23 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Geographical Considerations in the Localization of Ancient Sea-Ports of India Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deloche, Jean Ranabir Chakravarti Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Deloche, Jean Editor Ranabir Chakravarti Item Type Book Section Book Title Trade in Early India Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Place Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Title A name given to the resource “Geographical Considerations in the Localization of Ancient Sea-Ports of India India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/01e7978df9e3d025cb858b49dd30f844.pdf 9012c0d1b0959d5963c828843b806770 PDF Text Text Geophysical techniques for non-intrusive documentation of UCH: Comparative analysis of the methodology developed in three study areas in Spain. Soledad Solana Rubio,1 Felipe Cerezo Andreo2, Sebastián Federico Ramallo,3 Dario Bernal Casasola,4 Miguel Ángel Cau Ontiveros,5 Francisco López-Castejón6 1 (University of Cádiz, Researcher) 0000-0001-5571-7453 (University of Cádiz, Associate Professor) 0000-0003-0025-1726 3 Asensio (University of Murcia, Professor) 0000-0003-1828-3996 4 (University of Cádiz, Professor) 0000-0003-1107-5318 5 (ICREA, and IAUB, University of Barcelona, Professor) 0000-0002-1138-157X 6 (Cartagena Oceanographic Research Institute and Polytechnic University of Cartagena, Researcher) 0000-00024196-4100 2 ABSTRACT Generally, the combined use of different geophysical instruments and archaeological fieldwork provides enough information for the classification and preliminary study of sites. However, the application of these techniques in detailed analysis of specific archaeological sites is still in its early stages. In this paper, we present the results of the geophysical survey work carried out in three different underwater contexts, as part of three research projects, in three areas of Spain: Algeciras (Cádiz), Cartagena (Murcia) and Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands). Geophysical survey allows for the application of non-intrusive techniques to achieve the documentation of UCH, as recommended by the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Heritage, without altering the archaeological material in any way. Therefore, we have used the Sub Bottom Profiler in several archaeological works, with varying depths and conservation conditions, to address our research questions of how much information can we obtain non-intrusively on the UCH and how can we best use the equipment to innovate in the development of non-intrusive methodology. Based on the results obtained in each area, we can draw several methodological conclusions that lay the groundwork for a method that can be applied to other case studies. Keywords: non-intrusive techniques, geophysical survey, Sub Bottom Profiler, monitoring UCH. List of figures Figure 1 – Location of the case studies and surveyed areas. Figure 2 – Equipment used on board the vessel for fieldwork. Figure 3 – Signal processing example using ISE 2.9 INNOMAR software. Figure 4 – Types of anomalies recorded. 1. INTRODUCTION We present an innovative and non-intrusive method of monitoring and documenting Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH), in which we have taken advantage of the opportunities offered by the development of new technologies. We analyse the methodology implemented in three case studies, in which we have surveyed the UCH in different areas using a Sub Bottom Profiler (SBP). This is an equipment that emits acoustic pulses that penetrate the sediment, resulting in the image of a stratigraphic profile of the seabed and the artefacts or anomalies that may be buried beneath it. In this way, without disturbing the seabed, we can see what is buried, what is anomalous and how deep it is. This research has been the result of a collaborative effort of the University of Cádiz (Spain), through three different projects, with the universities of Murcia, Cartagena, Barcelona, Balearic Islands and the Consell de Mallorca. 1 �2. CASE STUDIES This methodological study took into consideration three case studies (see figure 1), each with different characteristics related to the archaeological heritage to be studied and the geological conditions of the environment in which it is located. Furthermore, although the research goals of each project were distinct, they all shared the methodological questions that we aim to address in this paper. 2.1. HERAKLES Project (Algeciras, Cádiz) As a pioneering project for this research, the HERAKLES Project (FEDER-UCA18-107327)7 was the first scenario to test the SBP techniques. We undertook the geophysical survey in a specific zone of the Bay of Algeciras: the harbour area (see figure 1.1). As the main objectives of the HERAKLES project were to document the UCH of Algeciras Bay and to assess the impact of port and industrial constructions on it, the goals of this survey were two: 1. To determine the existence of anomalies buried under the sediment. 2. To understand the stratigraphy of the area and how successive dredging and harbour works have modified the natural sedimentation processes. 2.2. ALADROQUE Project (Cartagena, Murcia) The second scenario was the harbour area of Cartagena, which differed significantly from the previous case study. The zone of intervention covers the mouth of the Benipila Rambla (stream) and the Algameca Chica, up to a depth of approximately -50 m, an area of detrital and rocky seabed with plenty of archaeological materials (see figure 1.2). The ALADROQUE project8 arises after the high impact weather event known as coold drop (Depresión aislada en niveles altos – DANA) that affected the Region of Murcia in September 2019. One of the most serious consequences of this episode was the overflowing of the streams, such as the Benipila, causing a large amount of sediment and rubbish to be dragged into the sea. Thus, the ALADROQUE project aimed to assess the impact of this event on the seabed and on the UCH. The objectives of the geophysical survey were therefore two: 1. To identify possible anomalies that might correspond either to UCH or to objects dragged by the floods. 2. To evaluate the rate of sedimentation caused by floods and sea currents by monitoring the burial process in two known archaeological sites. 2.3. ARQUEOMALLORNAUTA Project (Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands) The third case study involved the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck (Munar et al., 2022; Soler et al. 2021), located in shallow waters, with sandy seabed, offering ideal conditions for studying its state of preservation and the probable dispersion of its materials. The ARQUEOMALLORNAUTA project9 aimed to document and excavate this unique Late Roman shipwreck, and a geophysical survey was conducted as a preliminary activity before archaeological fieldwork (see figure 1.3). Therefore, our objectives were threefold: 1. To obtain a three-dimensional visualization of the shipwreck that would allow the evaluation of its state of preservation. “Entre las Columnas de Hércules, Arqueología Subacuática de un espacio privilegiado. La bahía de Algeciras” (FEDERUCA18-107327 HERAKLES) 8 “ALADROQUE: El impacto de los eventos climáticos tipo DANA en la conservación de los entornos subacuáticos de los accesos al puerto de Cartagena (España)”, an initiative of the Cartagena Oceanographic Research Institute (CORI), in collaboration with the University of Murcia (UM), the University of Cadiz (UCA) and the Navy Diving Centre (CBA), 9 Joint project of the Consell de Mallorca and the universities of Barcelona, the Balearic Islands and Cádiz. 7 2 �2. To provide stratigraphic details especially about the characteristics of marine sedimentary levels. 3. To detect the existence of anomalies that can be analysed in the interpretation phase of the results of the archaeological fieldwork. Figure 1 – Location of the case studies and surveyed areas: 1. Bay of Algeciras; 2. Harbour of Cartagena; 3. Palma de Mallorca. 3. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include the equipment used (see figure 2), property of the Laboratory of Archaeology and Prehistory (LABAP) of the University of Cádiz (UCA), consists of: - Sub Bottom Profiler (SBP) model SES-2000 standard, manufactured by the German company INNOMAR. It is parametric in nature, which allows a high resolution in the detection of strata and layers of sediments. The signal penetrates, on average, twice the depth at which it probes. - Motion correction sensor (MRU) to correct and improve precision of the spatial location of the signal. - Mobile RTK GNSS Leica GS18 Antenna, which ensures the positioning of the data readings with a millimetre error margin. Besides, different boats were used in each case study. For the survey in Algeciras, we used the Tarpán, a fiberglass rigid boat with inboard motor, and a draft of 0.5 m. Secondly, in Cartagena we had two fiberglass vessels from the University of Murcia, the Betsaida, with 0.3 m draught, and the Universitas, with 0.6 m draught. In the third case study, a semi-rigid inflatable boat with an outboard motor was used, with a draft of 0.4 m, named Mustelus. A very important variable for the reliability of the results in geophysical surveying with SBP is the expertise of the boat captain. In the three case studies, they 3 �were very skilled, showing great ability, not only in handling each boat, but also in understanding what the team needed. Regarding the human team, the works were performed by two archaeologists from the University of Cádiz, trained in the use of geophysical techniques thanks to the activities coordinated by the Nautical and Underwater Archaeology Line. Figure 2 – Equipment used on board the vessel for fieldwork. 4. FRAMEWORK Given the three case studies presented, the methodological inquiries of this research aim to determine the limitations of the SBP technique. Furthermore, we have identified various types of anomalies in all three geophysical surveys, which have been subsequently cross-checked with other techniques such as historical information, magnetic anomalies, test pits, and visual surveys. This has allowed us to create a comprehensive catalogue of anomalies that can be utilized in future SBP surveys (Cerezo Andreo et all, 2022; Higueras-Milena and Cerezo Andreo, 2021). Following the principles established by UNESCO in the 2001 Convention (Maarleveld, Guérin and Egger, 2013; VVAA., 2010), surveying with SBP allows prioritising in situ conservation of UCH, exploration over recovery and non-destructive techniques. The precision of the transects over the area to be studied is fundamental for the interpretation of the data, so once the working areas have been defined, the density level of each survey grid must be planned, considering the objectives proposed for each survey. In the framework of the HERAKLES project, given the large extension of the Bay of Algeciras, we have focused on understanding the general stratigraphy and the degree of preservation of original sediments in “El Saladillo”, one of the ancient harbour spaces. 4 �Before conducting the survey in the port of Cartagena, we had access to valuable information that aided in our planning process. Specifically, we were aware of certain anomalies that had been detected during a previous survey conducted in 2008 by the National Museum of Underwater Archaeology (ARQVA). During our SBP surveys, undertaken in 2021 and 2022, we detected new anomalies and checked the levels of burying or unearthing in sites. Some of the anomalies were documented by diving or using a ROV. We also verified their archaeological potential and established a protocol for the periodic monitoring of their state of preservation. For the ARQUEOMALLORNAUTA project, two work areas were surveyed: the one where the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck is preserved and a larger one to document its general sedimentation dynamics and to detect anomalies that could be related to the site. The seabed in the study area is generally sandy but with a strong muddy matrix that allowed the signal to penetrate several metres below, reaching - 5.5 m in some profiles. The Ses Fontanelles shipwreck was protected by sandbags, resulting in a 2.5 m deep tumulus. That makes the water column between the transducer and the shipwreck very small. After the data analysis and processing (see figure 3), we obtained a series of anomalies that we classified according to their archaeological interest and their accessibility. Subsequently, a fieldwork season to check the most significant anomalies was planned. Figure 3 – Signal processing example using ISE 2.9 INNOMAR software. 5. RESULTS 5.1. HERAKLES Project (Algeciras, Cádiz) On the El Saladillo research area we have successfully identified the paleochannel from the Last Glacial Maximum period (see figure 4.A). This unknown geological feature was not easily silted by sediments, so it kept its depth for a long time, which explains why this area was used as an anchorage throughout history. Our surveys led to notable discoveries, including the identification of the basement levels of Isla Verde Island. This now-destroyed island was once one of the main landmarks on the maritime landscape in the ancient Bay and provided a reliable source of fresh water. 5 �5.2. ALADROQUE Project (Cartagena, Murcia) The intensive use of the SBP in the port of Cartagena has yielded high-resolution stratigraphic profiles, enabling the documentation of the impact of the flooding caused by the 2019 DANA. The resulting data about the impact of the flood on the UCH holds potential for advancing monitoring and conservation efforts. In addition, we have assessed the burial or erosion factor that some archaeological sites are suffering, especially the Cartagena 1 shipwreck, located at 63 m depth, one of the best-preserved shipwrecks from the 2nd century BC in the Iberian Mediterranean. Cross-checking data between 20082021-2022, we have been able to verify that the shipwreck has been unearthed between 70 and 80 cm. The cargo is now scattered over a space twice the size it was in 2008, which means that the tumulus is falling apart (see figure 4.B). On the contrary, there are areas that have been significantly buried, hiding known elements since the 2008 surveys. This process is partly positive because burial offers good guarantees for the conservation of the heritage, but also it makes access to it impossible. Finally, dives to verify the selected anomalies have revealed the presence of rubbish and other debris which are altering the structural integrity of some objects. Figure 4 – Types of anomalies recorded. A) Paleochannel with continental sedimentation; B) Shipwreck C) Pipeline D) Buried object (in this case an amphora) E) Natural anomaly corresponding to the bottom of a paleochannel. 5.3. ARQUEOMALLORNAUTA Project (Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands) The results have been very positive, as we have achieved a stratigraphic visualisation of both the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck and its surroundings. Among the 31 significant anomalies detected, those of special archaeological or stratigraphic interest were selected. Thus, we configured three categories of priority for intervention according to their accessibility: size, morphology, and depth below the seabed. After the second processing of the signals and the comparative analysis of the anomalies, three of them were identified with paleochannels, one with the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck, five provided relevant information on the stratigraphy and six were considered to be a pipeline (see figure 4.C). Therefore, we made eight archaeological test pits to verify this interpretation. Only one test pit was positive as far as the presence of archaeological material was concerned, finding a fragment of ancient pottery. The artefact was found under a layer of shells and coarse gravel, covered by another layer of dead seagrass. 6 �The hyperboles shown by the acoustic signal corresponded to points where the archaeological material was buried (see figure 4.D). The anomalies of natural origin correspond to a layer of rubble, coarse gravel, and pebble rocks that we consider to be the seabed of a paleochannel, with continental sedimentation phases (see figure 4.E). This provides interesting information about the palaeolandscape in the pre-Holocene period. With respect to the anomaly identified as the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck, collected in 53 stratigraphic profiles, we could document the different levels that comprised the shipwreck's protective tumulus. 5.4. Conclusions The results achieved in the three case studies demonstrate that the use of the SBP has been proven effective for UCH surveying, providing high-resolution stratigraphic profiles and detailed information on the morphology of the seafloor and any anomalies present. Overall, the use of the SBP is a useful tool in the field of UCH research, allowing for non-intrusive and precise surveying of underwater archaeological sites. To conclude, here are some generalities regarding the use of the SBP for the UCH surveying, although each site and its characteristics, the equipment used and the objectives of each research will determine the configuration and final results. - - - - - - Regarding the type of seabed, the signal penetrates better in mud than in sand, where there is usually more noise. The boat used for the survey should be small, to ensure manoeuvrability, but stable and with rigid gunwale, as vertical as possible to the water surface. The most important thing is to prevent engine vibrations from being transmitted to the SBP. The recommended speed for conducting SBP surveys is typically less than 4 knots. We have achieved optimal results at speeds between 2 and 2.5 knots. It should be noted that slower survey speeds can result in longer survey durations and increased vulnerability to wave interference, ship vibration, and reduced ability to correct heading. It is important to note that obtaining accurate and reliable results with the SBP is highly dependent on the sea state. It has been observed that waves exceeding 30-40 cm significantly impact the quality of the data collected, rendering them unreliable. In theory, the penetration distance of the SBP signal is twice the water column below the transducer. Nevertheless, at greater depths, the number of pulses emitted must be increased due to the prolonged time it takes for the signal to return. From our experience, optimal results are obtained at depths ranging between 10 to 20 meters. Regarding frequency, increasing it will yield higher resolution, but at the expense of losing penetration depth. Conversely, lowering the frequency will increase penetration depth, but reduce resolution. Finding the optimal frequency setting requires thorough testing and experimentation on a case-by-case basis. As for the research objectives, this technique is highly recommended for anomaly detection or for monitoring known sites. It is very useful for surveying UCH at different times and for analysing, by comparing the signals, the rate of sedimentation. It is also very useful for the study of the paleolandscape or to check the impact of dredging on the seabed, but for stratigraphic studies it must be combined with geotechnical cores (Torres et al, 2022). In the future we have planned more surveys to test this methodology in new and different case studies, therefore we will add more conclusions to this research. A methodology based on the results obtained here will undoubtedly contribute not only to a better knowledge of the UCH, but also to a greater awareness and impact of the research at the international level. 7 �ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The work in the Bay of Algeciras has been co-financed by the 2014-2020 ERDF Operational Programme and by the Department of Economy, Knowledge, Business and University of the Regional Government of Andalusia. Project reference: FEDERUCA18-107327. The Cartagena case study has been co-financed by CORI and the ARQUEOTOPOS III Project, Grant HAR201785726-C2-1-P (Carthago Nova desde su entorno litoral: Paleotopografía y evolución medioambiental del Sector central del Sureste Ibérico. Dinámica poblacional y productiva) funded by MCIN. The case of Ses Fontanelles is part of the activities of the research group ERAAUB of the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Barcelona (IAUB), Consolidated Group (2021 SGR 00696), thanks to the support of the Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca del DIUE de la Generalitat de Catalunya. Some of the activities have been possible thanks to the synergies created with the projects “Arqueología y Arqueometría aplicadas al estudio de la cerámica y el poblamiento de la ciudad romana de Pollentia y su hinterland (Mallorca, islas Baleares)” (ARQCERPOL) (PID2021-123223NB-I00) (ARQCERPOL) (PID2021-123223NB-I00), funded by MCIN/AEI/ 10.13039/501100011033 and by “ERDF A way of making Europe”, GARVM III (PID2019-108948RB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033), Gobierno de España/FEDEAR; ARQUEOSTRA (FEDER-UCA18-104415) Programa Operativo FEDER 2014-2020 and Consejería de Transformación Económica, Industria, Conocimiento y Universidades, Junta de Andalucía; and ARQUEOFISH (P18-FR-1483) Programa de Ayudas a la I+D+I, Plan Andaluz de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación (PAIDI 2020). We thank this conference for accepting us and for providing a methodological session, which is important for the whole scientific community. Thanks to the three projects, the four universities and the LABAP, which provided us with the equipment. To the owners and captains of the boats. To all the researchers who seek knowledge underwater. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cerezo Andreo, Felipe, Solana Rubio, Soledad, López-Castejón, Francisco and Ramallo Asensio, Sebastián Federico. “El impacto de los eventos climáticos tipo Dana en la conservación de los entornos subacuáticos de los accesos al puerto de Cartagena (España). Primeros datos del proyecto Aladroque.”, NANS: Noticiario de Arqueología Naútica y Subacuática, ISSNe 2952-1149, Nº. 0 (7), (2022): 4-18. Available in: <https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=8758191>. Higueras-Milena Castellano, Aurora and Cerezo Andreo, Felipe. “Investigaciones arqueológicas mediante métodos geofísicos marinos en el entorno de La Caleta Antecedentes y novedades de la campaña de 2019”. In La Caleta (Cádiz): Entre la Tierra y el Mar. Un estudio diacrónico de uso, edited by en Alberto Gullón Abao, Lilyan Padrón Reyes and Carlota Pérez-Reverte Mañas, 19-34. Sevilla: Aconcagua, 2021. Maarleveld, Thijs, Guérin, Ulrike and Egger, Barbara. Manual para actividades dirigidas al patrimonio cultural subacuático: directrices para el Anexo de la Convención de la UNESCO de 2001. Paris: UNESCO, 2013. Available in: <https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000220716>. Munar Llabrés, Sebastià, Cardell Perelló, Jaume, de Juan, Carlos, Cau Ontiveros, Miguel Ángel, Bernal-Casasola, Darío, Picornell, Llorenç and García Riaza, Enrique. “Ses Fontanelles Shipwreck (Mallorca, Balearic Islands): An Exceptional Late Roman Vessel and Its Cargo”, Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 17 (2022): 487–505. Available in: <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-022-09331-6>. Soler i Nicolau, Antònia, Font Jaume, Alexandre, Berni Millet, Piero, García Riaza, Enrique, Bernal-Casasola, Darío, Cau Ontiveros, Miguel Ángel, Cardell Perelló, Jaume and Munar Llabrés, Sebastià. “El singular conjunto de tituli picti del pecio de Ses Fontanelles (Mallorca, islas Baleares) y su contribución a la epigrafía anfórica tardorromana hispánica”, Cuadernos de Arqueología y Prehistoria de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CUPAUAM) 47(1), (2021): 287-317. Available in: <https://doi.org/10.15366/cupauam2021.47.1.010>. Torres, Trinidad, Ortiz, José E., Ramallo, Sebastián, Ros, Milagros, Sánchez Palencia, Yolanda, Blázquez, Ana, Cerezo, Felipe, López-Cilla, Ignacio, Galán, Luis, A., Borrego, Ángeles G., Ruiz Zapata, Blanca, Gil, María José, Manteca Ignacio and Rodríguez-Estrella, Tomás. “Development of the marine Holocene environment in a drowned paleovalley with final anthropic influence in the Cartagena Bay (Murcia, SE Spain)”, The Holocene, 32 (6), (2022): 554–568. Available in: <https://doi.org/10.1177/09596836221080759>. VVAA. Libro Verde del Plan Nacional de Protección del Patrimonio Cultural Subacuático Español. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 2010. Available in: < https://www.calameo.com/read/000075335b012b37e3d4b>. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Geophysical techniques for non-intrusive documentation of UCH: Comparative analysis of the methodology developed in three study areas in Spain. Description An account of the resource Generally, the combined use of different geophysical instruments and archaeological fieldwork provides enough information for the classification and preliminary study of sites. However, the application of these techniques in detailed analysis of specific archaeological sites is still in its early stages. In this paper, we present the results of the geophysical survey work carried out in three different underwater contexts, as part of three research projects, in three areas of Spain: Algeciras (Cádiz), Cartagena (Murcia) and Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands). Geophysical survey allows for the application of non-intrusive techniques to achieve the documentation of UCH, as recommended by the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Heritage, without altering the archaeological material in any way. Therefore, we have used the Sub Bottom Profiler in several archaeological works, with varying depths and conservation conditions, to address our research questions of how much information can we obtain non-intrusively on the UCH and how can we best use the equipment to innovate in the development of non-intrusive methodology. Based on the results obtained in each area, we can draw several methodological conclusions that lay the groundwork for a method that can be applied to other case studies. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Soledad Solana Rubio Felipe Cerezo Andreo Sebastián Federico Ramallo Dario Bernal Casasola Miguel Ángel Cau Ontiveros Francisco López-Castejón Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Solana Rubio, Soledad , Felipe Cerezo Andreo, Sebastián Federico Ramallo Asensio, Darío Bernal Casasola, Miguel Ángel Cau Ontiveros, Francisco López-Castejón. 2023. “Geophysical techniques for non-intrusive documentation of UCH: comparative analysis of the methodology developed in different study areas at various depths.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Carlota Perez-Reverte. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2000 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6c817530f9dced0ca81b0f9cf8aa7b61.pdf a1abec18eb1a0210fc301ba64312fcec PDF Text Text Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India. Deepak Pal (21dphis01@cuk.ac.in) and Arjun Rao Dept. of History and Archaeology, Central University of Karnataka, India ABSTRACT This paper explores the Bhima River's historical significance and navigational potentialities in human settlement from prehistoric to early historical periods. The upper and lower reaches of the Bhima River are home to numerous sites dating back to the prehistoric and Early Historical periods. However, the lower reaches have a large number of sites compared to the upper reaches, where the basin is broad and shallow in the open landscape. The importance of the Bhima River in facilitating short and long-distance navigation likely increased significantly from establishing sedentary villages to the emergence of larger settlements and towns during the Early Historic period (300 BCE-500 CE). The present study is centred on analysing two distinct types of archaeological sites, emphasising their respective geographical distributions. (i) Sites centred within a distance of 1 km from the Bhima River course. (ii) The sites centred within a 10 km radius of the Bhima River course in the lower reaches, spanning from Firozabad (17°5'3.00"N, 76°47'25.00"E) to its confluence with the Krishna River near Gundloor (16°24'39.00"N, 77°17'1.23"E). The present study constitutes an initial attempt to identify and establish a plausible connection for understanding the potential influence of navigational pursuits in establishing significant early historical sites, utilising geospatial techniques and analysis, and reviewing published archaeological reports to reconstruct the socio-economic contexts. Keyword: sedentary settlement, early historical, inland navigation, water navigation, Iron age. List of Figures and Tables Figure 1. Course of Bhima River. Figure 2. Distribution of Early Historic sites in the lower reaches of Bhima River. Table 1. Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 1 km (approx.) Table 2. Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 10 km (approx.) INTRODUCTION Throughout history, water bodies have played a crucial role in human settlement, dating back to prehistoric times. The manifestation of this particular role may vary across diverse cultural contexts and stages of development. During the early prehistoric period, specifically the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods of the later Pleistocene and Holocene ages, it is possible to establish a correlation between human activity and water bodies based on the reliance on aquatic remains as a source of sustenance. During the Neolithic Period, a correlation emerged between sedentary settlements and socio-economic activities, primarily agricultural and pastoralist activities. During the Early Historic period spanning from 300 BCE to 500 CE, the relationship between humans and water bodies experienced a notable development. This development facilitated the emergence of early urbanization, characterized by establishing religious sites, particularly those associated with Buddhism. The Bhima River, stretching a distance of 861 km, originates from Bhima Shankar in the Western Ghats at an elevation of approximately 945 msl. It then proceeds in a south-eastern direction, passing through the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka, until it meets the Krishna River at a location called Gundloor (Karnataka) at an elevation of 537 msl. The Bhima River's upper basin traverses an area characterized by a high concentration of clay-rich black soil, whereas its lower reaches flow through a region dominated by Granitic terrain. The catchment area of the Bhima River exhibits significant archaeological potential spanning from the prehistoric to early historic periods. The Bhima River exhibits human habitation dating back to prehistoric and early historic times, as evidenced by the 1 �presence of numerous archaeological sites in its upper and lower regions. The manifestation of human association is evident through the presence of Neolithic ash mounds, rock art depicting cattle images, and the occurrence of ringing rocks in multiple Neolithic and Iron Age sites. These findings suggest the emergence of a community-based settlement and the development of ritualistic practices and belief systems. The lower reaches of Bhima exhibit a relatively higher concentration of Early Historic sites, owing to the broad and shallow basin in the open landscape. A more significant number of archaeological sites can be found on the left bank of the river. The primary objective of this study is to examine the trajectory of the Bhima River, commencing from its location at Firozabad (17°5'3.00"N, 76°47'25.00"E) and extending to its confluence with the Krishna River close to Gundloor (16°24'39.00"N, 77°17'1.23"E). The Early Historic phase in South India has a potential archaeological record. It spreads from the early inscriptions of the Pandya dynasty down south to the excavated remains of stupas at Amravati, Kanaganahalli, Nagarjunakonda and the excavated remains of trade sites like Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam, and Pattanam as well as the fortified sites like Satanikota, Sannati, Kondapur and so on. The systematic study of the prehistoric lithic structures and sites in the Bhima basin region was initiated by Taylor. He was the first to discover, investigate and do justice in the systematic archaeological investigation of megaliths found in the catchment area of the Bhima River. He discovered and investigated megaliths sites, especially in the southwestern Gulbarga (Kalaburagi) district and further north comprising the Talukas of Shorapur, Shahpur and Jewargi. (Taylor 1941). It was only in the 1940s when M.H. Krishna and later Wheeler’s excavations at Brahmagiri and Chandravalli (Krishna 1940 and Wheeler 1947) brought a chronological approach to archaeological materials. A number of settlement sites were excavated, such as the Brahmagiri (Krishna 1943; Wheeler, 1948), Maski (Thapar 1958), Kadkal (Yazdani 1935-36a), Piklihal (Allchin 1960), Nagarjunakonda (R. Subrahmanyam 1954-60) Utnur (Allchin, 1961), Palavoy (Rami 1976), Budihal (Paddayya 1991-92), Tekkalakota (Nagaraja Rao & Malhotra 1965), Watgal (Devaraj et al., 1995). These excavations helped further explore and excavate early historic settlements in the region. The archaeological remains from Nagarjunakonda, which is a better documented urban centre in the early historic Deccan, illustrate the high degree of urbanisation that developed in the Deccan during this period. The early historic urban centres were enclosed by fortified walls and had planned roads and residential neighbourhoods surrounding the citadel. A few parameters that led to understanding urban infrastructure are secular and religious remains unearthed at Nagarjunakonda, indicating a thriving society inhabited this city. Bathing ghats and an amphitheatre were civic structures constructed at Nagarjunakonda, and the religious remains found at this site were Buddhist Viharas (monasteries) and Chaityas (stupas) along with Brahmanical temples located on the Krishna River (Chakrabarti 1997, 235-37; Rosen Stone 1994, 9-20). A number of PhD researches were presented on the Neolithic, Iron Age and Early Historic Archaeology (covering Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu), including but not limited to those from Subbarao (1949), Allchin (1954), Seshadri (1956), Nagaraja Rao (1961), Paddayya (1968), Rami Reddy (1976), Narasimhaiah (1980), David Raju (1985), Venkatasubbaiah (1992) and Arjun (2017). 2 �Figure 1. Bhima River. (From: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bhima.png) This research aims to study the antiquity of human association with the river Bhima, which includes1. To examine the navigable conditions and study sites centered to the river. 2. To trace the role of it in inland navigation for domestic or trade purposes in early historic society. 3. Mapping the archaeological sites to understand their distribution pattern across the river through Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis. 4. To examine the historicity of the river with early historic settlements, particularly Sannati and its surrounding sites. Overall, this research has tried to understand and evaluate the role of river Bhima (especially in the lower reaches) METHODOLOGY This research is based on the data curated from archaeological reports such as the Indian Archaeological Review (IAR), annual reports from the state archaeology department and excavation reports. The site locations are mapped on the geospatial maps and categorised into cultural periods of the sites and the metrical distance of the site location from the river banks ranging from within 1 km to 10 km. Further, the bathymetric survey reports (IIC Technologies, 2016) on the river Bhima are analysed. 3 �SITES ANALYSIS WITH GEOGRAPHY Table 1 Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 1 km (approx.) S.NO. NAME LATITUDE LONGITUDE 1. Sannati 16°49'39.00"N 76°54'26.00"E 2. Ranamandala 3. Sirwal 16°48'38.00"N 76°53'38.00"E 4. Kanaganahalli 16°51'10.00"N 76°56'20.00"E 5. Benagutti 6. Hasargundgi 16°48'42.00"N 76°54'43.00"E CULTURAL SEQUENCE Ashokan Rock Edict Site Mesolithic to Early historic Middle Palaeolithic to Mesolithic Early historic site with remains of Buddhist monastery and Stupa. Early Historic Buddhist Stupa Site belonging to Satavahana. Early Historic 7. Hotinmadu 16°53'10.00"N 76°57'4.00"E Middle Palaeolithic 8. Rajwal 16°58'52.00"N 76°56'10.00"E Middle Palaeolithic 9. Budnal 16°32'30.67"N 77°10'17.77"E Neolithic Habitation Site Sannati Sannati (16°49'39.00"N, 76°54'26.00"E) is a complex of sites located on the left bank of the river Bhima. It is surrounded by sites, namely Ranamandala, Kanaganahalli, Sirwal, and Benagutti; they are Buddhist stupa sites with monasteries and brick embankments, suggesting a larger population residing in this area and frequently accessed by a number of pilgrims. It has been identified as one of the prominent Buddhist sites in Karnataka after its discovery by Kapatral Krishna Rao in 1954 CE, which brought into light the remains of the Buddhist establishment. The exploration and excavation of this site yielded stone tools related to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Along with the remains of tools, it also yields sculptural, architectural, inscriptional and stupa remains related to Buddhism. The site got prominence after finding the remains of Ashokan Major Rock Edicts 12-14 and Separate Rock Edicts 1 & 2. Sannati was a fortified settlement during the Satavahana era, as was proven by the discovery of Satavahana’s coins of lead and the excavation of a stupa. Ranamandala In the close vicinity of Sannati, remains of fortification are found which are known as Ranamandala. This site was excavated by A. Sundara in 1986-87 AD, which resulted in the discovery of rectangular bricks (39x20x6.5 cm) and the foundation of a number of small rooms having association with Early historic antiquities of Satavahana period. Ranamandala has an undisturbed chronology from Mesolithic to Satavahana period. 4 �Period Findings at Ranamandala Cultural Remains Mesolithic Non-geometric microliths of Chalcedony, Chert and Quartz. Lunates, Bladelets, Points, Burin-cum-borer. Black & Red ware, Stray Iron Implements. Red ware, Black polished ware, Black and Red ware, Scrubbers, Polished stone pestles, Dumbbell shaped pounders, Stone block and other minor antiquities in the form of Shell bangles, Beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones, Bone-arrowheads and Coins. Red ware, Black polished ware, Black slipped ware, Beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones, Coins of Maharathi Siri Satavahana. This period marked the beginning of structural activities Red ware, Polished red ware, Stamped pottery, Black slipped ware, Russet coated white painted ware, Rouletted ware, Beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones, Shell objects, Polished pounders, Mullers. Coins of Satakarni and Sri Satakarni made of Copper, Lead and Potin. This period marked the profuse brick structural activities. Megalithic Mauryan Mauryan – Satavahana Satavahana Sirwal Sirwal (16°48'38.00"N, 76°53'38.00"E) is situated on the right bank of river Bhima. The adjacent field near the Sirwal yielded blades made of quartz, jasper, coarse carnelian, and chert belonging to the Middle Palaeolithic period. Along with it, this site also produces a profound number of Mesolithic implements made of quartz and jasper. By analysing excavated material, it can be observed that this site marked a transition phase from Middle Palaeolithic to Mesolithic Period. Kanaganahalli Kanaganahalli (16°51'10.00"N, 76°56'20.00"E) is located on the left bank of river Bhima, approximately five km east of Sannati. During the period of excavation spanning from 1994 to 2002 CE, this site reveals the remains of a massive stupa, many brick-built structures in the form of a chaitya griha, and votive stupas along with the remains of railing, pillars, capitals, Buddha padas, and sculpture of yaksha and four images of Buddha. The sculptural panel portrays various subjects, including Jataka stories, celestial objects, royal personalities, noblemen, traders, and portraits of many donors in singular or as couples servants attending to the royalty and noblemen, monks and the commoner. In addition, this particular location yielded a noteworthy sculpture depicting King Asoka, featuring an inscription in Brahmi script that reads "Raya Asoka". In addition to the sculptural artefacts, plenty of Prakrit language and Brahmi script inscriptions were discovered on the premises of the Kanaganahalli Stupa site. These inscriptions can be dated back to the period spanning from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century AD. A total of 270 inscriptions were unearthed at the maha stupa, ranging from a five-lettered donator label inscription to an eleven-line epigraph.  Benagutti This early historic site flourished between 300 BCE to 300 CE in the north-west of Sannati on the left bank of river Bhima. It was excavated by the Excavation Branch - I, Nagpur, under the direction of K. Veerbhadra Rao. During the excavation, this site produced evidence of the chaitya-vihara complex, 5 �which suggests labelling it as a Buddhist stupa site belonging to the Satavahana period. The Ceramic culture of this site includes Red ware of medium fabric, Burnished Red ware, Micaceous Red ware, Dull Grey ware, Red polished ware, and Rouletted ware. The discovery of the sherd of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) and a partially preserved inscription on a small stone has resulted in reconsidering the site's chronology, which can now be placed in the third century BC. Based on some fragmentary inscriptions in the Ikshvaku Brahmi script, it can be inferred that the site remained operational until the third century AD. Hasargundgi Hasargundgi (16°48'42.00"N, 76°54'43.00"E) is located on the right bank of the Bhima River, approximately 3 kilometres south of the Chandralamba temple located on the left bank of the same river at Sannati. During the exploration, this site produced several Red ware, Black and Red ware, and a few decorated friezes of railing beside a sculpture of Yaksha. S.NO. 01 02 03 04 05 Table 2 Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 10 km (approx.) LATITUDE LONGITUDE CULTURAL SEQUENCE Jewargi 17° 0'41.21"N 76°46'36.96"E Megalithic, Early Historic Andola 16°57'10.13"N 76°50'9.63"E Megalithic, and Early Historic Tadbidi 16°41'31.79"N 76°58'53.72"E Neolithic Habitation Site Maddarki 16°48'4.74"N 76°47'29.02"E Shahabad 17° 7'46.83"N 76°56'49.28"E Megalithic, Iron Age and Early Historic NAME The town of Jewargi (17° 0'41.21" N, 76°46'36.96"E) is located 5 km south of the Bhima River. The region situated approximately 1.5 km to the north of the town is home to several stone circles from the Iron Age, which are located on a rocky and uncultivated piece of land (Taylor 1941, 8-16). Taylor was the first person to notice and conduct a systematic study of the megalithic culture of this region. After a long gap of time, the Department of Geology of the erstwhile Hyderabad State conducted a study of this region, which resulted in the identification of a stone alignment structure in Jewargi and megaliths in various locations such as Shahabad, Chitapur, Ravur and Ekmai. Andola, situated approximately 8 km southeast of Jewargi, has yielded evidence of Megalithic structure in the surrounding area. Subsequently, further study was conducted by A. Sundara, which includes the various locations previously examined and documented by Taylor in his reports. 6 �Figure 2. Distribution of Early Historic sites in the lower reaches of Bhima River discussed in the paper. 7 �Bibliography Allchin, F.R. Piklihal Excavations. Hyderabad: Andhra Pradesh Government Publications, Archaeological Series No. 1, 1960. Allchin, F.R. Utnoor Excavations. Hyderabad: Andhra Pradesh Government Publications, Archaeological Series No. 5, 1961. Chakrabarti, Dillip K. The Archaeology of Ancient Indian Cities. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Devaraj, D.V., J.G. Schiffer, C.S. Patil and Subrahmanya. “The Watgal Excavations: An Interim Report.” Man and Environment 20 no. 2 (1995): 57-74. Foote, Robert Bruce. The Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities: Notes on their Ages and Distribution, Madras: Government Museum, 1916. Howell, J.R. Excavations at Sannathi, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1995. Indian Archaeology 1997 – 1998 – A Review, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2003. Joshi, M.C. Indian Archaeology 1986 – 1987 – A Review, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1992. Khaladkar, Varada. “Archaeological Investigations in the Middle Bhima Basin, Maharashtra: A Preliminary Report.” Puratattva 38, (2008): 24-38. Nagaraja Rao, M.S. and K.C., Malhotra. 1965. The Stone Age hill Dwellers of Tekkalakota. Poona: Deccan College, 1965. Paddayya, K. Investigations into the Neolithic Culture of the Shorapur Doab, South India. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973. Paddayya, K. “Mesolithic Culture of the Shorapur Doab, Peninsular India”. Anthropos, (1974): 590-607. Paddayya, K. “Ashmound Investigation at Budihal, Gulbarga District, Karnataka.” Man and Environment XVIII no. 1 (1993): 57-87. Paddayya, K. “Prehistoric Foundations of Southern Deccan, with Special Reference to the Shorapur Doab” In Emperors, Saints and People, edited by Mohammad Nazrul Bari, R. Arjun, 29-58. Delhi: Primus Books, 2023. Rami Reddy, V. The Prehistoric and Protohistoric culture of Palavoy, South India, with special Reference to the Ashmound Problem. Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh, 1976. Singh, B.P. Indian Archaeology 1991 – 1992 – A Review, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1996. Singh, Om Prakash. The Archaeology of Iron and Social Change in Early South India. Delhi: Primus Books, 2019. Soundararajan, K.V. Nagarjunakonda (1954-60), Memoirs of the Archaeology Survey of India No. 75. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2006. Stone, Elizabeth R. The Buddhist Art of Nagarjunakonda. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas Publishers, 1994. Sundara, A. The Early Chamber Tombs of South India, A Study of the Iron Age Megalithic Monuments of North Karnataka. Delhi: University Publishers (India), 1975. Taylor, Philip Meadows. Megalithic Tombs and other Ancient Remains in the Deccan, Hyderabad: State Archaeological Department, 1941. Technologies, IIC. Final Feasibility Report National Waterways-21, Region VI- Bheema River Gundloor to Hippargi (138.9 km). Gautam Budh Nagar: Inland Waterways Authority of India, 2016. Thaper, B.K. “Maski -1954: A Chalcolithic site of the Southern Deccan.” Ancient India 13 (1957): 114. Veluthat, Kesavan. “The Sannathi Inscriptions and the Questions they Raise”. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 60, (1999): 1081-1086. Wheeler, R.E.M. “Brahmagiri and Chandravalli 1947: Megalithic and other Cultures in the Chitaldrug District, Mysore State.” Ancient India IV, (1948): 81–321. Yazdani, G. “Notes on a Survey of Neolithic Sites.” Annual Report of the Archaeological Department of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions- Appendix A 20, (1935-1936). 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India Description An account of the resource This paper explores the Bhima River's historical significance and navigational potentialities in human settlement from prehistoric to early historical periods. The upper and lower reaches of the Bhima River are home to numerous sites dating back to the prehistoric and Early Historical periods. However, the lower reaches have a large number of sites compared to the upper reaches, where the basin is broad and shallow in the open landscape. The importance of the Bhima River in facilitating short and long-distance navigation likely increased significantly from establishing sedentary villages to the emergence of larger settlements and towns during the Early Historic period (300 BCE-500 CE). The present study is centred on analysing two distinct types of archaeological sites, emphasising their respective geographical distributions. (i) Sites centred within a distance of 1 km from the Bhima River course. (ii) The sites centred within a 10 km radius of the Bhima River course in the lower reaches, spanning from Firozabad (17°5'3.00"N, 76°47'25.00"E) to its confluence with the Krishna River near Gundloor (16°24'39.00"N, 77°17'1.23"E). The present study constitutes an initial attempt to identify and establish a plausible connection for understanding the potential influence of navigational pursuits in establishing significant early historical sites, utilising geospatial techniques and analysis, and reviewing published archaeological reports to reconstruct the socio-economic contexts. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deepak Pal Arjun Rao Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Pal, Deepak and Arjun Rao. 2023. “Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2025 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ferry, David Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Farrar, Strauss & Giroux Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Translator Ferry, David Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Farrar, Strauss & Giroux Title A name given to the resource Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Gold Rush Port: The Maritime Archaeology of San Francisco's Waterfront Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource James P. Delgado Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-03-04 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author James P. Delgado Item Type Book ISBN 0520255801 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-03-04 Library Catalog Amazon.com Place Berkeley Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Short Title Gold Rush Port Title A name given to the resource Gold Rush Port: The Maritime Archaeology of San Francisco's Waterfront China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cd553bad50371babe6ce4a369476b7ee.pdf acf71196f702b6febb8c2a805b406fb4 PDF Text Text Goods and Texts: Creating an Archaeological and Historical Narrative of Sri Lanka’s Connectivity with Southeast Asia, China, and Beyond Wijerathne Bohingamuwa1 1 Department of History and Archaeology, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka Corresponding Author: wbohingamuwa@yahoo.com ABSTRACT This paper deals with Sri Lanka’s interactions with Southeast Asia, China, and regions beyond from the beginning to the middle of the thirteenth century CE. Several factors, including its central location in the Indian Ocean, have contributed to connecting the island with these regions. Ceramics, epigraphic, and textual data provide the best evidence for reconstructing such interactions. This paper is primarily based on the analysis of ceramics unearthed from the coastal port-urban centres of Mantai, Kantharodai, and Kirinda. This data is compared with the ceramic data from other sites such as Anuradhapura and Thissamaharama, as well as sites from the Indian Ocean Rim, for comparison. Material analysis results are compared against and supplemented by epigraphic and textual data. The key research question addressed here is: What different patterns of Sri Lanka’s connectivity with the eastern segment of the Indian Ocean might emerge through the analysis of material and textual evidence? Research reveals that the material evidence not only predates textual evidence for the beginning of Sri Lanka’s interactions with the region under study but also clearly indicates their continuity up to the middle of the thirteenth century CE. Material evidence, including beads and the transfer of iron technology, dates the earliest relationships to the middle of the first millennium BCE. These cultural-commercial connections were regularized and intensified after the fifth and seventh centuries CE, respectively. Sri Lanka’s culture- historical developments, in general, have always been influenced by the changing dynamics of the Indian Ocean. Keywords: Sri Lanka’s external connectivity, Southeast Asia, China, Ceramics LIST OF ABBRIVIATIONS SEA Southeast Asia SCC1 Southern Chinese Celadon 1 WWS Southern White Wares SEAW Southeast Asian Ware PIOW Paddle Impressed Orange Ware BGW Black Glazed Ware MTIW Mica Tempered Impressed Ware PLOW Pale Light Orange Ware LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Map of site locations mentioned in the text. 1. INTRODUCTION Several factors appear to have favorably contributed to connecting Sri Lanka with the regions across the Bay of Bengal: its location at a critical point in the Indian Ocean; the annual cycle of monsoon winds; the availability of numerous safe seaports; high-demand trade goods; and its reputation as a centre of Theravada Buddhism. The importance of Sri Lankan ports to Indian Ocean trade and naval power prompted several foreign powers to control the island. According to the texts, the religious networks appear to have been the forerunner that linked the island across the Bay of Bengal and were subsequently expanded to include political and economic interactions. Material evidence for trade and exchange, however, appears to predate these historical relations recorded in the texts. Culture-historical developments on the island, therefore, have always been influenced by those in the Indian Ocean. 1 �2. RESEARCH QUESTION, OBJECTIVE AND METHODS The key research question addressed here is: What different patterns of Sri Lanka’s connectivity with Southeast Asia (SEA), and China might emerge through the analysis of material and textual evidence? Accordingly, the objective here is to understand the nature of Sri Lanka’s interactions with the said region from about the middle of the first millennium BCE to the middle of the thirteenth century CE. For this purpose, ceramics unearthed from the Mantai, Kantharodai, and Kirinda (Map 1) were typologically and statistically analyzed. The origin and provenance of ceramics were determined through comparison with published material from the Indian Ocean region. The material and sequences wherein they were found were dated through radiocarbon dates and typological and inter-site comparisons. When the occurrence of identified material across sites is placed in a chronological framework, the pattern of interactions with various regions and how they change over time is visible, although the form of interactions is not necessarily obvious from artifacts alone, for which reason the textual and epigraphic data were integrated. Figure 1: Map of site locations mentioned in the text (Drawing credit: Wasantha Senadeera). 2 �3. SITES, ASSEMBLAGES AND THEIR CHRONOLOGIES Mantai, the key site discussed here, was the main seaport of the capital, Anuradhapura, for more than 1500 years. Its excavated cultural sequence dates from the second century BCE to the twelfth /thirteenth century CE (Bohingamuwa 2017, 65–71). Kantharodai was the urban/ religious centre attached to Jambukolapattana seaport. The excavated sequence here dates from ca. 500 BCE to the early or mid-first century BCE (Bohingamuwa 2017, 475–480). Kirinda is located close to Tissamaharama, the ancient capital of the southern kingdom. Based on radiocarbon dates and diagnostic ceramics, Bohingamuwa (2017, 499–505) dated this sequence from ca. the late third–fourth to the early ninth centuries CE. Kantharodai has the oldest sequence, but the site declined before the start of the Common Era. Although historical sources link Jambukolapattana to various ports in India and the SEA at least since the third century BCE (Mv. 19, 23–43), Kantharodai contains 99.58 per cent local and Indian material. Similarly, Kirinda too contains only a limited number of SEA or Chinese artifacts. Both sites, however, have a large number of sherds identified as "Imported.Unknown" of which the majority are considered to be Southeast Asian based on surface treatment (Bohingamuwa 2017, 194-202). Therefore, Mantai, the longest surviving site with its diverse assemblage, is discussed, while material from the other three sites is used as supplementary evidence. 4. CHINESE CONNECTIONS Of the three sites studied, only the Mantai and Kirinda assemblages contained clearly identifiable Chinese ceramics, amounting to 452 sherds. Kirinda's had only two Dusun ware (Dusun) sherds datable to the late seventh to early/ mid-eighth centuries. Since Chinese ceramics, representing 18 wares, were recovered from Mantai1 (Bohingamuwa 2017, 341; Catalogue Table: C3.9.28), Sino-Sri Lanka connections traceable from ceramics are discussed based on selected key wares (94 per cent of total Chinese sherds) while comparing with other assemblages from the island and overseas. Disregarding intrusive sherds in early phases, the regular Chinese wares occur from around the late seventh/ early eighth century CE (Bohingamuwa 2017, 177). The assemblage includes both storage and tableware. The profusion of Chinese ceramics is noted in Phase VII, dated to between the early/mid-eighth and late ninth centuries. In this phase, Chinese ceramics rapidly increased and diversified in terms of sherd counts (88), number of wares (13), and their types. They included 41 sherds of Dusun storage/transport jars and 12 tableware, such as Yue Celadon Ware (Yue), Changsha Ware (Changsha) and Southern Chinese Celadon 1 (SCC1). The deposit above Phase VII (a disturbed phase) contained 84 sherds, indicating continuity of cultural-commercial interactions with China. The surface at Mantai has extensive Chinese sherd scatters, and 260 sherds were sampled. Both Phase ‘D’ and the Surface have 16 wares, which include Ding Kiln White Ware (Ding) and Southern White Wares (WWS) datable to eleventh/ twelfth centuries. A Chinese ceramic dump recovered from Allaipiddy contained Southern Song dynasty period ceramics (Carswell 1 Our excavation was confined to 3m X 3m. Carsewell et al. (2015) excavated extensively at Mantai, and their ceramic assemblage was strikingly similar to ours. 3 �1985). Similarly, a Chinese sherd dating to the thirteenth/ fourteenth century is housed at the Yapahuwa Museum, indicating the continuity of relations. 4.1 Selected key Chinese wares Of the 18 Chinese wares, only Dusun (265) and Changsha (55) and Yue (22) wares have considerable sherd counts. Since they are widely distributed in the Indian Ocean and securely dated, they are discussed here to illustrate Sino-Sri Lankan connections. 4.1.1 Dusun ware Dusun is considered to have been made either in Hunan Province (Flecker 2001, 335) or Guangzhou (Guy 2008, 11) and is generally dated to the eighth /ninth centuries CE in the western Indian Ocean region (Whitehouse and Williamson 1973; Tampoe 1989; Kennet 2004, 65). Dusun recovered from Mantai, Allaipiddy, and Anuradhapura has been dated by Carswell (2013, 246) to the ninth–twelfth centuries and by Prickett-Fernando (2003, 74) between the seventh and tenth centuries. Dusun in our assemblage dates from the late seventh/ early eighth century to the late ninth/ tenth century. The majority of Dusun finds in Sri Lanka are from the ancient seaports, indicating their transport role, as suggested earlier (Guy 2008; Flecker 2001). 4.1.2. Changsha ware This tableware produced in Hunan province (Hughes-Stangton; Kerr 1981, 57–59) is traded across South Asia to the Persian/Arabian Gulf and to Eastern Africa (Whitehouse and Williamson 1973; Kennet 2004) in the west to Japan and Korea in the east (Carswell et al. 2013, 256). In Sri Lanka, Changsha is found in sites such as Anuradhapura and Mantai, which are dated to the eighth to the tenth centuries (Carswell et al. 2013, 256–266; Prickett-Fernando 2003, 56). Regular occurrences of Changsha in our assemblage date from the early/ mid-eighth to late ninth/ tenth centuries CE (Bohingamuwa 2017, Figure 3.55), which tally with 760–900 CE dates from Shanga (Horton 1996, 303). Whitehouse and Williamson (1973) considered Changsha to represent the earliest phase of Chinese ceramic trade with the West. Sri Lanka was an integral part of this maritime trade network. 4.1.3 Yue Celadon ware The occurrence of Yue ware at Mantai is similar to Changsha and hence dates to the same period, with a possible upper date extension up to the eleventh century. Yue ware is widely reported from Sri Lanka, including Anuradhapura, Yapahuwa, and Polonnaruwa (Coningham 2006; Prematilleke 1982), and is generally dated to the ninth and tenth centuries (Prickett-Fernando 2003, 75); however, our Mantai Yue wares date from the eighth to the eleventh centuries. Horton (1996, 307) also reported the continuity of this ware to the thirteenth century at Shanga. Yue ware is also traded up to the Persian and Arab Gulfs and Eastern Africa (Kennet 2004; Horton 1996, 307). The Sino-Sri Lanka relations apparent in ceramics seem to date between the T’ang (618–907 CE) and Song (960–1279 CE) dynasties. 4 �4.2 Sri Lanka- Southeast Asia (SEA) relations Ceramics identified as Southeast Asian Ware (SEAW) are tentative and are based on their paddle impressions (e.g., Karashima 2004, 3–10; Sasaki 2004, 16–20, 48–50). Lertrit (2004) was certain that such marks were of SEA origin. Similarly, Solheim and Deraniyagala (1972) identified Paddle-impressed sherds recovered from Kudumbigala, as being Southeast Asian. Our SEA assemblage contains both glazed and unglazed tableware and storage / transport wares. 4.2.1 Southeast Asian Wares (SEAW) The SEA assemblage contains 87 sherds, of which only eight are from Kirinda and the rest are from Mantai. The former had only one ware, Paddle Impressed Orange Ware (PIOW), which appears to date from the early sixth/ mid-seventh century to the early eighth century. Therefore, the Mantai assemblage is important to illustrate interactions with that region. It had 79 sherds representing nine wares, of which only Black glazed Ware (BLAG) is glazed (Bohingamuwa 2017, 337, Table C3.10.32). Their occurrence before Phase VII is numerically insignificant, but they may indicate the arrival of SEAW from around the late first/ second century, increasing them from the early seventh to eighth/ninth centuries. Their occurrence matches the dates (100–500 CE, with the majority being after 600 CE) assigned by Solheim and Deraniyagala (1972, 31–32). At Mantai, they continued to arrive until about the twelfth/ thirteenth century. Of the non-glazed wares, Paddle Impressed Orange Ware (PIOW) and Mica Tempered Impressed Ware (MTIW) are more certain as being SEAWs for their decorations. 4.2.2 ‘Imported.Unknown’ (Imp. Unk) ceramics and Southeast Asian connections At Mantai, Katharodai, and Kirinda, there are 1772 sherds (4 per cent) that were identified as non-local for their firing and fabric. Since their origin could not be determined, they were termed ‘Imported. Unknown’. This assemblage contains both tableware and storage/ transport ware. Of the SEA origin ‘Imp.Unk’ sherds, Pale light Orange Ware (PLOW) and PIOW (SEAW) ware resemble a sherd identified by Schenk (2014, 96) as SEAW from Tissamaharama. This identification is based on similar finds in Angkor Borei. Tissamahararama sherd is dated to the fourth/ fifth century CE. However, our SEAWs date from the late first century, and then increased rapidly after the seventh century, making them the earliest SEAWs in Sri Lanka. SEAWs identified by Solheim and Deraniyagala (1972, 31-38) date them from 100–500 CE, while most of them postdate 600 CE. This evidence supports my identification of some ‘Imp.Unk" wares as SEA. The ‘Imp.Unk’ assemblage collectively dates from ca. mid-fourth/ late third century CE and peaks in the early/mid-eighth century. 5. TEXTUAL AND EPIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE Mahavamsa’s earliest reference to Sri Lanka-SEA relations is the arrival of Suriguttha of Kelasa monastery (Burma) with other monks for a religious event at Anuradhapura in the second century BCE (Mv. 29, 13). Inscriptions datable to the third or second century BCE refer to seafaring, some of which also mention regions to which they sailed. The first century Periyaminikulam inscription mentions a sailor named Naga, who worked for Aji Saka of the Javanese tradition (Paranavitana 1970, cxxvii). Somadeva (2006, 57) 5 �identified a ‘Javaka naya’ (Nayaka), a leader of Javakas, in the Mottayakallu inscription. They were all Malay Peninsula traders who traded with Sri Lanka. The earliest textual evidence for Sino-Sri Lanka are the emissaries sent by the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) (Werake 1978, 64–73). Such early China-Sri Lanka relations are clear from Pliny’s record of Rachia, the chief Sri Lankan envoy to Claudius court, who described his father’s visit to Seres (China). This visit is recorded in Vamsattappakasini and an inscription at Sasseruwa in Anuradhapura (Abeydheera 2009, 145–165). By the first/ second century CE, Mahaniddesa indicates that Sri Lankan ports acted as transit points in sea voyages between India and the SEA. Therefore, the Satavahanas of Deccan, India (230 BCE– 220 CE) sent their trading ships to Suvannabhumi via Sri Lanka (Gunawardana 2003, 19–20). It is roughly when our SEA wares appear at Mantai. These interactions appear to have intensified after the arrival of Fa-Xian in the fifth century, as is clear from the 11 religious missions exchanged in the next two centuries (Werake 1978, 64–73). Nandi, who transported Sri Lankan Buddhist nuns to establish the order of nunneries in China in 426 and 429, was a highly experienced sailor on long-distance sea voyages (Grimes 1941, 76–79). Buddhist monks played a significant role in strengthening cultural and commercial relations between the two regions. Buddhist pilgrims such as Gunawarman and Vajrabodhi stopped in Sri Lanka in their long journeys (Gunawardana 2003, 24–65) because the island was a Theravada Buddhist centre where there were many sacred places/ objects of worship. They sailed on merchant ships that were linked to trade routes and trading ports. Cosmas (XI. 15–16) reports that ‘Seeladiba’ (Sri Lanka) acted as the ‘mediaex’ in east-west maritime trade, and its ports were linked to trading centres all over the world. The rise of Islam in Arabia and the Tang dynasty in China brought a new dynamic to the Indian Ocean maritime trade by shifting the Arabian sea-centered trade to the Bay of Bengal. Consequently, the southeastern and eastern ports of Sri Lanka gained significance, and an increase in interaction with the SEA is visible in the archaeological record. The influence of Sri Lankan Buddhist statues in the SEA (Dupont 1959, 631–636), as well as Mahayana influence on Bodhisatva statues in Southeastern Sri Lanka, is clearly noticeable (Ghosh 1937). Interaction between the Mahayana sects in Sri Lanka and those in SEA seems to have further strengthened, as is clear from the eighth century Ratubuka inscription in central Indonesia (Casparis 1961, 241–243), which mentions an Anuradhapura Abhayagiri Vihara-affiliated monastery. The continuity of interactions with SEA is also clear from Vijayabahu I’s (1055–1110) political and cultural relations with Burma, as well as Parakrambahu I’s invasion and subsequent peace negotiations by Buddhist monks (Wickramasinghe 1960, 38–58). In the texts, Sino-Sri Lankan relations appear to have largely collapsed after the decline of the Tang dynasty and Buddhism in China. However, the continuity of trade relations is clearly visible in the ceramic record up to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 6. CONCLUSIONS The foregoing analysis of material, epigraphic and textual evidence dates the island’s earliest interactions with SEA and China to the middle of the first millennium BCE. Although not discussed here, the 6 �identification of the transfer of iron smelting furnace technology from Sri Lanka to SEA and up to Japan from around the fourth century BCE (Juleff 2009, 557–77) and the trade of Sri Lankan-made Indo-Pacific glass beads, dated to 400 BCE at Anuradhapura (Conningham 2006, 357), to SEA support this claim. However, such early interactions are not reflected in texts. By about the third/ second centuries BCE, these interactions seemed to have intensified and expanded up to China. Many early Brahmi inscriptions dated to this period refer to seafaring and trading communities, including those from the Malay peninsula. Interestingly, the earliest reference in the Mahavamsa to the arrival of Buddhist monks in Burma dates to the third century BCE. The visit of Han dynasty emissaries to the island this time indicates the trading interests of China. By the beginning of the Common Era, Sri Lanka’s cultural-commercial exchanges had extended from Rome to China, as is clear from the statements of the Sri Lankan envoy to the Claudius court. These interactions increased by the late first/ second century CE, as is clear from the appearance of Paddle-impressed wares and the finding of a piece of Chinese silk at the Kotavehera Buddhist stupa (ColomboPage 2011). By this time, texts are explicit that Sri Lankan ports were linked to ports in India and the SEA. The fifth century marked the expansion of these interactions from China to the Mediterranean, as clear from Procopius (Procopius I.20, 9–13) and the arrival of Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian in the Island and the 11 religious missions exchanged between China and Sri Lanka. In the next century, Sri Lanka became the center of Indian Ocean trade, and its ports will be linked to ports around the world (Cosmas XI, 15–16). The late seventh/ eighth century witnessed the arrival of Chinese ceramics and then a profusion of Chinese and Southeast Asian wares up to the twelfth/ thirteenth centuries CE. In response to the change of maritime trade from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal in the seventh century, southern and eastern ports gained significance, and close cultural relations with the SEA are clear from the archaeological record, texts, inscriptions, religion, and art. While it is difficult, archaeologically, to distinguish between trade and other forms of exchange, most of the commodities discussed here appear to be traded. Textual data makes it clear that religious networks were not only the forerunners of these interactions, but they also facilitated political and commercial relations. Acknowledgement This paper is primarily based on my PhD field research. I acknowledge the University of Oxford-based SEALINKS Project of Dr. Nicole Boivin and Prof. Dorian Fuller’s NERC Early Rice Project for funding my fieldwork and dating. I thank my supervisors, Dr. Nicole Boivin, Dr. Derek Kennet, Dr. Damian Robinson, and Ms. Kalangi Rodrigo for proofreading. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Abeydeera, A. “Raki’s Mission to Romanukharatha: New Evidence in Favor of Pliny’s Account of Taprobanê, “N. H.” 6.84-91”. Habis 40 (2009): 145–65. Bohingamuwa, W. Sri Lanka and the Indian Ocean: External Connections and Internal Networks (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 2017). University of Oxford. The United Kingdom. Carswell, J. “Chinese ceramics from Allapiddy in Sri Lanka”. In A Legacy of Asia’s maritime trade. 3-49. Kuala Lumpur (Southeast Asian Ceramic Society), West Malaysian Chapter, 1985. Carswell, J., Deraniyagala, S. and Graham, A. Mantai-City by the Sea. Aichwarld: Linden Soft Verlag, 2013. Casparis, J. G. de. “New Evidence on Cultural Relations between Java and Ceylon in Ancient Times.” Artibus Asiae (1961):241– 48. ColomboPage, 2011. ColomboPage: Sri Lanka Internet Newspaper. [Online] http://www.colombopage.com/archive_11/Mar14_1300117391KA.php [Accessed 25. 08. 2014]. Available at: Coningham, R. A. E. Anuradhapura: The British-Sri Lankan Excavations at Anuradhapura Salagha Watta, 2 Volume 2 – the Artefacts. BAR S1508. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2006. Cosmas Indicopleustes: Topographia Christiana. II-XI Dupont, P. “Les Buddha Dits d’Amaravati En Asie Du Sud-Est.” Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient 49, no 2 (1959): 631–36. Flecker, M. "A Ninth-Century AD Arab or Indian Shipwreck in Indonesia: First Evidence for Direct Trade with China.” World Archaeology 32, no. 3 (2001): 335–54. Ghosh, D. “Two Bodhisattva images from Ceylon and Srivijaya.” Journal of the Greater India Society 4, (1937): 125–127. Grimes, A. 1941. “The Journey of Fa-Hsien from Ceylon to Cantan.” The Journal of the Malayan Branch of Royal Asiatic Society XIX, no 1 (1941): 76–92. Gunawardana, R. A. L. H. 2003. “Seaways to Seilediba: Changing Patterns of Navigation in the Indian Ocean and Their Impact on Precolonial Sri Lanka” In Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea, edited by Bandaranayake, S. Dewaraja, L., Silva, R. and Wimalaratne, K. D.G., 17–36. Colombo: Central Cultural Fund, 2003. Guy, J. “Early Nineth-Century Chinese Export Ceramics and the Persian Gulf Connection: The Belitung Shipwreck Evidence.” The Oriental Ceramic Society of the Philippines Newsletter, no. February (2008): 7–12. Horton, M. Shanga, Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa. The British Institute of the Eastern Africa Memoir 14. London: The British Institute of the Eastern Africa, 1996. Hughes-Stanton, Penelope. and Kerr, Rose. Kiln sites of ancient China an exhibition lent by the People’s Republic of China. London: British Museum, Oriental Ceramic Society, 1981. Juleff, G. “Technology and Evolution: A Root and Branch View of Asian Iron from First Millennium BC Sri Lanka to Japanese Steel.” World Archaeology 41, no 4 (2009): 557–77. 8 �Karashima, N. In Search of Chinese-Sherds in South India and Sri Lanka. Tokyo: Taisho University, 2004. Kennet, D. Sassanian and Islamic Pottery from Ras Al-Khaimah. BAR S1248. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2004. Lertrit, S. “Late Prehistoric and Early Historic Ceramic Chronology for Central Thailand.” Silpakorn University International Journal 4, no 1-2 (2004): 5–37. Mahavamsa. Colombo: National Museum, 1912. Paranavitana, S. Inscription of Ceylon: Early Brahmi Inscriptions, Vol. I (Part1). Colombo: Department of Archaeological Survey of Sri Lanka. 1970. Prematilleke, P. L. Alahana Pirivena, Polonnaruwa Archaeological Excavation Report (April – September 1981). Colombo: Central Cultural Fund, 1982. Prickett-Fernando, M. “Durable Goods: The Archaeological Evidence of Sri Lanka’s Role in the Indian Ocean Trade.” In Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea, edited by Bandaranayake, S. Dewaraja, L., Silva, R. and Wimalaratne, K. D.G., 53–76. Colombo: Central Cultural Fund, 2003. Procopius, History of the wars Vol I. London: The Loeb Classical Library, 1961. Sasaki, H. “Chinese and Thai Ceramics in Kottapatnam” In In Search of Ceramic-Sherds in South India and Sri Lanka, edited by Karashima, N., 16–21. Tokyo: Taisho University Press, 2004. Schenk, H. “Pottery of so-Called “Kaolin Fabric” at Tissamaharama-Citadel (Sri Lanka) in the 4th and 5th Century AD” In South Asian Archaeology, edited by Franke-Vogt, U. and Weisshaar, H. J., 357–64. Linden Soft Verlag, 2005. Solheim, W. G., and S. U. Deraniyagala. Archaeological Survey to Investigate South Asian Prehistoric Presence in Ceylon, Ancient Ceylon Occasional Papers no.1. Colombo: Department of Archaeology Sri Lanka, 1972. Somadeva, R. Urban Origins in Southern Sri Lanka, Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, 2006. Tampoe, M. Maritime Trade between China and the West. An Archaeological Study of the Ceramics from Siraf (Persian Gulf), 8th to 15th Centuries A.D. BAR S555. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1989. Werake, K. M. M. “A New Date for the Beginning of Sino- Lankan Relations” The Sri Lankan Journal of the Humanities iv, no 12 (1978): 64–73. Whitehouse, D., and Williamson, A. “Sassanian Maritime Trade” Iran XI (1973): 29–49. Wickramasinghe, S. “Ceylon’s Relations with South-East Asia with Special Relations to Burma” Ceylon Journal of Historical and Social Studies III, no1 (1960): 38–58. 9 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Goods and Texts: Creating an Archaeological and Historical Narrative of Sri Lanka’s Connectivity with Southeast Asia, China, and Beyond Description An account of the resource This paper deals with Sri Lanka’s interactions with Southeast Asia, China, and regions beyond from the beginning to the middle of the thirteenth century CE. Several factors, including its central location in the Indian Ocean, have contributed to connecting the island with these regions. Ceramics, epigraphic, and textual data provide the best evidence for reconstructing such interactions. This paper is primarily based on the analysis of ceramics unearthed from the coastal port-urban centres of Mantai, Kantharodai, and Kirinda. This data is compared with the ceramic data from other sites such as Anuradhapura and Thissamaharama, as well as sites from the Indian Ocean Rim, for comparison. Material analysis results are compared against and supplemented by epigraphic and textual data. The key research question addressed here is: What different patterns of Sri Lanka’s connectivity with the eastern segment of the Indian Ocean might emerge through the analysis of material and textual evidence? Research reveals that the material evidence not only predates textual evidence for the beginning of Sri Lanka’s interactions with the region under study but also clearly indicates their continuity up to the middle of the thirteenth century CE. Material evidence, including beads and the transfer of iron technology, dates the earliest relationships to the middle of the first millennium BCE. These cultural-commercial connections were regularized and intensified after the fifth and seventh centuries CE, respectively. Sri Lanka’s culture- historical developments, in general, have always been influenced by the changing dynamics of the Indian Ocean. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wijerathne Bohingamuwa Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Bohingamuwa, Wijerathne. 2023. “Goods and Texts: Creating an archaeological and historical narrative of Sri Lanka's connectivity with Southeast Asia, China, and beyond.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Wijerathne Bohingamuwa. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology.URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1946 Zotero Author Wijerathne Bohingamuwa Asia-Pac Session 8 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Great Britain and the Emergence of Japan as a Naval Power Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John Curtis Perry Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author John Curtis Perry Item Type Journal Article ISSN 00270741 Access Date 2008-05-12 22:49:30 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Full publication date: 1966 / Copyright © 1966 Sophia University Issue 3/4 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 305-321 Publication Title Monumenta Nipponica Title A name given to the resource Great Britain and the Emergence of Japan as a Naval Power URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/2383375 Volume 21 Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hibikinan ni Shizunda Tōjiki: ChÅ«kinsei no chinbotsusen/tsumini no sonzai no kanōsei ni tsuite Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Takamori Nogami Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Takamori Nogami Item Type Journal Article Issue 2005 Pages 62-85 Publication Title The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies Title A name given to the resource Hibikinan ni Shizunda Tōjiki: ChÅ«kinsei no chinbotsusen/tsumini no sonzai no kanōsei ni tsuite Volume 1 Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/bd39efe15d9c6b8eaa935deaeabcc53b.pdf af2e90eaf07e486b624549db95a1b185 PDF Text Text History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia Nady Phann Abstract Since early times, waterways have been important elements for communication and the most reliable form of transportation providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. The first glimpses into the maritime past of Cambodia begin from the legend of the founding of the Khmer Kingdom of which there are various versions. Archaeological evidence of Cambodia’s maritime past can be seen submerged in its waterways. For example, a shipwreck loaded with artifacts was recently discovered in territory of the Cambodian sea. Many other wrecks have been reported along the various inland waterways of the country, and have yet to be examined. It is only now, however, that Cambodia is beginning to progress and build its capacity in maritime archaeology, after the country became the first, and only, Southeast Asian Country to ratify the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. This paper seeks to present a description of important recent works carried out in the whole country, particularly the survey, as well as define gaps relating to the preservation and management of maritime archaeological resources. Geographical Context Cambodia has a long history as a country with an important maritime background. It is situated in Southeast Asia, forms part of the south portion of the Indochinese peninsula. It is bounded on the north by Laos, on the east and southeast by Vietnam, and on the west and northwest by Thailand. In the southwest, Cambodia is bordered by the Gulf of Thailand with a coastline of 435 kilometres (km), which is occupied by four provinces namely Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, Kampot and Kep. To the southeast of the country lies the delta of the Mekong River. The capital and largest city of Cambodia is Phnom Penh, located at Chaktomuk, which means 'four faces' that relates to the geographical confluence of four rivers - the Upper and Lower Mekong, the Tonle Sap and the Bassac. The city traditionally has been a commercial centre for the Mekong Valley with facilities for transportation by air, rail, river, and highway. It is a major river port, with an outlet to the South China Sea through the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. Cambodia’s most important river and waterway is the Mekong, the longest river in Southeast Asia and the tenth largest in the world. The Mekong runs southward through Cambodia for 486 km that passes through Phnom Penh, where it divides into the geographical confluence of four rivers. Both the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River remain the hub of Cambodia's economy, transportation, and supports fisheries, agricultural irrigation (particularly important for rice production), in addition to cultural activities. There are several other important river networks in Cambodia including the Battambang rivers (centre of the Sangke River), the Stung Treng group (the Sesan, Sekong and Srepok Rivers), and the Sen River (Kompong Thom). Historical Review of Waterways in Cambodia In the past, waterways have been important elements for communication and the most reliable form of transportation, providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. Maritime relations were established early between India, China, and the Arabs and then firmed between various parts of the coast of the Indochinese peninsula, the Malay Peninsula and Sunda Islands in Indonesia (Molyvann 2003:6). 1 �However, well before the arrival of foreign navigators, the local populations living along the rivers had established their own fleet of ships and had built cross-community relationships, thanks to continual exchanges along the coasts. The river networks provided the grid along which settlements were established and the Mekong remains the most important natural resource in Cambodia. The first glimpses into the maritime and waterways of Cambodia begin from the legend of the founding of the Khmer Kingdom. There are various versions of this tale which are beyond the scope of this paper. The ancient city of Angkor Borei, located in the south of Cambodia, was one of the major population centres of Funan (Pelliot 1903:295). As a result of recent archaeological excavations at Angkor Borei, we now know that a significant population had already settled here prior to the 1st century Common Era (CE)1 and that the deepest layers excavated dates back to the Bronze Age and thus well before the Age of Funan2. Further to the southeast, another city contemporary to Angkor Borei was built on the coast, previously known as the Gulf of Siam. This city called Oc-Eo (in present day Vietnam) was also a Funan site, and also an important port where foreign merchants came to settle since sea routes from India and the Malay Peninsula probably ended here. The exterior wall of the Oc-Eo site consisted of four embankments with five moats. The principal axis of the site was probably a canal, and the site lay at the heart of a regional network of waterways. Aerial photographs reveal a large network of manmade waterways, which served as drainage channels and irrigation canals. This network of canals, interconnected with each other and to other rivers, was also used for water traffic between population centres found along the Bassac and Mekong Rivers. In areas close to the sea, this system of waterways helped to regulate the degree of salinization from the sea. Waterways in the Oc-Eo region seem to have run from north-northeast to south-southwest, following the general gentle slope of the terrain (Molyvann 2003:8-9). The system of water management established in Funan became characteristic of Khmer settlements and still persists in many rural areas up to the present. During the 6th and 7th centuries CE, maritime traffic between China, Southeast Asia and India began to shift from existing routes skirting the coasts to more direct routes across the South China Sea from Indonesia to North Vietnam and China. Since Funan depended heavily on maritime trade, its fortunes began to wane and power shifted to a new entity called 'Chenla' in Chinese accounts (Molyvann 2003:42). The territory of Chenla probably extended far to the east and included the Mekong and Tonle Sap River valleys. When Funan was still a prosperous maritime power, the rulers of Chenla probably were still integrated with the ruling class of Funan. However, they were not completely dependent on maritime commerce and increasingly their sources of power stemmed from the inland control of territory and people3. During the Angkor period from the 9th to the 14th centuries, Khmer kings left the Mekong River and migrated inland (Molyvann 2003:13).However, the glory and prosperity of the Angkor civilization was, no doubt, based on its complex hydrography and also on trade that assisted the development of the country into a great riverine power. Numerous images on Khmer temple bas-reliefs illustrate a life settled along 1 A Georgian Calendar designation that starts at the year 1 from the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with additional years since added one by one. 2 see Stark, M. “Some Preliminary Results of the 1999-2000 Archaeological Field Investigation at Angkor Borei, Takeo Province” in Udaya: Journal of Khmer Studies, (2); 2001 3 - Funan was so called by the Chinese envoys early in the third century that may be a transcription of a local name bhnam (phnom), which means "mountain" or "Kingdom of the Mountain".Chenla (Land and Water) are often referred to by these Chinese derived names. With the development of early Khmer civilization these terms can be replaced by the more accurate classification of Pre-Angkorian period 2 �navigable water-courses, fishing activities and a lifestyle attesting to a long tradition of skilled boat construction and watercraft technology. The three major river systems flowing across the Angkor region today are known as the Puok, the Siem Reap, and the Roluos. The Puok River, which is the furthest west, has a contemporary catchment area measuring 670 square kilometers. The main river is joined in its northernmost sector by a number of tributaries, and flows southwest into the marshes of the Tonle Sap. It is probable that the Puok River supplied water to one of the earliest known historical cities of the region (Choulean, ,et al. 1996:6). Early in the Angkor period the river was partially diverted just below the northern tributaries into an artificial canal known as Royal (Water) fill, to join what is now the Siem Reap river north of the Angkorian urban complex in a village known today. Recent evidence suggests the Siem Reap River was in fact a canal flowing through the urban complex with its water feeding temple moats and smaller canal systems within the city, as well as artificial reservoirs (Choulean, Prenowitz, and Thompson 1996: 8). This waterway was the principal water course of the capital. Today, as in ancient times, the river continues south of the Angkorian urban complex to flow through the modern town of Siem Reap before discharging into the Tonle Sap near Phnom Krom. The easternmost of the three main rivers on the plain is the Roluos. This river was exploited to supply an early urban complex known during the Angkorian period (see below) as Hariharalaya, and located just north of the modern town of Roluos. The Roluos River also feeds into the marshes of the Tonle Sap. Many other streams in the area have been modified and channeled to control the flow of water for irrigating sloping agricultural land to the south (Choulean, Prenowitz, and Thompson 1996: 8). The Tonle Sap flows south from the Kulen mountain range and north from its junction with the Mekong at Cambodia's modern-day capital Phnom Penh. The river flow naturally changes direction twice a year, alternately filling and draining the lake, this is extremely rare if not unique in the world. The same can be said of the complex social practices and technologies that have developed around the Tonle Sap with a particular form of agricultural land use and 'floating' settlement having evolved along the lake in response to this unique hydrology (Choulean, et al. 1996:10). Historical Background The Mekong and Tonle Sap River are not only important sources for Cambodia's economy such as transportation, fishing, agricultural irrigation system, but are also essential waterways that play an important role like a door toward the world. This essentially means that these waterways are related to cultural activities. Archaeological evidence of Cambodia’s past can also be seen submerged in its waterways. The southern coastal riverine and maritime port of Kampot (including the town of Kep) was an important staging point for goods and visitors to Cambodia from the early through middle period to the French colonial era that immediately preceded the establishment of a new maritime centre at Sihanoukville in the 1950s (Molyvann 2003:193). Cities were developed primarily on the plain of Siem Reap-Angkor, which lies in the basin of the Tonle Sap Great Lake. The Angkorian dynasties began in 802 CE, when the first King of Angkor, Jayavarman II was invested with power on Phnom Kulen. After Angkor was definitively abandoned as the royal capital in the 15th century CE, the area today known as Cambodia became a battlefield as a result of numerous foreign invasions. The political capital shifted frequently and the population remained primarily rural and scattered throughout areas of the Mekong River valley. 3 �Phnom Penh was founded in 1431 CE, immediately after the Khmer kings abandoned Angkor (Coedès 1989:22-24). The site adopted for the new capital stretched along the Tonle Sap River. By the end of the 16th century, Phnom Penh was a flourishing mercantile centre populated by Khmer, Chinese, Japanese, Arabs, Spanish, Indonesians and Portuguese. In the 17th century, it had a small river port which received ocean-faring ships owned by Malay and Batavian trade companies (Blancot and Hetreau-Pottier 1997:29). In the Middle Period (16th -18th century CE), the royal palace was located at Oudong the capital during the 17th century with a river port at Kompong Luong or 'royal port' - the term 'kompong' adopted from the Malay word meaning 'landing-place'. The French Protectorate (1863-1953 CE) was established by a treaty signed with France in 1863. This treaty allowed Cambodia to re-establish commerce in the China Sea via the Mekong River and use the port of Saigon (formerly, the ancient Khmer city of Prei Nokor, present-day Ho Chi Minh City) in Vietnam. Under the French Protectorate, the royal palace moved to Phnom Penh that had become a transit point for goods imported from Thailand and Cochinchine attracting Chinese merchants and gradually developing into an urban centre combining business with the centre of royal power (Blancot and Hetreau-Pottier 1997:30). The port of Sihanoukville (also known as Kompong Som) is located about 225 kilometres south of the capital Phnom Penh on the extreme south of the bay of Kompong Som where it opens onto the Gulf of Thailand. Sihanoukville continues to fulfil an essential role in the integration of Cambodia into the world economy. At present this teeming sea-port hosts vessels of all types in the harbour, including colourful local fishing boats (Molyvann 2003:192-193). The main road from Sihanoukville to Phnom Penh has become the economic lifeline of Cambodia, as it carries seafood, salt and a variety of imported goods to the capital city and beyond. The Situation of Underwater Cultural Heritage The beginning of underwater archaeology in Cambodia In 2006, fishermen discovered a shipwreck at a depth of 20 meters in Koh Kong province, some 210 km southwest of the capital Phnom Penh. Looting of shipwreck artifacts occurred before the news got out. The ship, approximately 30 meters long and 8 meters wide, has not been closely examined in terms of boat-building technology. However, Chinese characters were found on some of recovered 900 pieces of pottery that were initially dated to the 15th or 16th century CE (Cambodia Daily, February 10th 2006). This event led Cambodia to begin efforts in underwater archaeology. The Cambodian government has asked foreign partners to help salvage and bring up the centuries-old vessel (Cambodia Daily, February 10th 2006). In 2007, the 2001 Convention was ratified by the Cambodian government. Over the next two years two Cambodian staff were sent to attend an intensive program on Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Australia organized by Flinders University. Four others participated in three successive workshops: Foundation Courses on Underwater Cultural Heritage organized by UNESCO Bangkok and the Thai Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD). In 2010, the Cambodian Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit was created under the General Department of Heritage. After the unit establishment, survey started at the coastline and along the rivers. This program was supported by UNESCO Phnom Penh. Some data collected from the coastline survey is still doubtful because the exact location of the shipwrecks were not located. The verification of all data will be 4 �conducted in the next program when we will have a larger budget and can entail more technical experts. Other Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites We have underwater sites which are not shipwrecks but possess artifacts or sculptures, such as Voeun Kong and Koh Bay Samnom in Stoeng Treng province and Thma Krae in Kratie province. These sites are submerged, near the bottom of the Mekong Rivers. The sites are visible only one month a year during the dry season. Voeun Kong is a relief of sculpture on rock which consists of two crocodiles, one turtle, sun disk and full moon. In a nearby area, there is an ancient brick mound at the bank of the rivers. Koh Bay Samnom is a small island containing some bricks and a stone inscription. At Thma Krae there is also a stone inscription. Training and Survey General training on underwater archaeology research methodology is held at the office of Cultural Heritage. The preliminary training focused on the definition of underwater cultural heritage (UCH), its importance, the kinds of UCH, the research and survey methodology4.The activity work plan and bibliography references were listed and distributed to all members to conduct research on documentation and a questionnaire was formulated for the survey in related provinces. Moreover, administrative letters have been sent to all Departments of Culture and Fine Arts in provinces to cooperate and collect data concerning this subject. Data collection is gathered in three ways, research documentation, collection from provinces and the actual survey. The preliminary survey was directed at the coast in Koh Kong province where a shipwreck was discovered by fishermen. The mission’s objective was to train research team members on data collection methodology. Interviews with fishermen at different places were held. A fishermen community was assembled at a Bak Khlang commune for information dissemination purposes that resulted in data collection. Table 1. List of underwater sites Site Site Name UTM UTM Province District Location Number (s) Easting Northing 1 Shipwreck Preah Mithapheap Near Koh Russei (GPS Boat Sihanuk 230.70 - 26.27) 2 Boat Preah Stoeng Hav Around 4.5 km West of Preah Sihanuk Sihanuk city and 1 km in front of La Toek Trei of Koh Rung. 3 Craft Prah Stoeng Have 5 km West from Praek Traeng ( Sihanuk Praek Traeng is 9 km North East of Preah Sihanuk City). 4 Boat Preah Between Koh Rung and Thma Sa. Sihanuk 1 hour by boat from the coast. 5 Shipwreck Koh Kong Kirisakor 20 km from Koh Sdach Coast. 6 Ship Koh Kong 2 km from the coast of Pak Khlong. Koh Kong Monduol Seima Srae Ambil 7 Ship 8 Shipwreck Kratie Kratie in Mekong River, 2 km North of Kratie Town. 4 This project is supported by Unesco Phnom Penh and the training is taken place at Ministry of culture and Fine Arts in Phnom Penh, in June 2010. 5 �Site Site Name UTM UTM Province District Number (s) Easting Northing 9 Ship Kampot Kampot 10 Wreck 12 Wreck Phnom Penh Preah Sihanuk Koh Kong 13 boat Koh Kong 14 Kor (T.) Kampong Cham Bateay 15 Ship Kampong Cham Kampong Siem 11 Ship Russei Keo Location 3 or 4 km from the coast. In front of Vat Pothi Proek Near Koh Tang. Ship left from Bangkok to Signapor Botum Sakor Between Poy Lam Thean and Island. Botum Sakor 200m from the path of Ta ok. Near Road national 6, located at flood plain of Mekong main stream. Legislative Framework and Institution Cambodia has no specific laws for the protection of UCH. The law on cultural heritage protection, which was adopted by the National Assembly in 1996, focused on general cultural heritage that states a cultural property is, “considered to be any work produced by human agency and any natural phenomenon of a scientific, historic or religious nature which bear witness to a certain stage in the development of a civilization or of the natural world and whose protection is in the public interest” (Article 4). In 2002, a Sub Decree on enforcement of Cultural Heritage Protection, focused specially on cultural property including underwater artefacts. The decree states that cultural property is all kinds of movable and immovable Cultural Property came from terrestrial and underwater excavation, legal or clandestine and archaeological discoveries (Article 4 (a)). The General Department of Heritage has existed since 2008 and is responsible for all tangible evidence of human activity. One of the four Departments, the Department of Archaeology, under the General Department is responsible for archaeological activities on land and at sea. Prior to 2008 underwater activities were unknown. The Heritage Police was recently created under the Ministry of Interior in close cooperation with the Ministry of Culture. They are in charge to, “investigate criminal actions, arrest, hold in custody and search those involved with the destruction, theft, harboring, armed robbery, buying, selling and transport of cultural and historical heritage. Prepare reports and send the arrested party, along with supporting evidence, to the tribunal”. However, these forces work only on terrestrial archaeological sites. The data gathered from the surveys related to underwater archaeology along the coastal villages and islands help us gather information about site locations and sea travel. Much of the information collected have not been verified thus far. We do not know exactly either the kinds of sites Cambodia entails nor their condition? The collected data in this paper is only preliminary5. We need the technical expertise and equipment to verify these submerged cultural data. 5 Report is in progress of publishing 6 �Abbreviations APSARA EFEO BEFEO Autorité pour la Protection du Site et l’Aménagement de la région d’Angkor Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient Bulletin de l’Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient Bibliography Choulean, A., Prenowitz, E., and Thompson, A., 1996 Blancot, C., and Hetreau-Pottier, A., 1997 Cœdès, G., 1989 Dagens, B., 1995 Delaporte, L., 1880 Pélliot, P., 1903 Stark, M., 2001 Molyvann, V., 1999 Molyvann, V., .2003 Da, y., 1995 Angkor: A manual for the Past, Present, and Future, APSARA, Royal Government of Cambodia, Phnom Penh. "1863-1953, une ville neuve dans un site d’occupation ancienne" in Phnom Penh, developpement urbain et patrimonie, Ministère de la Culture, Département des Affaires Internationales, Paris. pp. 29-43 Articles sur le Pays Khmer, EFEO, Paris. Angkor: Heart of an Asian Empire, Thames and Hudson and Harry N. Abrahams, London & New York, Voyage au Cambodge, Delagrave, Paris, "Le Fou-nan", BEFEO, tome III, Paris, "Some Preliminary Results of the 1999-2000 Archaeological Field Investigations at Angkor Borei, Takeo Province", Udaya: Journal of Khmer Studies, n 2, Phnom Penh Les cités khmères anciennes, Toyota Foundation, Phnom Penh, Modern Khmer Cities, Reyum, Phnom Penh, Khmer Boat-racing, Diploma in Archaeology, Faculty of Archaeology, Royal University of Fine Arts, Phnom Penh, 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 Some Challenges and Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Since early times, waterways have been important elements for communication and the most reliable form of transportation providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. The first glimpses into the maritime past of Cambodia begin from the legend of the founding of the Khmer Kingdom of which there are various versions. Archaeological evidence of Cambodia’s maritime past can be seen submerged in its waterways. For example, a shipwreck loaded with artifacts was recently discovered in territory of the Cambodian sea. Many other wrecks have been reported along the various inland waterways of the country, and have yet to be examined. It is only now, however, that Cambodia is beginning to progress and build its capacity in maritime archaeology, after the country became the first, and only, Southeast Asian Country to ratify the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. This paper seeks to present a description of important recent works carried out in the whole country, particularly the survey, as well as define gaps relating to the preservation and management of maritime archaeological resources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nady Phann Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4b95e4e045ab79385c4ebd13d89bb3c4.pdf baeb3e15d7d634d2caec28a60a604e79 PDF Text Text Hoa Lu - The 10th Century Capital of Vietnam - An Abandoned City by the Sea Dr. Vo Thi Phuong Thuy (Institute of History, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences) ABSTRACT The research aims to understand the impact of sea recession on the rise and fall of the Hoa Lu ancient capital city of Vietnam during the 10th-11th centuries. This is done by placing the city in its coastal context, which has been neglected in previous studies. Hoa Lu is currently the core zone of the UNESCO World Heritage Site: Trang An Landscape Complex, located 92km south of Hanoi. It was only used for 42 years (968-1010 CE) as the capital city of the Dai Viet Kingdom before the capital was moved to Thang Long (present-day Hanoi). We believe that one of the main reasons for this move was the sea recession. The available resources for this research include historical documents; geographical surveys using old maps and LiDAR images; archaeological surveys including surface ceramic collections and archaeological excavations. The research questions include: How did the sea and its recession affect the landscape change of the region in the 10 th-11th centuries? How did it influence the water management system and the plan of the city? How did it affect the economic activities of the city? The results of the research project will give a more comprehensive understanding of the landscape of the region, including ancient shorelines located south of the city. The sea recession could be the reason why the 10 th century seaport of Hoa Lu was abandoned, leading to the capital's move to Thang Long. Although there have been some good results in the early stages of the project, further research and collaboration with international researchers from various disciplines are still needed. Keywords: Hoa Lu, Vietnam urbanism, ancient shorelines List of Figures Figure 1 Landscape of the Hoa Lu area Figure 2 Hoa Lu in relation to the coastline in the 10th century Figure 3 Location of the sediment hand cores Figure 4 A comprehensive map of Hoa Lu with the location of 13 th –15th centuries and 10th-century shrines INTRODUCTION We have been conducting a research project on the history and marine properties of Hoa Lu for nearly 10 years. Our preliminary research results show that Hoa Lu was located very close to the sea in the 10th -11th centuries and the sea was an extremely important factor affecting the history of the formation, development, and decline of the ancient capital. The proximity to the sea may have been one reason why Hoa Lu was chosen as a military capital and then was abandoned, as the army could move forward and backwards across the sea quickly and easily. The sea recession, however, made Hoa Lu far from the sea, and it was no longer easy to enter or escape from Hoa Lu by sea. The proximity to the sea has certainly influenced the water management system in Hoa Lu. The influence of tides and seawater certainly also affected the agricultural activities of this area. In addition, the speed of the sea recession in this area has also affected the reclamation and establishment of villages in this area, not only in the 10th -11th centuries but until today. However, the above issues are only our initial observations. Further studies from different aspects, such as archaeology, geography, and environment, are still needed. This paper will present some preliminary results in the study of marine factors in Hoa Lu including: The change of the political centre of Hoa Lu from the 10th to the 13th century, which may partly show the influence of the sea recession on the political history of the region; Some preliminary information about the ancient shorelines in the south of Hoa Lu; The ancient shrines in the area of ancient shorelines and the relationship between the chronology of the shrines and the villages. 1 �Brief historical and geographical context of Hoa Lu Hoa Lu was the capital of Vietnam from 968 to 1010. It was the first capital of the independent Viet's kingdom after almost 1000 years of domination by the Han people. After Hoa Lu, the capital was relocated to Thang Long (present-day Hanoi). Hoa Lu played a pivotal role in Vietnamese history, as it marked the end of the Han colonisation era and the beginning of an independent era for Dai Viet. During the 13th century, long after the capital had moved to Thang Long, Hoa Lu was once again chosen as a military base for Dai Viet during the war with the Mongol army. The Tran army strategically chose the southern region of the capital Hoa Lu as the primary location for the king and the key army of the Tran Dynasty during the war. Hoa Lu is now located in Ninh Binh province, 92km south of Hanoi, in the core zone of the Trang An UNESCO heritage site. The topography of Hoa Lu today shows that the area is low-lying and prone to flooding. At the beginning of the 21st century, before the construction and development of infrastructure and tourism, much of the area was still flooded, and transportation was mainly done by light boats. Currently, some areas in the region are still prone to flooding, particularly during the rainy season. Figure 1: Landscape of the Hoa Lu area (Location names in red: King Dinh’s home village, Hoa Lu Citadel, Trang An Mountain Ranges, 13th-century military base, 10th-century seaport; Location names in blue: Hoang Long River, Day River, Van River) The city is situated on the eastern edge of the Trang An limestone mountain range and was formed by alluvium from two major rivers in the region, the Day River and the Hoang Long River (Figure 1). Additionally, the city is located not far from the coast. Although the exact location of the coastline in the 10th century is unknown, preliminary studies suggest that it was close to the capital. A seaport was built in the 10th century as the southeast gateway from the sea to the capital. The ancient coastline is believed to have run parallel to the dug river, which was the southeast boundary of Hoa Lu. The end of the dug river (the Van River) was the seaport. 2 �The flooding and proximity to the sea are important factors in the birth, development, and decline of the Hoa Lu capital. The locals of Hoa Lu have adapted to the mangrove environment near the sea since prehistoric times, as evidenced by the SUNDASIA Project. When Hoa Lu was chosen as the capital, these experiences of the local residents were utilized, and there were many large reclamation and encroachment projects implemented by the court, especially in the 15th and 19th centuries. The sea dike from the 15th and 19th centuries still exists and serves as a testament to the feats of sea encroachment by the inhabitants of this area. Throughout the history of the indigenous people of Hoa Lu, adaptation to the coastal mangrove environment has been formed and existed. The current centre of Hoa Lu is about 60km from the coast. However, this area is experiencing a relatively rapid rate of coastal erosion. This is evidenced by the fact that the 15th-century sea dyke is only about 13km from the 19th-century sea dyke, and the 19th-century sea dyke is about 15km from the coast today. Historical records show that Hoa Lu was once much closer to the sea. There are traces of a large seaport on the present-day terrain, right at the gateway to the Hoa Lu boundary. (Figure 2) Hoa Lu – a seaside capital city To redefine the Vietnamese urban concept, we have situated Hoa Lu within the context of low-density large cities that bear greater resemblance to mainland Southeast Asian urban settlements than to cities in Europe or China (Vo et al. 2021). Previous studies mostly focused on the architecture and architectural materials of the central area of the Hoa Lu capital. They mostly did not mention the sea and the relationship between Hoa Lu and the sea. This makes our perception of Hoa Lu still one-sided and limited. Our revision of the concept and expansion of the research scope on Hoa Lu has led us to realise that without considering the city's coastal location, it would be impossible to grasp the nature of this urban area. Hoa Lu is not solely an urban area constructed in limestone mountains and surrounded by large rivers, but it is also a city in proximity to the sea. This realisation not only influences our comprehension of the urban plan but also provides insight into why it became the capital and why it was abandoned as such after only 43 years. To address these significant questions, more interdisciplinary and archaeological studies are necessary. Despite limited resources, our preliminary research on this matter has generated some preliminary findings over the years. The 13th-century military base and the shifting of the central area So far, despite numerous archaeological excavations in the central area of Hoa Lu, no research has been conducted on marine elements in the 10th – 11th centuries. However, based on available data, it can be concluded that Hoa Lu was originally chosen and constructed as a robust capital and military base primarily due to its strategic geographical location. The city is surrounded by mountain ranges, creating a strong protective boundary, and is located close to flooded valleys with many caves and rugged mountains, making it easy to withdraw troops in times of external attacks. Additionally, the large and small rivers in and around the city centre made transportation to the sea very convenient, with a distance of just over 10km from the city centre to the coastal port. During the 13th century, when Dai Viet faced the Mongol army, Hoa Lu was selected as the Tran army's retreat base. However, this time, the base was moved south of the centre of Hoa Lu. In 2022, several excavations and archaeological surveys were carried out in the military base area, south of the centre of Hoa Lu (Vo 2022). Initial data was obtained on the size and nature of the foundations, archaeological artefacts found in the area, and information about the system of monuments and legends related to the site. These initial data suggest that this area was most likely a military base near the sea, acting as a strategic forward area to protect the Thang Long capital in the southern coastal area of the country. Therefore, it can be assumed that Hoa Lu has always been an important military area near the sea of Dai Viet for centuries. The shift of military bases from the 10th to the 13th centuries towards the southsoutheast may indicate a shift in the coastline, as the sea receded from the location of the 10th-century dug river and the 10th-century seaport to the location of the 13th-century military area after three centuries. 3 �Ancient shorelines at the Southeast of Hoa Lu (Figure 2, 3) The map below illustrates the simulated location of ancient coastlines using aerial photography, field surveys, and the locations of archaeological sites and sea dikes from the 15th and 19th centuries. Nevertheless, further research is required to comprehensively define and comprehend this matter. Figure 2: Hoa Lu in relation to the coastline in the 10th century (The pre-10th century coastline based on Van Maren (Van 2004, 12) and 1st-10th centuries and Iron Age sites based on Nishimura (Masanari 2005, 99-107). After conducting surface surveys and examining Lidar images, we obtained primary results from three sediment hand cores. These samples contained mainly pure, salty sand, supporting our hypothesis about ancient shorelines in the southeast of Hoa Lu. However, this is only the preliminary result and further sediment sampling, and archaeological research is required to obtain more information. This task is essential for our upcoming research stages, as we aim to date the shrines in this area and examine the changes in ancient shorelines. Understanding the relationship between the shrines and the development of ancient shorelines will provide insight into the connection between Hoa Lu and the sea, and aid in comprehending the city's water control planning. 4 �Figure 3: Location of the sediment hand cores (based on LiDAR image) The ancient shrines at the South – East of Hoa Lu (Figure 4) Based on field surveys and historical documents, we have compiled a list of 37 ancient shrines located in the South-East of Hoa Lu. We have divided the shrines into two groups: those inside the area enclosed by the Day River to the north of the Van canal (red triangles in Figure 4), and those to the south of the canal (yellow triangles in Figure 4). However, the shrines located south of Hoa Lu pose a problem, as they are traditionally dated back to the 10th century and are said to honour the generals of the Hoa Lu rulers. The issue with these shrines is that the dates do not align with the successive locations of the coastline from the 10th to the 19th century. These shrines lie between the location of the 10th century harbour and naval base and the 15th century sea dike. This means that if they were built during the 40year duration of the Hoa Lu capital, the entire progradation of the coastline between the 10th century line and the location of the 15th century sea dyke took only 40 years, which is problematic. There are two possible interpretations of this situation. First, the shoreline could have moved very rapidly since the 10th century, and the shrines were added at that time. However, this is geomorphically problematic because the Non-Nuoc inscription refers to the sea still being near Non Nuoc even in the 15th century. Alternatively, and we incline to this second interpretation - the shoreline prograded gradually between the 10th and the 15th century, and the shrines that are ascribed to 10th century warriors were added later in honour of 10th century warrior heroes. Additionally, we only found later ceramics in these shrines, not 10th century ceramics. Future research that involves excavating in the shrine enclosures will provide answers to this issue. An important task in the next stage of the research will be to date these shrines and examine the change in the location of the former shorelines. Understanding the relationship between the shrines and the development of the former shorelines will provide insight into the connection between Hoa Lu and the sea. 5 �Figure 4: A comprehensive map of Hoa Lu with the location of 13th – 15th centuries and 10th century shrines. (Location names in blue: Gian Khau Confluence, Hoang Long River, Hoa Lu, Da Gia Ha, Trang An Mountain Ranges, Xuan Ang Noi, Nui Non Nuoc, Chanh River, Van Canal, 10th century seaport, Day River; Location names in black: 10th century naval base, 10th century fortification, Man Bac site (4000-3500BP), 15th century sea dyke, 19th century sea dyke) 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Dang, Cong Nga. Kinh Do Hoa Lu Thoi Dinh - Tien Le (The Hoa Lu Capital in The Dinh-Early Le Dynasties). Ninh Binh, Vietnam: So Van hoa Thong tin Ninh Binh, 2002. Masanari, Nishimura. Settlement patterns on the Red River Plain from the Late Prehistoric period to the 10th century AD. Paper presented at the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin 25, 2005, Taipei, 2005. Van, Maren. Morphodynamics of a cyclic prograding delta: the Red River, Vietnam. (PhD). Utrecht: Utrecht University, 2004. Vo, Thi Phuong Thuy, Roland Fletcher & Ying-San Liou. Extensive urbanism in Vietnam between the 4th century BCE and the 19th century CE. World Archaeology 53 (2) (2021): 345-368 Vo, Thi Phuong Thuy. Báo cáo kết quả khảo sát bước đầu các di tích liên quan đến nhà Trần ở khu vực Tam Cốc-Bích Động (Field survey report of the Tran Dynasty relics in Tam Coc – Bich Dong region), So Du lich tinh Ninh Binh, 2022. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hoa Lu - The 10th Century Capital of Vietnam - An Abandoned City by the Sea Description An account of the resource The research aims to understand the impact of sea recession on the rise and fall of the Hoa Lu ancient capital city of Vietnam during the 10th -11th centuries. This is done by placing the city in its coastal context, which has been neglected in previous studies. Hoa Lu is currently the core zone of the UNESCO World Heritage Site: Trang An Landscape Complex, located 92km south of Hanoi. It was only used for 42 years (968-1010 CE) as the capital city of the Dai Viet Kingdom before the capital was moved to Thang Long (present-day Hanoi). We believe that one of the main reasons for this move was the sea recession. The available resources for this research include historical documents; geographical surveys using old maps and LiDAR images; archaeological surveys including surface ceramic collections and archaeological excavations. The research questions include: How did the sea and its recession affect the landscape change of the region in the 10th -11th centuries? How did it influence the water management system and the plan of the city? How did it affect the economic activities of the city? The results of the research project will give a more comprehensive understanding of the landscape of the region, including ancient shorelines located south of the city. The sea recession could be the reason why the 10th century seaport of Hoa Lu was abandoned, leading to the capital's move to Thang Long. Although there have been some good results in the early stages of the project, further research and collaboration with international researchers from various disciplines are still needed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Vo Thi Phuong Thuy Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Thuy, Vo Thi Phuong. 2023. “Hoa Lu - The 10th Century Capital of Vietnam - An Abandoned City by the Sea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Abhirada Komoot. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1935 Asia-Pac Session 3 2023