which led to the creation of a unique methodology. The survey relied on a team of recreational divers rather than archaeologists. For this reason, during the project, most of the developed techniques were quotable by different groups of divers. Keeping the methods simple helped to cover more nautical miles along the coast. The participation of recreational divers and the local people living in Kaş raised the awareness about cultural heritage. This will ensure the sustainability of the project for the preservation of the underwater cultural heritage. The information system discussed in this paper was the first web-based collaborative and open-content platform for raw data of nautical archaeology in Turkey. In this respect, it was a pioneering and unique project for local underwater cultural heritage preservation. Based on the analysis of the datasheets and later the database, this information system met the majority of the needs of archaeologists; hence the possibility of its use should be considered by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Turkey (MoCT), which aims to put a regulation similar to the currently available information systems into practice. Thus, the archaeological data collected during the surveys can be used to prepare an official underwater archaeological repository of Turkey. Although the components of the information system were designed according to the material remains found in Turkey, with little modification it can be adapted to other remains of material culture in different countries. Users of this information system participated in the collaborative process by using a limited number of open source software programs that are not integrated to the information system. In visualizing the data, the emphasis was on photogrammetry because of its ease of use and availability. The 3D modeling was done at a basic level, as “blank” models. However, three-dimensional digital models are required in applications of inspection, navigation, object identification, visualization �and animation. In 3D modeling, photogrammetry has limited use. Therefore, in addition to reconstructions, archaeological documentation data and the photogrammetric depictions should be included in the system. The interactive user interface that will be designed in the future should include all these features. Further research will include these applications of advanced technology for modeling and immersion tools for an interactive user interface. Once a fully integrated system is created, the user analysis should be evaluated for the impact of the system on the users. Bibliography Bass, G., 2005 Burns, J. A., HABS, HAER & HALS 2004 CHIN, 2009 Forte, M., 1997 Foucault, M., 1998 ICOM, 2010 Kalay, Y. E., Kvan, T. & Affleck, J., 2008 Keay, S., 2005 NADL, 2006 NAS, 2008 Schweibenz, W., 2004 TAY, 1998 UNESCO, 2001 Varinlioglu, G., 2011 Beneath the seven seas: adventures with the Institute of Nautical Archaeology, Thames and Hudson, London. Recording Historic Structures, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, N.J. Virtual Museum of Canada (VMC), Canadian Heritage Information Network, viewed 24 March 2011, <http://www.museevirtuel-virtualmuseum.ca>. ”Introduction”, in Forte, M. & Siliotti, A. (eds.), Virtual Archaeology: Great Discoveries Brought to Life Through Virtual Reality, Thames and Hudson, London, pp. 9-13. ”Different Spaces“. Essential works of Foucault, 1954-1984. Penguin Books, London. Key Concepts of Museology, in Desvallées, A. & Mairesse, F. (eds.). Armand Colin ICOM International Committee for Museology. New heritage: new media and cultural heritage, Routledge, New York. Roman Amphorae: a digital resource, Archaeology Data Service (ADS), viewed 21 June 2010, <http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/resources.html?amphora2005>. Nautical Archaeology Digital Library (NADL), Texas A&M University, viewed 26 June 2010, <http://nadl.tamu.edu> Big Anchor Project, Nautical Archaeology Society, viewed 28 June 2010, < http://www.biganchorproject.com> ”The development of virtual museums“, Icom News, vol. 57, no.3, pp. 3. TAY Archaeological Settlements of Turkey, viewed 23 June 2010, <www.tayproject.org>. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, viewed 28 June 2010, <http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001260/126065e.pdf> ”Data Collection for Virtual Museum on the Underwater Survey at Kaş“, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, vol. 40, pp. 182-188. �VENUS, 2006 VIZIN, 2003 Virtual Exploration of Underwater Sites, viewed 1 March 2011, <http://sudek.esil.univmed.fr/venus> The Institute for the Visualization of History, The Institute for the Visualization of History, viewed 30 June 2010, < http://www.vizin.org> � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Recoding the Nautical Archaeology: Virtual Museum of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Turkey Subject The topic of the resource Session 10 Technology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource The preservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) requires availability and access to data produced by nautical archaeology alongside tools for analysis, visualization and communication. Although numerous archaeological surveys and excavations have been carried out in the past decades in Turkey, there is no publicly available information system integrated to nautical archaeology. This paper proposes a framework of a virtual museum of UCH. For the creation of this framework, a data collection methodology for underwater surveys has been formulated and a web based information system has been designed to store the collected data. This paper explores the methods of analysis, visualization and communication embedded in this online system towards the development of a virtual museum. Virtual museum (VM) incorporates the practices of collection, preservation, research, visualization and exhibit, thus offering new approaches to the preservation of cultural heritage. In this paper, a web-based information system has been developed for a model of a virtual museum using the data collected during underwater surveys conducted on the coastal region of Kas, Turkey in 2007- 2010. Divers from a variety of professional backgrounds followed the practice of in situ preservation. They collected visual, geographical and descriptive data using structured datasheets. Through the analysis of these non-destructive methods, an open-content information system is designed aiming the contribution of all interested parties in a collaborative manner. The system currently contains information on 22 sites in the form of sketches, measurements, drawings, photographs of finds. Combined with Google Maps, the database illustrates the initial technological steps towards the development of a virtual museum. Divers, archaeologists and other interested users of this information system participate in the musealization of information through separately applied analysis, visualization and communication tools by open software programs. These initial steps demonstrate the methods for the automation of data analysis and visual documentation, the visualization of information and the communication of this knowledge. Futuristic concepts of automated, immersive and interactive design redefine the virtual museum of UCH as well as offer different approaches to the discipline of nautical archaeology. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Guzden Varinlioglu Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 10 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/63eed824b673905d1e6f6fb836f2c648.pdf 7fc0398d66b99782894d971892131a3d PDF Text Text A Place to Learn: the Underwater Cultural Heritage in American Samoa Dr. Hans Van Tilburg1 Abstract The five inhabited islands (Tutuila, Aunu’u, Ofu, Olosega, and Ta’u) and two distant coral atolls (Swains Atoll and Rose Atoll) of American Samoa have a diverse maritime past. Consequently, maritime heritage properties reflect different aspects of history in Samoa, such as historic shipwrecks, World War II naval aircraft, fortifications and coastal pillboxes, and archaeological sites associated with the ancient past. Importantly, specific coastal and marine locations, geological features usually categorized as “natural,” clearly have cultural significance in Samoa, being familiar “landmarks” of legend and myth, critical to maintaining cultural identity. This is challenging to the familiar management emphasis solely on historic properties. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS) seeks to discover, assess, and protect significant maritime heritage resources throughout its 14 sites, and assist partner programs and agencies in the general preservation of the underwater cultural heritage (UCH). NOAA has completed a document-based inventory for American Samoa and will propose field surveys for specific locations in the future as part of its overall effort to better understand and preserve special resources. The Sanctuary System’s Maritime Heritage Program supports work in the Pacific, and has the ability to offer Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) courses in maritime archaeology surveying techniques. Encouraging collaborative training opportunities, and better understanding the diversity of the UCH in the Pacific region, are two important ways to increase capacity in this field. Introduction The Pacific Island region (henceforth referred to as the Pacific), within the world’s largest ocean, is one of the last areas for the introduction of the field of maritime heritage preservation. As such, the region presents many opportunities and obstacles to the discovery and preservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) resources. Locations are remote, equipment and platforms used for UCH survey are rare, and in many places deep ocean (no continental shelf) lies adjacent to high-energy coral reef environments. Furthermore, warm waters promote the Teredo navalis or shipworm, and deterioration of wooden remains is high. Though beyond these difficulties lies a more interesting challenge to what has become, more often than not, strictly historical shipwreck archaeology. Not everyone places equal value on the material fabric of the wreck itself. For example, the shell of post-western contact is sometimes the marker of traumatic social experience. Of course, cultural contact and the advent of resource exploitation, colonization, and militarization (World War II) have shaped the region in many ways and these forces have left their indelible stamp on the sea floor. But for indigenous cultures who have resided in these islands for millennia, intimately connected to the sea, there may be a deeper meaning to the UCH. It may be time to reexamine some of our definitions of cultural heritage resources 1 Maritime Heritage Program, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries �in the Pacific, to adapt to and learn from the people of American Samoa themselves. Figure 1: Map of the seven main islands of American Samoa (courtesy NOAA ONMS). American Samoa and the Palagi American Samoa is located about two-thirds of the way between Hawai`i and Aoteroa (New Zealand). It consists of five inhabited volcanic islands with rugged peaks (Tutuila, Aunu’u, Ofu, Olosega, and Ta’u), and two more distant coral atolls (Swain’s Island and Rose Atoll). The Samoan people are descendants of the original Polynesian voyagers. These people were skilled Pacific navigators who arrived in the islands sometime between 3,000-3,500 years ago (Howe et al 1994: 10). The construction of open-ocean voyaging canoes and the knowledge of non-instrument navigation as well as the ability to sustainably exploit near shore and deep water marine resources, can only be understood today as impressive advancements in seafaring and marine resource management. Many scholars now interpret the colonization of the islands of the Pacific as the last and greatest of human migrations, one that demanded an entirely new technology and way of life (Howe 2006: 21). Dutch captain Jacob Roggeveen is credited with the western “discovery” of the Samoan Islands in 1722. This was followed by Bougainville in 1768, the London Missionary Society in 1830, German trading firms in 1857, and Robert Louis Stevenson in 1894. In 1899 the Samoan Tripartite Convention divided the islands between Germany and the United States of America (U.S.). Between 1900 and 1950 American Samoa was administered by the U.S.’s Department of �the Navy. Pago Pago, on the island of Tutuila, was recognized early on as one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the South Pacific. Today the islands are an unincorporated territory of the U.S.. Palagi or Papalagi (pronounced paalangi or papalangi) is the Samoan word for foreigners, particularly European white foreigners. The word may have derived from a combination of “pa” (breaker) or “papa” (flat board) and “lagi” (sky or heaven), referring to the “sky breakers,” or perhaps to the tall wooden masts of western ships (Milner 2003: 140). It has since been adopted by other cultures in the Pacific. The entire post-western contact or Palagi period represents about 10% of American Samoa’s long history. The Slowly Emerging Inventory Many archaeologists and preservationists at this 2011 meeting of the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage will be familiar with the logistical challenges of conducting maritime archaeology in the remote Pacific islands. Locations are distant, facilities and equipment scarce, training opportunities rare to non-existent. Nonetheless, the UCH in specific areas is being considered. In 1986 the NOAA’s ONMS established a sanctuary at Fagatele Bay, American Samoa. The sanctuary system’s mission is “to serve as the trustee for the nation's system of marine protected areas, to conserve, protect, and enhance their biodiversity, ecological integrity and cultural legacy.” (NOAA National Marine Sanctuary site http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/about/welcome.html) In June 2007 sanctuary system staff completed an initial maritime heritage resource document-based inventory for American Samoa (Van Tilburg 2007). Maritime heritage resources, similar to the UCH, consist of cultural, archaeological, and historical properties associated with these marine areas. Fagatele Bay sanctuary, on the island of Tutuila, is considering the expansion of its heritage resource efforts. Within American Samoa sanctuary management plans are developed with the input of local villages and community members and reflect the need for greater stewardship of coastal and marine resources. Historic Shipwrecks According to the available sources 39 ships are known to have gone missing in American Samoan waters. Potentially ten of these vessels, which are dated to the 19th to early 20th century, are of greater historical or archaeological interest. The brig Phoebe went ashore at Tutuila in 1828. It was sailed by Australian convicts via Huahine in French Polynesia. The whaler Metacom, named for the chief who led a war against the Puritan settlers in New England, was lost in 1860. The destroyer USS O’Brien was torpedoed during WWII, and the tanker USS Chehalis burned and sank in Pago Pago harbor. The more contemporary ship losses represent a collection of modern longline fishing vessels. These potential sites may link the islands of American Samoa to British colonization efforts in the Pacific, to whaling heritage, and to naval activities in World War II. Except for the USS Chehalis in Pago Pago, none of these wrecks have been located. �Figure 2: Multibeam image of the USS Chehalis sunk in Pago Pago harbor (courtesy NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Investigation). Historic Aircraft During world War II, the U.S. naval air station on the island of Tutuila supported up to 60 fighter aircraft and 12 long range bombers at any one time. As a consequence of intensive training and patrols 43 naval aircraft are reported as having ditched or crashed into American Samoan waters between 1942 and 1944, principally in the vicinity of Tutuila. Some of these sites may be war graves; all remain property of the U.S. government and fall under the protection of the Sunken Military Craft Act of 2004. None have been located though local divers report possible plane debris near Pola Island, Tutuila. The waters around Tutuila also possess one of the most famous commercial aircraft crashes in Pacific history. On January 12th 1939 Captain Edwin C. Musick, along with his crew, suffered a fatal explosion and crashed into the ocean northwest of Tutuila. Musick had inaugurated the Panamerican Flying Clipper service in the Pacific, the first trans-oceanic air link in the region. Surface search efforts were conducted by the USS Avocet for the Sikorsky-42B “Samoan Clipper,” but only traces of debris were ever found. Coastal Fortifications The remnants of numerous concrete pillboxes along the shoreline, gun emplacements, bunkers, Tafuna and Leone air bases, the naval hospital, radar stations, radio stations, foundations are some of the more visible reminders of the World War II period in American Samoa. Joseph Kennedy, principal investigator with Archaeological Consultants of the Pacific Incorporated, recently completed a separate inventory of all World War II coastal defense structures on Tutuila Island, documenting 132 coastal sites, many being impacted by coastal erosion (Kennedy 2005). Some of these locations, such as the six-inch guns at Blunts Point along with their emplacements and ammunition lockers, have been designated as National Historic Landmarks. The pillbox sites, some built prior to the American declaration of war in December 1941, are associated with the U.S. Marines and with the local Fitafita (Samoan soldiers). The Samoan Marines were �the first ethnic brigade to be incorporated into the Marine Corps Reserves (Kennedy 2005: 90). The defense structures that dot the perimeter of Tutuila are a testimony to the military role of the islands during a pivotal period in the region’s history. Figure 3: Empty WWII pillbox near Alao village (courtesy NOAA ONMS). Fa`a-Samoa and the Underwater Cultural Heritage The broad cultural heritage of American Samoa has developed over the past 3,000 years. It emphasizes human connections to the sea and is reflected in Samoan traditions and lifestyles or fa’a-Samoa (the Samoan Way). Samoans try to observe traditional ways on a daily basis, perhaps more than in any other Polynesian culture. Fa`a-Samoa is therefore a very real and acknowledged perspective, one that is integral to relationships with the environment and with marine areas. Two specific types of cultural heritage resources reflect certain elements of these longstanding traditions and lifestyles: coastal archaeological sites, and specific marine and coastal locations associated with the legends and myths of Samoa. Archaeological Sites There are a wide variety of archaeological artifacts and sites in American Samoa related to the ancient past, such as star mounds, inland forts, raised roads, quarries, house foundations, and pig enclosures. Samoan archaeological artifacts and sites associated with the marine and coastal setting include: pottery, whet stones or grinding stones, petroglyphs, grinding holes in the reef shelf (also used as bait cups) known as foaga, lithic scatters (stone tool manufacture) of �sinkers and lures. Other marine sites may include stone fish weirs called pa, or piles of stones to attract fish, like atule (fish species) stones (Herdrich and Armstrong 2009: 14, 30). Some of these features are located on semi-emergent reef shelves, awash at high tide. In some instances sites such as coastal villages have been the subject of archaeological investigation and excavation. The potential for additional information from further study of marine and coastal archaeological sites in American Samoa remains high. These sites record critical information about the ancient past. Currently 21 sites are listed in the maritime inventory report (Van Tilburg 2007), but more research is needed. Field data from numerous surveys exists at the American Samoa Community College and the American Samoa Historic Preservation Office. Figure 4: Foaga or grinding holes in the reef at Fagatele Bay (courtesy NOAA ONMS). Legend and Folklore Sites There are a large number of legends and stories represented by prominent natural features or specific locations within the coastal and marine context. The Samoan word tupua refers to special rocks or formations which represent ancient humans. Specific locations underwater, such as fresh water springs or passages in the reef, can also be associated with ancient events, legends, or stories of tragic loss. From the resource management perspective traditional cultural properties (TCP) have partially been defined as locations associated with the traditional beliefs of a tribal or indigenous group about its origins, its cultural history, or the nature of the world (Parker and King 1998: 1). These “properties” are different from historic structures or artifacts. Should these types of UCH sites be included in a resource inventory? Considered as marine resources meriting �attention? Can they be defined by any of the same criteria or described by boundaries? One example is representative of many, the Dolphins of Fagasa: The boat came from the west and called at Fagasa for a rest. It was the boat of Li’ava’a, the king of Fiji, who was on a voyage with his daughter Sina…While they were in Fagasa, Li’ava’a asked Sina if she had filled her water bottles. The girl answered, “No.” So Li’ava’a sent her to draw water. The girl took the coconut bottles and went to the spring…When the Fijians were about to resume their journey, Li’ava’a asked whether Sina had returned. The crew answered that she was asleep…Li’ava’a ordered: “Raise the anchor and let us go.” When the canoe was far out in the sea, Li’ava’a suddenly said, “Awaken Sina…” but the girl was not to be found. Li’ava’a now knew that she had been left behind in Fagasa. Then Li’ava’a took hold of the paletua (a stick for the steersman to lean against) and beat the men. The crew cast themselves into the sea and begged Li’ava’a to spare their lives. He answered, “No, you shall die this very day.” Then he threw bananas at them. The crew said, “Li’ava’a, please command what we are to do.” Li’ava’a replied, “Be changed into dolphins and rise in Fagasa Bay every year.” When Sina had finished…she stood on the beach. She looked, but there was no boat. Only the mast could still be seen in the distance. Then the girl cried and one of her water bottles cracked. A spring bubbled up which exists to this day. It is called Tufu. Then the girl waded into the sea with the other coconut bottle. She stood on a rock in the sea. She waved her white fan, but no one saw her. The boat was too far away. She cried again and the other bottle cracked. A spring bubbled up from under the rock in the sea. Even at high tide its water is fresh to the present day… In Fagasa there still are two rocks known as “Sina’s Rock” and “Li’ava’a’s Rock.” And to this very day the dolphins appear every year in the Bay of Fagasa. (Herman 1955: 6-7) In a very pragmatic manner the features of the landscape and seascape themselves are visible touchstones of oral history, a cultural landscape of memory. For the people of American Samoa, “these sites are of extraordinary significance to Samoan culture. Compared to all of the archaeological and historic sites that the Historic Preservation Office (HPO) tries to protect, these sites are seen as the most significant to local residents.” (Volk et al 1992: 40) But is legend enough to be considered a significant underwater heritage site? Existing definitions lean towards locations of actual events, activities, or cultural observances. Public comments received by Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary emphasized the need to consider Samoan legends as important sources of information, even for outreach and tourism in American Samoa. The Existing Standards and the Broader Cultural Landscape The U.S. federal preservation program relies upon the National Register of Historic Places to define criteria which measure site and resource significance (National Park Service site http://www.nps.gov/nr/). Cultural heritage sites are initially assessed by four criteria: A) associated with events contributing to the broad pattern of our history; B) associated with the lives of persons significant to our history; C) embody a distinctive characteristic or type; and D) have yielded or may be likely to yield important historic or prehistoric information (Hutt et al 2004: 9-10). These standards are well-established and widely acknowledged in the �cultural resource management community but admittedly they only work well for certain types of properties and have been less successful in including living cultures and associated sites or resources. NOAA’s National Marine Protected Areas (MPA) Center, through its cultural heritage resources working group, is currently considering a broad approach to cultural heritage resources within the national MPA system. This approach would maintain the standards and criteria of the National Register approach but add additional consideration for tribal and indigenous host culture perspectives, and human use areas. The current working group definition highlights “the broad array of stories, knowledge, people, places, structures, and objects, together with the associated environment, that contribute to the maintenance of cultural identity and/or reveal the historic and contemporary human interactions with an ecosystem.” (NOAA Marine Protected Areas Center 2011) This perspective allows for greater recognition of the interaction between cultural resources and the natural environment (ecosystem management). It is more suitable for understanding cultural landscapes, areas where human activity intersects with specific marine environments, resulting in distinctive cultural and ecological imprints. This cultural landscape approach may be useful in American Samoa. The importance placed on natural marine features in American Samoa speak directly to a mythic land and seascape and challenge the existing definitions of the U.S. National Register and the social scientific concepts that originated in the 1960s. Even more challenging to current heritage preservation practices, many tribal and indigenous groups recognize certain marine species (such as turtles, sharks, or whales) as cultural resources. This identification of the cultural aspects of natural resources emphasizes the critical relationship between humans and these species over millennia. Most tribes and indigenous cultures have legally recognized and/or inherent authority to designate areas of cultural importance to their people. In most cases these authorities will not extend beyond their own members. However, designation of culturally important heritage sites and resources by native peoples, whom should be recognized by others as relaying their importance of those areas and species, should be a vital component of understanding the richness of the maritime heritage of what is now the United States and its territories. American Samoa, UCH, and Climate Change Like natural resources, UCH resources may also be affected by climatic change. Such effects may differ in magnitude when compared to climate impacts on large-scale natural ecosystems but depending on the location and character of the resource, significant damage to or complete loss of cultural properties can occur. Therefore, it is important to consider the possible impacts to these nonrenewable resources. The ONMS has initiated a “Climate Smart Sanctuary” effort, looking forward some 50 years at potential impacts that climate change may have on sanctuary resources (Cheng and Gaskin 2011). Fagatele Bay sanctuary in American Samoa is the first location to include cultural heritage resources as a part of these studies. �Since they are located in the high-energy coastal impact zone Samoan coastal archaeological sites and locations associated with myths and legends may be particularly vulnerable to climate change, such as an increase in shortterm events like tropical storms or tsunami. A survey of coastal archaeological sites and artifacts exposed by the September 2009 tsunami in American Samoa has recently been conducted. Fifty new lithic sites were exposed and damaged by the destructive waves, which reached over 17 meters in height at some locations (Addison et al 2010: 35). And the threat is not just to the cultural aspect of these resources but to our potential understanding of environment and climate itself. Archaeological sites often contain material crucial for understanding past climate regimes. Furthermore, locations which help maintain family and village cultural identity may have great social importance in the face of climate-driven cultural change (Samoan Studies Institute 2009: 4). Training Opportunities The NAS is an avocational organization which provides resources and training in maritime archaeology to the public. The Society’s training and standards have been recognized at an international level. In May 2006 NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program initiated its involvement with the NAS by co-sponsoring (with the U.S. National Park Service) an NAS course in Honolulu, Hawai`i. The following year eight of NOAA’s maritime heritage staff were certified as official NAS course instructors. Since then the Maritime Heritage Program has provided an annual level 1-2 NAS public course in different U.S. city locations (Key West, Alpena, Seattle, Juneau, Anchorage). The course not only provides training in the technical aspects of site surveying but also introduces a whole new perspective on heritage resource preservation and the marine environment. Such a course might be suitable for American Samoa in the future. NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program also has a long standing collaborative relationship with the University of Hawai`i’s Marine Option Program (MOP), which provides hands-on marine science experiences to undergraduates throughout the state. NOAA and University of Hawai`i’s MOP have together been providing annual field surveys. Its initiatives entail documenting the UCH in Hawai`i and training undergraduates in site surveying techniques through these “Maritime Archaeology Survey Techniques” (MAST) courses. The university has recently established a MOP presence at the American Samoa Community College. NOAA and University of Hawai`i staff are currently discussing ways in which these maritime heritage efforts might be expanded to American Samoa, potentially benefitting marine science students at the community college by providing a cultural heritage component. Localizing Stewardship True stewardship of marine resources, including the UCH, must begin at the local level. Learning more about the historic resources, the known shipwrecks and aircraft and coastal fortifications which are scattered throughout American Samoa, can raise local awareness of their inherent historical and archaeological values. Such sites can provide training opportunities for students in heritage �preservation and maritime archaeology. That being said, these Palagi resources still originate from only the most recent 10% of Samoan history. The existing interest in specific marine and coastal locations related to legend and folklore suggests that we reexamine our definitions of cultural heritage resources in the Pacific. The single most important lesson when considering the UCH in American Samoa is that the effort to discover and preserve these resources must adapt to and learn from the people of American Samoa themselves. Faafetai Bibliography Addison, D.; Filimoehala, C.W.; Quintus, S.J.; Sapienza, T., 2010 Cheng B.; Gaskin, E. (eds), 2011 Fagatele Bay NMS, 2011 Herdrich, D.J.; Armstrong, K., 2008 Herman, B. (trans.), 1955 Howe, K.R.; Kiste, R.C.; Lal, B.V. (eds)., 1994 Howe, K.R. (ed)., 2006 Hutt, S.; Blanco, C.M.; Stern, W.E.; Harris, S.N., 2004 Kennedy, J., 2005 Milner, G.B., 2003 National Park Service, 2011 “Damage to Archaeological Sites on Tutuila Island (American Samoa) Following the 29 September 2009 Tsunami,” in Rapa Nui Journal, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 34-44. Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary Climate Change Site Scenario, Silver Spring, MD: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “Cultural Heritage and Community Engagement Action Plan,” July 29, 2011 unpublished draft. “Historic Fishing Methods in American Samoa,” report submitted to NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center. Tales of Ancient Samoa, Pago Pago: The Book Shop Samoan Church. Tides of History: the Pacific Islands in the 20th Century, Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press. Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors, Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press. Cultural Property Law: a Practitioner’s Guide to the Management, Protection, and Preservation of Heritage Resources, Chicago: ABA Publishing. Results of an archaeological survey and archival research of WWII coastal defenses on Tutuila Island, American Samoa. Haleiwa, HI: Archaeological Consultants of the Pacific. Samoan Dictionary, Auckland: Pasifika Press. National Register of Historic Places http://www.nps.gov/nr/ accessed 6 September 2011. NOAA Marine Protected Areas Cultural Heritage Working Group White Paper,” Center, June 28, 2011 unpublished draft. �2011 NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries, 2011 Parker, P.L.; King, T.F., 1998 Samoan Studies Institute, 2009 Sunken Military Craft Act, 2004 Van Tilburg, H., 2007 Volk, R.D.; Knudsen P.A.; Kluge, K.D.; Herdrich, D.J., 1992 Mission Statement, http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/about/welcome.html, accessed 6 September, 2011. National Register Bulletin #38: Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Traditional Cultural Properties, US Department of the Interior. Ua Tālā le Ta`ui (Untying the Bundles of Fine Mats), Pago Pago: American Samoa Community College. Public Law 108-375-OCT. 28, 2004 118 STAT. 2095 http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/org1212a.htm accessed 6 September 2011. “American Samoa Maritime Heritage Inventory,” Report submitted to NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. Towards a Territorial Conservation Strategy and the Establishment of a Conservation Area System for American Samoa, Pago Pago: Le Vaumatua Inc. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Place to Learn: the Underwater Cultural Heritage in American Samoa Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource The five inhabited islands (Tutuila, Aunu’u, Ofu, Olosega, and Ta’u) and two distant coral atolls (Swains Atoll and Rose Atoll) of American Samoa have a diverse maritime past. Consequently, maritime heritage properties reflect different aspects of history in Samoa, such as historic shipwrecks, World War II naval aircraft, fortifications and coastal pillboxes, and archaeological sites associated with the ancient past. Importantly, specific coastal and marine locations, geological features usually categorized as “natural,” clearly have cultural significance in Samoa, being familiar “landmarks” of legend and myth, critical to maintaining cultural identity. This is challenging to the familiar management emphasis solely on historic properties. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS) seeks to discover, assess, and protect significant maritime heritage resources throughout its 14 sites, and assist partner programs and agencies in the general preservation of the underwater cultural heritage (UCH). NOAA has completed a document-based inventory for American Samoa and will propose field surveys for specific locations in the future as part of its overall effort to better understand and preserve special resources. The Sanctuary System’s Maritime Heritage Program supports work in the Pacific, and has the ability to offer Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) courses in maritime archaeology surveying techniques. Encouraging collaborative training opportunities, and better understanding the diversity of the UCH in the Pacific region, are two important ways to increase capacity in this field. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Hans Van Tilburg Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Inaugural Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Electronic Publication by The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e22b97197633a359fdb1e9851f0a5caa.pdf 050d29573439d69629db8be4700a9afc PDF Text Text Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? Reflections on the role of ‘shared’ colonial heritage within capacity building programs in the postcolonial world Dr. Robert Parthesius Abstract The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) has been involved in developing Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programs (MUCH) in Asia and Africa since the 1990s. Although these programs aimed for a general development of capacity and awareness for MUCH in the specific region, often the focal point of the program was international (colonial) heritage sites. Although understandable from the practical implication of funding opportunities and available expertise of the international trainers, our experiences showed that this focus was not ideal for the establishment of a sustainable policy on MUCH management in the post colonial countries. Building on that experience CIE has developed a vision on international cooperation that places MUCH in a broader perspective by including a platform of local and international stakeholders in all stages of the program. Through discussions about the relevance of the MUCH sites for the various stakeholders awareness can be raised for each other’s perspective on this type of heritage. Since the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) explicitly promotes international cooperation and given the reality that many MUCH sites in Asia and Africa are linked with the past of European expansion, it is important to develop a vision on the role of this colonial heritage that is seen by some as ‘shared heritage’ within the national, regional and global context. This paper evaluates the MUCH programs of the CIE in Asia and Africa and hopes with this to open the discussion on best practices in establishing a sustainable MUCH program on a local/regional level but promotes at the same time international cooperation to be inclusive for all types of MUCH. Introduction From the 16th century, Dutch mariners explored the world outside Europe in the wake of other European nations. In the space of only a few decades they built up an international shipping and trade network. The diverse activities that derived from this commercial expansion, military expeditions and the later colonial rule have left many traces behind. For quite some time, the Netherlands has been interested in the legacy of the age of Dutch and European expansion. This is seen as an important period that is associated in the Dutch national memory with mixed feelings of pride and shame. In many countries where the traces of this period have been preserved, this period also forms an important marker in their history and national identity. Netherlands policymakers introduced Mutual Cultural Heritage in the 1990’s to label the heritage of the Dutch expansion and colonial period. This term, which can also be translated and used as Common or Shared Cultural Heritage, has been the subject of some debate because the remnants of a Dutch presence do not automatically lead to mutual appreciation (Fienieg and Parthesius 2008). The overall objective of the Dutch Mutual Cultural Heritage Policy (MCHP 2009-2012) is to, "collaborate on the sustainable maintenance and management of common cultural heritage, on the basis of reciprocal political and substantive involvement". The aims and the associated funds of the MCHP also provided an excellent basis for programs focusing on the management of Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) sites like shipwrecks and maritime installations that the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the West India Company (WIC) left behind worldwide. Since the 1990’s, the author and the Centre for �International Heritage Activities (CIE) have been involved in the development of MUCH capacity building programs in Asia and Africa. Between 1998 and 2007 a program was implemented around the remains of the VOC-ship Avondster wrecked in 1659 in the Bay of Galle, Sri Lanka. In 2007 another MUCH capacity building program was initiated in Southern Africa (Tanzania, Zanzibar and South Africa). Although the funding still came mainly through Dutch funds, the set-up of these programs changed from a focus on colonial heritage to a focus on the development of a local vision on the relevance and importance of MUCH. The Dutch Culture and Development programme turned out to be another valuable framework (and funding source) for the set-up of more general MUCH programs that not only focus on the remains of the European expansion but also on the development of strategies to raise awareness for local perspectives on MUCH. The UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972 and the 2001 Convention formed a framework for the international cooperation. In this paper, the structure, results and development of some of these MUCH programs are discussed. Specifically, the programs in Sri Lanka and South Africa are compared in order to investigate the role that colonial/shared cultural heritage has in the development of a sustainable capacity building program. Is it possible to use a colonial heritage site to stimulate a local perspective on MUCH and to build capacity in the partner country? Sri Lanka: the Avondster project Since the early 1990’s, a team of Sri Lankan and international maritime archaeologists, historians and museum curators has conducted research, on request from the Sri Lankan authorities, in the Bay of Galle and in the extensive archives in Sri Lanka and the Netherlands. Underwater surveys have revealed an impressive number of heritage sites, dating from the 13th century up to modern times (Parthesius 2007). Based on this first inventory of underwater heritage sites in the Bay of Galle, an ambitious capacity building programme was formulated in order to establish suitable infrastructure for the management of MUCH sites. In 2001, a Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) was formed under the Mutual Heritage Centre, managed by the Sri Lankan government agency, the Central Cultural Fund, in cooperation with international partners in the Netherlands, Australia and Mexico, and sponsored by the Netherlands Cultural Fund (derived from MCHP). Their first major project was the excavation of the Avondster, one of five Dutch East-Indiamen wrecked in the World Heritage Site Galle (for details see Wijamunige this volume). During the 1993, 1996 and 1997 expeditions to Galle Harbor, the wreck of the Avondster was discovered and identified (Green, et al. 1998). A survey and testexcavation in 1998 and 1999 revealed a site in an excellent state of preservation; a rich source of material finds and historical knowledge was anticipated. The wreck site is situated about 80 metres off the beach in about 4 metres of water. From a diving safety perspective it was deemed suitable for training, although visibility was often poor. The site was relatively easy to interpret underwater, enabling the archaeologists to understand the construction techniques used on a 17th century East- Indiaman. The Avondster was also historically well documented, which allowed the Sri Lankan archaeologists to be introduced to historical-archaeological research. The Avondster site was also selected because it was under threat. Due to changes on land caused by the building of a sea wall and the channeling from storm- �water drains, the Avondster had become increasingly exposed throughout the 1990s (Parthesius 1998). The Avondster project had a number of aims in addition to the survey, excavation and conservation of the site and the artefacts. One of the primary goals was, through the involvement of the Sri Lankan archaeologists and conservators, to build up local capacity and the associated infrastructure, so that they could continue with a maritime archaeology programme in Sri Lanka into the future. Another important goal was the development of a Maritime Museum, based to some extent on the material recovered from the Avondster but also incorporating Sri Lanka’s broader maritime history, its sites and the people involved. Figure 1. NAS training of the members of the Maritime Archaeological Unit, Sri Lanka, 2001 The opportunity to conduct a professional archaeological excavation using the highest possible standards was seen as an appropriate step to take in protecting the site. It would also demonstrate how important archaeological information could be obtained and disseminated to the community. The Avondster-project involved the pre-disturbance survey of the exposed part of the site, excavation of trenches in the bow, midships and stern areas, and the recovery of about 3,000 artefacts, an iron cannon and a large iron anchor. In addition to the archaeological requirements, the development of a conservation infrastructure, conservation training, and implementation of conservation techniques were also deemed to be of equal �importance (Parthesius, et al. 2005). In cooperation with the Conservation Department of the Western Australian Maritime Museum, the Amsterdam Historical Museum and The Instituto National de Antropologia e Historia in Mexico, a wellequipped conservation laboratory was built. A small team of conservators was trained in many of the techniques required to conserve maritime archaeological objects. Since the inception of the Avondster-project in 1998, the primary aim of the work carried out by the foreign consultants has been to train members of the MAU as conservators and maritime archaeologists so that they would have the skills to function autonomously. This aspect has been emphasized during every field season. As part of this training, many foreign consultants with various skills have worked with the MAU team. The use of different consultants has broadened the MAU team’s exposure to different experiences, thereby giving them the benefit of alternative approaches and many years of accumulated experience and knowledge. To accompany the training provided by specialist consultants to the Sri Lankan team, a detailed system of assessment was designed. A very significant outcome of this project was that the Sri Lankan team collaborated with the foreign consultants who produced a two-volume publication on the work implemented on the Avondster (Parthesius 2007). In addition, through a UNESCO initiative, the Galle MAU served as a regional training centre in maritime archaeology for the Asia/Pacific region with field schools in 2006, 2007 and 2008 (http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=4944). Figure 2. Preparing a barrel for raising from the Avondster-site, Galle, Sri Lanka, 2004 �The Avondster-project is considered a success but there is an important side note to make that refers to the sustainability of MUCH management through wellestablished awareness and a sense of ownership. The program in Sri Lanka was possible because a Dutch VOC vessel was under threat and we could persuade the Netherlands Cultural Fund to invest in a capacity building programme around this colonial shipwreck that has been labeled ‘mutual heritage’. The built capacity turned out to be sustainable because the focus on a colonial shipwreck against the background of the fortified city of Galle is seen as important heritage and connected with the cultural identity of Sri Lanka. Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Programme in Southern Africa On invitation by South Africa and Tanzania, the CIE took the opportunity in 2007 to build on the experience gained in Sri Lanka and formulated a four-phased MUCH capacity building programme that recognized the importance of establishing a local tradition and vision on this specific type of heritage. Key in this set-up is to bring all relevant stakeholders together and encourage full involvement, ranging from political commitment to community engagement. Unlike the project in Sri Lanka, the focus on Mutual Cultural Heritage in South Africa would not be developing a framework for the ‘new MUCH programme’. For South Africa this would start the cooperation on the wrong footing since the colonial heritage has a negative annotation. An ‘open definition process’ started with multiple stakeholders deciding relevant subjects and sites for a MUCH programme. A universal framework for the MUCH programme was found in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972 and the 2001 Convention. Figure 3. Surveying an intertidal shipwreck on Robben Island, South Africa, 2010. �South Africa Since 2007 CIE has assisted the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) in developing a MUCH program in South Africa. The Netherlands involvement came about through their funding contribution to the program through the Netherlands Culture and Development Program. South Africa contains some of the oldest evidence of human occupation in the world and some of this evidence may be found around its coastline and underwater. The ongoing importance, use and exploitation of the sea and inland waterways by communities are evident today from numerous types of sites, traditional cultural practices and customs. Many shipwrecks from the activities of foreign explorers, traders and colonialists can also be found in its waters. South Africa therefore contains a range of tangible and intangible heritage, significant and relevant to contemporary communities and contributing toward the cultural identity of the country. The workshops organized on Robben Island in 2010 and 2011 included a number of participants, particularly those from South African stakeholders other than SAHRA, being educated in parts of the NAS theoretical and practical training program. One of the aims of the practical workshops was to build-up a database of the Robben Island MUCH sites (on land and underwater). Robben Island and its surrounding waters contain in excess of 100 sites (many with poor provenance and lacking documentation) and the outcomes of the practical work will assist the Robben Island Museum in beginning the documentation and management of this component of its cultural landscape. Apart from the direct capacity that has been built amongst various representatives of government agents, students, volunteers and of course the SAHRA staff, the project has a important focus on the development of public awareness and an African vision on MUCH. The discussions with many stakeholders and relevant communities have led to the selection of so-called “Legacy Sites”, representing the vision on MUCH in South Africa. They are not intended to be an exhaustive list, they are simply ‘highlights’ to begin to describe how diverse South Africa’s relationship with water actually is. In this stage of the programme four Legacy Sites have been selected: The shipwreck site of the Barrel Wreck in the Table Bay shows the strong linkages of South Africa with an international shipping network (Sharfman 2012). It was selected as a legacy site because not only is it a good example of a ‘traditional’ underwater archaeological site but it is relatively easy to access and monitor, thus use for training and specialized studies can help answer conservation and management questions regarding similar sites. Robben Island is also linked with the international maritime connections. As a place of isolation, it has a long history of banishment and imprisonment, stretching back to the first settlers who brought their political opponents from the colonies in the Far East (Deacon 1996). The fact that the site is an Island means that almost all the activities that took place there have an inherent connection with the ocean. The fish weirs at Stillbaai and Arniston are an important element in the MUCH sites because they represent the relationship of local communities with the sea. These stonewall fish traps are of undetermined age but were used by local fishermen for at least the past century. The fish weirs could be anything �from 200 to 2000 years old. This poses several interesting questions regarding traditional fishing practices and interactions between settlers and indigenes. Lake Fundudzi has been identified as Legacy Site due to its intangible connection with water. The lake is situated in the northeast of the Limpopo Province and is viewed as the only natural inland lake in Southern Africa. For the Vhavenda people, however, the lake is more than just a natural water body, as it forms a rich heritage of folklore, myths and ceremonial rituals. It is their burial site and is therefore sacred and believed to be the home of ancestral spirit of the Vhatavhatsindi people who claim their ancestors discovered the lake when they moved into South Africa from Zimbabwe (Sharfman, 2012). The living heritage that surrounds the lake, such as the communities’ cultural practices, could be extrapolated to a broader understanding of African ways and means of dealing with its past, for instance broader African religious and spiritual relationships with water. These practices often provide a tangible element to the intangible aspects of spirits and their mediums with water. Broader research needs to be included in the submission as water is a central feature in the living heritage of numerous people. Figure 4. Lake Fundudzi, Limpopo, South Africa, 2010. Considerations and conclusions As emphasized by the Avondster-project, sustainability in a country or region is only possible when a capacity building programme has been put together in collaboration with the relevant stakeholders (political, academic and bureaucratic). To obtain this, it is important that an awareness of the different values of maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) is appreciated between all stakeholders. It is in that context also necessary to create and implement practicable measures to stimulate public �awareness. This can be achieved in part through community engagement programmes, which implement MUCH projects for the benefit of contemporary communities. In addition to reviving or helping to maintain traditional cultural practices and protect and preserve indigenous sites in less developed countries, one of the benefits could be an economic gain through the re-use of UCH and through tourism managed by the local community. Cultural heritage sites from the colonial period, that have been labeled Mutual Cultural Heritage from the Dutch perspective, take a prominent position in both Sri Lanka and South Africa. Through the nature of the European expansion, many of the remains of this period (e.g. port cities, harbor installations, fortifications and shipwrecks) can be considered MUCH sites. The fact that they are located in prominent places and that the Netherlands consider it Mutual Cultural Heritage, doesn’t mean automatically that the partner countries may also consider it important heritage linked with their own cultural identity. Sri Lanka and South Africa are different in that respect. In Sri Lanka the built heritage of the so-called Dutch Period (1640-1796) is considered heritage of ‘Dual Parentship’. The World Heritage Site Galle is considered as the highlight of that heritage. The wreck of the VOC-ship Avondster does not fall under that concept. It was in a sense new heritage because before its discovery in 1993 neither the Netherlands nor Sri Lanka were aware of its existence. Placed in the context of Galle, but not as a product of Sri Lanka-Dutch design, the Avondster-site was considered Mutual Cultural Heritage instead of heritage of Dual Parentship.1 This concept made the Avondster very suitable and reciprocal for research and for the development of capacity and heritage management strategies for this site. However, it kept the perspective on the MUCH sites in the whole of Sri Lanka very narrow. The context for cooperation in South Africa was totally different. Cultural heritage plays an important role in the development of the ‘New South Africa’ after the first democratic elections of 1994. Cultural identity is key in the nation building process after the country was divided and scattered under the Apartheid regime (1948-1994). Although the authorities are acting very responsibly towards the inclusion of the cultural heritage of the former repressors, it is clear that VOC heritage is not generally and popularly linked with the South African cultural identity. Consequently these types of sites could not be a starting point for the set-up of a capacity building program. The cooperation was therefore centered on the technical assistance that international experts could bring to the development of MUCH management in South Africa. Since stimulating the development of a local vision on MUCH is a key activity in the CIE’s capacity building vision, this element was also included in the programme. The sometimes-heated discussions during the workshops on the relevance of MUCH for South Africa led to a vision on the heritage that expressed the relationship of the communities with the sea and water in general. The identification of the four Legacy Sites shows how inclusive this vision is. The work that is in progress on the Legacy Sites has only scratched the surface of the rich and diverse MUCH of South Africa. A great deal of work is still required. This will entail an examination of the challenges of redefining MUCH and the collecting of data to describe and analyze the sites. With diversification of the scope of MUCH comes the question of fitting MUCH into the heritage themes that are currently significant in South Africa. Is the new approach to MUCH relevant, and how are the identified sites relevant to all South Africans? The field has moved beyond 1 Ironically the site can be considered as heritage of Anglo-Dutch dual parentship since the Avondster was a captured and modified ship from the English East India Company. �the confines of “physical sites”, “maritime” or “underwater” cultural heritage towards an integrated and holistic, seamless study of heritage associated with varied bodies of water within which tangible and intangible heritage can be explored. This is a very exciting process of reciprocity in which we could assist with the transfer of technical skills and knowhow, and where together we created a platform of discussion in the region that has led to a unique vision on ‘water heritage’ from an African perspective. Bibliography Deacon, H., 1996 Fienieg, A., Parthesius, R. 2008 Green, J. N., Devendra, S. and Parthesius, R., 1998 Dutch Mutual Cultural Heritage Policy (MCHP) 2009-2012 Parthesius, R., 1998 Parthesius, R., Millar, K., Jeffery, B., 2005 Parthesius, R., 2007 Parthesius, R., 2010 Sharfman, J., Masuku-Van Damme, S.L., Parthesius, R. In print UNESCO fieldschool 2006-2008 The Island, A History of Robben Island, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town. “Heritage trails: International cultural heritage policies in a European perspective”, in (ed) Gert, Oostindie, Migration and cultural heritage in the Dutch colonial world, KITLV Press, Leiden Report for the Sri Lanka Department of Archaeology Galle Harbour project 1996–1997 archaeology, history, conservation and training, Special Publication No. 4, Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology, WA Maritime Museum. Common Cultural Heritage Policy Framework 20092012, AVT09/BZ93771 http://awad.kitlv.nl/home/show_news/71?page_name=news Archives and Wreckes: Australian-Dutch co-operation. in Green, J (ed) The Ancods colloquium. 68-74. “Preliminary Report on the Excavation of the 17th-Century Anglo-Dutch East-Indiaman Avondster in Bay of Galle, Sri Lanka”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 34, 2 pp. 216-237. Excavation report of the VOC-ship Avondster, The AngloDutch East-Indiaman that was wrecked twice in Ceylon, Centre of International Heritage Activities special publication No. 1, Amsterdam. Dutch Ships in Tropical waters. The development of a shipping network in Asia 1595-1660, Amsterdam University Press. New Perspectives on Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage in South Africa. Cape Town 2012 (in print) http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=4944 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? Reflections on the role of 'shared' colonial heritage within capacity building programs in the postcolonial world Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) has been involved in developing Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programs (MUCH) in Asia and Africa since the 1990s. Although these programs aimed for a general development of capacity and awareness for MUCH in the specific region, often the focal point of the program was international (colonial) heritage sites. Although understandable from the practical implication of funding opportunities and available expertise of the international trainers, our experiences showed that this focus was not ideal for the establishment of a sustainable policy on MUCH management in the post colonial countries. Building on that experience CIE has developed a vision on international cooperation that places MUCH in a broader perspective by including a platform of local and international stakeholders in all stages of the program. Through discussions about the relevance of the MUCH sites for the various stakeholders awareness can be raised for each other’s perspective on this type of heritage. Since the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) explicitly promotes international cooperation and given the reality that many MUCH sites in Asia and Africa are linked with the past of European expansion, it is important to develop a vision on the role of this colonial heritage that is seen by some as ‘shared heritage’ within the national, regional and global context. This paper evaluates the MUCH programs of the CIE in Asia and Africa and hopes with this to open the discussion on best practices in establishing a sustainable MUCH program on a local/regional level but promotes at the same time international cooperation to be inclusive for all types of MUCH. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Robert Parthesius Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3276b0929f4ca18123ace45d09410a58.jpg 23cc3dde5458b9513a5278536544d563 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 648 Height 390 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7d929f70271ca71ba385b93d59f1063e.jpg 347382332462621b59ecad45ffb83741 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 315 Height 278 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource THE 2001 CONVENTION: A FRAMEWORK FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SAFEGUARDING OUR UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Description An account of the resource Keynote speech by Dr. Tim Curtis Chief of Culture Unit UNESCO Bangkok Office Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Tim Curtis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/58638aac62bd6af08c9f3ed4fad0f4ad.jpg 347382332462621b59ecad45ffb83741 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 315 Height 278 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4547fb3c265cb55a4324c893109e8239.jpg 23cc3dde5458b9513a5278536544d563 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 648 Height 390 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/92bb5d94134bdeb2152bd7aa260fbc94.pdf 4a985f2bf93bbc68daa9baabd2feccc9 PDF Text Text THE 2001 CONVENTION: A FRAMEWORK FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SAFEGUARDING OUR UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE Dr. Tim Curtis Chief of Culture Unit UNESCO Bangkok Office Conference participants, Ladies and gentlemen, Good morning. On behalf of UNESCO, I am very pleased to be here at this Inaugural Asia-Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, in the company of distinguished scholars and professionals who have devoted their careers to the study and protection of this region’s invaluable underwater cultural heritage. As the first academic conference on this significant theme focused on Asia and the Pacific, our gathering here today marks an important milestone. I would like to take this opportunity to thank our host, the National Museum of the Philippines, for its warm hospitality, and to commend the organizers, the Asian Academy for Heritage Management and, in particular, Dr Mark Staniforth of Flinders University, for their initiative in making this conference a reality. Challenges for Underwater Cultural Heritage All around the world, our underwater cultural heritage is under threat. Unlike archaeological sites on land, which are under stringent legal protection and widely understood by the general public to be worthy of conservation, the sites underwater are still vulnerable to exploitation and destruction. Looting by treasure hunters, commercial fishing, seabed exploitation, construction of offshore and on-shore maritime infrastructure, improvements in diving technology, environmental changes and the rise in marine tourism – these are all factors that have put this heritage at risk. Here in the Asia-Pacific region, it is common knowledge that our waters are home to some of the world’s richest archaeological remains, bearing witness to over three millennia of history concerning the region and, indeed, the world. The extensive 1 �underwater cultural heritage ranges from ancient shipwrecks to the remains of submerged cities and settlements to other traces of maritime infrastructure. Yet, the state of protection of the underwater cultural heritage in Asia and the Pacific is particularly worrying, as most States have very limited resources to adequately enact measures to protect such sites – from the policy level down to practical in situ protection operations. This leaves a gaping chasm which has resulted in the witting or unwitting destruction of the sites by a range of actors, from illicit treasure hunters to deep sea oil exploration companies. Data compiled by UNESCO shows that at least seventy-two shipwrecks were reported to have been looted and/or commercially excavated in the region within a period of forty-seven years from 1963 to 2010. Of the seventy-two shipwrecks, only eight were excavated with government cooperation or participation of archaeologists from relevant agencies. Commercial salvage operations by treasure hunters are of particular concern for UNESCO. With financial resources fueled by the growing market in antiquities, these operations have become increasingly ubiquitous. Driven by commercial motivations, such treasure hunting operations often result in destruction of the wreck site, selective recovery of high-value artefacts and a dispersal of finds into the hands of antique collectors in various countries. They do not provide the means to undertake the rigorous scientific inquiry and preservation measures for the sites and artefacts which is advocated by the international conservation community and by UNESCO. National legislation governing the protection of underwater cultural heritage is greatly varied. Some countries provide a high level of protection, others provide a minimum level of protection, while many provide no protection at all. Moreover, the remit of national legislation is limited only to waters in the exclusive jurisdiction of states. Given that only a small part of the world’s underwater cultural heritage are in territorial waters, this leaves a vast amount without any effective protection. The Making of the 2001 Convention In response to the international community’s growing concern about the underwater cultural heritage, the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was promulgated under the auspices of UNESCO. The Convention is the key international treaty that sets a common framework and standard for the protection of underwater cultural heritage against looting and destruction. The Convention extends protection to cultural heritage underwater that is 2 �comparable in spirit to the protection granted by existing international conventions or national legislation for cultural heritage on land. The Convention helps to strengthen the international normative framework that UNESCO has been supporting in the fight against the illicit trafficking of cultural property. As an instrument dealing specifically with underwater cultural heritage, it fills the gap in the international law and reinforces the provisions of three other important conventions, namely: • • • the 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (known as the Hague Convention), the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Cultural Property the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Objects The Convention was the result of four years of intense negotiations which started in 1998 and included a wide range of stakeholders from government representatives to archaeologists, lawyers and NGOs. It was adopted by the UNESCO General Conference in 2001 and entered into force on 2 January 2009. Popularly referred to as the 2001 Convention, at present, it has been ratified by forty countries: fourteen from Latin America and the Carribean, eight from Africa, three from the Arab States and fourteen from Europe and North America. This includes both Spain and Portugal, two major maritime powers during the colonial era. However, to this day, there has been only one signatory to the Convention from the Asia-Pacific region, that is, Cambodia. The 2001 Convention: An Overview How does the 2001 Convention contribute to the protection of the underwater cultural heritage? The 2001 Convention starts by providing a shared understanding of what constitutes the underwater cultural heritage. It defines underwater cultural heritage as “all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been partially or totally underwater, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years”. The 2001 Convention sets out basic principles for the protection of underwater cultural heritage, and attempts to harmonize the protection of underwater archaeological sites with that of heritage on land. It provides a detailed cooperation system among States. 3 �Finally, it provides practical rules for the treatment and research of underwater cultural heritage in its Annex. It should be noted that the 2001 Convention does not regulate the ownership of cultural property. As such, the Convention cannot be used to arbitrate quarrels or claims to ownership between the various parties concerned. Similarly, the 2001 Convention has no bearing on the sovereignty of States. Article 3 of the Convention specifically says that it is not intended or designed to amend the regulations of 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) or any other international law which outlines the definition and boundaries of maritime zones and the jurisdiction and sovereignty of States. The 2001 Convention: Main Principles The 2001 Convention is underpinned by four main principles. 1. States Parties have an obligation to preserve underwater cultural heritage 2. In situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage shall be considered as the first and preferred option 3. Underwater cultural heritage shall not be commercially exploited 4. States Parties should promote training and information sharing The preference given to in situ preservation as the first option stresses the importance and scientific significance of the historical context of the cultural object, which should be respected. It also recognizes that, under normal circumstances, heritage is well preserved under water, due to the lack of oxygen and low rate of deterioration. The Convention prohibits commercial exploitation for both trade and speculation; it also dissuades against the irretrievable dispersal of finds. Furthermore, the Convention requires States Parties to take measures against the illicit trafficking of cultural objects. In particular, they should prevent the entry into their territory, the dealing in, or the possession of underwater cultural heritage that was illicitly exported/and or recovered. States Parties should seize such property if it is found in their territories. The rationale is that if treasure hunters have a difficult time to sell looted objects, the financial motivation for conducting illegal excavations will eventually decrease. Finally, the Convention promotes information sharing, training in underwater archaeology, and technology transfer with a view to raising public awareness concerning the significance of underwater cultural heritage. States Parties are 4 �encouraged to cooperate and assist each other in the protection and management of such heritage, including collaborating in its investigation, conservation, study and presentation. It should be understood that the 2001 Convention contains minimum requirements. Each State Party, if it so wishes, may choose to develop even higher standards of protection. For instance, Australia, under the 1976 Historic Shipwrecks Act, protects all shipwrecks and associated artefacts that are older than 75 years. The 2001 Convention: A Framework for International Cooperation The 2001 Convention provides States with a clear framework for cooperating with other States to protect underwater cultural heritage sites wherever they are located. Prior to the Convention, the existing international law did not furnish a sufficient basis for such cooperation. UNCLOS, for example, has only two provisions that establish an obligation of its States Parties to protect underwater cultural heritage, with Article 303 saying simply that the States “shall cooperate” to protect the underwater heritage (paragraph 3), without providing further details or a mechanism for doing so. The 2001 Convention proposes a State Cooperation System for the protection of underwater cultural heritage. Within the current situation, a State usually has exclusive jurisdiction only within its Territorial Sea, limited jurisdiction over the Exclusive Economic Zone and Continental Shelf, and jurisdiction only over its own vessels and nationals at High Sea. As such, a Coastal State cannot prevent a vessel from another State from pillaging a site beyond its territorial seas. As for the Flag State of the pillaging vessel, it usually ignores the activities of its vessels and nationals, especially if they are undertaking activities very far away from its own territorial waters. As the extension of jurisdiction of States at sea was not an option, the 2001 Convention chose to facilitate cooperation among States as the only way to resolve this situation. By joining the 2001 Convention, States agree to prohibit their nationals and vessels from looting underwater cultural heritage, regardless of its location. The Flag State sets legal regulations for its nationals and vessels, and other States help it in implementing them. If no State has jurisdiction over a site, a “Coordinating State” takes over the control, coordinating the cooperation among States Parties and implementing their decisions, while acting on their behalf and not in its own interest. The Convention also provides specific regulations for the reporting and the coordination of activities, depending on the location of an underwater cultural heritage site. In their Internal and Archipelagic Waters and Territorial Sea, States Parties have the exclusive 5 �right to regulate activities. For activities further afield, for instance, in the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf, States Parties should report discoveries and activities concerning heritage in these areas, and inform other States Parties. Interested States can then cooperate in the protection of these sites. This system makes it easier for States to take joint and effective action against treasurehunting and pillaging being conducted in territories outside the national jurisdiction of any Coastal State. In the event that a large number of States join the 2001 Convention, this international cooperation scheme will eventually render comprehensive protection of underwater heritage sites around the world. Initiatives and Next Steps for Protecting UCH in Asia and the Pacific Even though ratification of the 2001 Convention is still pending among most Member States in Asia and the Pacific, a number of initiatives have already been implemented which are consistent with the spirit and intention of the Convention. That said, on the whole, legislation, institutions and professional expertise still need to be substantially strengthened, as the issue of underwater cultural heritage is relatively new in the region. UNESCO has been supporting Member States to raise awareness among policy makers and the general public, and to build national capacities in the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage. Of particular concern in the region is the lack of trained professionals who are qualified to protect and manage underwater cultural heritage. Without adequate human resources at the frontlines, efforts to apply the principles and regulations of the 2001 Convention will be difficult, even if policy and legislative measures are enhanced. In order to respond to this need, UNESCO has trained over 70 underwater archaeologists and professionals in allied fields since 2009 through a regional programme supported by the Norwegian government. A Field Training Centre has been set up in Chanthaburi, Thailand, which is hosted by the Royal Thai Government’s Fine Arts Department. Trainees hailing from as far afield as the western reaches of the Indian Ocean (like Kenya) and as far east as the Pacific islands have received rigorous instruction in various aspects of managing underwater cultural heritage during Foundation Courses, including GIS applications and techniques for in situ preservation in two Advanced Courses. To reinforce these skills, a number of graduates of the training courses were sponsored by UNESCO to take part in an actual survey and research project organized by the Sri Lankan Maritime Archaeology Unit on an ancient shipwreck in southern Sri Lanka. 6 �The curriculum and materials used in the training course will be made available in early 2012 as a standard training package for underwater cultural heritage. Already, the UNESCO-affiliated training centre in Zadar, Croatia has already expressed interest in using these materials for their upcoming training courses. As a way of reaching out to a broader audience, an interactive exhibition on underwater cultural heritage was organized for three months from August to October in 2010 at the Siam Ocean World Bangkok, viewed by an estimated 150,000 visitors. The exhibition material, which includes a full-scale model of a ship wreck, is now a part of the permanent exhibition of the National Maritime Museum in Thailand. It can also be accessed online through UNESCO Bangkok’s website as a virtual exhibition. To sustain these efforts in the future, the Thai Government has indicated its commitment to sustain the Field Training Centre over the long term. This welcome gesture will allow trainees from around the region to continue to benefit from the fullyequipped facilities of the Centre, one of the leading venues of its kind in Asia and the Pacific, and indeed, the world. Conclusion The success of the 2001 Convention hinges on the commitment of States to put into action this framework for international cooperation to protect the underwater cultural heritage. As a large part of this heritage is found on ocean floors located outside national jurisdiction, by definition, it cannot be sufficiently protected by any State alone, but only by a community of States. Until such time that a significant number of States ratify the Convention, the Asia-Pacific region will remain vulnerable to pillaging by treasure hunters and the destruction of underwater cultural heritage will continue. On behalf of UNESCO, I urge you, as policy makers, as leading scholars, and as professionals, to help support the process for the ratification of the 2001 Convention in your countries. It is only through our cooperation that this vulnerable heritage can be protected for future generations to come. Thank you. 7 �For further information Tutorial on the Annex to the 2001 Convention: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/underwaterheritage-tutorial/tutorial/ Code of Ethics for Diving on Submerged Archaeological Sites: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/scubadiving/ Frequently Asked Questions about the 2001 Convention: http://www.unesco.org/culture/underwater/faq-en/ Reference: ______.2006.Finishing the Interrupted Voyage: Papers of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.L.V.Prott(ed.),Leicester,UNESCO/Institute of Arts and Law. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The 2001 Convention: A Framework for International Cooperation in Safeguarding our Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Description An account of the resource <p>Keynote speech by Dr. Tim Curtis Chief of Culture Unit UNESCO Bangkok Office.</p> <p>To watch a video of this presentation please click here:</p> <p><a title="Dr. Tim Curtis Keynote Address" href="http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/videos/Tim_Curtis.m4v" target="_blank">http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/videos/Tim_Curtis.m4v</a></p> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Tim Curtis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Keynote https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4b95e4e045ab79385c4ebd13d89bb3c4.pdf baeb3e15d7d634d2caec28a60a604e79 PDF Text Text Hoa Lu - The 10th Century Capital of Vietnam - An Abandoned City by the Sea Dr. Vo Thi Phuong Thuy (Institute of History, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences) ABSTRACT The research aims to understand the impact of sea recession on the rise and fall of the Hoa Lu ancient capital city of Vietnam during the 10th-11th centuries. This is done by placing the city in its coastal context, which has been neglected in previous studies. Hoa Lu is currently the core zone of the UNESCO World Heritage Site: Trang An Landscape Complex, located 92km south of Hanoi. It was only used for 42 years (968-1010 CE) as the capital city of the Dai Viet Kingdom before the capital was moved to Thang Long (present-day Hanoi). We believe that one of the main reasons for this move was the sea recession. The available resources for this research include historical documents; geographical surveys using old maps and LiDAR images; archaeological surveys including surface ceramic collections and archaeological excavations. The research questions include: How did the sea and its recession affect the landscape change of the region in the 10 th-11th centuries? How did it influence the water management system and the plan of the city? How did it affect the economic activities of the city? The results of the research project will give a more comprehensive understanding of the landscape of the region, including ancient shorelines located south of the city. The sea recession could be the reason why the 10 th century seaport of Hoa Lu was abandoned, leading to the capital's move to Thang Long. Although there have been some good results in the early stages of the project, further research and collaboration with international researchers from various disciplines are still needed. Keywords: Hoa Lu, Vietnam urbanism, ancient shorelines List of Figures Figure 1 Landscape of the Hoa Lu area Figure 2 Hoa Lu in relation to the coastline in the 10th century Figure 3 Location of the sediment hand cores Figure 4 A comprehensive map of Hoa Lu with the location of 13 th –15th centuries and 10th-century shrines INTRODUCTION We have been conducting a research project on the history and marine properties of Hoa Lu for nearly 10 years. Our preliminary research results show that Hoa Lu was located very close to the sea in the 10th -11th centuries and the sea was an extremely important factor affecting the history of the formation, development, and decline of the ancient capital. The proximity to the sea may have been one reason why Hoa Lu was chosen as a military capital and then was abandoned, as the army could move forward and backwards across the sea quickly and easily. The sea recession, however, made Hoa Lu far from the sea, and it was no longer easy to enter or escape from Hoa Lu by sea. The proximity to the sea has certainly influenced the water management system in Hoa Lu. The influence of tides and seawater certainly also affected the agricultural activities of this area. In addition, the speed of the sea recession in this area has also affected the reclamation and establishment of villages in this area, not only in the 10th -11th centuries but until today. However, the above issues are only our initial observations. Further studies from different aspects, such as archaeology, geography, and environment, are still needed. This paper will present some preliminary results in the study of marine factors in Hoa Lu including: The change of the political centre of Hoa Lu from the 10th to the 13th century, which may partly show the influence of the sea recession on the political history of the region; Some preliminary information about the ancient shorelines in the south of Hoa Lu; The ancient shrines in the area of ancient shorelines and the relationship between the chronology of the shrines and the villages. 1 �Brief historical and geographical context of Hoa Lu Hoa Lu was the capital of Vietnam from 968 to 1010. It was the first capital of the independent Viet's kingdom after almost 1000 years of domination by the Han people. After Hoa Lu, the capital was relocated to Thang Long (present-day Hanoi). Hoa Lu played a pivotal role in Vietnamese history, as it marked the end of the Han colonisation era and the beginning of an independent era for Dai Viet. During the 13th century, long after the capital had moved to Thang Long, Hoa Lu was once again chosen as a military base for Dai Viet during the war with the Mongol army. The Tran army strategically chose the southern region of the capital Hoa Lu as the primary location for the king and the key army of the Tran Dynasty during the war. Hoa Lu is now located in Ninh Binh province, 92km south of Hanoi, in the core zone of the Trang An UNESCO heritage site. The topography of Hoa Lu today shows that the area is low-lying and prone to flooding. At the beginning of the 21st century, before the construction and development of infrastructure and tourism, much of the area was still flooded, and transportation was mainly done by light boats. Currently, some areas in the region are still prone to flooding, particularly during the rainy season. Figure 1: Landscape of the Hoa Lu area (Location names in red: King Dinh’s home village, Hoa Lu Citadel, Trang An Mountain Ranges, 13th-century military base, 10th-century seaport; Location names in blue: Hoang Long River, Day River, Van River) The city is situated on the eastern edge of the Trang An limestone mountain range and was formed by alluvium from two major rivers in the region, the Day River and the Hoang Long River (Figure 1). Additionally, the city is located not far from the coast. Although the exact location of the coastline in the 10th century is unknown, preliminary studies suggest that it was close to the capital. A seaport was built in the 10th century as the southeast gateway from the sea to the capital. The ancient coastline is believed to have run parallel to the dug river, which was the southeast boundary of Hoa Lu. The end of the dug river (the Van River) was the seaport. 2 �The flooding and proximity to the sea are important factors in the birth, development, and decline of the Hoa Lu capital. The locals of Hoa Lu have adapted to the mangrove environment near the sea since prehistoric times, as evidenced by the SUNDASIA Project. When Hoa Lu was chosen as the capital, these experiences of the local residents were utilized, and there were many large reclamation and encroachment projects implemented by the court, especially in the 15th and 19th centuries. The sea dike from the 15th and 19th centuries still exists and serves as a testament to the feats of sea encroachment by the inhabitants of this area. Throughout the history of the indigenous people of Hoa Lu, adaptation to the coastal mangrove environment has been formed and existed. The current centre of Hoa Lu is about 60km from the coast. However, this area is experiencing a relatively rapid rate of coastal erosion. This is evidenced by the fact that the 15th-century sea dyke is only about 13km from the 19th-century sea dyke, and the 19th-century sea dyke is about 15km from the coast today. Historical records show that Hoa Lu was once much closer to the sea. There are traces of a large seaport on the present-day terrain, right at the gateway to the Hoa Lu boundary. (Figure 2) Hoa Lu – a seaside capital city To redefine the Vietnamese urban concept, we have situated Hoa Lu within the context of low-density large cities that bear greater resemblance to mainland Southeast Asian urban settlements than to cities in Europe or China (Vo et al. 2021). Previous studies mostly focused on the architecture and architectural materials of the central area of the Hoa Lu capital. They mostly did not mention the sea and the relationship between Hoa Lu and the sea. This makes our perception of Hoa Lu still one-sided and limited. Our revision of the concept and expansion of the research scope on Hoa Lu has led us to realise that without considering the city's coastal location, it would be impossible to grasp the nature of this urban area. Hoa Lu is not solely an urban area constructed in limestone mountains and surrounded by large rivers, but it is also a city in proximity to the sea. This realisation not only influences our comprehension of the urban plan but also provides insight into why it became the capital and why it was abandoned as such after only 43 years. To address these significant questions, more interdisciplinary and archaeological studies are necessary. Despite limited resources, our preliminary research on this matter has generated some preliminary findings over the years. The 13th-century military base and the shifting of the central area So far, despite numerous archaeological excavations in the central area of Hoa Lu, no research has been conducted on marine elements in the 10th – 11th centuries. However, based on available data, it can be concluded that Hoa Lu was originally chosen and constructed as a robust capital and military base primarily due to its strategic geographical location. The city is surrounded by mountain ranges, creating a strong protective boundary, and is located close to flooded valleys with many caves and rugged mountains, making it easy to withdraw troops in times of external attacks. Additionally, the large and small rivers in and around the city centre made transportation to the sea very convenient, with a distance of just over 10km from the city centre to the coastal port. During the 13th century, when Dai Viet faced the Mongol army, Hoa Lu was selected as the Tran army's retreat base. However, this time, the base was moved south of the centre of Hoa Lu. In 2022, several excavations and archaeological surveys were carried out in the military base area, south of the centre of Hoa Lu (Vo 2022). Initial data was obtained on the size and nature of the foundations, archaeological artefacts found in the area, and information about the system of monuments and legends related to the site. These initial data suggest that this area was most likely a military base near the sea, acting as a strategic forward area to protect the Thang Long capital in the southern coastal area of the country. Therefore, it can be assumed that Hoa Lu has always been an important military area near the sea of Dai Viet for centuries. The shift of military bases from the 10th to the 13th centuries towards the southsoutheast may indicate a shift in the coastline, as the sea receded from the location of the 10th-century dug river and the 10th-century seaport to the location of the 13th-century military area after three centuries. 3 �Ancient shorelines at the Southeast of Hoa Lu (Figure 2, 3) The map below illustrates the simulated location of ancient coastlines using aerial photography, field surveys, and the locations of archaeological sites and sea dikes from the 15th and 19th centuries. Nevertheless, further research is required to comprehensively define and comprehend this matter. Figure 2: Hoa Lu in relation to the coastline in the 10th century (The pre-10th century coastline based on Van Maren (Van 2004, 12) and 1st-10th centuries and Iron Age sites based on Nishimura (Masanari 2005, 99-107). After conducting surface surveys and examining Lidar images, we obtained primary results from three sediment hand cores. These samples contained mainly pure, salty sand, supporting our hypothesis about ancient shorelines in the southeast of Hoa Lu. However, this is only the preliminary result and further sediment sampling, and archaeological research is required to obtain more information. This task is essential for our upcoming research stages, as we aim to date the shrines in this area and examine the changes in ancient shorelines. Understanding the relationship between the shrines and the development of ancient shorelines will provide insight into the connection between Hoa Lu and the sea, and aid in comprehending the city's water control planning. 4 �Figure 3: Location of the sediment hand cores (based on LiDAR image) The ancient shrines at the South – East of Hoa Lu (Figure 4) Based on field surveys and historical documents, we have compiled a list of 37 ancient shrines located in the South-East of Hoa Lu. We have divided the shrines into two groups: those inside the area enclosed by the Day River to the north of the Van canal (red triangles in Figure 4), and those to the south of the canal (yellow triangles in Figure 4). However, the shrines located south of Hoa Lu pose a problem, as they are traditionally dated back to the 10th century and are said to honour the generals of the Hoa Lu rulers. The issue with these shrines is that the dates do not align with the successive locations of the coastline from the 10th to the 19th century. These shrines lie between the location of the 10th century harbour and naval base and the 15th century sea dike. This means that if they were built during the 40year duration of the Hoa Lu capital, the entire progradation of the coastline between the 10th century line and the location of the 15th century sea dyke took only 40 years, which is problematic. There are two possible interpretations of this situation. First, the shoreline could have moved very rapidly since the 10th century, and the shrines were added at that time. However, this is geomorphically problematic because the Non-Nuoc inscription refers to the sea still being near Non Nuoc even in the 15th century. Alternatively, and we incline to this second interpretation - the shoreline prograded gradually between the 10th and the 15th century, and the shrines that are ascribed to 10th century warriors were added later in honour of 10th century warrior heroes. Additionally, we only found later ceramics in these shrines, not 10th century ceramics. Future research that involves excavating in the shrine enclosures will provide answers to this issue. An important task in the next stage of the research will be to date these shrines and examine the change in the location of the former shorelines. Understanding the relationship between the shrines and the development of the former shorelines will provide insight into the connection between Hoa Lu and the sea. 5 �Figure 4: A comprehensive map of Hoa Lu with the location of 13th – 15th centuries and 10th century shrines. (Location names in blue: Gian Khau Confluence, Hoang Long River, Hoa Lu, Da Gia Ha, Trang An Mountain Ranges, Xuan Ang Noi, Nui Non Nuoc, Chanh River, Van Canal, 10th century seaport, Day River; Location names in black: 10th century naval base, 10th century fortification, Man Bac site (4000-3500BP), 15th century sea dyke, 19th century sea dyke) 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Dang, Cong Nga. Kinh Do Hoa Lu Thoi Dinh - Tien Le (The Hoa Lu Capital in The Dinh-Early Le Dynasties). Ninh Binh, Vietnam: So Van hoa Thong tin Ninh Binh, 2002. Masanari, Nishimura. Settlement patterns on the Red River Plain from the Late Prehistoric period to the 10th century AD. Paper presented at the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin 25, 2005, Taipei, 2005. Van, Maren. Morphodynamics of a cyclic prograding delta: the Red River, Vietnam. (PhD). Utrecht: Utrecht University, 2004. Vo, Thi Phuong Thuy, Roland Fletcher & Ying-San Liou. Extensive urbanism in Vietnam between the 4th century BCE and the 19th century CE. World Archaeology 53 (2) (2021): 345-368 Vo, Thi Phuong Thuy. Báo cáo kết quả khảo sát bước đầu các di tích liên quan đến nhà Trần ở khu vực Tam Cốc-Bích Động (Field survey report of the Tran Dynasty relics in Tam Coc – Bich Dong region), So Du lich tinh Ninh Binh, 2022. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hoa Lu - The 10th Century Capital of Vietnam - An Abandoned City by the Sea Description An account of the resource The research aims to understand the impact of sea recession on the rise and fall of the Hoa Lu ancient capital city of Vietnam during the 10th -11th centuries. This is done by placing the city in its coastal context, which has been neglected in previous studies. Hoa Lu is currently the core zone of the UNESCO World Heritage Site: Trang An Landscape Complex, located 92km south of Hanoi. It was only used for 42 years (968-1010 CE) as the capital city of the Dai Viet Kingdom before the capital was moved to Thang Long (present-day Hanoi). We believe that one of the main reasons for this move was the sea recession. The available resources for this research include historical documents; geographical surveys using old maps and LiDAR images; archaeological surveys including surface ceramic collections and archaeological excavations. The research questions include: How did the sea and its recession affect the landscape change of the region in the 10th -11th centuries? How did it influence the water management system and the plan of the city? How did it affect the economic activities of the city? The results of the research project will give a more comprehensive understanding of the landscape of the region, including ancient shorelines located south of the city. The sea recession could be the reason why the 10th century seaport of Hoa Lu was abandoned, leading to the capital's move to Thang Long. Although there have been some good results in the early stages of the project, further research and collaboration with international researchers from various disciplines are still needed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Vo Thi Phuong Thuy Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Thuy, Vo Thi Phuong. 2023. “Hoa Lu - The 10th Century Capital of Vietnam - An Abandoned City by the Sea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Abhirada Komoot. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1935 Asia-Pac Session 3 2023