22 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e85517c892d580a7223b27c2d464598d.pdf fae990492aaddcfcbc7eedd230a7d9f2 PDF Text Text The Subcritical Mass-Treatment of a Range of Iron Artifacts from Varying Contexts Nasanen, L. M. E.; González-Pereyra, N. G.; Cretté, S.A. Abstract The use of subcritical fluids for the treatment of archaeological and marine archaeological iron artifacts has been under experimentation at the Clemson University’s Warren Lasch Conservation Center (WLCC) since 2003 and has shown promise of providing solutions to some of the issues related to the more traditional desalination treatments: Treatment times are but a fraction of those required by the soaking methods; chloride readings are brought to near-negligible levels; desalination can be carried out with or without prior deconcretion; solutions are maintained in sealed containers for the duration of the treatments; and positive results have been seen so far with tests for long-term stability of treated artifacts. Particularly remarkable has been the effect the process appears to have had on corrosion matrices containing the chloride-hosting iron oxyhydroxide, Akagenéite (β-FeOOH) on artifacts that have been allowed to dry out. Results have shown a significant reduction in the quantities of this phase – often linked to the continuation of active corrosion processes within iron artifacts – through transformation into more stable corrosion products such as magnetite and hematite. Experiments carried out to date have not only involved single samples and artifacts, but testing has progressed to a stage where numerous artifacts have been successfully stabilized simultaneously in the same batch. The work presented describes three of such desalination treatments. The first run included a single wrought iron ballast block from the H.L. Hunley, a confederate Civil War submarine lost in battle in 1864. This was followed by the first batch run on five similar ballast blocks and a second with nine iron artifacts of varying composition, context and condition, selected from the National Park Service (NPS - USA) curatorial collection. Introduction After extensive studies and testing for 9 years at the WLCC, the subcritical treatment has proven to be an effective alternative for the stabilization of iron and iron corrosion products of materials recovered from marine and terrestrial contexts. In order to stabilize the iron matrix, the presence of chloride ion (Cl-), often linked to active corrosion processes must be eliminated or rendered inactive (deViviés, et al. 2007: 26-30; Drews, et al. 2004: 247-260; González, et al. 2007: 32-37). The desalination treatments used in the conservation field are based on the exchange of Cl- with hydroxide ions (OH-). Therefore, the solution carrying the OH- must reach the sites where the Cl- are located, which often means penetrating through pores and interstices following paths with high degrees of tortuosity through corrosion layers and concretion (Selwyn 2004:294-306; Selwyn, et al. 2001:109-120; Selwyn, et al. 1999:217-232). Once the chloride sites are reached, an excess of hydroxide is necessary in order to facilitate the �exchange. Then, the newly released Cl- must diffuse out through the material towards the bulk of the treatment solution. In the atmospheric region these processes are slow and their end point is often difficult to determine. Traditional desalination techniques rely on diffusion, which is based on concentration gradients that are significantly affected by the presence of any type of material that may act as a membrane such as corrosion layers and concretion. The most appealing reason to consider working in the subcritical region is that the properties of water are tunable by simply adjusting the temperature and pressure of the system. Changes in temperature and pressure can provide new thermodynamic and kinetic options, or chemical paths, not viable at lower temperatures. The subcritical metal treatment developed at the WLCC utilizes alkaline solutions at temperatures and pressure above 100°C and 30bar, respectively (Drews, et al. 2011). To date more than 130 experiments have been performed to evaluate the effects of subcritical treatment on a variety of archaeological wrought and cast-iron samples from both terrestrial and marine sites (deViviés, et al. 2007: 26-30; Drews, et al. 2004:247-260; Drews, et al. 2011; Drews, et al. 2005:77; González-Pereyra, et al. 2010:39-49; Mardikian, et al. 2006:82-88). Based on the results, the subcritical treatment has demonstrated to be effective, safe and exceptionally fast in removing chloride (deViviés, et al. 2007:26-30; Drews, et al. 2004:247-260; González-Pereyra, et al. 2010:39-49). This paper discusses three recent treatments using subcritical fluids, with specific emphasis on the benefits this technology may offer to the mass treatments of collections of metallic cultural heritage. Amount of Cl- released during treatment as well as corrosion products and elemental compositions of the various artifacts were monitored using ion chromatography, X-ray Fluorescence, micro-Raman, and SEM-EDS. Subcritical Technique Throughout this paper, the region where water remains in the liquid phase and extends from its normal boiling point (100ºC, 1bar) to its critical point (Tc = 373.9ºC, Pc = 220bar) will be referred to as subcritical region, while the region under 100ºC, at normal pressure, as atmospheric region, as illustrated in Figure 1a. In the sub-critical region there is a significant departure of thermodynamic, transport and chemical properties of water from those at normal conditions, redefining water as a reaction medium. Viscosity, surface tension and density all decrease for pure water or a dilute water solution including the 0.5w% sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Density, probably the most defining thermodynamic property, is affected by temperature. At high temperatures liquid water expands �considerably decreasing its density. Many properties of water are affected by this change, in particular the behavior of water as a solvent (Fernández-Prini, et al. 2004). Viscosity and surface tension are also affected. They decrease as the temperature increases, resulting in enhanced wetting properties and higher ability to penetrate pores or interstices. An increase in the diffusion constants for Cl- and OH- of about 9% will also occur, relative to the diffusion constants at 25oC and 1bar when the temperature and pressure are increased to approximately 180oC and 50bar, respectively (Bird, et al. 1992). The subcritical region also allows the use of NaOH at concentrations that are lower than what is common with traditional treatments, thus easing the burden imposed by its disposal. Additionally, evidence suggests this process also results in the transformation of certain iron corrosion products into more stable phases (akaganéite and lepidocrocite transform into hematite) (deViviés, et al. 2007:2630; González-Pereyra, et al. 2010:39-49). An additional promising characteristic of this alternative treatment is the short treatment times required compared to traditional techniques (chemical, electrochemical or gaseous). Average treatment periods typically fall within fifteen days. Moreover, this technique provides the potential ability to permeate thick concreted and corroded layers which in theory means that iron artifacts may be pre-treated or even stabilized with subcritical fluids, prior to deconcretion or cleaning (González-Pereyra, et al. 2010:39-49). This attribute is of particular interest in the case of terrestrial artifacts that are often too fragile to be cleaned prior to desalination. As such, they often require the addition of a stabilizing consolidant; however this material is likely to interfere with the extraction of the salts. Therefore, subcritical treatment offers the ability to effectively stabilize the residual metal core while the object is still embedded in its concretion. �Subcritical Protocol The schematic diagram depicted in Figure 1b provides the basic elements of the system. It consists essentially of a feed solution reservoir, a high-pressure pump, a treatment cell, a back-pressure regulator to control the system pressure and an eluent collection vessel. Artifacts are placed in the cell and the fluid flow path primed to flush any air out of the system. Next, the system is closed, brought under pressure, the flow is stabilized and the temperature is increased to the set point. Pressure, temperature and flow of the system are monitored using a computer system. Once the system is running, the eluent is sampled periodically and the Cl- concentration is measure at the exit of the cell and in the collection vessel by ion chromatography. When it reaches the level of the feed solution, considered the baseline in Cl- content for ion chromatography, the temperature is turned off and the high-pressure cell is cooled down; the flow of eluent is allowed to continue throughout the cooling process. Once the cell reaches room temperature, the high-pressure pump is turned off and the cell opened to retrieve the desalinated specimen. This latter is then rinsed thoroughly with deionized water and dried quickly to prevent any potential flash corrosion. The Artifacts The Ballast Block “Pioneer” The very first treated artifact utilizing the 40L chamber was a wrought iron ballast block – one of 97 excavated from the H.L. Hunley. Apart from a select few of such blocks, having undergone other means of desalination, the majority of these blocks remain stored together in a very large tank of NaOH 1.0w%. The selected block to undergo subcritical treatment was stored separately for several weeks immersed in a pre-treatment solution of NaOH 0.5w%. Thorough documentation and analysis pre- and post-subcritical treatment were performed, as shown in Figure 2. The artifact record showed that partial deconcretion had been carried out prior to immersion in the storage solution to enhance desalination. However the pre-treatment assessment clearly showed some considerable remains of corrosion products, sediment and marine fauna on the surface, particularly within the fine detail. Some mechanical damage to the original surface of the artifact was also noted, where areas of several centimeters were missing, leaving the wrought iron core exposed. It is important to also note the ballast blocks discussed here had never been allowed to dry out and hence no akagenéite was found prior to treatment. �The Five to Follow Following successful completion of the single ballast block treatment a similar outcome was attempted with multiple artifacts similar in nature. Five further ballast blocks were selected for simultaneous treatment within the 40L chamber. Whilst the artifacts are primarily of the same composition each held very distinct individual characteristics. All had undergone partial deconcretion in the wet state prior to immersion in the above mentioned storage solution, and thus some damage to the original surface had occurred in varying degrees from one block to another. The National Nine The following batch of artifacts consisted of nine iron artifacts from the NPS collection. These were of both, wrought and cast iron, consisting of various parts in some examples and from a range of contexts. One common factor for the selection was concern over the stability of the items. All artifacts had been allowed to dry, had been stored in largely uncontrolled environments and thus displaying clear signs of active corrosion in the form of bright orange powdery corrosion products - commonly within pits - as well as blistering, spalling and cracking in some areas of the original surface. Figure 3 illustrates the condition of four of the artifacts prior to subcritical treatment. These artifacts will act as primary examples throughout the paper, as this particular selection received a so-called ‘full conservation treatment’, and were selected as such due to a more prominent surface detail or complex multiple-part features. Out of the selected four, the ring-peg and hinge showed the most structural complexity with moving components and the presence of threaded bolt and nut assemblies. Complex artifacts such as these have commonly posed additional conservation challenges with regards to desalination due to limited permeability of the wash solution into the joins and crevices of such areas, as well as differential corrosion cells at �peripheral regions with varying exposure to the environment. It should also be stated that some of the artifacts appeared to have been treated with a penetrating oil-type substance, but no conclusions as to the composition of the product were found in previous treatment records, or through analytical means. The artifacts had also been labeled with catalog numbers applied in black ink over a white label painted directly on to the surface of the artifact. Documentation and Analysis All artifacts were systematically assessed through documentation and digital images to identify signs of corrosion. A set of non-destructive characterization equipment was utilized to determine the Cl- concentration, as well as to identify corrosion products. A FujiFilm NDE DynamIX™ IV digital radiography system was used to determine the overall integrity of the object. Corrosion products present on the artifact surfaces were analyzed with a Bruker Optics SENTERRA microRaman spectrometer. Raman data collection and processing was performed using Opus Version 6.5 software. The Cl- concentrations released during desalination was measured by two methods. Chloride Quan Tab® test strips, manufactured by Hach® (Loveland, CO), were used to quickly determine quantitative amounts of Cl- present. Ion chromatography was performed using an ICS-90 ion chromatography system with a IonPac® AS9-HC analytical column, both manufactured by Dionex (Sunnyvale, CA). The data was collected and analyzed using the Dionex Chromeleon™ software. Quantitative and qualitative elemental compositions were determined by an Oxford INCAx-act analytical silicon drift energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) fitted onto a Hitachi S-3700N Ultra Large VP-SEM variable pressure scanning electron microscope. Data collected was analyzed with the INCAEnergy software interface. Qualitative and semi-quantitative elemental analysis was also attained with a Bruker handheld Tracer III-SD X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometer. All results were averaged from at least three data collections. Results and Discussion Alongside the evident advantages regarding stability and length of treatment, post-stabilization deconcretion stands out crucially in the eyes of the conservator. The effectiveness of the process allows for drying to take place prior to any mechanical cleaning due to the inherent post-treatment stability of the artifact and its corrosion matrix. This further allows for better and easier visual identification of the corrosion layers and original surface and thus more control �over any removal. Full documentation can be carried out after drying with no time limitations due to the threat of flash corrosion or stresses caused by recrystallization. �Ballast Blocks With regards to the overall appearance of the artifacts, there was very little change with any of the ballast blocks on initial inspection. The first ballast block was stabilized in 16 days. Approximately 90% of the total Cl- released occurred within the first 5 days, with a maximum peak reached on the first day. Furthermore, after the fifth day the concentration of Cl- remained under 1ppm. At the end of the run the total amount of Cl- extracted from the artifact was 0.031w%. To put these results into perspective, they can be compared with similar ballast blocks soaked in NaOH 1.0w% with and without electrolysis (Figure 4a). These treatments required on average 150 days to reach 90% of the total Clreleased, and over one year for total stabilization. �The low amount of total Cl- released during mass treatment of the five blocks group was an expected outcome. Considering that these blocks had been soaking in NaOH 1.0w% for over four years, it was anticipated that most of the Cl- had been removed. Simple soaking in NaOH can be very effective for Clremoval providing the artifacts were never allowed to dry out and akaganéite was not present. Localized color change from orange to black was noted, corresponding generally to lepidocrocite and magnetite respectively. Although superficial deposits had persevered, a change in the physical state of these features was soon noted. Even in the wet state, some of these deposits would readily brush off demonstrating a loss in adherence. This phenomenon has been recognized in previous work, and it has been suggested that increased porosity is due to changes in crystal lattice structure of the corrosion product matrix, and possible leaching out of substitutional and interstitial elements, such as sodium, calcium, chlorine and phosphorous respectively (González-Pereyra, et al. 2010: 39-49). Instead of utilizing hammers and chisels, cleaning could be performed using mostly a scalpel. The original surface, easily identified, had a compact nearmetallic sheen throughout, and appeared somewhat consolidated. Where the benefits of carrying out cleaning procedures after stabilization and in the dry state were particularly accentuated was at the discovery of tool marks and foundry stamps on the ballast blocks, as shown in Figure 2. Where considered necessary, a consolidative treatment by immersion in Owatrol™ oil – an alkyd-based drying oil with an inbuilt corrosion inhibitor was employed. NPS artifacts With these artifacts, a slightly different approach was employed. As seen in the images, the artifacts had very little corrosion layers present to add to the overall volume of the artifact. The challenge with already dry terrestrial artifacts with regards to stabilization treatments under immersion in varying solutions is the inherent physical stresses caused by not only the permeation of the solution into the crevices of the corroded artifact, but also the continued ionic exchange at the active corrosion sites. This is particularly accentuated at pit and blister sites, where the original surface is often forced away from the artifact causing separation and loss of surface detail. Thus chemical stabilization and desalination of dry and terrestrial iron artifacts has been viewed as a considerably difficult and an unresolved issue in conservation (Drews, et al. 2004:247-260; Mardikian, et al. 2006:113-118; North, et al. 1978:174-186; Selwyn, et al. 1999:217-232; Watkinson 2010:33073340). To prevent any further stresses occurring within the artifacts during subcritical treatment the artifacts were soaked in the treatment solution for 72 �hours prior to the run. It was completed in 8 days and the results can be seen in Figure 4d. The plot displays a typical behavior showing a Cl- peak within the first day followed by a significant drop. Similarly to what was observed in the case of the first ballast block, approximately 95% of the total Cl- released took place during the first four days. Post-treatment, SEM-EDS elemental analysis showed a level of chloride under the instrument detection limit of 0.1w%, while pre- and post treatment XRF analysis (Figure 4f) clearly illustrates elimination of chloride from the artifacts. Finally, SEM-EDS confirmed that subcritical conditions did not affect elements such as lead or copper. The corrosion products of all the NPS artifacts were analyzed using microRaman spectroscopy in different areas of the artifact’s surface. Analyzed areas were selected for their diversity in color and texture. Active corrosion was evident, occurring below the original surface, largely in pits with bright orange powdery corrosion products identified as akagenéite (Figure 4c). Lepidocrocite and goethite were found only in a few areas. A striking absence of akaganéite was observed after subcritical treatment, as illustrated in Figure 4e. The akagenéite had been converted to hematite with magnetite and goethite in localized areas. From visual inspection and weight measurements, it was clear that no significant material loss had occurred during treatment, the oil-based consolidant and the number labels applied in a previous conservation campaign had effectively been removed. After analysis and in order to improve the general appearance of the artifacts, micro-air-abrasion was performed on the selected four artifacts. Although consolidation was not considered necessary with regards to the physical integrity of the artifacts, due to an agreement with the NPS, they received a consolidant in the form of Owatrol™ in two applications, with the last application slightly pigmented with natural magnetite powder. This treatment was performed to purely improve the appearance of the artifacts and to allow for assessment of a contrast between a stabilized and a fully conserved artifact. Conclusion Recent experiments using subcritical fluids have shown great promise of resolving many of the issues relating to the stabilization of archaeological iron – marine and terrestrial. The results of this work have encouraged further research and experimentation to improve the methodology and its applicability across the field. Recent focus on such development has revolved around the possibility of modifying the reactor capabilities in order to be able to carry out rinsing and drying within the treatment chamber. Further yet, considerations have been made towards an unfathomable advancement, where subcritical and supercritical �technologies would be combined to allow for the inclusion of the application of tailored corrosion inhibitors and consolidants during a single step in the treatment. In addition small-scale laboratory testing has been initiated to study the effect this fluid technology may have on non-ferrous metals. In short, extensive continued research is necessary in order to implement an integral treatment for metallic cultural heritage, that is effective, fast, reversible, sustainable, safe, and in accordance with conservation ethics. Bibliography Bird, R. B., Stewart, W.E., Vasquez, F.M., 1992 deViviés, P., Cook, D., Drews, M., González, N., Mardikian, P., Memet, J.-B., 2007 Drews, M., deViviés, P., González, N., Mardikian, P. 2004 Drews, M., deViviés, P., González, N., Mardikian, P., 2011 Drews, M. J., deViviés, P., González, N., Mardikian, P., Grogan, K., 2005 Fernández-Prini, R., Harvey, A.H., Palmer, D.A., 2004 “Fenómenos de Transporte : un Estudio Sistemático de los Fundamentos del Transporte de Materia, Energía y Cantidad de Movimiento”. Mexico: Reverte. “Transformation of Akagenéite in Archaeological Iron Artefacts Using Subcritical Treatment” in Proceedings of Metal 07: ICOM-CC International Conference on Metals Conservation. Amsterdam.pp. 26-30. “A study of the Analysis and Removal of Chloride in Samples from the Hunley” in Proceedings of Metal 04: International Conference on Metal Conservation. Canberra, Australia: National Museum of Australia. pp. 247-260. “The Application of Sub-Critical Solutions for the Stabilization of Archaeological Iron”, (Manuscript in preparation). “Evaluation of New Technologies for the Stabilization of Archaeological Iron” in Proceedings of XIV International Materials Research Congress, and IV NACE International Section. Cancun, Mexico: Academia Mexican de Cienca de Materiales, A.C. pp. 77. “Aqueous Systems at Elevated Temperatures and Pressures: Physical Chemistry in Water, Steam, and Hydrothermal Solutions” ed. R. Fernández-Prini, A. H. Harvey and D. A. Palmer. Boston: Elsevier Academic Press. González, N., “The Effects of Cathodic Polarization, Soaking in Alkaline Cook, D., deViviés, Solutions and Subcritical Water on Cast Iron Corrosion �P., Drews, M., Mardikian, P., 2007 González-Pereyra, N. G., Brocard, T., Cretté, S.A., deViviés, P., Drews, M., 2010 Mardikian, P., Drews, M., González, N., deViviés, P., Hunter, J.W., 2006 Mardikian, P., González, N., Drews, M., deViviés, P., 2006 North, N. Pearson, C., 1978 Selwyn, L. S., 2004 Products” in Proceedings of Metal 07: ICOM-CC International Conference on Metals Conservation. Amsterdam, Netherlands. pp. 32-37. “The Use of Sub-Critical Fluids for the Stabilization of Concreted Iron Artifacts” in Proceedings of Metal 2010: ICOM-CC International Conference on Metals Conservation. Charleston, SC - USA: Clemson University. pp. 39-49. “Searching for a Diamond in the Rust: A Review of LargeScale Archaeological Iron Conservation Projects, 19802006” in Proceedings of Iron, Steel & Steamship Archaeology - 2nd Australian Seminar. Perth, Melbourne and Sydney, Australia: Australian National Center of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology. pp. 82-88. “New Perspectives Regarding the Stabilization of Terrestrial and Marine Archaeological Iron” in Proceedings of Iron, Steel & Steamship Archaeology - 2nd Australian Seminar. Perth, Melbourne and Sydney, Australia: Australian National Center of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology. pp. 113-118. A., “Washing Methods for Chloride Removal from Marine Iron Artifacts” in Studies in Conservation. 23, 4, pp. 174-186. “Overview of Archaeological Iron: the Corrosion Problem, Key Factors Affecting Treatment, and Gaps in Current Knowledge” in Proceedings of Metal 04: International Conference on Metal Conservation. Canberra, Australia: National Museum of Australia. pp. 294-306. Selwyn, L. S., “Models For Chloride Ion Diffusion In Archaeological Iron” in McKinnon, W.R., Studies in Conservation. 46: pp. 109-120. Argyropoulos, V., 2001 Selwyn, L. S., "The Corrosion of Excavated Archaeological Iron with Sirois, P.J., Details on Weeping and Akaganéite" in Studies in Argyropoulos, V., Conservation, 44, pp. 217-232. 1999 Watkinson, D., 2010 "Part VI: Corrosion Management - Preservation of Metallic Cultural Heritage" in (ed.) T. J. A. Richardson, Shreir's Corrosion, Elsevier, Amsterdam, London, pp. 3307-3340. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Subcritical Mass-Treatment of a Range of Iron Artifacts from Varying Contexts Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource The use of subcritical fluids for the treatment of archaeological and marine archaeological iron artifacts has been under experimentation at the Clemson University’s Warren Lasch Conservation Center (WLCC) since 2003 and has shown promise of providing solutions to some of the issues related to the more traditional desalination treatments: Treatment times are but a fraction of those required by the soaking methods; chloride readings are brought to near-negligible levels; desalination can be carried out with or without prior deconcretion; solutions are maintained in sealed containers for the duration of the treatments; and positive results have been seen so far with tests for long-term stability of treated artifacts. Particularly remarkable has been the effect the process appears to have had on corrosion matrices containing the chloride-hosting iron oxyhydroxide, Akagenéite (β-FeOOH) on artifacts that have been allowed to dry out. Results have shown a significant reduction in the quantities of this phase – often linked to the continuation of active corrosion processes within iron artifacts – through transformation into more stable corrosion products such as magnetite and hematite. Experiments carried out to date have not only involved single samples and artifacts, but testing has progressed to a stage where numerous artifacts have been successfully stabilized simultaneously in the same batch. The work presented describes three of such desalination treatments. The first run included a single wrought iron ballast block from the H.L. Hunley, a confederate Civil War submarine lost in battle in 1864. This was followed by the first batch run on five similar ballast blocks and a second with nine iron artifacts of varying composition, context and condition, selected from the National Park Service (NPS - USA) curatorial collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nasanen, L. M. E. González-Pereyra, N. G. Cretté, S.A. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/551877d374d308fe7dd63dd1a7e57ffb.pdf a900805d210982110759d494dc35410a PDF Text Text Recent Research in the Southeast Sumatran Region John N. Miksic Abstract Since 2010, a new threat to the maritime heritage of Southeast Asia has arisen in the form of looting of the bed of the Musi River in Palembang, site of the capital of the maritime kingdom of Sriwijaya in the ninth century. Port archaeology in Southeast Asia is a gravely underdeveloped field. This river has been a major artery of commerce for 2,000 years. The local adaptation to the area’s swampy, flood-prone environment has been to live on stilt houses over water, on ships, and on rafts. This pattern of settlement presents special problems for archaeologists. It is likely that a major proportion of the area’s archaeological heritage lies on the riverbed. Recent items on the antiquities market include a wide range of items, including Chinese porcelain of the ninth and subsequent centuries, local pottery, and a wide range of metal items including statuary, coins, and jewelry. This source of archaeological data has never been systematically explored, and unless something is done urgently, it will be lost forever. This paper explores the nature of the problem, demonstrates the importance of the subject for maritime archaeology, and proposes a potential methodology for exploring the area. Riverbeds and Harbors as Sites of Underwater Cultural Heritage The study of underwater cultural heritage in this panel focuses mainly on cargoes of shipwrecks beneath salt water. Shipwreck archaeology in Southeast Asia has experienced major advances in the last 15 years, but the archaeology of ports and other sites at the place where land and sea meet, such as shipyards, lags far behind. In Sumatra, seaports can be located over 100 kilometers (km) from the mouths of rivers and estuaries. The east coast of Sumatra is largely tidal swampland, and the influence of the tides extends to these ports. Palembang, ancient capital of Sriwijaya, one of Southeast Asia’s greatest maritime kingdoms, lies 90 km up the Musi River. At this point the river is one km wide. Muara Jambi might be considered its sister; it was the capital of the kingdom of Malayu which flourished between the 9th to 13th centuries. This site lies 120 km up the Batanghari. The coastal plain narrows progressively as one moves north, but other ancient ports such as Kota Cina in northeast Sumatra are still 10 km inland. On the eastern side of the Straits of Melaka, in the state of Kedah, Malaysia, the port sites of Pengkalan Bujang, Sungai Mas, and Sungai Batu, are 10-15 km up the Muda River. The same phenomenon can be observed for sites such as Bago (formerly known as Pegu), Syriam, and Mrauk U in Myanmar. Very little archaeological research has been carried out in Southeast Asian ports. Such sites pose special challenges to archaeology. Stratigraphy of such sites is rarely well-preserved. Environmental factors include floods, tides, tsunamis, rapid sedimentation interspersed with erosion, river course change, and human activity such as construction of piers and warehouses, which are often built of temporary materials subject to rapid weathering, constant repairs, expansion, and other alterations. The most common artifacts found at ports are pottery fragments and organic materials. Large quantities of such remains are needed in order to draw accurate statistical inferences about the past. �Figure 1. Early Southeast Asian Ports (drawn by Dr. G.Y. Goh) Archaeology of Ports in Southeast Asia Bali There are a few exceptions to this generalization. Excavations at Sembiran in north coastal Bali have yielded important remnants of port activity on a sandy beach which is now being rapidly eroded. Discoveries include fragments of Romano-Indian rouletted ware made in south India during the period 200 Before Christ - Anno Domini (BC-AD)1 200. Diribonucleic acid (DNA) of a 2,000-year-old skeleton found at Sembiran has been identified as possibly Indian, although this conclusion has been disputed (I Wayan Ardika, et al. 1997; Lansing, et al. 2004; Lansing, et al. 2006; McLaughlin and Thomas 2006). In southern Thailand the site of Khao Sam Kaeo has yielded evidence of port activity as early as the 3rd century BC (Bellina-Pryce and Silapanth 2006). The site of Oc-èo in south Vietnam, Southeast Asia’s largest port of the early historic period (3rd- early 7th centuries AD) was investigated in the 1940s, and again in the 1990s (Manguin 1998). This site lies 15 km from the ocean, to which it may have been connected by a canal. It lies in a swampy flood-prone area, where some organic remains were fortunately preserved. 1 Georgian Calendar designation with the year one starting at the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, years in BC are -1 with a negative year added for every year before the birth of Jesus; years in AD are added progressively one by one for each year after his birth. �Malaysia The oldest dated boat found in Southeast Asia was discovered in peninsular Malaysia, at the site of Pontian, Pahang, where it seems to have been preserved by a sudden slumping of soil of a riverbank in a river about a mile from the coast (Evans 1927:94). The timbers of the Pontian ship belong to varieties found from Cambodia to the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia (Gibson-Hill 1952). Radiocarbon analysis found that the trees for building the ship were felled between 260 and 430 AD (1657±60) (Manguin 1993:256). In Malaysia the Kuala Selinsing site has been under investigation since the 1920s. Recent excavations at this site, which consists of mounds surrounded by mangrove swamp, have shown that the area was inhabited approximately 2,000 years ago, and continued in use for a millennium (Nik Hassan Shuhaimi bin Nik Abdul Rahman in press). The Pengkalan Bujang site near the foot of Kedah Peak was investigated in the 1950s; this was apparently an important port in the 12th century, but only a preliminary report was ever published (Lamb 1961). In 2010 the Malaysian government allocated a sizeable quantity of funds for research in south Kedah. The site of Sungai Batu has yielded major new discoveries, including large brick structures which Malaysian archaeologists believe were used as landing stages for boats. These seem to date from the early to mid-first millennium AD. The Bujang Valley Museum displays a number of well-preserved hulls from sites in south Kedah. No radiocarbon dates on them have yet been published; this data would be of great potential significance. The boats are of the lashed-lug design characteristic of early Austronesian boat-building. Java In the coastal plain of west Java, the site of Batujaya is another waterlogged site which has yielded significant evidence of Buddhist activity in the early first millennium AD (Manguin and Agustijanto 2006). No evidence of a port or nonreligious activity has however yet been located there. Singapore In Singapore, numerous sites of 14th-century activity have been studied. One of these sites, named Empress Place after the colonial-period building which stands there and which is now the Asian Civilisations Museum, lay on the ancient bank of the Singapore River. The area excavated in 1998 consisted of the intertidal zone. Artifacts recovered included a wide range of ceramics, metal objects, and some organic materials including poles which had perhaps been used for tying up boats. Kota Batu, Brunei The former capital of the Sultanate of Brunei was a trading site and capital from around 1400 to 1580, when a Spanish attack destroyed it (Harrisson 1970). Further study of the site could yield important new understanding of the economy of one of the most important Southeast Asian trading kingdoms of the fifteenth century. �Sumatra Malayu/Jambi Somewhere in the Batanghari valley, possibly at a location now called Muara Jambi, the site of the capital of this very rich and cosmopolitan kingdom must exist. Archaeological research in the province has been focused on the site of Muara Jambi, about 25 kilometers down the Batanghari from the modern capital of Jambi Province, where 39 candi or brick temples have been recorded (M. Nazir 1980/81:23). Archaeological evidence of trade in Jambi consists of Chinese porcelain ranging from the Five Dynasties through the Yuan period (9th through 13th centuries), scattered over a number of sites between Muara Jambi and the sea (Edwards McKinnon 1982a; Edwards McKinnon 1982b; Edwards McKinnon 1992; Abu Ridho 1992; Abu Ridho 1995). A survey project in 2006 concentrated on looking at exposures in the banks of the river at low tide, and identified numerous sites of the 11th and 12th centuries (Miksic N.D.). Kota Cina This site lies near the mouth of the Deli River in northeast Sumatra. Abundant remains of entrepot activity of the late 11th through mid-13th century were recovered, including Buddhist and Hindu brick structures, stone statuary, Chinese coins and pottery, and local ceramics. Preserved house posts and many post molds were recorded. Unfortunately the probable location of the port itself, a silted-in harbor, was destroyed through excavation of soil for a modern construction project. Remains of ceramics of the 11th-13th centuries, and associated ship timbers were observed (Edwards McKinnon 1984; Miksic 1979). Barus This is the only known early port yet excavated on the west coast of Sumatra. The center of activity seems to have shifted between several locales within this general area. Artifacts found here date from the 10th through 14th centuries, and include many imports from the Persian Gulf and India (Guillot 1998; Guillot 2003). Karangagung In the lowlands of southeast Sumatra, the oldest site which may have been that of a port of the period between AD 1 and AD 500 has been located at Karangagung, between the Musi and Batanghari rivers (Endang 2002; Erwan, et al. 2008). Excavations there since 2001 have provided important new data for the study of pre-Srivijayan commercial activity. Many artifacts such as beads and gold had been looted from the site, but jewellery, bronze and glass bangles, pendants, and preserved house pillars found in excavations indicate that a large settlement or series of settlements existed here, dated by radiocarbon to 220-440 CE (Manguin 2004:287-288). Artifacts recorded include beads of carnelian, rock crystal, a shiny black stone which may be onyx, and glass beads of several styles. The discovery of this site has had the salutary effect of inspiring the head of the archaeological office for South Sumatra, Mr. Nurhadi Rangkuti, to establish a website devoted to the development of Wetland Archaeology �(http://nurhadirangkuti.blogspot.com/ 2009_05_10_archive.html; accessed 30 August 2011). This website and its reports of archaeological research gives important recognition to the identification of wetlands in Indonesia as a specific focus of archaeological research; the website reads in part: Lahan basah yang mencakup rawa pasang surat, rawa gambut, rawa bekalang sungai, hutan bakau, danau, lagun, dataran banjir sungai dan lainnya pernah menjadi tempat bermukim manusia masa lalu. Pusat peradaban kuna jug muncul dari lahan basah. Penelitian, pelestarian dan pemanfaatan situs-situs arkeologi di lahan basah sudah waktunya diprioritaskan untuk mengungkap kejayaan maritime bangsa Indonesia” (Wetlands which comprise tidal swamps, swamps with acid soil, back swamps, mangrove forests, lakes, lagoons, flood plains etc. in the past were locales of human habitation. Ancient centers of civilization also arose from wetlands. It is time that research, conservation, and exploitation of archaeological sites in wetlands be given priority to expose the success of Indonesian maritime people.) This proclamation surely deserves commendation and support where possible. Palembang and the Musi Riverbed Much of Srivijaya's material culture may be permanently lost due to the use of perishable materials and habit of living on rafts or stilt houses above flowing water (Manguin 1987). Enough archaeological remains have now been discovered in and around Palembang to confirm the earlier assumption that Palembang was Srivijaya’s capital (Manguin 1992; Manguin 1993) from the seventh to eleventh centuries. Between 682 CE and 686 CE, several large inscriptions were set up in Palembang and vicinity (Manguin 1987). The wetlands around Palembang have yielded remains of two boats of the first millennium AD: one dated to 610-775 CE, with a length estimated to have been 26 meters, and one dated 434-631 CE. Another ship found at Butuan, Mindanao, south Philippines, dating from 1270-1410 CE, is estimated to have been 20 meters long (Manguin 1993:256-258). Archaeology on dry land has yielded rather unprepossessing results, which do not seem commensurate with the glowing descriptions found in Indian and Chinese sources of a wealthy port kingdom here (Bronson and Wisseman 1976; Wolters 1979). Much settlement of the left bank (termed the hilir area in Palembang nomenclature) next to Pulau Kemaro is now occupied by a huge urea fertilizer plant owned by PT Pupuk Sriwijaya (Pusri), the state fertilizer company. Indonesian archaeologists are convinced that the site of the factory was formerly a major area of Sriwijayan activity (Dr. Mundardjito pers. comm.). Much of the remaining archaeological potential of Palembang probably lies beneath the Musi River. History and ethnography show that whereas the nobility of Sriwijaya lived on dry land, much of Sriwijaya’s population lived on water, either on stilt houses or on rafts (van Sevenhoven 1825; Wallace 1869). Evidence of their existence as well as port activity such as warehousing and transshipping of cargo therefore is likely to be in the mud beneath the river. �Figure 2. Musi River, Palembang (Phot by author, June 1, 2011) In recent years a large quantity of artifacts is reported to have been recovered by local fishermen from the riverbed. A reconnaissance trip to Palembang in May 2011 indicated that a wide range of artifacts is still within easy reach on the riverbed, but that the supply is diminishing. Local men dive in the Musi River, using primitive equipment, when tidal flow is slack, to obtain ancient artifacts. During this trip we were shown a wide assortment of ceramics, beads, bronze articles, coins, old wooden implements, and gold objects. As news of the presence of foreign visitors spread through the neighborhood, groups of divers came to visit to offer wares that they had obtained through diving in the river. It seems that the number of men who pursue this occupation as a regular activity is significant, using only goggles and a hose by which they are fed compressed air. They probe the muddy bottom with iron rods which often cause serious damage by fracturing Chinese porcelain. We also visited two sites – Candi Gede Ing Suro and Candi Penembahan -- where brick structures dating from the 14th century have been converted into graves for Islamic-period rulers and their consorts. These sites are located next to the fertilizer plant noted above. During our visit, laborers were busily erecting a brick wall next to Candi Gede Ing Suro which will form a barrier between the site and the fertilizer plant. We were able however to walk through a gap in the wall and view a complex of earthen ramparts of substantial extent, bounded by a stream which leads directly to the Musi River. This may have been part of an ancient site. As far as we could discern, no research has been directed at this feature. �Archaeological Remains It is probable that we were only shown the least valuable items, including broken ceramics. The more salable items were no doubt quickly disposed of through networks leading to Jakarta, where the majority of Indonesian antique collectors and people of means live. Yet even among what are probably the dregs of the treasures lying under 20 meters of water and a meter of river mud are many objects which hold the potential to clarify many details of our knowledge of early shipping activity in Southeast Asia. The divers had acquired a range of small gold items. Sumatra was known as Suvarnadvipa (“Golden Island”) in ancient India (Wolters 1979), and numerous sources of gold are known to exist in the hinterland of Palembang. These items, including locally-made coins and pieces of jewelry, belong to types found in central Java and dated to the late first millennium AD. Their collections also contained large quantities of beads of glass and stone in addition to gold examples. Illustration 3. Gold ear ornament, 2 cm high (Palembang,Sumatra; no catalogue number) Religious objects included numerous items associated with Buddhism. In addition to bronze statues of Buddha, there were examples of what appear to be stamps used to print Buddhist texts on clay. More research on these is needed to clarify their significance. �Illustration 4. Head of Buddhist deity, stone. Height approximately 13 cm (Palembang,Sumatra; no catalogue number) Decorative bronze items were also present, among them several faces of Kala, mirrors, and bells with vajra handles for use in esoteric Buddhist rituals. Cylindrical amulet containers meant to be suspended from strings hung around the neck were made of gold. Other rolled-up pieces of heavier metal may have been tin or lead votive objects inscribed with sacred formulae. Utilitarian objects included scale weights. Large quantities of Chinese coins were also collected. Porcelains spanned a wide range of types of Chinese export wares, from Tang Yue bowls through cobalt blue decorated wares of the middle Ming period. Some examples of fine-paste earthenware, probably from southern Thailand, were also in the assemblage. Quite probably many more examples could be found on the riverbed, but since these are not generally salable, they were probably left there. Prospects for Future Research The form of salvage archaeology project involving the local branch of the Indonesian archaeology department in a controlled dredging operation may be the best way to proceed. The field of underwater excavations in rivers is uncharted territory in Southeast Asian archaeology. Such research would face considerable technical and financial challenges. The conventional approach used by marine archaeologists would be to lay out a grid on the riverbed and excavate using an airlift. Whether this would be feasible in the Musi River would need to be investigated. An alternative which could be considered would be to adopt methods analogous to those used in salvage archaeology, where time is an important factor. Looting of the Musi riverbed in Palembang is rampant, as we observed, and it may be more efficient to use mechanical excavation employing dredging equipment to expedite the recovery of artifacts. �Bibliography Abu Ridho, 1992 Abu Ridho, 1995 Bellina-Pryce, B. and Silapanth, P., 2006 Bronson, B. and Wisseman, J., 1976 Edwards McKinnon, E., 1982a Edwards McKinnon, E., 1982b Edwards McKinnon, E., 1984 Edwards McKinnon, E., 1992 Endang Sri Hardiati Soekatno, 2002 Erwan Suryanegara bin Asnawi Jayanegara et al., 2008 Evans, I.H.N., 1927 Gibson-Hill, C.A., 1952 Guillot, C. ed. 1998 Guillot, C., , Dupoizat, M.F., Perret, D., Sunaryo, Survey Keramik di D.A.S. Batanghari. PemdaTingkat I Propinsi Jambi and Kantor Wilayah, Depdikbud Propinsi Jambi, Jambi “Penelitian Keramik di Situs-Situs Arkeologi Provinsi Jambi”, in Laporan: Hasil Penelitian Arkeologi dan Geologi Propinsi Jambi 1994-1995. 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Merriwether, M.F. Hammer, 2004 Lansing, J.S., A.J. Redd, T.M. Karafet, J. Watkins, I Wayan Ardika, S.P.K. Surata, J.S. Schoenfelder, M. Campbell, A.M. Merriwether, M.F. Hammer, 2006 Nazir, M., 1980-81 Manguin, P.-Y., 1987 Manguin, P.-Y., 1992 Manguin, P.-Y., “Sembiran and the first Indian contacts with Bali: an update,” Antiquity, Vol. 71, pp. 193-195. “Miscellaneous papers on early Hindu and Buddhist settlement in northern Malaya and southern Thailand,” in Federation Museums Journal New Series, Vol. 6. “An Indian trader in ancient Bali?,” in Antiquity, Vol. 78, pp. 287-293. “Reply,” in Antiquity, Vol. 80, p. 307. Benda-Benda Arkeologi Klassik Daerah Jambi, Proyek Pengembangan Permuseuman Jambi, Jambi. “Palembang et Sriwijaya: anciennes hypothèses, recherches nouvelles,” in Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême Orient, Vol. 76, pp. 337-402. “Excavations in South Sumatra, 1988-1990: new evidence for Sriwijayan sites,” in I.C. Glover, ed, Southeast Asian Archaeology 1990: Proceedings of the Third Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Hull, pp. 63-73. “Palembang and Sriwijaya: an early Malay harbour-city �1993 Manguin, P.-Y., 1993 Manguin, P.-Y., 1998 Manguin, P.-Y., 2004 Manguin, P-Y., and Indrajaya, A., 2006 McLauchlan, R. and Thomas, R.G., 2006 Miksic, J.N., 1979 Miksic, J.N., Unpublished Report. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi bin Nik Abdul Rahman in press Van Sevenhoven, J.L., 1825 Wallace, A.R., 1869 Wolters, O.W., 1979 rediscovered.” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 66,No. 1, pp. 23-46. "Trading ships of the South China Sea: Shipbuilding techniques and their role in the history of the development of Asian trade networks," in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 36, pp. 253-280. Mission Archéologie du Delta du Mékong. Rapport sur la Campagne 1998. EFEO, Paris. “The early maritime polities,” in I. Glover and P. Bellwood, eds., Southeast Asia from Prehistory to History, RoutledgeCurzon, London, pp. 282-313. “The archaeology of Batujaya (West Java, Indonesia): an interim report,” in E. A. Bacus, I. C. Glover and V. C. Piggott Uncovering Southeast Asia’s Past. Selected Papers from the 10th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, NUS Press, Singapore, Vol. 2, pp. 45-257. “Indian traders in ancient Bali: a reconsideration of the evidence,” in Antiquity, Vol. 80, pp. 307. Archaeology, Trade, and Society in Northeast Sumatra,. Cornell University, Ph.D. Dissertation. Ithaca. Report on the Survey of the Lower Batanghari River, 2006, N.D. “The archaeology of later prehistoric ports and preMelakan entrepots and evidence of inter-regional trade in Malaysia,” in (eds.) John Miksic and G.Y. Goh, The Archaeology of Early Southeast Asian Harbours, SPAFA, Bangkok, accessed 30 August 2011: (http://nurhadirangkuti.blogspot.com/ 2009_05_10_archive.html) “Beschrijving van de hoofdplaats van Palembang,” in Verhandelingan van het Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Vol. 9, pp. 41-126. The Malay Archipelago, Macmillan, London. “Studying Srivijaya,” in Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol 52,No. 2, pp. 1-32. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Recent Research in the Southeast Sumatran Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource Since 2010, a new threat to the maritime heritage of Southeast Asia has arisen in the form of looting of the bed of the Musi River in Palembang, site of the capital of the maritime kingdom of Sriwijaya in the ninth century. Port archaeology in Southeast Asia is a gravely underdeveloped field. This river has been a major artery of commerce for 2,000 years. The local adaptation to the area’s swampy, flood-prone environment has been to live on stilt houses over water, on ships, and on rafts. This pattern of settlement presents special problems for archaeologists. It is likely that a major proportion of the area’s archaeological heritage lies on the riverbed. Recent items on the antiquities market include a wide range of items, including Chinese porcelain of the ninth and subsequent centuries, local pottery, and a wide range of metal items including statuary, coins, and jewelry. This source of archaeological data has never been systematically explored, and unless something is done urgently, it will be lost forever. This paper explores the nature of the problem, demonstrates the importance of the subject for maritime archaeology, and proposes a potential methodology for exploring the area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John N. Miksic Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2eb81b4f95ff8b0e702985eb7864f5d3.pdf 383349ec5e53fda45658b91f8ff141c2 PDF Text Text Pre Hispanic Navigation: Iconographic Evidence in Moche Fine Line Painting Carlos Ausejo Abstract Navigation in pre-Hispanic times in the Andean region has been a topic of discussion among researchers for years. Different sources of information lead us to believe that at least one type of marine craft was in use and involved in long distance trade at the arrival of the Spaniards. However, the debate surrounding earlier periods is stronger due to the lack of evidence in archaeological records. Most evidence consists of iconographic or sculptural depictions on pottery; wall friezes; and, ultimately, references gathered by chroniclers – but not a single remain of any kind of vessel. This situation has lead researchers to believe that marine crafts like the “Caballito de Totora” (“reed horse”) were just simpler tools without any further development. However, one particular type of watercraft represented in the Moche iconography apparently contradicts this idea, the “reed boat”. Moche fine line paintings portray this particular type of vessel, which differs from the traditional “reed horse” vessel, and seems to be capable of holding considerable cargo and occupants. Although the use of totora constitutes the oldest tradition for constructing rafts and boats along the coast and in the Titicaca region, unfortunately, as mentioned above, there is no evidence of such rafts or boats in the archaeological record apart from the iconographic depictions. In spite of this, we suggest that “reed boats” represented a real boat just as other real Moche characters were represented in their iconography, such as the “Lord of Sipan” or “The Priestesses of San Jose de Moro”. Moreover the reed boats were a technological innovation, which filled particular needs to perform rituals in times of ecological distress and to procure certain sumptuary items. The Moche The Moche civilization developed on the north cost of Peru between 100 and 800 Anno Domini (A.D1) during the Early Intermediate2 period (Donnan and McClelland 1999:13). The geographical area occupied by the Moche can be divided into Northern and Southern regions, separated by the Pampa de Paijan. The success of the Moche society was based on controlling the rivers through the construction of a complex network of irrigation canals, which supported successful large-scale agriculture (Shimada 1994:52-56; Bawden 1996:87-92). Furthermore they managed to exploit the large resources of marine and coastal fauna combined with the use of domesticated llamas, guinea pigs and ducks (Bawden 1996:86-87; Donnan and McClelland 1999:14-15). The success of food production allowed the Moche to maintain a highly stratified and dense population, and therefore to assign large number of workers to the construction and maintenance of pyramids, palaces, temples, and irrigation canal systems (Bawden 1996:76-107; Donnan and McClelland 1999:14). As in any other Andean society, they didn’t have a writing system; instead they left a stunning artistic record of their beliefs and activities in Modelled and Painted ceramics (Bawden 1996:23; Donnan and McClelland 1 Georgian Calendar designation that starts at year one, fromt he birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with every year since added by one. 2 Between 400 B.C. and 600 A.C. (Rowe 1945:265-284) 1 �1999:15). Rafael Larco Hoyle developed Moche chronology in 1948 based on the stirrup spout bottle. He identified five phases, each thought to last around 100 to 200 years (Donnan and McClelland 1999:21). However, during the last ten years, researchers combined individual phases into three historical periods (Bawden 2004:23,116-129): Early3 (Phase I – II), Middle4 (Phase III – IV), and Late Moche5 (Phase V). Moche potters were consummate masters of three-dimensional sculpture and also produced ceramics with low-relief depictions of figures and activities, geometrical and pictorial scenes with fine line painting (Donnan and McClelland 1999:15-17). On the other hand it seems that Moche representations had a limited representation of specific events or activities, which are referred to as themes (Donnan and McClelland 1979:5). Phase V shows a clear change in fine line painting evolution from previous phases; the change to abstract and distorted, heavy emphasis being placed on supernatural rather than human activities, and ultimately a focus on marine creatures and environment (Donnan and McClelland 1999:178-183). We can also find innovations in layout, characters and narrative techniques as well as pottery shape (Donnan and McClelland 1999:166). Although artistic cannons are mostly the same as preceding phases, there are changes; the layout consists of half and half, spiral layout, and a new scheme using the burial theme (Donnan and McClelland 1999:182-183). It is in this context that Reed boats are more frequently depicted than in previous phases, but for a completely different function. Rather than being portrayed for fishing activities they are depicted carrying elaborately dressed individuals (Donnan and McClelland 1999:179). Iconography versus Archaeological Evidence Over the last two decades, archaeological evidence has been demonstrating that the Moche practiced several activities portrayed in fine line painting. They also demonstrated that dignitaries as shown in iconographic representations wore clothes and accessories (Bourget 2005:89-109; Castillo 2000:307-332; Donnan and McClelland 1999:23; Verano 2005:111-125). In that sense Christopher Donnan and Donna McClelland (Donnan and McClelland 1979:6-10) propose the burial scene theme as four distinctive activities: burial, assembly, conch-shell transfer, and sacrifice. Double and parallel lines indicate that the activities were separate events, which did not occur at the same time but were associated with the burial of one extremely important individual and suggest that all depictions referred to the same individual (Donnan and McClelland 1979:13). The evidence found in Huaca Rajada is similar to the depictions (Alva 2004:101-116), but instead of one, there are at least three high status individuals buried at three different times with similar types of offerings. Moreover the caskets had a rigid structure of reinforced heavy canes wrapped in cloth, which covered the cane and the faces shown on the caskets may be hammered metal masks and attached to the cloth wrapping (Donnan and McClelland 1979:7). Moreover the goods depicted in the burial theme are frequently found in Moche and Sican graves, 3 Early Moche aproximately 200 A.D. – 400 A.D. Middle Moche aproximately 400 A.D. – 600 A.D. 5 Late Moche aproximately 600 A.D. – 800 A.D. 4 2 �along with different kinds of ceramic vessels, gourd bowls filled with food and conch shells (Alva 2004:86-99). Symbolic representation is also evident in the belongings of high status personages; they usually appear wearing gold alloy masks and are accompanied by specific emblems representing their status and role (Donnan 2008:77). The paraphernalia resembles the images contained in Moche friezes and ceramics, where it accompanies performers in the activities being depicted (Alva 2004;Donnan and Castillo 1992,1994). Specific individuals can be traced to the rituals depicted, which were acted out and performed exactly as they were depicted (Bawden 1996:25). That is the case of “the Priestess of San Jose de Moro” [Priestess] (Castillo 2000:307-332), where two female burials were found with distinctive paraphernalia corresponding to the Priestess from the Sacrifice scene, the female occupant of the reed boats (Cordy-Collins 1999:21; Donnan and McClelland 1979:7) and the net shirt personages form the burial scene (Donnan and McClelland 1979:7). Moreover the goblets found in burials, similar to those in the San Jose de Moro, tested positive for human blood traces (Bourget 2005:89-109). This reinforces the possibilities of actual blood rites during Moche times (Bawden 1996:154155;Bourget 2005:89-109). In that sense, the war and sacrifice rites depicted can also be related to archaeological evidence, such as the finding of human remains in the Huaca de la Luna, which show evidence of decapitation, defleshing and head trauma, among other signs of violence (Bourget 2005:89109; Verano 2005:111-125). Reed boats Iconography6 Reed boats in phase V are portrayed mainly in a half and half layout, they look larger than those depicted before and appear to have cargo decks carrying people and large ceramic jars. On one half the sacrifice Priestess is portrayed, on the second half a character is portrayed with a paddle-like object (Donnan and McClelland 1999:178-179; McClelland 1999:77-78). Phase V reed boats depictions appear with arms and legs, as well as the socalled floaters, contrary to Phase IV reed boats. Some artists replace the boat with the bottle equator or use a crescent moon shape similar to the reed boat. This type of representation is called the “Crescent Boat” and seems to be a simplification of the more complex reed boat scene (McClelland 1999:77-78). Whether it is represented in detailed reed boats carrying prisoners and jars; simply depicted on a crescent boat; participating in a complex sacrifice scene or in the Burial scene, it seems quite clear that the depiction of the Priestess, or at least a female character, is closely related to navigation scenes. Since these are all new scenes, or at least represented differently, we can presume that the boats represented in Phase V pottery may be a new type of reed vessel used in rituals and activities, perhaps as a response to changes in the ecological environment associated with the end of the Moche civilization around 800 A.D. (Donnan and McClelland 1999:184-185). 6 The research sample comes from drawings and photos from published sources, mostly by Christopher Donnan and Donna McClelland. The proveniences of the vessels were traced when possible, however most Moche pottery came from looted graves and therefore only a rough area of provenance is available in most cases (Donnan and McClelland 1999:17-18) 3 �Researchers separate them into two types: Crescent Boats and Reed Boats (Donnan and McClelland 1999:179), the first group refers to vessels representing a female seated on a boat, the boat is represented by a crescent shape form or using the angled equator to insinuate the boat, this group have been excluded from research due to be a simplified representation. The second group includes all the representations without making any distinction between raft and boat (Cordy-Collins 1999:17-33). Donnan and McClelland (1999:272) use the term reed boats for any representation of Moche watercraft, however these could be divided into two different types of representation, Reed Rafts and Reed Boats, which will be described as follows: Reed Rafts Unfortunately we were unable to gather all known iconographic examples but we believe that only a few are missing. The corpus is composed of six examples of reed rafts and looks very similar to today´s “Caballito de Totora”. The construction seems to be made up of bundles of Totora, which is tied together and fastened with simple or double ropes, all depicting an animal head on the upturned bow and stern, following a direction from left to right. They are single manned by a human figure holding a fishing line, wearing a shirt and a headdress adorned with feathers, an animal head, or simple lines. Usually the occupant stands over a bundle of nets. All reed rafts appear associated with fish, seashells, marine mammals and sea birds, which are usually very realistic. However in some cases they portray anthropomorphised sea birds pulling the reed raft. Reed Boats7 Reed boats are more frequently found in the northern area (Donnan and McClelland 2007:22), reed boats look in a similar way to the rafts but seem to use massive bundles of totora, over them a simple structure, which seems to create two different decks, one for cargo and a second for occupants. The occupants shown, on each half of the bottle is a Paddler holding a long stick or paddle and a female occupant usually identified as the Priestess (Donnan and McClelland 1999:178-179; Cordy-Collins 1999:17-33). The corpus of images is composed of the representation of thirty-seven reed boats, including four with the spiral narrative. To differentiate the variety of depictions, we have identified five main attributes: Direction, Anthropomorphic characteristics, number of occupants, type of cargo and finally the ratio and number of animal heads described as follow: • The first attribute is the direction of the scene; reed boat depictions can be presented following a direction to the left or right. • The second attribute is the anthropomorphic characteristics; most of the depictions appear with arms or legs, and sometimes both. There is only a small number without arms or legs. • The third attribute is the number of occupants, which may vary from one to three; only in a few cases, the number of occupants is 7 We believe to have most examples known, with just a few found in the last years. 4 �more than two. The rest of the sample presents only one occupant per boat. • The fourth attribute is the type of cargo; most cases present a cargo consisting of pottery jars or rounded objects tied with ropes, while the other type carries not only pottery jars but tied up prisoners. • The last attribute is the ratio of animal heads on the boat. Most reed boats show one or two animal heads in the bow and stern (# in bow / # in stern), the distribution can be mainly 1 / 2 or 2 / 1, a few exemptions appear where the distribution is 2 / 2, or 1 / 1. Reed Boats Group Descriptions After reviewing the corpus using these attributes, we can divide them into two main groups. With an extra third group conformed by the spiral narrative, however the boats represented on them belong to the type described on group two. Group 18: In general the depictions are represented similarly to the previous phase. The main activity of the boats is transporting people and cargo, in only one case the paddler is fishing instead, with the help of his companion. The reed boats are following a left direction and all of them show arms, usually holding a rope on the bow, and legs. Over the boat there is a single framed structure that creates two decks: the cargo deck hold prisoners tied to their necks and ceramic jars and the upper deck where the occupants stand9. The animal head usually has a relation of 1 / 2 and the boat itself looks similar to the reed rafts but the curve is less pronounced. All show the principal occupants, the paddler and the Priestess, accompanied by one or two more characters, and appear to be standing. The companions are anthropomorphised seabirds holding a similar object to the paddler. Group 210: the boats are very similar to the group ones although they have a major number of reed bundle fasteners. A new addition to the depiction is a circular net object attached to the bow and stern, with a few exceptions. All boats are travelling to the right and the cargo deck seem to be more elaborated or planned, it is represented as two double lines with a net in between, creating a more defined cargo. The cargo varies from ceramic jars; round objects suspended from the deck, probably gourd vessels, and some stylized round suspended objects. None show more than one occupant in the boats, likewise the occupants remain the same. Some changes can be seen in the priestess´ attributes, which in most cases appear holding an open bag, or having an oblong object on her dress, or holding a cup. The ratio of animal heads on the boats is not relevant in this group. Group 311: This group depicts the navigation scene in a ritual context using a spiral narrative. The boats are represented in a similar way to the group although they show four boats instead of two. The third boat holds an animal 8 This group is conformed of six cases. In this group, one particular case is a bit different than the other, the ceramic jars and prisoners are close to the bow, and in the priestess boat seems to be on two different levels. 10 This group is made up of twenty-six cases. 11 This group is composed of four cases. 9 5 �warrior in procession with the paddler and the female occupant, a fourth boat is shown at the beginning of the narration without occupants and apparently with some kind of object over the deck. The narration starts at the bottom of the chamber, with animated objects fighting human warriors; a male figure with a crescent headdress is watching the combat. Following the spiral, a female stands in front of bundles of weapons and the animated objects approach her. Further up the spiral, a procession of three reed boats appears with the paddler, the female occupant, and an animal warrior carrying containers. The boat arrives at a structure where part of the sacrifice ceremony is being performed while an anthropomorphized club and shield holds a goblet. Discussion Donnan (Bawden 1996:25) has a very interesting explanation of Moche iconography using the analogy of Christian artistic symbolism. In Christian art, the fullest depictions of the crucifixion included the cross and the flanking counterparts, but specific components can be used separately in religious art to symbolize aspects of the Christian dogma without losing meaning. The religious content in Moche iconography is similar, with full narrative compositions including fully identifiable participants, which can also be represented alone or in an abbreviated portion of the larger composition. Therefore, work as "symbolic" referents to the content and meaning were embodied in the major theme and identified as such by Moche People (Bawden 1996:25). Likewise we can interpret reed boats and crescent boats, as part of two different and new scenes in Moche depictions, the Burial Scene and the Spiral Navigation Scene Narrative, where boats played an important role transporting the Priestess who was in charge of the blood goblet. The relationship between them is based on the Priestess, and they might belong to a brotherhood therefore appearing as a group represented by the Net Shirts, figures wearing net shirts and a tiered item of attire extending down his back, appearing as a group on the burial scene (Cordy-Collins 1999:17-33). The same type of personage appears again on the reed boats and crescent boats. Other objects that are similar in boat representations are the jars that appear on the burial scene and an odd oblong object. Possibly both objects are brought to the grave by the net shirts (Donnan and McClelland 1979:7). These changes can also be seen on the reed boats occupants in Group 1, where the female occupant has the attributes of the Priestess, the feathers and clothes, and then in the Group 2 where the female occupant holds a goblet or an open bag. The perception of the ocean may have changed into a place where prisoners and cargo are being transported (Hocquenguem 1999:65). Maritime scenes may illustrate actual rituals just like other rituals in which religious dignitaries act out the myths of Moche society in order to reaffirm social foundations and continuity (Bawden 1996:75). If these rituals were actually performed as demonstrated in the archaeological evidence (Bourget 2005:89109; Castillo 2005:307-332; Verano 2005:111-125), the maritime scenes might therefore also leave an archaeological record. It does not seem that reed boats were involved in long distance trade for sumptuary goods. 6 �However they may have been involved in transporting guano12 from the islands offshore, a valuable resource as a fertilizer, the Chincha Islands being the largest of these islands groups, located on the southern Peruvian cost and possibly visited by the Moche (Bawden 1996:41-51; Kubler 1948:29-50); or perhaps Spondylus Princeps, Strombus Galeatus, important in rituals and ceremonies and found in archaeological contexts associated with those activities along the North Coast region (Bawden 1996:42; Shimada 1987:133144). In spite of this, we haven’t found any Moche fine line paintings depicting boats transporting such goods. The fall of the Moche society is associated with a catastrophic Niño13 event by 800 A.D. and this might be the reason for the change of Moche depictions to marine related scenes (Donnan and McClelland 1999:184-185), and the change in the perception of the sea (Hocquenguem 1999:65), where propitiatory rituals involving the safe transport of prisoners to offshore islands and high status individuals required a different and more complex system of navigation like the reed boat. Finally, differences between the reed boats, of Group 1 and 2, in the type of cargo they carry, could be easily explained as a simplification of a greater scene, as a referent of a greater meaning. Moreover those changes and the distortion of the representations follow the same path as Phase V pottery. Therefore the absence of evidence of an actual reed boat and the argument that only a few representations seem to depict a larger boat carrying cargo and prisoners (Makowski 2006:10-11) is not a strong argument against the existence and use of complex boats. Conclusion Reed boats and Crescent boats, as two representations of a single specific type of marine vessel capable of transporting cargo, prisoners and/or liquid containers, is possible. However the characteristics and activities are quite distinctive from previous representations. It is also clear that both reed boats and crescent boats are part of the same context of transporting blood offerings to/from the islands where they will be engaged in a larger ritual of sacrifice or burial. It is also clear that most of the ceremonies, rituals and objects depicted in Moche iconography have a real counterpart that has been found over the last two decades, suggesting that reed boats could be found in the archaeological record. Secondary data (Bawden 1996:75,77,79,101-102) other sources suggests firstly, that fishing communities were particularly separate from other groups, keeping their own identity and costums and secondly, that the reed boat tradition was related to Moche rituals and 12 Guano is the excrement of seabirds and seals found in the offshore islands of the Peruvian coast. It is an effective fertilizer due to its high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen (Shimada 1994:45-46) 13 El Niño events is a frequent long-term impact event that commence in Christmas season involving drastic changes in the marine environment of the Andean cost. Is a disruption of the prevailing currents and associated climatic conditions. This change can devastate the marine life interrupting the normal flow of nutrients and microorganism that support the prolific Peruvian coastal food chain. The phenomenon also affects the land by heavy precipitations; this brings several flooding’s causing widespread destruction (Bawden 1996:58). 7 �replaced by a northern balsa log raft tradition as well. Therefore looking for reed boats in burials has proved to be the wrong approach to the problem. Consequently, it would be feasible to find archaeological evidence of reed boats closer to the shore and islands, either on land or underwater. In that sense it would be likely to find archaeological evidence close to the main site where the reed boat depictions come from, and also where Moche presence has been reported in offshore islands. Moreover, it would be necessary to cross-reference with information such as sea currents and possible ports to identify a possible navigational route. Bibliography Alva, W., 2004 Bourget, S., 2005 Bawden, G., 1996 Bawden, G., 2004 Castillo, L., 2005 Sipán: Descubrimiento e Investigación, Edición del autor, Lima. "Rituals of Sacrifice: Its Practice at huaca de la Luna and Its Representation in Moche Iconography", in (ed.) J. Pillsbury, Moche Art and Archeology in Ancient Peru, Yale University Press, New Haven, London. The Moche, Blackwell, Oxford. "The Art of Moche Politics", in (ed) Helaine Silverman, Andean Archaeology, Blackwell, Malden. "The Last of the Mochicas: A View from the Jequetepeque Valley", in (ed.) J. Pillsbury, Moche Art and Archeology in Ancient Peru,, Yale University Press, New Haven Cordy–Collins, A., "La sacerdotisa y la Ostra: Queda resuelto el enigma 1999 del Spondylus?", in A. Cordy-Collins, et. al., Spondylus: ofrenda sagrada y simbolo de paz, Fundación Telefonica, Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima. Donnan, C.B., "Noche Masking Traditions", in (eds) Steve Bourget 2008 and Kimberly L. Jones, The art and archaeology of the Moche : an ancient Andean society of the Peruvian North Coast, University of Texas Press, Austin. Donnan, C.B., and "Finding the tomb of a Moche Priestess", in Castillo L.J., Archaeology 45, 6, pp.38-42 1992 Donnan, C.B., and "Excavaciones de tumbas de sacerdotisas moche en Castillo L.J., San José de Moro, Jequetepeque", in (eds.) Santiago 1994 Uceda, Elías Mujica, Moche : propuestas y perspectivas : actas del Primer Coloquio sobre la Cultura Moche, Trujillo, 12 al 16 de abril de 1993 / -Trujillo : Universidad Nacional de la Libertad; Lima : IFEA : Asociación Peruana para el Fomento de las Ciencias Sociales. Donnan, C.B., and The burial theme in Moche iconography, Dumbarton McClelland, D., Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington. 1979 8 �Donnan, C.B., and Moche Fineline Painting: Its evolution and Its Artists, Los Fowler Museum of Cultural History, UCLA, Angeles. McClelland, D., 1999 Hocquenghem, "En torno al Mullu, Manjar Predilecto de los Poderosos A.M., Inmortales", in A. Cordy-Collins, et. al., Spondylus: 1999 ofrenda sagrada y simbolo de paz, Fundación Telefonica, Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima. Kubler, G., “Towards Absolute Time: Guano Archaeology”, in 1948 American Antiquity, XIII, 4, pp.29-50. Larco Hoyle, R., Cronología arqueológica del norte del Perú, Sociedad 1948 Geográfica Americana, Buenos Aires. Makowski, K., "Orígenes Rituales de la Navegación en el Perú", in 2006 Gaceta Cultural del Perú,no. 22. McClelland, D., "A Maritime passage from Moche to Chimu", in (eds.) 1990 M.E. Moseley, A. Cordy - Collins, (Organizers) M. Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, M.E. Moseley, The Northern dynasties: kingship and statecraft in Chimor: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 12th and 13th October 1985, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Rowe. J., "Absolute Chronology in the Andean Area", in American 1946 Antiquity, Vol 10, pp 265-284 Shimada, I., Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture, University of 1994 Texas Press, Austin. Shimada, I., "Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of Prehistoric 2005 Status in Northern Peru", in (eds.) J. Hass, S. Pozorsky, T. Pozorsky, The origins and development of the Andean state, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. Verano, J., "War and Death in the Moche World: Osteological 2005 Evidence and Visual Discourse", in (ed.) J. Pillsbury, Moche Art and Archeology in Ancient Peru, Yale University Press, New Haven. 9 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pre Hispanic Navigation: Iconographic Evidence in Moche Fine Line Painting Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource Navigation in pre-Hispanic times in the Andean region has been a topic of discussion among researchers for years. Different sources of information lead us to believe that at least one type of marine craft was in use and involved in long distance trade at the arrival of the Spaniards. However, the debate surrounding earlier periods is stronger due to the lack of evidence in archaeological records. Most evidence consists of iconographic or sculptural depictions on pottery; wall friezes; and, ultimately, references gathered by chroniclers – but not a single remain of any kind of vessel. This situation has lead researchers to believe that marine crafts like the “Caballito de Totora” (“reed horse”) were just simpler tools without any further development. However, one particular type of watercraft represented in the Moche iconography apparently contradicts this idea, the “reed boat”. Moche fine line paintings portray this particular type of vessel, which differs from the traditional “reed horse” vessel, and seems to be capable of holding considerable cargo and occupants. Although the use of totora constitutes the oldest tradition for constructing rafts and boats along the coast and in the Titicaca region, unfortunately, as mentioned above, there is no evidence of such rafts or boats in the archaeological record apart from the iconographic depictions. In spite of this, we suggest that “reed boats” represented a real boat just as other real Moche characters were represented in their iconography, such as the “Lord of Sipan” or “The Priestesses of San Jose de Moro”. Moreover the reed boats were a technological innovation, which filled particular needs to perform rituals in times of ecological distress and to procure certain sumptuary items. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2bfbab86f9c95814ce7d063f429b5909.pdf 3fab7d417b621f41cdb0fa36aca9c9a7 PDF Text Text The methods of experimental archaeology apply in the reconstuctions of ship remains, the Ganzeng Warship Case Xu Lu1 and Jia Hao2 Abstract As one of the most important instruments of production in ancient time, ships are a complicated and systematic carrier. To study their uses one could broach the subjects of naval architecture, art of seamanship, fishing production, social function of trade and navy, and its anthropological meaning as a special settlement3. With respect to naval architecture our study divided it into the following: shipform, structure and principle of design. The method of experimental archaeology ship-reconstructions first in the late half of the last century in Europe. Initial endowment by the Danish National Research Foundation reconstructed a Viking ship. This methodology involves archeology, ancient documentation, and ethno-archaeological investigation of the same culture-tradition of shipbuilding. In this way, ancient ships can be restituted, rebuilt, and understood. —A.D.220). This Chinese junks had adopted the bamboo strip sail in the Western Han dynasty (B.C.206 tool was still in use in the Early Qing Dynasty (1644-1799) as evidenced by the Ganzeng warship. However, archaeologists have not found tangible evidence and are unclear on its structure and manufacturing methods. Nautical archaeology had never carried out an experiment on replica and reconstruction according to ancient navigation environment perspectives. The reconstruction of Ganzeng warship from the Early Qing Dynasty was based on the study of historic documents, integrated with methods of ship design and building traditions acquired from the ethnographical field work in Fujian province. This was the first full scale experimental anthropology reconstruction project in China. the design principle and method began with the preliminary sorting of the modular system of construction that was largely based on the study of the transverse watertight bulkhead, mast base structure, and the axis helm that can lift and swing bamboo strip sail. From this project we concluded that experimental reconstruction of ship remains is the only effective means to preserve the Chinese junk heritage. Furthermore, in this paper we introduce the use of modern technology and research tools used in experimental archaeology of ship remains. Key words: experimental archaeology, reconstruction sailing ship, ship remain, Ganzeng, naval architecture. 1 Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society, Xiamen, P.R.China 361005 2 School of History, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R.China 100875 3 Eric Rieth, 2006. Epaves, Archeologie Sous-Marine Et Histoire De L’architecture Navale. Histoire, Archeologie Et Societe Confererces Academiques Franco-Chinoises, Ecole francaise d’Extreme-Orient Centre, Beijing, Cabier No 13, pp. 1-20. 1 �1. Preface The encyclopaedia Heavenly Creation 4 (1637) has a chapter on naval architecture. The author Songyingxing divided the vessels into sea-going, river and other craft according to their environment. These classifications have been followed until now. In the book he elaborated parts on usage and navigation environments of ship, shipform and building procedure, design principle and modular proportion, design and manipulation of sail and helm, form and usage of anchor, sealant, rigging, log material and so on. Those have made the book the most systematic work of naval architecture of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and the decoding norms for traditional sailing junks till now. This study only focuses on sea-going junks. By the 21st century ancient Chinese sailing junks had disappeared, their memory only retained through studies in nautical archaeology, historic documents, the craftsmen traditions of shipbuilding, models and the odd recently-built traditional ships. The surmise of only four kinds of shipforms (ie. Shachuan, Niaochuan, Fuchuan, and Guangchuan) is incomplete and further study is required. Figure 1. Ganzeng style warship recorded in the middle of 18th century (Anonymous). 4 Song Yingxing, 2002. Heavenly Creations(Tian-Gong-Kai-Wu) in Sequel to Si-Ku-Quan-Shu, Zi radical, 1637, reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Press, Shanghai. 2 �2. Experimental archaeology 2.1 Conception and origins "Experimental Archaeology: The systematic approach used to test, evaluate and explicate method, technique, assumption, hypothesis and theories at any and all levels of archaeological research" (Ingersoll 1977). The field of experimental archaeology can generally be divided into four categories: controlled replication of recovered artifacts or known activities; testing the validity of methodological assumptions by applying them to known data or results; "contextual"; and ethnographic data. Experimental archaeology can also be described by using these questions: What was ancient man doing? Why? How? These questions can be answered in many different ways. “Experimental archaeology employs a number of different methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches in order to generate and test hypotheses, based upon archaeological source material, like ancientstructure or artifacts” (Mathieu 2002). One of the main forms of experimental archaeology is the creation of copies of historical structures using only historically accurate technologies. This is sometimes known as reconstruction archaeology. 2.2 Reconstruction experiment of ship remains The reconstruction experiment of ship remains chooses an original prototype from the historical documents, sets proper design and procedure application of the original tools and materials, copies the similar environment, reconstructs the replica, manipulates the replica under the similar navigation circumstances, and finally verifies and explains the set prototype. Followed the technical logic during all the procedures of building and voyage, previous conclusions need to be retested and re-evaluated, and sometimes previous hypothesis could be re-written. Or at least some possibilities of the unsettled questions could be expelled at the same time. Although experimental methods are not yet fully approved as scientific method in the European archaeology discipline be cause of the absence of common standards and untenable evidence. In nautical archaeology this method could be the most effective way to assemble all the information from shipwrecks, documents, interviews, models and operating ships, while also being the most effective in verification and preservation of the historical prototype. There are distinct differences between the experiments and other replicas. Firstly, the former are strictly document studies. Secondly, choosing the appropriate historical objects as prototype. The experiment replica could be ships with the ability to sail, proportionate models, specific sections or tools, or the clarify shipwrecks. 3. Reconstruction experiment of Ganzeng warship of early Qing dynasty Our team chose to conduct the experimental project on the Ganzeng warship of the Early Qing Dynasty based on evidence available in nautical and historical archaeology. The inital 3 �study of historical documents revealed multiple examples of European depictions of Fujian boats, these included: • The two large-scale trader in Zhujiang River printed by Netherlandish armada commanded by Cornelis Matelief de Jonghes5. The illustrations of side plate, gangway, deck castle, bamboo matting sail were particular for studies. • A middle 17th century, collection of Berlin Etnologisches Museum was the earliest meticulous color image of Fujian style junks6. • William Alexander’s colour images are the earliest and the best realistic portrayals of Fujian style junks available to us today7. We also studied Chinese historical documents and drawings from which we gained examples of shipforms during the reigns of Emperors Kangxi (1662-1722), Yongzheng (1723-1735) and Qilong (1736-1795). They were shrunk into medium(length over all under 30 meters) or small scales (length over all under 20 meters). The drawings largely consisted of double mast forms of warships and traders, with the majority of drawings being of single masted fishing boats. In and after the Jiaqing reign shipforms expanded. Examples include the Tongan Suochuan8 and Guangting warships of three masts. During the reign of Emperor Daoguang (1821-1850) large numbers of traders emerged with three masts. We believe the Ganzeng warship originated from the fishing junk of the Fujian and Zhejiang coast of the late Ming Dynasty (1600-1644). At the time it may have had a secondary use in trade. The first record of Ganzeng mentioned in Conquest Memoir9 by an official historian of Zheng Chenggong armed force named Yangyin in 1658, he mentioned that Zheng’s Navy dispatched a Ganzeng to salvage an European heavy cannon from a wrecked warship in Jieyang port (South-east of Guangdong Province). The first record found describing it as a warship is the 1664 August entry of East China Memoir10, written by Jiang Liangqi. In 1688 the ship served in the Fujian Navy to quard the coast of China. The final historical record is of an equipment list of the national navy, from the time of Emperor Guangxi's reign (1881). The first illustration of Ganzeng warship could be found in The Navy Abstract11 written by the east Guangdong regional commander Chen Liangshi during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. In the book, 14 kinds of seaman position, numbers of each kind, and the post requirements were firstly founded. It was the first document that explained the design principle and main modular system based on the length of main beam. The Taiwan Conversation by Writing12 was written by Huang Shujing between the years 5 6 7 This printing was cited by Isaac Commelin,1646. Beginning and Ending of the Dutch-East Company, Amsterdam. Anonymous, middle 17th century. The Island of Formosa, painted on parchment, collection of Berlin Ethnologisches Museum. William Alexander and George Henry Mason, 1988. Views of 18th Century China Costumes,History, Custom. 1796, reprint Portland House, New York. Jiang Youxian, 1817. Memorial to the throne with picture, 38cm×35cm, collection of The National Palace Museum, Taibei. 9 Yangyin, 1958. Conquest Memoir(Cong-Zheng-Shi-Lu), 1658, reprint Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. 10 Jiang Liangqi, 2000. East China Memoir (Dong-Hua-Lu), 1664 reprint Xueyuan Press, Beijing. 11 Chen Liangshi, 2002. The Navy Abstract (Shui Shi Ji Yao), later 17th century, reprint Shanghai Ancient 8 12 Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Huang Shujing, 1957. The Taiwan Conversation by Writing (Chi Kan Bi Tan), early 18th century, reprint 4 �of the Emperors Kangxi to Yongzheng. Shujing was the first imperial senior government official in Taiwan during the Qing Dynasty. He used mandarin tongue to record and explain the dialect of about 100 details of the ship construction, recording materials, quantities and specifications needed to build the Ganzeng warship. In 1731 a Guangdong general named Cai Tianlue stated to the emperor the Ganzeng’s details of dimensions and materials. In the statement he included the depth of the hulk, the upper width and the lower width of watertight hulk measured by a Luban ruler13. All the evidence from the three documents mentioned above provided us with a practical base to conduct our reconstruction experiment. We had detailed information including principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, material data, and measures. The five historical documents that recorded units dimensions, two of them with detailed illustrations, are: The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy Of Fujian Province (Figure 1)14, Cai Tianlue’ memorial to the throne, The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships15, The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going Warships 16, and The Illustrated of Shandong Dengzhou Naval Ganzeng warjunk17. Among the documents, The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships had the most complete records of 17 Ganzeng’s specifications and a detailed list of the amounts and costs of materials used for the construction (Table 1). In our experiment, we used this document as the main base data, and considered the others as complements. Table.1 The key dimensions of all sizes of Fujian Ganzeng warships Number Qty Length of deck Beam Deep of hold Cabin 13 Liminary 3 22.2 m 5.61 m 21 Chap.1 5 13.8 m 3.96 m 1.29 m 15 Chap.2 2 16.2 m 4.71 m 1.60 m 16 Chap.3 4 15.0 m 4.38 m 1.46 m 16 Chap.4 9 16.5 m 4.71 m 1.60 m 16 Chap.5 14 17.1 m 4.86 m 1.60 m 16 Chap.6 8 18.6 m 5.01 m 1.66 m 17 Chap.7 3 19.5 m 5.52 m 1.84 m 18 Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. Cai Tianlue,1989. Memorial to the throne about Zhejiang province’s Ganzeng warships, 1731, reprint Jiangsu Ancient Book Press, Nanjing. Luban ruler is a Chinese yardstick to length named with the fonder of capenter in ancient legend and widely used by traditional Fujian shipwright till now, 1 Luban’s foot is about 0.3 metres. Anonymous, middle 18th century. The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy of Fujian Province (Min Sheng Shui Shi Ge Biao Zhen Xie Ying Zhan Shao Chuan Zhi Tu Ji) , manuscript. 15 Anonymous, 2002. The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Fu Jian Sheng Wai Hai 14 Zhan Chuan Ze Li), 1768, woodblock edition. reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. 16 Anonymous, 1719. The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Jiang Su Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), collected by The National Science library, Beijing. 17 Anonymous, middle Qing Dynasty. The Illustrated of Shandong Dengzhou Naval Ganzeng warjunk, 66cm×55cm, collected by The National Science library, Beijing. 5 �…… Chap.16 3 25.8 m 6.39 m 2.37 m 22 Chap.17 9 24 m 6.24 m 2.18 m 22 3.1 Reconstruction design Stage 1 Based on above studies of historical documents, and considering the difficulty of experiment and financials, we chose Qing 8 of Taiwan Navy recorded in Chapter 1 of The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships, the length of deck 13.8 metre Ganzeng warjunk as the original ship, and applied the reconstruction design steps as follows: • Step 1: Listed all the units of 17 sizes according to The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships, and compared the list of Chapter 1 Ganzeng to other sizes. We got a supplement list of Chapter 1 Ganzeng from the compare (Table 2), which was hold to testify or modify used above mention other historical documents later. Table.2 The specification of Chapter 1 Fujian Ganzeng warship Main measurement • • • • Length of deck 13.80 m Beam of middle bottom 3.06 m High sheer forward 1.20 m Length of tail 3.60 m High sheer tail 0.9 m Beam of tail deck 3.78 m Length of fore ship 5.40 m Beam of tail bottom 2.82 m Beam of forship deck 2.64 m Length of top-side plank 15.78 m Beam of forship bottom 2.40 m Height of top-sideplank 1.20m Length of middle 4.80 m Cabin 15 Beam of middle deck 3.96 m Deep of hold 1.29 m Step 2: Distinguished and sorted every component of the list according to the illustrations of The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy Of Fujian Province and the explanations of The Navy Abstract and The Taiwan Conversation. Step 3: The uncertain components and units were questioned in interviews conducted in the field investigation of traditional shipbuilding sites in Fujian, and the explanations were compared. The accordant explanations were accepted and the inconsistent ones were held for further tests. Step 4: The main technical parameters like thickness of bottom plates were sent to the master of craftsmen, and confirmed that the parameters were almost the same as the tradition of the master. The traditional Luban ruler was used as the measurement tool, whose 1 Luban’s foot (chi) was equal to 0.3 metres. Step 5: The complex list was sorted to five systems including configuration system, drive system, directional system, anchor system, decoration system. Then converted 6 �to a new List of The Specifications Of Components & Materials, including 977 wood parts and 27 metal parts, nailed with 17886 nails, and sealed with a mixture of 686 kilograms of shell ash, 276.5 kilograms of tung oil, 223.5 kilograms of net, 223.5 kilograms of bamboo fibers. • Step 6: The new list was handed to four teams for reconstruction detail design. The four teams were Fangshijian from Fuzhou, Hongzhigang from Hui’an, Chenfangcai and Chenrongliang from Jinjiang, Kongbinghuan and Xuxihui from Dongshan. All the teams are traditional shipbuilding specialists in Fujian. The design principle was to match all the units of the new list neatly to the traditional way and without any pieces remaining. The construction was based on the functions of main units and systems and was in the accordance with the documents and field investigations. stage 2 Compared four of the above mentioned ancient documents with three newly found documents: the Cai Tianlue’ memorial to the throne, The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going Warships, and The Illustrated of Shandong Dengzhou Naval Ganzeng warjunk. For prototypes we chose the length of deck at 22.2 m, based on the primary chapter of The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships, and 21.9 m deck length, from chapter 11. Then organized List of The Specifications of Components & Materials and designed models. 3.2 Full scale reconstruction In 2007 the building of a full scale reconstruction began. The team from Jinjiang reconstructed the ship based on chapter 1 Ganzeng warship, length of deck 13.8 m, which followed the traditional shipbuilding. The teams of Fuzhou, Hui’an and Dongshan were technical support, the Longhai team painted, and the Zhaoan team finailized adjustments after the trial voyage. The reason of this prototype chosen was that it was the smallest one in the 17 sizes. Thus the expense was relatively small, and the dangerous factor of the voyage was relatively small too. The reconstruction ship was named Princess Taiping. The procedure of building ancient sea-going sailing junks is rarely found in the historical documents. And there have been many discussions between shell-first and frame-first design. The transverse watertight bulkhead, the most characteristic structure of Chinese sailing junk，is a frame-first system. The reconstruction’s procedure was carried out as illustrated (Figure 2): Figure 2. The sequence of construction. 7 �3.3 Testing and improvement The trial voyage from Shenhu to Xiamen was carried out during January to April of 2008 (Figure 3). The results of the voyage showed the Princess Taiping sailed at an average speed of 6 knots without wind with good stability but it had visible transverse drift, an issue in most Chinese sailing junks. The Princess Taiping entailed bamboo matting sails. The fabrication of bamboo matting was still mastered by several craftsmen along the Fujian coast18. We had no study of the manipulation technique of bamboo mattging sail so we used the cloth sail dyed by Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour. This was not in accordance with the historical prototype. Figure 3. Princess Taiping (Photo by Qiao Yang). 4. Modeling technology 4.1 Classification and cognition A three-dimensional reference frame could be set to classify the complex Chinese sailing 18 Xu Lu, 2006. The investigation on the traditions of naval architecture along Fujian coast. 8 �junks, which set time as the first coordinate axis, use space as the second one, and apply usage as the third axis. In this reference frame, every one of the warships, traders, fishers and ambassador ships from different time and space will find their own place. For certain ship forms the classification system of the Ming Dynasty’s encyclopedia of Heavenly Creations may be feasible. Every ship part and components in the classification should be tested in the field investigations and compared with the study of antique ships. The shapes, the positions, the functions and the behaviors of these parts should be observed on the spot, and recorded on the voyage. 4.2 Suppositional three-dimensional model Photoshop software and Illustration software are applied to produce the joint picture and vectorgraph of the shipmodel. Then 3dmax software was applied to create models of the ship units and whole ship. We first used this method of a three-dimensional model on the last traditional sailing junk built in Jinhuaxing in 2004, followed by the Ganzeng warship build in 2006 (Figure 4). Figure 4. 3D Components of Fujian Ganzeng warship. 9 �5. Conclusions and discussions 5.1 Conclusions Although shipwreck archaeology has very few cases of Chinese sea-going junks, many clues can be found in historical documents. Furthermore, the majority of sailing junks still voyaged in the middle of 20th century so the last traditional shipbuilding craftsmen are still alive. When we applied experimental archaeology methods to ship remains study, a distinctive prototype could be selected and craftsmen found to build the traditional design. The Ganzeng reconstruction therefore applied traditional technology with steps that trace back to the old building procedures. The structure of transverse watertight bulkhead was the most important character of all Chinese sailing junks, and watertight bulkhead was the soul structure in this project. The mixture sealant of tung oil and ashes, Chinese rugging sails, the axis ruddle that can swing and lift, the leeboard, and scull were inventions of ancient Chinese sailing junks19. As far as the choice of wood is concerned, a kind of natural fir tree Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.)Hook from Fujian a mountainous area was normally used for the parts of a ship’s shell that have direct contact with the sea, such as the keel (longgu), bottom, shuishe (literally water snake), and zouma (literally running horse), the deck and transverses (gecangban, literally cabin-separating boards), and natural small-leaf camphor for other parts of the body such as cangliang zhuo (base of cabin beams) liangtou (beam-end) and gecang fuqiang (cabin-separating strengtheners). For the rudder and anchor which required harder material, kundian wood, which was grown in Guangdong and Southeast Asia was used. Wood for the mast was the most carefully selected, natural fir trees from Fujian aged 80 or more were generally used. The craftsmen constructed the ships with the traditional techniques and tools. The aim of the reconstruction experiment is to reveal the technical logic of historical prototypes with similar techniques and environments. Reconstruction experimental archaeology is an effective method to study history. The replica will be on the trial voyage in same circumstance as it would have historically. Any baseless conjecture must be expelled, quantitative investigations and tangible evidences must be applied, as ship form essentially was the reflection of its wooden structure. This kind of historical study should be based on concrete practice rather than soely on documentation studies, and should avoid in interfusion by knowledge of modern naval architecture as a result like previous Zhenghe treasure ship study20. Modular systems are an important and traditional method in naval architecture. Modular system use the length of the keel or deck beam as the base structure. The Ganzeng reconstruction applied this system. This kind of traditional design uses lengths instead of angles as the measurement, which embodies the character of Chinese old math. The principle and method of design can not be understood until all the modulus are grasped. This is the essence of the technical logic in Chinese shipbuilding. The only way to preserve traditional technique is to conduct it. Reconstruction of ship remains is the rescue solution of heritage preservation. The rise of tourism at the sea may 19 Xu Lu, 2006. The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sailing Junks, an Overview. 20 Chen Yanhang, Yang Qiuping, Chen Xiao, 1986. A Study For The Peplica Of Zheng He’s Treasure Ship. Ship History Studies, Vol. 1986 (2). 10 �open a new space for the need of Chinese traditional sailboat. At the same time the resource of craftsmen continues. 5.2 Discussions Reconstruction of ship remains must be based on archaeological and historical evidences, integrated with methods of ship design and building acquired from ethnographic field work in traditional shipbuilding centres. The organization of all the resultant studies is the important part of reconstruction experiments. Some academic studies collect and sort domestic navigation documents of Chinese history, however the documents scattered in libraries and museums aboard have been neglected. To improve the effectiveness of retrievers and studies a visual database of documents organized by database including images and available on the internet need to be created. Classification could be according to use, time, region and type. Unlike shipbuilding of other indigenous areas, Chinese shipbuilding traditions changed little through time, and the last capable traditional shipbuilders are still alive. Western classifying studies of Chinese sailboats in the early of 20th century are just based on field investigations and interviews with the successors of traditional naval architecture. Projects need promptly undertake field investigation, with the case of the Manchuria railway being a precise and standard model of these studies. The terminology of traditional shipbuilding and navigation is usually passed on orally, and so are not always recorded in documents, and now some of have no equivalent word. Furthermore, the meanings of the words have changed through time and place. This continues to puzzel both Chinese and Western scholars21. Through the interviews we can distinguish the dialect, this must be the first step to syncronizing traditional andmodern-day terms. And the glossary of Chinese terms relevant to traditional Fujian junk should be authorized and translated to English and other languages for better communication. Besides the basic works mentioned above, the index of drawings, photos and models of traditional Chinese sailing junks need to be done, with the documents stored aboard copied and sorted. For example, the neglected series drawings made in Guangzhou in 19th century collected by Victoria and Albert Museum are the best illustrations of Western scholar’s classification. The scripts of François-Edmond Pâris22, Louis Audemard23, Etienne Sigaut24, Barbosa Carmona25 still have no Chinese versions, and some of them even have no English versions. These translation works are urgently needed. 21 There is an old adage in Fujian province that “Master of a particular shipyard builds ships exclusive to that shipyard.” Even in southern Fujian and speak idiographic Minnan dialect, different township have their own glossary system. 22 23 Musee de la Marine, 1992. Le voyage de la Favorite. Paris. L.Audemard, 1957,1959,1960,1962,1963,1965,1969,1970a,1970b. Les Jonques Chinoises, (10 volumes), Museum voor Land- en Volkenkund en Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik, Rptterdam. Etienne Sigaut (1887-1983) spent more than thirty years in China to investigate South Chinese junks since 1911, his manuscript and sketch however, have never been published and remain in National Maritime Museum of France. 25 Artur Leonel Barbosa Carmona, 1990. Lorchas,Juncos E outros Barcos no sul da China, repaint Museu e 24 Centro de Estudos Maritimos de Macau. 11 �The current experimental reconstruction project is the replica of a 10 meter length, later 19th century to early 20th century, Fujian style sea-going sailing junk. The original ship came from the manuscript on Junk-building of the Zheng Family of Haicheng in Zhangzhou in early Republican Period (1937). The detailed redesign was made by an 88 year-old master shipbuilder named Zheng Liangzhao. We aim to reconstruct this double-masted sailing junk for a trial voyage so as to grasp the sail manipulation methods and the navigation techniques which unavailable in any documents. Bibliography Alexander,W., Mason, G., 1988 Anonymous., middle 18th century Anonymous., 2002 Views of 18th Century China Costumes,History, Custom. 1796, reprint Portland House, New York. The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy of Fujian Province (Min Sheng Shui Shi Ge Biao Zhen Xie Ying Zhan Shao Chuan Zhi Tu Ji) , manuscript. The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Fu Jian Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), 1768, woodblock edition. reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Anonymous., The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going 1719 Warships (Qin Ding Jiang Su Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), collected by The National Science library, Beijing. Audemard, L., Les Jonques Chinoises, (10 volumes), Museum voor Land- en 1957,1959,1960,1 Volkenkund en Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik, Rotterdam. 962,1963,1965,19 69,1970a,1970b. Cai, T., Memorial to the throne about Zhejiang province’s Ganzeng 1989 warships, 1731, reprint Jiangsu Ancient Book Press, Nanjing. Carmona, B., Lorchas,Juncos E outros Barcos no sul da China, repaint 1990 Museu e Centro de Estudos Maritimos de Macau. Chen, L., The Navy Abstract (Shui Shi Ji Yao), later 17th century, reprint 2002 Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Huang, S., The Taiwan Conversation by Writing (Chi Kan Bi Tan), early 1957 18th century, reprint Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. Ingersoll, D., Experimental archaeology, Columbia University Press, New Yellen,J., York. Macdonald,W., (eds.) 1977 Jiang, L., East China Memoir (Dong-Hua-Lu), 1664, reprint Xueyuan 12 �2000 Mathieu, J. R., 2002 Rieth, E., 2006 Song, Y., 2002 Yang, y., 1958 Press, Beijing. Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes (British Archaeological Reports, International Series), BAR International Series 1035, Oxford. Epaves, Archeologie Sous-Marine Et Histoire De L’architecture Navale. Histoire, Archeologie Et Societe Confererces Academiques Franco-Chinoises, Ecole francaise d’Extreme-Orient Centre, Beijing. Heavenly Creations(Tian-Gong-Kai-Wu) in Sequel to Si-Ku-Quan-Shu, Zi radical, 1637, reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Press, Shanghai. Conquest Memoir(Cong-Zheng-Shi-Lu), 1658, reprint Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. 13 � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/631d138d83cdfdf9277ba0960678ad2a.jpg 7a476381f2ef8bebb1bdb54c71900f78 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The methods of experimental archaeology apply in the reconstuctions of ship remains, the Ganzeng Warship Case Subject The topic of the resource Session 3 History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource As one of the most important instruments of production in ancient time, ships are a complicated and systematic carrier. To study their uses one could broach the subjects of naval architecture, art of seamanship, fishing production, social function of trade and navy, and its anthropological meaning as a special settlement . With respect to naval architecture our study divided it into the following: shipform, structure and principle of design. The method of experimental archaeology ship-reconstructions first in the late half of the last century in Europe. Initial endowment by the Danish National Research Foundation reconstructed a Viking ship. This methodology involves archeology, ancient documentation, and ethno-archaeological investigation of the same culture-tradition of shipbuilding. In this way, ancient ships can be restituted, rebuilt, and understood. Chinese junks had adopted the bamboo strip sail in the Western Han dynasty (B.C.206—A.D.220). This tool was still in use in the Early Qing Dynasty (1644-1799) as evidenced by the Ganzeng warship. However, archaeologists have not found tangible evidence and are unclear on its structure and manufacturing methods. Nautical archaeology had never carried out an experiment on replica and reconstruction according to ancient navigation environment perspectives. The reconstruction of Ganzeng warship from the Early Qing Dynasty was based on the study of historic documents, integrated with methods of ship design and building traditions acquired from the ethnographical field work in Fujian province. This was the first full scale experimental anthropology reconstruction project in China. the design principle and method began with the preliminary sorting of the modular system of construction that was largely based on the study of the transverse watertight bulkhead, mast base structure, and the axis helm that can lift and swing bamboo strip sail. From this project we concluded that experimental reconstruction of ship remains is the only effective means to preserve the Chinese junk heritage. Furthermore, in this paper we introduce the use of modern technology and research tools used in experimental archaeology of ship remains. Key words: experimental archaeology, reconstruction sailing ship, ship remain, Ganzeng, naval architecture. Xu Lu Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu Jia Hao Asia-Pac Session 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/67ccaefb8cbdbe664c12284fdea22254.pdf ab92a936444d082a36c4ed8cd4d80d3c PDF Text Text Underwater Archaeology in México: From the Bottom of the Sea to the Crater of a Volcano Pilar Luna Erreguerena Abstract Over thirty years, underwater archaeology division at Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) has gone through diverse stages and fulfilled assorted projects in marine waters, in cenotes (sinkholes) and inundates caves, at the lagoons in the crater of a volcano, and in a beach in Baja California searching for the remains of a Manila Galleon cargo. Amazing discoveries include bones of extinct animals, skeletons and ashes dating from more than ten thousand years ago, hundreds of pre-Hispanic Maya skulls, and shipwrecks ranging from the 16th to the 21st centuries. Since the beginning national and international collaboration has been the key. Being part of the group of experts who worked for the elaboration of the text of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage paved the way for Mexico being one of the first State Parties in ratifying this Convention; this also led to become one of the initial group that integrated the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (STAB). Instruments like the Convention and the ICOMOS International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage are crucial in helping to win the battle against the permanent pressure of treasure hunter groups in countries like Mexico, which has a leading role as pioneer in the protection of the underwater cultural heritage and the development of underwater archaeology in Latin America. Together with UNESCO, INAH Mexico organized in 2010 the course “Research and Management in Underwater and Maritime Archaeology”, in which 27 specialists from 14 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean participated. The future looks promising for this region. Introduction Over the span of thirty one years, Mexico’s underwater archaeological division at the InstitutoNacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH, National Institute of Anthropology and History),has gone through several stages and fulfilled a myriad of projects in diverse sites such as marine waters,cenotesor sinkholes, lagoons insidethe crater of a volcano at 4,200 meters above sea leveland in a beach of Baja California,searching for the remains of a Manila Galleon. Mexico is a country with a rich past andabundant cultural heritage along its seas, rivers, lakes, springs, and also in the thousands of water bodies spread in the Yucatan Peninsula. All this, a valuable testimony of what human beings are capable of achieving in order to live, to communicate with other lands, worship their deities and express themselves through art. In February 2011, Mexican underwater archaeology celebrated 31 years ofresearch, preservation, conservation and sharing through diverse means what the waters have kept for over more than 10,000 years. Since its creation in February 1980, INAH’s underwater archaeology division decided to undertake projects with a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional, and international cooperation approach. With the support of Dr. George F. Bass, considered the “father of underwater archaeology in the world” and Dr. Donald H. Keith, both from the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at that time, Mexican archaeologists began to learn how to do archaeology in a new way. Since then, national and international collaboration has been the key. �Obviously, at first in Mexico we were land archaeologists. Going from surface to underwater archaeology is not an easy thing. Research topics can be unique and quite different from those investigated on land. Underwater projects happen in a completely different environment to ours, which entails certain challenges. Besides the fact that archaeologists cannot go to the site as often as in land, or remain there as much time to fulfill tasks, there are challenging circumstanceslike treacherous currents, dangerous animals, and diving accidents among others.It is worth pointing out, that underwater archaeology in Mexico hasfocusedprimarily on the location and recording of sites, as well as the analysis of objects in context. In some cases, sample pits and trenches have been excavated, but no thoroughexcavation project has been undertaken yet. First Projects The first underwater projects in Mexico took place between 1980 and 1990 in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean and in a spring located in the state of San Luis Potosí, central Mexico.The story began in 1979, in the Cayo Nuevo Reef, Gulf of Mexico,where two sites dating from the 16th and 18th centuries, were discoveredthanks to a report from two American sport divers. A cannon engraved with the year 1552 was identified as the oldest bronze cannon ever recovered in the Western Hemisphere (Luna Erreguerena1982), and nowadaysexhibited in the Museo de San José el Alto, in Campeche City.This was a fortunate event,as it helped to push INAH’s authorities to finally take the decision to create an underwater archaeology department within the Institute.From then on, we have had the invaluable support of Mexican institutions and individuals, as well as many colleagues from the United States, Canada, the Cayman Islands, and more recently, from Argentina, England and Spain. All of them have become part of a wonderful and supportive team who has played, and continues to do so, a significant role in the development of Mexican underwater archaeology. After the project in the Gulf of Mexico, in 1981 and 1982 we carried out a combined underwater and land archaeology project at the Media Luna Spring, where abundant pre-historic and pre-Hispanic materials were recorded, in spite of the fact that it has been continuously looted since the 1950’s.In 1984, the Caribbean gave us the opportunity to do experimental archaeology.After being contacted by Michael Creamer, an American captain living in Isla Mujeres, we decided to attemptto confirm his hypothesisthat El Castillo (The Castle), the main structure in the archaeological site of Tulum, Quintana Roo, was used as a“lighthouse” in pre-Columbian times, but also as a warning system. In his report, Creamer refers that Sabloff and Rathje “based their conclusion on Spanish accounts of the Maya lighting fires atop the towers as beacons to warn the island’s inhabitant of invasion” (Creamer 1984). In order to demonstrate this, two archaeologists climbed to the upper part of El Castillo with two gas lamps, while the rest of the team was in a boat navigating towards the beach. In the exact moment that the light of the first gas lamp was visible through one of the two small windows in the structure, the boat prepared to turn, and immediately after the second light appeared through the other window, �the boat was able to enter safely through a natural cut in the reef (Luna Erreguerena1982). The experiment was a success, and it has been repeated twice since then: in 1998 for Discovery Channel and in 2009 for History Channel.It helped to demonstrate that Maya structures along the coast of Quintana Roo were used as navigational aids,a fact that is corroborated by the modern lighthouses built quite near some of these ancient structures (Luna Erreguerena 1982). During the 2009 recreation, it was also proved that El Castillo served as a navigational aid not only when the artificial lights are seen from a boat at sea through the two small windows in the upper part, but also when the sun light can be seen from the two windows located in the lower part of this Maya structure, which does not have a roof. Today, thanks to this discoveryfishermen and navigators in the area use this system to go in and out of the reef in total confidence. This is a modest example of how archaeology, a social science, can bring social benefits. The last project, in what we call the first stage of Mexican underwater archaeology, took place in 1990 at the Chitales Reef, off Cancún, in the southeast part of Mexico, with the support of Dr. Donald H. Keith and the team fromShips of Exploration and Discovery Research, based in Texas. This was a multidisciplinary project aimed at documenting a 16th century shipwreck, in which biologists from the Universidad NacionalAutónoma de México (UNAM, National Autonomous University of Mexico) worked shoulder-to-shoulder with archaeologists. Once the excavation area had been determined, biologists collected all living corals and replanted them when the archaeological work was finished. They monitored the site over a year, until the area recovered. One of our goals is to respect and protect the natural heritage in which cultural heritage is immersed. Renewed or Die As mentioned before, the transition from land to underwater archaeology is not an easy task.By 1992, most of our few archaeologists had decided to go back to their terrestrial projects.This was a turning point for Mexican underwater archaeology suddenly threatened to disappear. However, if one is able to see that whenever a door closes another one opens up, things keep on flowing.In 1994, the first master level course on underwater archaeology was taught in Mexico with a field school in the Caribbean.Thirty professors from Mexico, the United States and Canada participated in the six-month course, and twenty archaeology and conservation students, graduated rekindling the fire of the discipline in Mexico. The 1630-1631 New Spain Fleet Then, in 1995, the big door opened for us: INAH’s Department of Underwater Archaeology was promoted to a vice directorate and the most ambitious project ever fulfilled began to take shape: the investigation of the New Spain Fleet that lost several of its ships in the Gulf of Mexico during a storm in 1631, while on route to Havana bound for Spain as final destination. Fleets, created in the 16th century, �were in some way an extension of the Spanish empire that traveled to a different continent but were ruled by the same laws (Trejo Rivera 2003: 22). Intense research on archives took place in Mexico, Spain and Cuba. Documents and maps from the 17th century were consulted, analyzed, and transcribed. After months of dedication to this endeavor, an area was selected in the Sound of Campeche, Gulf of Mexico, to start looking for the fleet’s vessels lost during the storm, mainly one of the two flagships,NuestraSeñora del Juncal (Luna Erreguerena2008: 57).The first field season took place in 1997.In sixteen days of survey, 24 sites were located and recorded. The discovery of these sites led us to create a parallel project: the Inventory and Diagnosis of Submerged Cultural Resources in the Gulf of Mexico, where 179 sites have been integrated to this day, with shipwrecks and isolated elements ranging from the 16th to the 20th centuries. An increase in the number of sites located in the Gulf of Mexico has been occurringmainly due to two reasons: 1)the work done with fishermen, divers and natives who have led us to several shipwrecks and other cultural vestiges, above all in coastal waters; and 2) the support received in 1998 from the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit of the United States National Park Service to design a remote sensing system to be used in Mexican waters.The search for NuestraSeñora del Juncal continues, and this year the archival research has taken a new turn, asnew specialists from Mexico, the United States and Spain have been integrated to the team in charge of this project, As we speak, the team is working planning an intense field season for 2012. Cenotes and Inundated Caves A universe of its own are the cenotes and inundated caves of the Yucatan Peninsula, where amazing discoveries have been made since 1999, when INAH’sSubdirección de ArqueologíaSubacuática (SAS, Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology) received several reports from cave divers regarding the finding of prehistoric and pre-Columbian materials. Thousands of years ago, these caves were dry and served as an ideal shelter for animals and human beings alike.Since the sea level in this part of the Caribbean has increased more than 60 m in the last 10,000 years, the caves are now totally covered by water.Discoveries include bones of extinct animals, skeletons and ashes dating from more than ten thousand years ago;hundreds of pre-Hispanic Maya skulls, some of them with intentional cranial deformation; ceramic from the same period; and some elements from colonial times, as rifles used in the “Caste War” or Guerra de Castas, a wideMaya rebellionagainst the white elite (criollos and mestizos) of the colonial government in Yucatán,that lasted from 1847 to 1901. The existence of several cave divers groups in the Yucatan Peninsula has been a decisive factor for these findings. Cave diving organizations in Yucatan and Quintana Roo calculate in thousands the number of cenotes and inundated caves in this region, many of which contain cultural vestiges. INAH’s division of underwater archaeology works very closely with most of these divers, offering them special courses like the one from the Nautical Archeology Society (NAS) to teach them how to behave in the presence of cultural remains and how to help �archaeologists to record this material in a proper way. Since cave diving is an extreme type of diving which requires special training, sophisticated equipment and a constant practice,in Mexico there are not many archaeologists who can do this job, therefore, the work with these groups has proved quite positive for underwater archeology in such peculiar and dangerous bodies of water. Five Important Programs Sometimes, when you begin to work towardsa dream, time goes by and you don’t realize how big your dream has grown. This happened to us in Mexico, when we became suddenly aware that besides the projects carried out, there were many things we were doing at the same time that needed to be introduced into a proper structure. This is how a new project was born: Special Programs of the Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology, which includes five components: 1) Attending reports of underwater cultural heritage findings and their legal protection; 2) Training; 3) Divulgation; 4) Conservation of materials recovered from aquatic environments; and 5) National and international collaboration. Each year, we travel to different parts of the country in order to attend reports of archaeological material findings. Through these inspectionswe have also contacted different authorities and began raising consciousness about the value and importance of such finds. Significant achievements have been obtained with local authorities and members of the communities with jobs related to the underwater cultural heritage, like fishermen, divers and tourist guides. Among the most significantdiscoveries made through fishermen in the coastal waters of Champotón, Campeche, is a 18th shipwreck known as “El Pesquero,” probably of British origin (BarbaMeinecke 2008). Also, last year, port authorities in Veracruz asked INAH to survey the area where they were planning to extend the port facilities. Archaeologists from the Vice Directorate found and recorded hull remains from an 18th century ship, as well as ceramics and glass materials. Traininghas been a permanent concern. Researchers from INAH receive constant courses on topics like geophysics, recording, videography, diving, etc. In this regard, national and international support still isa determinant factor. Specialists from Mexico and abroad participate each year in our field seasons, sharing their experience and knowledge, not only with researchers but also with archaeology and conservation students, diving instructors, and local people interested in the preservation of the underwater cultural heritage.Together with training, dissemination has been a permanent commitment. All researchers from SAS/INAH participate in symposiums, presentations, lectures and interviews both in academic and public forums. This program includes itinerant exhibitions, mainly in towns and cities around the places where archaeological work is being done, as well as video documentaries and publications. Regarding the conservation of materials recovered from underwater sites, one of our policies has always been not to recover any object if its conservation cannot be guaranteed and only to recover those elements that serve our research objectives or those in danger of destruction or looting. In this program, we have received the invaluable support from different laboratories within INAH in Mexico �City and Campeche, and the Corrosion Laboratory from the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche (UAC, Autonomous University of Campeche). The Manila Galleon Project Even if the main part of our archaeological work has taken place in the area of the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula, in 1999 researchers Edward von der Porten and Jack Hunter started a project in Baja California, searching for the remains of one of the Manila Galleons that traveled between America and Asia from 1565 until 1815.The Baja California Peninsula occupies 33% of Mexico’s total coast. This peninsula is full of historic events related to the sea: the search for new territories and routes; the passage of pirates, buccaneers and corsairs; scientific expeditions; establishment of ports and Japanese fishing communities; the pearl industry; maritime accidents through the 19th and 20th centuries, and of course, the Manila Galleon route (Mejía 2007). It was during the 1970’s that American beachcombers began reporting findings of porcelain fragments in some beaches of Baja California, especially in the area of Ensenada. Some years later, news reached a group of researchers who immediately knew the potential of these findings. The University of Santa Clara in California and the National Institute of Anthropology and History, through its Centro INAH Baja California and the Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology, were invited to participate in this multidisciplinary project, which includes archaeologists, geophysicists, historians, geologists,art historians, and conservators. Field seasons have been short and not sufficient, due to oceanographic and climatic adverse conditions, and financial limitations.In spite of this, results have been fruitful. Archaeologists have surveyed the area, both land and underwater, using metal detectors, remote sensing equipment, and GPSs.An important collection of shards of Chinese porcelain has been collected, together with beeswax blocks, stoneware fragments,a Fu dog bronze sculptureand some coins, among other elements. Preliminary analyses indicate that these objects date from the late 16th centuryand were part of the cargo of a Manila Galleon. The next field season will take place in 2012. The Nevado de Toluca Volcano An hour West from Mexico City there is a volcano known as the Nevado de Toluca, that rises to 4,600 metersabove sea level. In its crater, there are two cold lakes— named Luna and Sol (Moon and Sun)—where pre-Columbian groups depositedofferings to fertility deities, and from where divers in the 1950’s, 1960’s and 1970’s recovered rare serpent shaped wooden objects and incense cones and spheres (Luna Erreguerenaet al 2009: XIV). In May 2007, thanks to a donation given by Mr. Richard Siegel and a complementary funding from the Goldsbury Foundation—both received through archaeologist Johan Reinhard—researchers from INAH carried out a field season focusing mainly in the smallerLuna Lake. While some archaeologists worked �underwater, a professor and a group of students from the EscuelaNacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH, National School of Anthropology and History) did some excavationpits on the shore.Findings were similar to those recovered some years ago: wooden objects shaped like serpents; 75 cones and spheresof a type of incense known as copal still inuse today, plus cactus plants used for self-penitence (Junco 2009: 26). Travelling exhibitions, together with a documentary film and a book entitled Celestial Waters. Nevado de Toluca, have beenpresented in many of the little towns around the volcano, especially among elementary and high school students. Besides, schools have received a copy of the book entitled“Under de sea, there are more than fishes…” designed especially for children and youth to raise awareness about the Mexican underwater cultural heritage and the importance of its preservation. This year, INAH will publish a comic book, which tells the story of the volcano and the archaeological work carried out, aimed at those people who don’t like to read books. Management of Sites Management of underwater cultural heritage is something relatively new in Mexico. INAH participates in management programs in two protected areas: a park integrated by 23 reefs in Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico, and the Chinchorro Bank Biosphere Reserve situated in the Mesoamerican Reef, the second largest in the world, after the Australian Great Barrier. In both cases, INAH is working very closely with CONANP, an official branch of the ministry in charge of the environment, to protect the underwater archaeological heritage (Luna and Carrillo 2005). Last August, a joint mission UNESCO-ICOMOS-UICN made an inspection visit to Chinchorro, after INAH and CONANP presented a technical file for the nomination of this reserve as a Mixed Site to be included as part of the world heritage. It would be the first Mixed Site (natural and cultural) for Mexico, and the first in the world with an underwater cultural component. Besides its wonderful ecological diversity, this place contains shipwrecks and isolated elements dating from the 16th century to the present. So far, INAH has located and recorded 68 sites. Presence in International Forums Being member of national and international councils dedicated to underwater archaeology and the preservation of the underwater cultural heritage, has allowed Mexico to be in constant contact with specialists from all around the world, as well as being part of a global effort to fight treasure hunters and to have a voice in the making of public awareness and policies regarding this legacy.Mexico was part of the group of experts who worked for the elaboration of the text for the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Thispaved the way to be one of the first State Parties to ratify theConvention in July 2006 after a long and complex process that involved academic, legal and �technicalauthorities. Being one of the first twenty State Parties that ratified the Convention allowedMexico to become one of the eleven membersof the initial group that integrated the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (STAB). Legal Aspects Mexico has fought a constant battle against treasure hunters. The infiltration of these groups into political spheres has made things even more difficult. However, based on the Ley Federal sobreMonumentos y ZonasArqueológicos, Artísticos e Históricos (Federal Law on Archaeological, Artistic and HistoricalMonuments and Sites) (INAH 1972) and theDisposicionesReglamentariaspara la InvestigaciónArqueológica en México (Regulations for Archaeological Research in Mexico) (INAH 1977), among other laws, these attempts have been stopped successfully. INAH has an ArchaeologyCouncil whose duty is to receive, evaluate, approve or reject all archaeological projects pretended to be carried out in Mexico, be on land or underwater. When the Council receives an underwater archaeology project, it calls the Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology for an opinion. In this way, many requests—some of them disguised as “research projects”—from treasure hunters have been detected and rejected. Instruments like the UNESCO 2001 Convention and the ICOMOS International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage are crucial in supporting countries that do not have a law to protect their underwater cultural heritage and those whose laws are weak in this regard; even thosewho havespecific laws can find reinforcement through these international agreements. Regional and International Cooperation A golden formula is to give back to life what you have received from it, hence the importance of education that is crucial in the development of underwater archaeology and the preservation of the underwater cultural heritage. A good way is to join efforts and design regional courses directed to underwater archaeologists and specialists belonging to related disciplines. In 2010, UNESCO’s Secretariat for the 2001 Convention andthe National Institute of Anthropology and History organizedthe course “Research and Management in Underwater and Maritime Archaeology”, which took place in the Mexican port of Campeche with the attendance of 27 specialists from 14 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean.One of its main achievements was the creation of the OrganizaciónLatinoamericana de ArqueologíaSubacuática (OLAS, Latin American Organization on Underwater Archaeology). Currently, INAH’s Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology, with the special collaboration of Mexican historian Flor Trejo and Spanish professor Fernando Serrano Mangas, is organizing the course “Specialization in underwater archaeology of the Carrera de Indias and the recognition of the underwater cultural heritage (late 15th and early 19th centuries), which will take place in 2012 atthe National School of Anthropology and History in Mexico City. �Conclusion In conclusion, I want to express my gratitude for this invitation to share Mexico’s experience in the field. Our experience in thirty-one years has been full of learning and growing, of challenges and achievements. Today, Mexico has a leading role as pioneer in the protection of the underwater cultural heritage and the development of underwater archaeology in Latin America, even though we have never excavated intensively a shipwreck or lifted a whole ship from the bottom of the sea, or count witha state of the art conservation laboratory for materials recovered from aquatic environments. Many of our projects were born from reports of archaeological findings, some due to the pressure of treasure hunters, and others based on research goals. Our work has been steady and according to the possibilities and priorities of the moment, never imagining the option of negotiating a legacy that is irreplaceable and non-renewable, which is valuable beyond economic considerations and that does not only belong to the nation in whose waters it is found, but to all human kind. Modern times have witnessed a paradox in history. Many of those countries with wonderful ancient cultures belong today to the so called “third world”; therefore, they do not have the financial resources, advanced technology nor the specialists needed to investigate and preserve the remains of those cultures that lay in the bottom of their seas or in their rivers and lakes. Some of the countries in the Asian Pacific region, as well as Mexico, are good examples of this. On the other hand, many of the so-called “first world countries” have the resources, but they do not possess the cultural richness that our countries have. Maybe this is the reason why some of the main groups of treasure hunters come precisely from these rich countries with no strong bonds toward their past and their ancestors. All countries have the right and the responsibility to preserve their underwater cultural heritage in accordance with their own idiosyncrasy and circumstances, which are different and unique. Underwater cultural heritage has remained stable and preserved over hundreds or even thousands of years in its aquatic context. There is no hurry and no justification to recover it, if one doesn’t have the proper resources and meet the international standards clearly established in the ICOMOS Charter and the 2001 UNESCO Convention.Maybe one of the great lessons we have learned in Mexico is the fact that you can create your own reality, and begin working in the preservation and research of the underwater cultural heritage even if the feeling is that there are not enough means, because the only thing that is needed is to have a burning passion in your heart, and to believe that this portion of human history deserves to be preserved and investigated properly. Look then for the right people in your own country and the support of your own authorities; then, look for the assistance and cooperation of those countries and colleagues that have already walked a similar path and who have proved that it doesn’t matter what you have, but how you use it. �Bibliography Meinecke, Band Elena, M., 2008 Arqueología subacuática en la costa de Campeche: El caso del pecio “El Pesquero, Champotón.” Primeros acercamientos en torno a su investigación. Unpublished paper presented at the Sixth World Archaeological Congress, Dublin, Ireland. Creamer, M., 1984 Pre Columbian Aids to Navigation. A Mariner’s Perspective. Unpublished internal report to the Subdirección de Arqueología Subacuática, INAH, Mexico. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia., 1972 Ley Federal sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicos, Artísticos e Históricos. (Diario Oficial, 6 de mayo de 1972) INAH/SEP. México, D.F. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia., 1977 Disposiciones Reglamentarias para la Investigación Arqueológica en México. INAH/SEP. México, D.F. Junco, R., 2009 “Arqueología subacuática: descifrando los misteriosdel Nevado de Toluca”. In Luna Erreguerena, Pilar, Arturo Montero and Roberto Junco (coords.) Las Aguas Celestiales. Nevado de Toluca. INAH-Concepto Editorial. Mexico, pp. 23-31. Luna Erreguerena, P., 1982 La arqueología subacuática.Professional ENAH/UNAM. Mexico. thesis. Luna Erreguerena, P., 2008 “The Submerged Cultural Heritage in Mexico”, in (eds.) Margaret E. Leshikar-Denton and Pilar Luna Erreguerena, Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in Latin America and the Caribbean. Left Coast Press, Inc. One World Archaeology 56, Walnut Creek, CA. pp. 55-65. Luna Erreguerena, P., 2009 “Introducción”, in Pilar Luna Erreguerena, Arturo Montero and Roberto Junco (coords.) Las Aguas Celestiales. Nevado de Toluca, INAH-Concepto Editorial, México. Luna Erreguerena, P. and Carrillo Márquez, L., 2005 “Banco Chinchorro: Retos en torno a la conservación manejo y disfrute del patrimonio mixto (natural y cultural)”. Hereditas, Año 4, Vol. 11, abril, CONACULTA-INAH, México. pp. 26-39 Mejía, L. M., 2007 Arqueología subacuática en Baja California. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historiaviewed 23 August 2011, http://www.subacuatica.inah.gob.mx �Sabloff, J.A. andRathje, W., 1975 "The Lost Worlds of the Ancient Maya," Oceans Vol. S8: pp. 56-59. Trejo Rivera, F. (Coord.)., 2003 La Flota de la Nueva España: Vicisitudes y naufragios. Colección Obra Varia, INAH, México, D.F. UNESCO., 2001 La Convención de la UNESCO sobre la Protección del Patrimonio Cultural Subacuático. París, Francie, viewed 25 August 2011, http://portal.unesco.org � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b69a183b0af21a620d8cc640170c4ab0.jpg 91129dec1b4a1cf169a08c464f2db353 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 667 Height 429 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4c724cd01c002619bd401e714e9d69de.jpg 81e025d785bc18a2e765763709fae2da Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 287 Height 324 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Archaeology in México: From the Bottom of the Sea to the Crater of a Volcano Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Speaker Description An account of the resource <p>Over thirty years, underwater archaeology division at Mexico&rsquo;s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) has gone through diverse stages and fulfilled assorted projects in marine waters, in cenotes (sinkholes) and inundates caves, at the lagoons in the crater of a volcano, and in a beach in Baja California searching for the remains of a Manila Galleon cargo. Amazing discoveries include bones of extinct animals, skeletons and ashes dating from more than ten thousand years ago, hundreds of pre-Hispanic Maya skulls, and shipwrecks ranging from the 16th to the 21st centuries. Since the beginning national and international collaboration has been the key. Being part of the group of experts who worked for the elaboration of the text of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage paved the way for Mexico being one of the first State Parties in ratifying this Convention; this also led to become one of the initial group that integrated the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (STAB). Instruments like the Convention and the ICOMOS International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage are crucial in helping to win the battle against the permanent pressure of treasure hunter groups in countries like Mexico, which has a leading role as pioneer in the protection of the underwater cultural heritage and the development of underwater archaeology in Latin America. Together with UNESCO, INAH Mexico organized in 2010 the course &ldquo;Research and Management in Underwater and Maritime Archaeology&rdquo;, in which 27 specialists from 14 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean participated. The future looks promising for this region.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pilar Luna Erreguerena Roberto Junco Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Keynote https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c5e7a36e9879c19a88edd12a50a9583c.pdf 1d9e6feecfdd62ade4c1c3797f75c8a3 PDF Text Text Creating the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Dr Emad Khalil Abstract The most recent report published by UNESCO Section for Museums and Cultural Objects concerning Underwater Archaeology Courses at Universities and Other institutions mentioned more than thirty facilities around the world that provide education and training in aspects of Underwater Archaeology, most of which are located in Europe and the USA, with some programs in Asia, Australia and South America. However, there is an evident lack in underwater archaeology education and training facilities in many parts of the world, in particular in Africa and the Arab Region. So far, the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage, based in the Faculty of Arts, Alexandria University is the only underwater archeology education centre in African and Arab countries. The centre was created in 2009 through a grant from the EU Trans European Mobility Scheme for University Studies (Tempus). The project was the result of collaboration between eight institutions from the UK France and Egypt, who provided the necessary academic, technical and administrative expertise required for achieving the project's objectives. The Tempus project aimed to create a specialised centre for postgraduate studies at the Alexandria University, which provides education and training at different levels in aspects of maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage. It also aimed to develop and implement postgraduate Diploma and Master Programs in Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage, designed and structured in accordance with EU standards. Since its creation and until today, the centre has played a major role in the development of maritime and underwater archaeology in Egypt. It has also been a part of several international networks and projects with the aim of disseminating its activities and contributing to capacity building in the fast growing field of underwater archaeology. Underwater Archaeology in Egypt The development of underwater archaeology in Egypt can be divided into several phases, each of which has its nature and characteristics. The first of these phases started in the early twentieth century with the discovery of the ancient harbour at Pharos by the French engineer Gaston Jondet (1912). Then, in the years that followed, more underwater discoveries were made by explorers and amateur archaeologists. These included the discoveries made by Prince Omar Toussoun in the 1930s (Toussoun 1934) and those made in the Eastern Harbour of Alexadnria by Kamel Abu El-Saadat in the 1960s (Morcos 1993). Moreover, the remains of the Napoleonic fleet were discovered east of Alexandria in the mid 1980s under the direction of the Société Française de Recherche Archéologique Sous-marines (Khalil & Mustafa 2002:520). In other words, this phase of underwater archaeology in Egypt was led primarily by non-specialists and it mainly included accidental discoveries and subsequent salvage operations. The Egyptian role in the projects that took place during this phase was quite limited, it was mainly through the contribution of the Egyptian Navy in addition to some professional and sport divers (Morcos 1993: 42-5). The second phase started in the mid 1990s with two significant projects which are considered to be a turning point in the history of underwater archaeology in Egypt. In 1994, the Centre d'Études Alexandrines (CEAlex) started the first systematic underwater archaeological survey in Egypt looking at the submerged remains of the ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria (La Riche �1996). In the same year, the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) launched the first underwater archaeological survey along the Egyptian Red Sea coast, which led to the discovery and the subsequent excavation of the Sadana Island shipwreck during the period from 1995 until 1998 (Haldane 1994; Ward 2001). Those two events could be considered the true beginning of the practice of underwater archaeology as a scientific discipline in Egypt. Since then and until the present time, several archaeological projects were carried out in Egyptian waters and a number of archaeological missions surveyed and excavated many underwater sites in Egypt. This phase, however, was mostly led by European and American archaeological missions that belonged to different universities and institutions (Goddio et al. 1998; Gallo 2003; Tzalas 2003; Goddio 2007). Nevertheless, in 1996, and as a result of the significant underwater discoveries that were made by the French archaeological missions in Alexandria, the Egyptian government decided to establish a Department for Underwater Antiquities (DUA) as part of the Supreme Council for Antiquates (SCA), which is the main authority responsible for the exploration, conservation and management of archaeological sites in Egypt. The establishment of the DUA was the first governmental recognition of the importance of underwater archaeological research in Egypt. The main role that was assigned to the DUA was monitoring and regulating the work of the foreign archaeological missions, however, soon the DUA started conducting its own projects, utilising the experience its members acquired through collaborating with the foreign missions. Nevertheless, the bulk of work in terms of exploring, preserving and presenting Egypt's underwater cultural heritage was done by non-Egyptians. The reason behind this was the total lack of education and training in any aspect of underwater archaeology in Egypt, an issue that has hindered for years the development of that discipline, despite Egypt's extensive and rich maritime heritage. This was recognised during the International Workshop on Underwater Archaeology and Coastal Management, organised in Egypt in 1997 under the patronage of UNESCO, which included amongst its recommendations that the Alexandria University should consider developing specialised courses at postgraduate and undergraduate levels in underwater archaeology, coastal zone management (Mostafa et al. 2000:192). However, the absence of education in maritime and underwater archaeology is Egypt was not only due to the lack of funds and expertise, but more importantly due to the lack of vision. Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology The creation of the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology & Underwater Cultural Heritage was a turning point in history of underwater archaeology in Egypt. The idea of creating the Centre was proposed to me by the Dean of the Faculty of Arts following my return from Southampton in 2005, where I obtained a PhD in Maritime Archaeology. The idea was to formulate a project to be submitted to the EU Tempus program for funding the creation of the centre. Moreover, according to the Tempus regulations, the project had to include a number of partners from Egypt and the EU. And while the beneficiary would be Alexandria University, the grant holder had to be a university from the EU. This is how the collaboration between Alexandria University and the University of Southampton started. Accordingly, in 2006 a �project proposal was formulated by the University of Southampton as the grant holder and the Alexandria University as the beneficiary and submitted to the Tempus program. In addition to those two institutions the project consortium included: the Nautical Archaeology Society, the Supreme Council for Antiquities, the Centre d'Études Alexandrines, the Arab Maritime Academy. That is in addition to two external reviewers from the University of Ulster, and Université de Provence. The project consortium would collaborate to provide the academic, technical and administrative expertise necessary for creating the centre. The proposal aimed to create a new academic centre which would provide education and training at different levels in aspects of maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage. In doing so, it would develop and implement a new postgraduate Diploma and Master programs in Maritime Archaeology which would be structured closely into line with similar programs in European countries, in order to promote the mobility of students, graduates and staff members between compatible and comparable education and training programs. In July 2007, a grant of about 250,000 Euros was awarded by the EU Tempus program for the creation of the Centre. However, there were some activities in the project that were not eligible for the EU funding, which included the renovation and furnishing of the building which would host the centre and the purchase of some equipment, such as a Rigid Inflatable Boat (RIB) and a Truck for the use of the centre. Therefore, private sponsorship was sought and hence a number of individuals and corporations agreed to fund different aspects of the project. Between 2007 and 2009 the centre was created and incorporated into the structure of the Alexandria University. The establishment of the centre required the performance of various activities, which were carried out by the consortium members either in Egypt or the UK. This included obtaining the necessary approvals and accreditations from the Egyptian Ministry for Higher Education, the purchase of equipment, supplies and books, the formulation of the different education programs and courses that would be taught at the centre, visiting similar centres in a number of UK universities, developing a statute for the new centre, appointing the centre’s main academic, administrative and technical staff members and decimating information about the newly established centres, its aims, objectives and activities. In October 2008, the Faculty of Arts at Alexandria University celebrated the inauguration of the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology & Underwater Cultural Heritage, however, different activities related to the project were still being carried out until the centre was completely functioning by September 2009 when the first group of post-graduate students were admitted. Since that date, the centre has been functioning as Africa and the Arab Region only education and training facility in maritime and underwater archaeology. The regional focus of its courses is be the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf, while the temporal focus will extend from the Pre-Classical period to Late Antiquity. The centre offers a The Graduate Diploma which aims to provide graduates from different backgrounds with a basic understanding of contemporary theory and practice in aspects of maritime and underwater archaeology. Its duration is for one year, therefore it �has been of a particular interest to professionals dealing with cultural heritage, such as antiquities inspectors and museum curators in order to promote and develop their careers and professional skills. Moreover, the centre offers a Master Degree in Maritime Archaeology, which lasts for two years and aims to provide graduates in archaeology and related disciplines with a sound theoretical and methodological grounding in the investigation, interpretation and management of maritime and underwater archaeological resources. In addition to the above-mentioned graduate programs, the centre started implementing an introductory course in Maritime Archaeology, which is taught at the undergraduate level in year four at the Archaeology Department. At present the centre has 20 Master students including fresh graduates, professional archaeologists and tour guides. Research and Extracurricular activities: During the past two years, since the centre started functioning, it has been involved in various activities, which are considered an integral part of the centre's mission and objectives. In March 2010 the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology & Underwater Cultural Heritage in collaboration with the University of Southampton, the University of Ulster and the British Museum organized a 10-days international workshop on maritime and underwater archaeology. This workshop was attended by 15 trainees from Egypt, Bahrain, Kenya, Libya, Somaliland & Tunisia. During the course, trainees were introduced to various theoretical and practical aspects of maritime and underwater archaeology including site management, finds handling, conservation & remote sensing. And in April 2010, the Bibliotheca Alexandrian hosted an International Seminar on Maritime Cultural Heritage, which was organized by the Centre for Maritime Archaeology and the University of Southampton, the British Museum and the European Commission Tempus program. The seminar was held on the occasion of concluding the project of establishing the centre. The main themes of the seminar were preservation, presentation and education in Maritime Archaeology. The seminar aimed to provide opportunities for institutions to address issues of coastal heritage management, to encourage capacity building in the region and to establish networks of contact to support and inform with regard future initiatives and challenges. Over the two days of the seminar, 25 papers were presented by speakers from 15 countries: (Australia, Bahrain, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Kenya, Libya Morocco, Somaliland, Tunisia, UK & USA). The seminar was divided into three sessions. The first day was dedicated to Management and Preservation, the second day was dedicated to Outreach, Presentation and Museums, and the final session to Education. The Centre for Maritime Archaeology is recognized by the Egyptian Diving & Lifesaving Federation as the first Scientific Diving Training Facility in Egypt. The Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology has also been certified by the Egyptian Diving & Lifesaving Federation (EDLF), member of the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS), as a full SCUBA diving training facility authorized to teach all levels of sport and scientific diving according to the training system of the CMAS. It has also been authorized by the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS), to provide NAS training course either to the university students or to the public at large. This �has enabled the centre to extend its mission to the general public and contribute to raising public awareness about underwater cultural heritage. In an effort to make the centre for maritime archaeology into a regional and international education and training facility, the Alexandria University has proposed to the Euro-Mediterranean University (EMUNI) to develop a new Masters program in Maritime Cultural Heritage to be offered to the students of the EMUNI member universities. This proposal has been approved by the EMUNI senate and the program is expected to start in September 2012. This will be in addition to a free standing summer course in Underwater Archaeology which will be offered for EMUNI in June 2012. On the other hand, the centre has been involved in two main research projects. The first one was an underwater archaeological survey of a number of shipwreck sites in the Red Sea. Two survey seasons have been carried out so far, in 2010 and 2011. This is a collaboration survey conducted between the British Museum, the University of Southampton and the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology. The other research project is the first one to be carried out entirely by the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology. It is the investigation on a number of shipwreck sites, which the Centre discovered during a scientific diving course 250km west of Alexandria. So far two survey seasons have been carried out by the students and staff of the Centre, which resulted in the discovery and mapping of over 2 hectares of seabed covered with early and late roman amphora which suggests the existence of more than one shipwreck. The project is funded by Alexandria University and it is expected to run for at least two more seasons. Conclusion It is expected that the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage will play a significant role in the development of that field in Africa and the Arab Region. A number of students from different Arab and African countries have shown interest in joining the centre’s education programs. Moreover, other Arab universities have expressed their interest in developing their own centers for maritime archaeology based in the Egyptian experience. It is also expected that the centre will continue its collaboration with different institutions around the world on both the academic and the research aspects aiming to contribute to capacity building and the development of generations of knowledgeable and skilful underwater archaeologists. �Bibliography Gallo, P., 2003. Nelson Island project: Research into archaeology and geology. In S. Morcos et al. (eds.) Towards integrated management of Alexandria’s coastal heritage, UNESCO Coastal Region and Small Island papers 14, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 26. Goddio, F., et al. (eds)., 1998 Alexandria: The Submerged Royal Quarters, Periplus, London. Goddio, F., 2008 The Topography and Excavation of Heracleion-Thonis and East Canopus (1996-2006), Oxford University School of Archaeology, Oxford. Haldane, C., 1994 INA-Egypt's Red Sea Survey. The INA Quarterly, 21.3, pp. 4-9. Khalil, E. and Mostafa, M., 2002 Underwater Archaeology in Egypt, in Carol Ruppe & Janet Barstad (eds.). International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology. Plenum Series in Underwater Archaeology, pp 519-534. Morcos, S., 1993 Submarine archaeology and its future potential: Alexandria casebook, Societe Archeologique d’Alexandrie. Bulletin 45 Mostafa, M. H. et al. (eds.) 2000 Underwater Archaeology and Coastal Management – Focus on Alexandria. UNESCO Publishing Paris. Toussoun, O., 1934 Les Ruines Sous-marines de la Baie da'Aboukir. Bulletin de la Société archéologique d'Alexandrie, 29, pp. 342-345. Tzalas, H., 2003. The Hellenic Mission's Underwater Archaeological Survey in Alexandria (Egypt) 2002-2003. ENALIA 7, pp.38-40. Ward, C., 2001. The Sadana Island Shipwreck: An Eighteenth-Century AD Merchantman off the Red Sea Coast of Egypt. World Archaeology, 32.3, pp. 368-382. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/58c3fdd74a9463082d8aad5ad06e69e1.jpg 1fbd7baa1fc2ffef94cefd011a9589ca Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 648 Height 398 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/83f2f7fca06c4361072b0f3a98daae1c.jpg 9f26207302ff2d0f965dd2ffe4af2dbc Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 348 Height 366 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Creating the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Speaker Description An account of the resource <p>The most recent report published by UNESCO Section for Museums and Cultural Objects concerning Underwater Archaeology Courses at Universities and Other institutions mentioned more than thirty facilities around the world that provide education and training in aspects of Underwater Archaeology, most of which are located in Europe and the USA, with some programs in Asia, Australia and South America. However, there is an evident lack in underwater archaeology education and training facilities in many parts of the world, in particular in Africa and the Arab Region. So far, the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage, based in the Faculty of Arts, Alexandria University is the only underwater archeology education centre in African and Arab countries. The centre was created in 2009 through a grant from the EU Trans European Mobility Scheme for University Studies (Tempus). The project was the result of collaboration between eight institutions from the UK France and Egypt, who provided the necessary academic, technical and administrative expertise required for achieving the project's objectives. The Tempus project aimed to create a specialised centre for postgraduate studies at the Alexandria University, which provides education and training at different levels in aspects of maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage. It also aimed to develop and implement postgraduate Diploma and Master Programs in Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage, designed and structured in accordance with EU standards.</p> <p>Since its creation and until today, the centre has played a major role in the development of maritime and underwater archaeology in Egypt. It has also been a part of several international networks and projects with the aim of disseminating its activities and contributing to capacity building in the fast growing field of underwater archaeology.</p> <p>To watch a video of this presentation please click here: <a title="Dr. Lucy Blue Keynote Address" href="http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/videos/Lucy_Blue.m4v" target="_blank">http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/videos/Lucy_Blue.m4v</a></p> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr Emad Khalil Dr. Lucy Blue Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Keynote https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/81e6302632d27e2faf778087c394cb31.pdf e74d5f9b2ee817fef53db8922606964a PDF Text Text East Asian shipbuilding traditions and its historical evolvement Jun Kimura Abstract The archaeological study of excavated ships can contribute to knowledge and understanding of past seafaring and maritime activities. Such study includes the assessment of the hull structure and construction methods. This paper highlights technological innovations evidenced by the remnants of ships in China, Korea, and Japan. Based on data of the excavated ships from the tenth century onwards, this paper addresses the significance of the bulkhead in oceangoing ships in the light of technological innovations, diffusion, and hybridization. This contributes to further understanding of the relationship between the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition,” the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition,” and the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition.” The “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition” has been presented by earlier researchers as a hybrid ship building technology. This paper highlights the integration of the technologies from the Yellow Sea and East China Sea into the South China Sea tradition by tracing specific hull components, such as bulkhead(s) used for East Asian seagoing ships. The “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition” is exhibited by ships operating in the northern waters of East Asia. Traditionally, these ships have flat bottoms but variations are represented by the early Tang Dynasty riverine ships and Goryeo Dynasty ships, and in later periods by Ming Dynasty ships excavated in Penglai, China. Recent archaeological inspections conducted on the Quanzhou ship, Shinan shipwreck, and ship timbers from the Takashima Underwater site established that these ships were built in the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. V-shaped bottoms, keel and bulkheads, and multiplelayered hull planking with iron fastenings, characterise this tradition. The ships built according to these two traditions came to be used in seaborne activities within and beyond East and Southeast Asia. The chronological linkage of three shipbuilding traditions developed in two regions will be pursued. Introduction The research on the hull is one of the most important themes in shipwreck archaeology as it offers us a better understanding of historical seafaring and human interaction with waters. It has been noted that the increase of the underwater archaeological expeditions in China, Korea, and Japan occurred through the last few decades, and this has resulted in facilitating accesses to the data of excavated ships in these countries. The Shipwreck ASIA project has lately demonstrated a basic data collection on the excavated hulls (Kimura 2010). The collective data allows a comparative analysis on the hull to clarify the development of East Asia shipbuilding tradition. Such an approach developed with a theoretical idea underlying technological innovations and integration of hull components. The East Asian shipbuilding tradition was explicit in previous researches in comparison with Southeast Asian shipbuilding technologies, focusing on the distinctive hull components of shipwrecks from the two adjacent regions (Green 1990; Manguin 1993). Pierre-Yves Manguin (1984; 1993) suggested that the emergence of the technological difference and similarity in these two regions are attributed to the inherence of technological hybridization observed in the historical development of shipbuilding and explained the “South �China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Based on the appreciation of inherent nature in historical shipbuilding, this paper overviews the creation of East Asian shipbuilding traditions over centuries that were formed in the two areas: the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition”, “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Context In many colonial and Asian societies, hybridity tended to be applauded in cultural terms (under labels like association or acculturation) even while disdained in racial ones,…(Reid 2010) One of the themes in the study of shipbuilding technologies is the identification of technological innovations in its history that tend to generate from endogenous growth as well as exogenous factors. In this context an approach to a technological hybridization observed on the hull components is important. Manguin’s studies on the early-mid 15th century Bukit Jakas site found at Bintan Island in the Riau archipelagos of Indonesia has presented an example of the hybridization of shipbuilding technology (Manguin 1993; Manguin 2010); the main structure of the hull consists of a keel and bulkheads with planks that are edgedjoined with wooden dowels, while the hull planking is fastened to sturdy frames by square iron nails. The use of wooden dowels for hull planking is recognized as Southeast Asian indigenous shipbuilding tradition, yet the use of bulkheads as main transversal structure for the hull and iron fastenings are regarded as of Chinese origin. A few excavated ships in the water of the South China Sea show a similar construction method, according to a different principle from the above mentioned two distinctive shipbuilding traditions. These ship remains reveal the features of hybrid ships, identified as the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Since the 16th century when European expansion to East Asia and Southeast Asia began the technological hybridization on the ship structure probably became more apparent than during the previous periods. This is evident in iconographical and historical resources. A drawing of a Japanese ship known as an Araki bune sailing to Vietnam depicts a hybrid feature in its rig and hull from European, Chinese, and Japanese traditions (Figure 1). The Europeans during colonization periods recognised the involvement of hybrid ships in Southeast Asian waters, though they used the Spanish term mestizo, instead of the English term hybrid. The fact that the Europeans applied the term mestizo to describe ships that had mixed features in their construction is recorded in the historical Japanese text titled Zoho Kai Tsushoko (Studies on the Intercourse and Trade with the Chinese and Foreigners) written in 1708 by Nishikawa, Joken (Ishii 1995: 72-76). A Siam ship depicted on the Japanese scroll painting is further evidence of the existence of the mestizo ship in Thailand around the 18th century (Figure 2). �Figure 1. Historical painting depicting the Red Seal Ship known as Araki bune sailing to Vietnam. Courtesy of Museum of Maritime Science Figure 2. Siam ship from the Japanese scroll painting (Tosen no Zu) depicted probably around the 18th century. At a glance its configuration is similar with the other seven Chinese ships drawn on the same scroll yet the rigs and stern structure of the Siam ship are different from them. Photo by author, Courtesy of Matsura Historical Museum �Structural features defined as being of the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition in archaeological sources are correspondent with iconographical and historical records. What all this evidence indicates is the existence of a technological cluster consisting of hull components and associated construction methods from different origins. Individual technologies that are composed of the cluster are further examined to clarify their role in a long-term formation of a shipbuilding tradition. The excavated hybrid ships, for instance, use bulkheads in their interior structure and the bulkhead is located as one of the most important components as it has consistently been used in the structure of the East Asian oceangoing ships over centuries. The shipbuilding traditions in East Asia are dated to an earlier period than the appearance of the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition. This needs to be further pursued to locate the point of integration of technologies in the history of shipbuilding development. Chronology of technological hybridization in East Asian shipbuilding The data of excavated ships in East Asia is presented in chronological order. These data focus on the remains of coastal and oceangoing ships with substantial structure rather than primitive watercraft. The examination on the hull and construction methods in this section intends to lead to three distinctive traditions which have been linked with Manguin’s studies the idea of technological hybridizations. In the Yellow Sea’s area In China, the use of bulkhead traces is identified in excavated ships dating to the tenth century during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.) (Kimura 2010; Xi, et al. 2004). Bulkheads initially appeared in the structure of riverine ships before their adaption to oceangoing ships. The bulkheads, which have been perceived as representative of Chinese shipbuilding tradition, were originally used for a flat bottom hull with no keel suitable for riverine ships. Two Tang Dynasty ships have been discovered inland of the Jiangsu Province. Such flat bottom ships, however, could have been used for sail out to sea. The province faces the Yellow Sea which is known for its shallow waters where people could probably embark using flat bottom ships which were originally designed as riverine ships. The Jiangsu Province and southerly adjacent Zhejiang Province had ports for ships conducting distant voyages before the tenth century. Many ships were involved in early maritime activities between the Chinese continent and Japan during the Tang Dynasty as evidenced by the delegation of envoys, including envoy ships (Reischauer 1940). To date, there are no ships that have been identified that are known to have been specifically designed for seafaring and dated to that period, therefore we can only deduce that the structure of those ships that people used to sail into the East China Sea were opposed to the structure and construction methods identified in the riverine ships. For example, in much later periods the Sha-chuan (sand ships) represented a Hangzhou Bay trader, or ship from Nanjing. These are still perceived as ships used for riverine and oceangoing �purposes in the Yellow Sea and northern East China Sea (Oba 1974). Early stage shipbuilding of oceangoing vessels in the northern coasts of China can be regarded as more similar to technology in-use for the construction of riverine boats at the same time. The keel-less ship was not the only prevalent type in riverine ships. In early East Asian shipbuilding technology (i.e. during the Goryeo Dynasty 9181392 A.D.) we have an example with the Wando ships, which consist of flat bottom hulls (Green and Kim 1989). These ships were discovered offshore along the west coasts of the Korean Peninsula. The fundamental structure identified on the Wando ships is perceived to be a long-term technology that used beams not bulkheads (Sasaki and Lee 2010). The shipbuilding technology developed in the Korean Peninsula, represented by baulks for longitudinal structures and athwart beams for transverse structures, resulted in the construction of ships with sufficient seaworthiness to sail in East Asian waters, especially, in the shallow waters of the Yellow Sea. This could have facilitated the dominant role of merchants who originated from the Korean Peninsula in maritime trade between the Korean Peninsula and Japan. The advent and evolution of the flat bottom ships, represented by the early northern Chinese ships for riverine use and the Goryeo Dynasty’s coastal traders, is identified as an ancestral form of seagoing ships. Consequently, the definition of the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition” encompasses the shipbuilding technologies that are identified in two distinctive shipbuilding technologies from northern China and the Korean Peninsula. Technological interactions and mutual influences that might have occurred in shipbuilding between these two regions are still speculative. There were many distinctive features in the construction methods and structural elements between the two traditions. Differences in the usage of distinctive fastenings and different materials for them, for example, represent less similarity, which lead to a perspective that two major traditions are distinctively identified in early East Asian shipbuilding tradition. In the East China Sea’s area In middle and southern China the details of early shipbuilding tradition before the 10th century has not been clarified. Contemporary historical records of Chinese Buddhist pilgrim w indicate the use of Southeast Asian indigenous ships to cross the South China Sea (Hall 1985; Wang 1958). Before the 10th century some cities from southward of Hangzhou Bay (around Ningbo) to southern China (Guangzhou), which face the East China Sea and South China Sea, were the focal area of trade by foreign merchants from Persia and Arabia. It is unclear the influence of the shipbuilding traditions from outside of East Asia on existent shipbuilding industries in the middle and southern Chinese coasts. The next phase of substantial technological development is suggested to have occurred during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), particularly southward around Hangzhou Bay and coasts around the Taiwan Straits. This may be represented as the advent of constructing oceangoing ships in the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. It is recognized as an innovation that bulkhead structure �and construction methods evolved to a keel. However, uncertainty exists as to how the keel was introduced into, or evolved from, existent hull components. The Quanzhou ship from China (dated to the second half of the 12th century) and the Shinan ship from Korea (dated to the first quarter of the 14th century) are archaeologically excavated ships that will here be considered in detail to address the structural characteristics of East China Sea shipbuilding tradition (Figure 3). They represent a standardization of the structure of these periods’ oceangoing ships (Figure 4). This is interpreted as one stage of the completion of technological integration or clustering of hull components. The keel and hull planking synergistically contribute to longitudinal strength. The keel is composed of three members and thick garboards are fixed. The hull planking that extends from the garboards form a steep deadrise angle. The hull planking is edge-fastened by skew nailing with rabbeted seams. The system of multiple layered hull planks has also been standardised for the purpose of the inner planks’ protection, and possibly to the shell hull planking itself for longitudinal strength. The bulkheads function in providing transverse strength. Large half frames are attached to secure the bulkheads’ planks, fixing them into the hull planking with brackets. A comparative study will develop in the future with the progress of research on the other ship remains that have recently been excavated in Chinese waters, including the Nanhai No.1 and Huaguang Reef No.1 shipwrecks (Kimura 2010). Archaeological examination on ship construction materials, specifically ship nails and timbers, has been practiced. A sample iron nail was collected from a hull plank of the Shinan shipwreck for analysis and the result reported (Lee, et al. 2010). The CT scan and X-ray images of the nail revealed the configuration of the nail is skewed. Since the nail has been fully degraded its original metal structure could not be identified. A similar degradation of nails was identified in the timber remains of the Takashima underwater site in Japan. This site is known as the late 14th century naval battle site associated with the Mongol Empire (Yuan Dynasty) invasion of Japan. The nails used for the Shinan shipwreck and Takashima underwater site are possibly produced through similar manufacturing procedures based on the microscopic image of the cross-section of the nails. These nails could have been manufactured from thin bar iron ingots with a square cross-section. Those iron ingots were as-cast products that were being widely produced in the iron industries and showed a substantial growth during the Song Dynasty (Hartwell 1962; Hartwell 1966). In order to be used as ship nails, the quality of the iron of these ingots needed to be soft ended and made more pliable through the process of decarbonisation (Lee, et al. 2010). For these processes, annealing work was conducted in the smithy and iron workshops, which could probably be built on the shipyards. Wood species identification has been conducted recently on specimens of ship timber from the Quanzhou ship (Noshiro and Abe 2010). Three major species were identified including Pinus massoniana, Lamb known as the Chinese pine; Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.), Hook known as the Chinese fir; and Cinnamomum camphora (L.), Presl known as the camphor tree. The result is comparable to wood used in the hull of the Shinan shipwreck and the ship timber �of the Takashima underwater site. Pinus massoniana is a dominant species used for most of the hull components of the Shinan shipwreck. The timber analysis data from the Takashima underwater site shows, that despite the wood taxa being diverse, Cinnamomum camphora and Cunninghamia lanceolata occupy the majority of the assemblage. From the comparative study there is a pattern in the use of specific wood types for distinctive hull components. The keel, for instance, consists of Pinus massoniana and Cinnamomum camphora which are harder than Cunninghamia lanceolata that were used for hull planks. Cunninghamia lanceolata are found as sheathing planks of the Shinan shipwreck, probably due to the wood being softer and lighter and relatively easy to be cut and worked and it has relevant resistance against marine borers. Figure 3. Cross-sections of the Quanzhou ship (above) and the Shinan shipwreck (bottom). Produced by author, Courtesy of the Western Australian Museum and the National Research Institute Evidence of technological hybridization in East Asia Excavated ships dating to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.) show different features from the previous periods’ ocean-going traders. As an example of the distinctive structural feature, multiple layered hull planking is hardly identified on the hulls of the Ming Dynasty’s ships, including the Xiangshan Ming Dynasty shipwreck from Ningbo and the ship remains discovered at Penglai (Kimura 2010; Xi, et al. 2004). These ships similarly have longer hulls in the length/beam �ratio than the hulls identified in previous periods, such as the Quanzhou ship and the Shinan ship. The Xiangshan ship appears to have been used around the East China Sea area and the Penglai ships were used around the Yellow Sea, but the similarity of these ships is emphasized. Of the four discovered ships in Penglai, the basic structure and construction methods of the two ships (Penglai No. 3 and No.4) are identical with the features of the Goryeo Dynasty’s Korean ships (Cultural Relics and Archaeological Institute of Shandong Province, et al. 2006) (Figure 4). In addition, the species of the woods of these two ships are clearly distinctive from the other Penglai ships of Chinese origin. While most characteristics of the two ships are correspondent to the Korean shipbuilding tradition, their transverse components are bulkheads (traditionally used in Chinese ships) not beams (traditionally used in Korean ships). The structural features of the Penglai ships evidence hybridization between the Chinese shipbuilding technology and Korean technology; by the period of the Ming Dynasty an interaction of shipbuilding technologies between the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea could widely have occurred. Figure 4. Ship lines of the Shinan shipwreck from Korea, involved in overseas trade between China and Japan. Produced by author Shipbuilding traditions The focus on hull components and construction methods helps in the development of a chronological sequence on East Asian shipbuilding traditions. It is suggested that the utilization of the bulkhead as a structural element in hull construction probably derived from its use in fluvial ships before the 10th century in China. Some of these ships could have been used to sail along coasts, perhaps even in early blue-water seafaring. The bulkhead came to be used in the �structure of the Song Dynasty’s oceangoing ships. The innovation of this is linked with keel-use. These regions in the sphere of the South China Sea historically had relationships with Southeast Asia and were probably the focus of exportation of East Asian shipbuilding traditions. Potentially, during the Yuan Dynasty to become more prominent during the Ming Dynasty, the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition gradually formed under the strong influence of technology from the middle and southern Chinese coasts. Table 1. Structural principle of East Asian shipbuilding traditions used for oceangoing ships. Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition Technologies are evidenced in the following: 1) Excavated Tang Dynasty’s riverine ships before the 10th century that might have been used for seafaring, show flat bottom and uses bulkheads and iron fastenings; 2) Excavated Goryeo coastal traders of the 11th to 14th centuries that show the hull of the floor with chines and use beams for transverse components and wooden fastenings; 3) Excavated Yuan and Ming Dynasties’ ships that have a keel and show round bottom, and the hull is constructed by single layered planking (baulks) and use bulkheads; 4) Excavated flat bottom keel-less ships that are constructed by Goryeo shipbuilding technologies use bulkheads and both iron and wooden fastenings. East China Sea shipbuilding tradition Technologies are evidenced in the following: 1) Excavated oceangoing ships of the 13th and 14th centuries that show V-bottom deadrise by the use of a keel and garboards. The transverse component composes bulkheads that are secured by half frames and brackets to the hull planking. The hull is constructed by layered planking and uses various types of iron fastenings; 2) Excavated ships dating from the Song to Ming Dynasty show a round bottom that uses a keel. The hull is constructed by single layered planking (baulks) and uses bulkheads. South China Sea shipbuilding tradition Technologies are evidenced in several shipwrecks, mostly dated to the 14th century and afterwards, found in Southeast Asian waters. They use a keel, showing a round bottom. The transverse components use bulkheads and, likely, half frames. The hull planking is multiple layered and the main planking (innermost planking) use wooden fastenings with compensatory uses of iron fastenings. Conclusion Based on the data of the hull components of the excavated ships in East Asia, this paper has outlined the formation of regional shipbuilding traditions. The concept that technological hybridizations were inherent in the regional shipbuilding history is of importance to explain the chronological development of traditions in the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea. This approach introduced the hypothesis that around the 13 th - 14th centuries innovations of the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition” in the region was an impact-factor to the advent of the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Both the growth of indigenous technology and innovations from outside of the region underlay the formation of regional shipbuilding traditions and their linkage over time. �Bibliography Cultural Relics and Archaeological Institute of Shandong Province, Yantai Municipal Museum, and Cultural Relics Bureau of Penglai City 2006 Church, S. K., 2010 Ancient ships from Penglai, Wenwu Press, Beijing. “Two Ming Dynasty shipyards in Nanjing and their infrastructure”, in Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies in East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 32-49. Green, J., “Maritime archaeology in Southeast and East Asia”, in Antiquity, 64, pp.347-363. 1990 Green, J., and Kim, Z. G., “The Shinan and Wando sites, Korea: further information”, in the International Journal of 1989 Nautical Archaeology, 18 (2), pp. 33-41. Maritime trade and state development in early Hall, K. R., Southeast Asia, University of Hawaii Press, 1985 Honolulu. Hartwell, R., “A revolution in the Chinese iron and coal 1962 industries during the Northern Sung, 960-1126 A.D.” in the Journal of Asian Studies, 21(2):153162. Hartwell, R., Markets, technology, and the structure of 1966 enterprise in the development of the eleventhcentury Chinese iron and steel industry, in the Journal of Economic History 26 (1):29-58. Wasen II (A Japanese vessel II). 3 Aufl. Mono to Ishii, K., ningen no bunkashi (Cultural history of materials 1995 and human), Hosei daigaku syuppankyoku (Hosei University Press), Tokyo. Kimura, J., “Historical development of shipbuilding technologies in East Asia”, in Shipwreck ASIA: 2010 Thematic Studies in East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 1-25. Lee, C.-H., Osawa, M., and “Iron nails recovered from the plank of the Shinan shipwreck”, in Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies Kimura, J., in East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun 2010 Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 50-55. Manguin, P.-Y., “Relationship and cross-influence between 1984 Southeast Asia and Chinese shipbuilding traditions”, in SPAFA consultative workshop on �research on maritime shipping and trade networks in Southeast Asia, Cisarusa, West Java, Indonesia. Manguin, P.-Y., “Trading ships of the South China Sea: 1993 shipbuilding techniques and their role in the history of the development of Asian trade networks”, in the Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 36 (3), pp. 253-280. Manguin, P.-Y., “New ships for new networks: trends in 2010 shipbuilding in the South China Sea in the 15th and 16th centuries”, in Southeast Asia in the fifteenth century: the China factor, (eds.) Geoff Wade, and Sun Laichen, NUS Press Singapore, pp. 333-358. Noshiro, S and Abe, H., “Identification of materials of the Quanzhou ship and Samed Nagam ship”, in Shipwreck ASIA: 2010 Thematic Studies in East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 74-77. Oba, O., “Scroll painting of Chinese junks which sailed to 1974 Nagasaki in the 18th century and their equipment”, in the Mariner's Mirror, 60 (4), pp. 351-362. Reischauer, E. O., “Notes on T'ang Dynasty Sea Routes”, in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 5 (2), pp. 1421940 164. Reid, A., “Hybrid identities in the 15th-century straits”, in Southeast Asia in the fifteenth century: the China 2010 factor, (eds.) Geoff Wade, and Sun Laichen, NUS Press, Singapore, pp. 307-332. Sasaki, R., and Lee, C. H., “Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), shipwrecks in Korea”. in Shipwreck ASIA: thematic studies in 2010 East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 56-73. Wang, G., “The Nanhai trade: a study of the early history of 1958 Chinese trade in the South China Sea”, in Journal of the Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society XXXI (2), pp. 1-135. Xi, L., Yang, X., and Tang, Zhongguo kexue jishu shi: jiaotong juan (The history of science and technology in China: X., (eds) transportation), Science Press, Beijing. 2004 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource East Asian shipbuilding traditions and its historical evolvement Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource The archaeological study of excavated ships can contribute to knowledge and understanding of past seafaring and maritime activities. Such study includes the assessment of the hull structure and construction methods. This paper highlights technological innovations evidenced by the remnants of ships in China, Korea, and Japan. Based on data of the excavated ships from the tenth century onwards, this paper addresses the significance of the bulkhead in oceangoing ships in the light of technological innovations, diffusion, and hybridization. This contributes to further understanding of the relationship between the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition,” the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition,” and the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition.” The “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition” has been presented by earlier researchers as a hybrid ship building technology. This paper highlights the integration of the technologies from the Yellow Sea and East China Sea into the South China Sea tradition by tracing specific hull components, such as bulkhead(s) used for East Asian seagoing ships. The “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition” is exhibited by ships operating in the northern waters of East Asia. Traditionally, these ships have flat bottoms but variations are represented by the early Tang Dynasty riverine ships and Goryeo Dynasty ships, and in later periods by Ming Dynasty ships excavated in Penglai, China. Recent archaeological inspections conducted on the Quanzhou ship, Shinan shipwreck, and ship timbers from the Takashima Underwater site established that these ships were built in the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. V-shaped bottoms, keel and bulkheads, and multiple-layered hull planking with iron fastenings, characterise this tradition. The ships built according to these two traditions came to be used in seaborne activities within and beyond East and Southeast Asia. The chronological linkage of three shipbuilding traditions developed in two regions will be pursued. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jun Kimura Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/854b3dc5565480f16ba585b8cfed5361.pdf f5562a49b190d7aeac26899f686ff330 PDF Text Text The Old Biray in Pandan, Caoayan: An underwater cultural heritage assessment Eliza Agabin1, Michael Armand P. Canilao2, Marie Grace Pamela G. Faylona3 Abstract This paper presents the preliminary assessment arising out of a survey of Pandan Site (NM Site Code I4 2011-I1) , a maritime site featuring an abandoned traditional Biray vessel located along the Mestizo River in Caoayan, Ilocos Sur, Northwest Luzon. The site position is perpendicular to the West Philippine Sea (formerly South China Sea) and lies under an abandoned Abra Delta. It is considered as an inland and coastal boat. The structural remains of the vessel have a length of 18 meters (m) and a width of 5m. It is visible during low tide and is characterized by flat hull with ribs, pointed bow and stern. Initial investigation did not observe any evidence of a keel. Based on local oral histories, the boat may be between 80 to 150 years old. The role of this traditional vessel is re-examined in the Northern Luzon trade network extending as far south as Manila to as far North as the Babuyan Channel. An integral part of this research is the reevaluation of Biray and its cargo that traces old Biray trading routes. The paper also covers “historical data” on structure and construction of the boat that can come in handy for future maritime excavation of the vessel. The context, environment and condition of the site are also described. Moreover, it identifies the significance and vulnerability of the site. This concludes with an evaluation of the vessel and the position of the site as regards to underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Introduction Underwater archaeological investigations and related histories is a fairly new field that started in the 1960s as compared to terrestrial archaeology which dates back to the 14th century. As such land-based archaeology has yielded enormous information on our cultural heritage but the world’s water still retain many secrets that need to be discovered and explored. The Philippines is one of the biggest archipelagos in Asia which features different types of bodies of water. These bodies of water namely, oceans, seas and major waterways, played an integral role in Philippine navigation and maritime prehistory. In this paper, development of trade routes and boats used for trading is the focus of research. However, this research only confines itself to the province of Ilocos Sur located in Northern Luzon where a local boat called biray was reported. A biray or (sometimes called as virey, birey or viray) was described as an “unsteady” vessel navigated only near the shore (Galang 1941:304). This vessel is commonly found in Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur and La Union. 1 Heritage Affairs Office, Provincial Government Ilocos Sur eliza@eccena.org Archaeological Studies Program, University of the Philippines DIliman migscanilao@yahoo.com 3 Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines pamelafaylona77@gmail.com 4 the site is the 9th (letter I) archaeological site documented within the Ilocos political- administrative Region (Region I) and it was discovered in the year 2011. 2 �The Study Area Ilocos Sur Physical Background The province of Ilocos Sur lies on a north- south basin bounded on the east by the provinces of Abra, Mountain Province and Benguet provinces within the Grand Cordillera Mountains. The basin is divided into three main regions, namely: the Laoag embayment, the Vigan- Abra high, and the coastal folded belt. Folding and faulting are active in the region. It is said that the Ilocos plain is actually an uplifted deep marine sedimentary basin. This was caused by the active subduction of the West Philippine Sea seafloor under the Philippine plate (Dado 1997:3). This in turn resulted in active volcanism in the Western flank of Northern Luzon, wherein Ilocos served as the forearc basin. The coastal Ilocos plain measures almost 300 kilometers north to south with notable variance only in width. Some places are as wide as 120 kilometers. The Abra River breaking through the steep and high mountain chain is perhaps the grandest scenery in Ilocos - aptly called the Banaoang Gap. The West Philippine Sea puffs this plains area with the summer or southwestern monsoon from the West. Fortunately it is shielded on the east by the Grand Cordillera Mounts. This is the reason why the region is occasionally spared from the wrath of fully developed Pacific formed typhoons. Monsoon climate has also maintained the interchange of extremely rainy from May to October, and extremely droughty from November to April. Drought increases as one moves from Ilocos Sur to Ilocos Norte (Wernstedt and Spencer 1967:328-342). The Ilocos plain is not as agriculturally viable as the central Luzon plain mainly due to this extreme climate and the fact that stream-wash deposition causes a discontinuum in the agricultural cycle. Only hardy field crops like tobacco and corn can withstand such conditions. It has been said that the physical setting of Ilocos largely contributed to the hardiness and resilience of the Ilocano. Steep slopes, thin soils, strongly seasonal precipitation, and limited arable land have required maximum labors for survival. The Ilocano is well known, both in the Philippines and abroad for his willingness to work and his work capacity… An overcrowded homeland has encouraged out migration into other areas where his presence is quickly evidenced by his hardwork and attendant economic success (Wernstedt and Spencer 1967:332) Ilocos Sur Cultural Background, Ethnohistory and the Trading Routes Ilocos Sur has been straddled with ancient coastal maritime trading centers and secondary maritime trading centers long before the Spanish Contact period (16th c). This was further elucidated by Grace Estela Mateo talking about the history of Ilocos Sur: Geography favored Ilocos as a site for a trading entrepot. It’s location in the far north meant that it was the gateway to the Philippines for traders from Eastern Asia… the irregular coastline of Ilocos Sur and La Union formed fine harbors… it is not surprising then that it became a center of a regional and international trading network in the 16th c (Mateo 2004:43) �The Vigan- Caoayan trading center was probably the most sizeable entrepot to have developed in the area. Secondary centers may have included Santa Lucia, Salomague, Candon, Tagudin, and Sinait among others (Keesing 1962:97-98, 123124). In the pre-Hispanic Ilocano-Itneg epic Biag ni Lam-ang (The Life of Lam-ang), one of the earliest recorded oral literatures in the Philippines, one may get an idea of the close connections between the peoples of Ilocos and China as linked by trading routes (AA, Manila). The hero Lam-ang boasts: Dua pay ti sasakayan a balitok a bulawan nga agbubunag ti pinggan idiay ili a Kasanglayan, ta nalpas met a naikamang iti ari idiay Puanpuan. I have two gold tradeships plying between here and the Chinese country trading in porcelain. I have commercial connections with the king of Puanpuan, Isu ti partesko ken kabagian idiay ili a Kasanglayan, isu ti napanna nagbiahian tay barangayko a sampan; pamayak adda itan, ta napan nagkarga ti pinggan. (Yabes 1935: 38) My relative in that Chinese land. My boat sampan has gone there on a voyage, and probably now it has returned with its cargo of porcelain. The existence of pre-Hispanic trading entrepots in Ilocos was also confirmed in the documented initial Spanish incursion in the area led by the conquistador Juan de Salcedo ( de San Agustin 1572 in delos Reyes 1890). The Historical or Contact period in Ilocos was, in fact, ushered in by the entry of this youthful Spanish conquistador when his ship hugged the Ilocos coastline as he sailed around the northern tip of Luzon. Juan de Salcedo moved up North the coast of Ilocos Sur in 1572. He left Dumanquake (present day Santa Lucia) in early June that year then landed on Caoayan by nightfall. He sailed inland and reached the pre-Hispanic trading settlement of Vigan, where he was engaged by the Ilocanos in combat. Aside from the pueblo of Vigan, he also mentions that the very old neighboring pueblo called Bantay had a well protected port (Keesing 1962:123). The Ilocos shipping tradition probably paralleled the opening of port- entrepots in Ilocos Sur. The ports of Caoayan (Vigan), and Cagayan traded with Manila from as early as the 16th century (c). This exchange was mentioned in Description of the Philippine Islands, an unsigned document dated 1618. Cargo coming from Ilocos included agricultural products notably surplus rice and cotton. This surplus Iloko rice became an annual export to Manila during the dry season, when the northeast winds were favourable for sea travel between Ilocos and Manila. The Biray in Ilocos Sur Biray in the Know �The vessels used to facilitate the Manila- Iloko- Cagayan exchange were the Biray. Such vessels usually docked in Manila between February and March (Scott 1982:88). Maharlika Cuevas and Rey Santiago also give a brief description of the biray: (Biray) is a very light boat with two or three tiers of rowers per band, when they have people for it sitting down. It has counterweights made of bamboos and placed outside the body of the vessel on both sides. This boat is manufactured in the Ilocos region, while garay is used in Manila Bay and Laguna Lake areas. (Cuevas and Santiago 2004:8) Figure 1: Parts of a Biray (after Cuevas and Santiago 2004; C.Q. Caoayan) There are local terms for the different parts of an Iloko biray (see Figure 1). The vessel shell is called the kaha. The anchor is called angkla. The rudder is called the timon. The cabin is called the camarote. The two biray masts are called palo. The sail which is supported by the palo is called the layag, made of abel Ilocos, the thick and sturdy handwoven cloth of the region. Abacca rope or arsia is generally used as vessel rigging especially for the pala and layag. The pulley suspended in the palo is called the moton, which is itself suspended on a kawit moton. The bowsprit is called the cabrisante (CQ, Caoayan). The Site of Biray The Occular of the Biray in Pandan The remains of biray vessel are located in Brgy. Pandan in the coastal plain of Caoayan, Ilocos Sur (see Figure 2). It is located in the former delta of Abra with Global Positioning System (GPS) bearings of N 17.534266°, E 120.373916° with the bow oriented at 21° N-NE (stern at 201°). Further inland of the coastal plain are the ridges of Mount Binitalo and Mount Gusing. The biray is within the shore sands of Barangay Pandan. It is interesting to note that the vessel is visible only during low tides this indicates that the area has an active marine and land milieu. �Figure 2. Location map of the biray (after Googleearth 2010) The biray was observed to be leaning on its Starboard side. In fact, the stem post tilts starboard at 48° from upright position. Vessel dimension based on exposed ribs shows an overall length of approximately 18 m, and a widest possible width of between 4.5 to 5 m. �Figure 3: Photo of the Biray at Pandan site in situ circa 1980s (courtesy of G.S., Caoayan) The vessel is conclusively identified as a biray because oral historical accounts of Caoayan locals indicate that this biray is within living memory of the locals. In fact a maximum possible age of 100 was suggested (MI, Vigan). A photo of the Biray in situ was even made available by Mayor Goulart for reference (see Figure 3). �Figure 4: Biray in situ at Pandan Site with stem post at foreground (by Michael Canilao) Surveys Conducted in the Site Two surveys of the biray at Pandan site (NM site code I-2011-I1) were conducted in the second quarter of 2011. The first survey was initiated by the Provincial Government of Ilocos Sur through Vice Governor DV Savellano in coordination with the Municipal Government of Caoayan through Mayor Germelina Goulart. An authority for archaeological exploration of Caoayan Municipality was secured from the Director of the National Museum (CPD-SA-2011-05) by National Museum (NM) Research Associate Michael P. Canilao. The survey was, in fact, a component activity of a province-wide undertaking dubbed the Ilocos Sur Archaeological Project (ISAP). The Pandan survey �was done in conjunction with archaeological excavations done at Sapilang Site (NM site code I-2011-H1) in Sinait Municipality from late May to early June 2011. Caoayan Barangay officials have suggested that the survey be conducted at low tide in order to maximize visibility of the biray. Working closely with Eliza Agabin, the Heritage Consultant of the Province of Ilocos Sur, a survey was implemented in the first of May 2011 after due consultation with the San Fernando, La Union tide chart. A rakit (bamboo raft) was boarded for transit to the site. A second survey was led by a Museum Researcher Pamela G. Faylona of the Archaeology Division NM together with Barangay Captain John Subrano and Padre Burgos Museum personnel, Efren Vista in mid-June. Besides noting the vessel’s provenance, they also observe the geomorphology of the area. The vessel was located in a former delta and within the small to medium river channel. This shows that the present coastline is dynamic. The coastline is fed by a river and backed by a coastal plain with more than 5 km width. Moreover, it presents the shoreline change and coastal landscape development in Caoayan and neighboring coastlines. Observed in situ, what remains of the biray are boat ribs partially protruding out of the murky and brackish water. These ribs are visibly joined or fastened with what appears to be metal pegs. It can be surmised that most of the biray structure laid buried in sand since water depth at the time of survey was barely two feet. This indicates that there is a good chance that the buried part is still well-preserved. However, the exposed ribbing is also in tact because it is afforded protection from the elements by brackish water shells/ barnacles that have completely adhered to the exposed wood. Significance The Biray The biray played a very important role to the people of Ilocos, Cagayan, and Manila. Its operation brought in valuable goods to the Christianized population in the Cagayan valley (starting from the 16th c) which remained isolated for the most part of the Spanish- Contact Period. The birays travelling via the Babuyan Channel, north of the valley, were the only means of bringing in supplies to the valley which was bordered by the Sierra Madre to the east and the Cordillera Mountains to the west, both of which intersect to the south. For the local coastal communities in Northern Luzon, the cargo-carrying biray was central to traditional product exchange system from the pre-Spanish-contact (14th to 15th c) until the American contact period (late 19th to early 20th c). To Cagayan went rice, salt, garlic, onions, tobacco, damili earthenware, stoneware burnay, raw maguey fibers, and fish nets from Ilocos, as well as salt and bagoong (fermented fish paste) from Pangasinan (MI, Vigan). To Ilocos the biray carried forest items such as lumber and palm leaves from Cagayan (JL, Manila). The biray also served as a vessel not only facilitating the exchange of goods, but as well as people, technologies, ideas, and cultural communications among Ilocos and Cagayan. A significant number of the population of Cagayan are of Ilocano-descent. During the Spanish contact period its route to Manila was considered noteworthy, so much so that the vessel was defined as “Embarcacion pequeña que costeando llega hasta Manila” (Carro 1888:58). The biray was also important for Manila because Iloko �and Chinese products that were to be loaded on the Manila- Acapulco galleons (see Junco this volume) had to be transported to Manila through these highly dependable vessels. Birays eventually started to fade away from the Iloko scene with the advent of modern ships in the area during the post-World War 2 period (1950’s- 70s). The site and the 2001 UNESCO Convention Based from the preliminary surveys and study conducted in Pandan, the biray remains holds intrinsic value and is significant in terms of archaeological, historical and scientific value. The vessel remains are archaeologically and scientifically significant because, at present, it is considered rare and a representative of a particular trading vessel for the Ilocos region. It has historic value, for though it is relatively young (tentatively dated at 100 years), the technology and development of the traditional boat building is preserved with the biray remains. Moreover, the site is a historic port having been part of a local maritime trading route from c 1300 to 1950s. The vessel and the site demonstrate a way of life, particularly, maritime culture and traditional trading activities that transpired in the area that had influenced the Ilocos region and the greater area of Luzon island. The Biray as an Underwater Cultural Heritage: Issues, Challenges, and Recommendations The biray in Pandan site has archaeological, scientific and historic significance and thus may be considered an UCH site. An in-depth archaeological study has yet to be undertaken for the site and the current conservation plan is to keep the vessel in situ. The local oral history (MI, Vigan) and the 1980s picture of the biray (G.G. Caoayan) indicate that the vessel is not more than 100 years old. Even so, a study in the future can provide information on vessel structure. The surrounding environs of the vessel is highly unstable with an imminent threat of alluvial deposition and erosion as it is located in the deltaic floodplain of the mighty Abra River. This threat is magnified whenever the typhoon season sets in the Philippines from as early as May to December. Should a systematic archaeological excavation of the biray vessel be undertaken, the first task will be to secure the immediate vicinity of the vessel with a cofferdam structure that will protect the vessel from the Abra River. It is recommended that steel cofferdam be utilized for the site. A series of water pumps will then be used to remove the water prior to the systematic archaeological excavation of the vessel. It is fortunate that the Provincial Government of Ilocos Sur upon having learned of the significance of the underwater archaeological site, have pledged support in terms of funding for future archaeological studies on the site. There is a need to raise awareness and appreciation of the biray, to keep the memory, history, and linkages alive not only among the last generation biray sailors and builders but especially among the youth. The local municipal government is keen on establishing a small maritime museum featuring a replica of a biray to raise awareness among locals and tourists. However, along with the museum, it is being proposed as well to develop the banks of the Pandan port into a tourism area comprising of floating restaurants. While this may be viewed as an opportunity as it may mean income generation, on the conservation side, it may be considered as a threat to the biray remains and the site. The area �becomes more vulnerable and at-risk, without an in-depth archaeological study, appropriate legislation, and a comprehensive management plan in place yet. Thus first and foremost, the conservation of the biray should be undertaken to ensure protection of the biray prior to the area being utilized as a tourist site. A close coordination among the National Museum, academe University of the Philippines- Archaeological Studies Program (UP-ASP), with the local and provincial government is crucial to conserve the biray of the Ilocos, its adventures, and its memory alive for the present and the future generations to come. Oral Sources Arnold Azurin, Manila, 04 June, 2011, cited as AA, Manila. Carl Querubin, Caoayan, Ilocos Sur, 01 May 2011, cited as CQ, Caoayan. Germelina Goulart, Caoayan, Ilocos Sur, 29 April 2011, cited as GG, Caoayan James Ligero, Manila, 15 August, 2011, cited as JL, Manila. Malot Ingel, Vigan, Ilocos Sur, 29 April 2011, cited as MI, Vigan. Bibliography 1999 The Burra Charter: The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance. 2001 The 2001 UNESCO Convention and the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. Bellwood, P., 1997 Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Carro, A., 1888 Vocabulario Iloco-Español, Manila, Est. Tipo-Litografico de M. Perez. Casino, E., 1978 “A Family of Boats: Our Largely Lost Tradition of Shipbuilding”, in (Ed) full name of editor, Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation, 3, pp.712-713, Lahing Pilipino Publishing, Manila. Cuevas, M., and Santiago R., 2004 Boat Building Traditions in Pre 18th Century Philippines, ASEAN-COCI Symposium and Publication on Maritime and Waterways. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Ministry of Culture Arts and Heritage. Dado, A., 1997 “Geology of Northern Luzon: Ilocos Basin”, Compilation of Papers for Geology 297, Quezon City. de San Agustin, G., 1572 Galang, R., 1941 “Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas” in Historia de Ilocos by Isabelo delos Reyes, Establecimiento Topografico la Opinion 1890. “Types of Watercraft in the Philippines”, in Philippine Journal of Science 75, 3, pp.287-304. Keesing, F.M., 1962 The Ethnohistory of Northern Luzon, Stanford, Stanford University Press. �Manguin, P.Y., 1993 “Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks”, in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 36, 3, pp.253-280. Mateo, G.E., 2004 A History of Ilocos: A Story of the Regionalization of Spanish Colonialism, Dissertation - Graduate Division, University of Hawaii, Hawaii. Pattañe, E.P., 1978 “The Outrigger in the Maritime Scene”, in Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation 3, pp.716-754, Lahing Pilipino Publishing, Manila. Peralta, J., 1980 Ronquillo, W.P. 1987 "Ancient Mariners of the Philippines", in Archaeology, 33, 5, pp.41-48. “The Butuan Archaeological Finds: Profound Implications for Philippines and Southeast Asian Prehistory”, in Man and Culture in Oceania, Special Issue, 3, pp.71-78. 1997 “Butuan Boats”, in (ed.) James P. Delgado, Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, pp. 79, British Musum Press, London. Scott, W.H., 1982 Cracks in the Parchment Curtain and Other Essays in Philippine History, New Day Publishers, Quezon City, Solheim, W.G II., 2006 Archaeology and Culture in Southeast Asia: Unraveling the Nusantao, University of the Philippines Press, Diliman, Quezon City. Tanudirjo, D.A., 2004 “The Structure of Austronesia Migration into Island Southeast Asia and Oceania”, in (ed.) Victor Paz, Southeast Asian Archaeology: Wilhelm G. Solheim II Festchrift, pp. 83-103, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City. Unsigned 1618 Description of the Philippine Islands. The Philippine Islands 1493- 1898, Vol 18, Cachos Hermanos Inc, Mandaluyong. Wernstedt, F., and J.E.S., 1967 The Philippine Island World: a Physical, Cultural, and Regional Geography, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Yabes, L., 1935 Zerrudo, E.B., 2008 The Ilocano Epic, Carmelo & Bauermann, Inc., Manila. Pamanaraan: Writings on Philippine Heritage Management, University of Santo Tomas Publishing House, Manila. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Old Biray in Pandan, Caoayan: An underwater cultural heritage assessment Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 Some Challenges and Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource This paper presents the preliminary assessment arising out of a survey of Pandan Site (NM Site Code I-2011-I1) , a maritime site featuring an abandoned traditional Biray vessel located along the Mestizo River in Caoayan, Ilocos Sur, Northwest Luzon. The site position is perpendicular to the West Philippine Sea (formerly South China Sea) and lies under an abandoned Abra Delta. It is considered as an inland and coastal boat. The structural remains of the vessel have a length of 18 meters (m) and a width of 5m. It is visible during low tide and is characterized by flat hull with ribs, pointed bow and stern. Initial investigation did not observe any evidence of a keel. Based on local oral histories, the boat may be between 80 to 150 years old. The role of this traditional vessel is re-examined in the Northern Luzon trade network extending as far south as Manila to as far North as the Babuyan Channel. An integral part of this research is the re-evaluation of Biray and its cargo that traces old Biray trading routes. The paper also covers “historical data” on structure and construction of the boat that can come in handy for future maritime excavation of the vessel. The context, environment and condition of the site are also described. Moreover, it identifies the significance and vulnerability of the site. This concludes with an evaluation of the vessel and the position of the site as regards to underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Eliza Agabin Michael Armand P. Canilao Pamela Grace Faylona Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d03b1430702bee611b268707b868c420.pdf c07b2b3455c1fe1782e96bee932e3831 PDF Text Text 1 Conservation Research and Treatment Programs: Case Study of Ancient Boat Site in Rembang Regency Waluyo Agus Priyanto1 Abstract th The ancient boat was made around the 7 century A.D. It was found on July 26, 2008 at 07.30 p.m. at Punjulharjo Village, Rembang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia. The boat site is covered by soil as deep as two metres and is located at the southern of coastline with a distance of 0,5 to 1 km. When the ancient boat was found, the shape of the boat was still intact. Size of the boat is 15 metres length and 5 metres width. Not only the shape is relatively intact but also the disclosure of data of the archipelago's unique technology could be held within this boat that was almost complete. Tambuku is the type of palm fibre rope, pegs was used in the boat and other components that have never been encountered before is really a remarkable data essential for the development of maritime archaeology, especially in Indonesia. The ancient boat has important value for history, science, technology, and culture. As an important cultural asset and potential, its existence must be well managed and sustainable by optimizing in situ conservation. Conservation research should be conducted to identify the ancient boat such as the kind of materials for making a boat, condition of boat materials, the site condition of the boat, and environmental condition. Conservation method should be based on the results of diagnosis in the laboratory as well as in the field. In situ conservation is another important approach to preserve the ancient boat, which simultaneously give positive impacts to tourism aspects and development to the region. 1. Introduction The finding of an ancient boat found on July 26, 2008, in the Punjulharjo Village, Rembang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia has significant value for the history, science, technology and maritime State of Indonesia. The condition of the boat is that it is still relatively intact and shows characteristics of the archipelago boat in terms of materials, shapes, sizes, and technology. Radiocarbon dating tests were conducted in 2009 at the University of California on the sample of fibers used as a binder of boat parts and indicate the boat is aged to approximately 660780 AD (Siswanto, et al. 2010). Rembang Regency is located in the north eastern part of Central Java Province, latitude is 111 °, 00 '- 111 °, 30' E and 6 °, 30 '- 7 °, 00' S. It is a very complete topography of coastal areas, lowlands, highlands and mountains, the soil type consists of Mediterial, Grumosal, Alluvial, Andosal 1 Directorate of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Directorate General of History and Archaeology, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Indonesia �2 and Regasal. Rembang Regency has an area of 1014.08 km2, and flanked on the north Java Sea and the North Kendeng Mountains in the south (Kusumastuti, et al. 2010). Location of the ancient boat is about 0,5 to 1 km at the southern coastline. The main ingredient of the ancient boat components are the hardwood materials. The nature of the properties of the wooden materials are derived from living things. It has a fibrous and cellular structure composed of cellulose, lignin, resins, sugar and some other hydrocarbons, that can be categorized as organic materials. As a solid matter, it has many pores and channels in its body, which, in its green state, are mostly filled with water. When freshly cut, wood has plenty of water, it starts drying out it when left in the open air. This loss of water continues until it reaches the stage where the moisture retained is in the equilibrium with the atmosphere. Wood is hygroscopic and as a result its cell walls have the capacity to absorb moisture when atmospheric conditions are wet, and to release it out when conditions are dry. When wood has lost all its free water, which is the water held by its pores and channels, its water content is in equilibrium with the atmosphere. Wood is also anisotropic, which means that the capacity for elongation and shrinking is not the same in the three directions of its cut: longitudinal, radial, and tangential. The unequal gain and loss in these three sides of the wood also result in distortion. Wood stabilizes in moist conditions (Agrawal 1977:9, 72-73). As an organic material, wood normally decays under combined biological and chemical degradation when buried in earth; it may, however, survive prolonged exposure to extreme dryness or wetness. In shipwreck sites, the wooden components of the hull and small artifacts of wood often survive in good condition, albeit thoroughly waterlogged. Successful conservation of wooden artifacts is dependent upon one’s knowledge of wood structure and types. Trees are divided into two broad categories: hardwoods and softwoods. Hardwoods are classified as angiosperms, which refers to broadleaf trees which are usually deciduous. Angiosperms are referred to as 'porous' woods because they have vessel pores. In many instances it is equally important that a wooden object’s species type is identified in order to successfully conserve the waterlogged wood. Through the loss of moisture, freshly cut, sound wood will generally experience a radial shrinkage of 3-6 percent, a tangential shrinkage of 510 percent, and a longitudinal shrinkage of about 0.5 percent. Proper conservation treatments can control the amount of shrinkage experienced by waterlogged wood during drying. In practice, a particular conservation technique is often selected because it is known that the treated wood will shrink a desired amount. The manner in which a plank of wood was originally sawn from a log will have an effect on how the plank, or an object manufactured from the plank will shrink (Hamilton 1999 :1,22-24) after undergoing any conservation treatment. In most environments the �3 primary factors for the degradation of wood include: (1) physical action (changes in temperature, fluctuations in relative humidity), (2) insect attack, and (3) fungal decay. Fungal decay can be eliminated as long as the wood is kept in an environment with a relative humidity of less than 65 percent. In anaerobic waterlogged environments, however, wood undergoes profound chemical changes and alterations that result in a significant loss of strength while retaining overall shape. Research activities and conservation planning of the ancient boat is based on national and international regulations as follows: a. According to The Law of The Republic of Indonesia number 11 of 2010 concerning items of Cultural Property especially in the article 76. Article 76 has been mandated in paragraph 1 -3. In the paragraph first it mentions that maintenance is done by conserving of cultural heritage to prevent and overcome the damage caused by natural influences and- /- or human actions. In the second paragraph it also mentions that the maintenance of cultural heritage referred to in paragraph 1 may be performed at the original location or elsewhere, after first being fully documented. In the third paragraph it mentions that the treatment is referred to in paragraph 1 is carried out with the cleaning, preservation, and repairing the damage with respect to the authenticity of the form, layout, style, material, or workmanship of the cultural heritage. b. The In UNESCO 2001Convention on The Protection of The Underwater Cultural Heritage, Paris, France comprises of: - Acknowledging the importance of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) as an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity and a particularly important element in the history of peoples, nations, and their relations with each other concerning their common heritage. - Realizing the importance of protecting and preserving the UCH and that responsibility therefore rests with all States. - Convinced of the importance of research, information, and education to the protection and preservation of UCH. - Convinced of the public’s right to enjoy the educational and recreational benefits of responsible non-intrusive access to in situ UCH, and of the value of public education to contribute to awareness, appreciation and protection of that heritage. c. According to the first article concerning the fundamental principles in the ICOMOS Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage (1996), Sofia, Bulgaria it mentions: - The preservation of UCH in situ should be considered as a first option. - Public access should be encouraged. - Non-destructive techniques, non-intrusive survey and sampling should be encouraged in preference to excavation. - Investigation must avoid unnecessary disturbance of human remains or venerated sites. - Investigation must be accompanied by adequate documentation. �4 2. Materials and Methods The artifact of the ancient boat at Punjulharjo village is a very important cultural heritage and it is the object of cultural heritage that must be protected. Therefore, the ancient boat Punjulharjo Site should be developed into a maritime cultural landscape area to be conserved and used for fertilization of national pride and character development of the nation, as well as the public welfare. In order to get a better understanding of degradation and deterioration problems of the ancient boat, a thorough intensive investigation has been conducted, both in the field as well as in the laboratory. In situ observations were made to study the types of deterioration agents that could be visually observed. To determine the type of material making of the ancient boat should be conducted laboratory research. The materials and equipments required to research are: Chemicals: PEG 400 and 4000, aquadest, Ethanol, Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid (EDTA). Tools in the field: Thermohygrometer, pH meters, salinity meters, scalpel. Tools for conservation experiment in the laboratory: Scales, tray, soaking tub, shaker, pH sticks, hot plate with stirrer, glassware and so on. In the conservation research of the ancient boat in Rembang Regency, the following procedures of work will be done: 1. Field observations a. Observation of the environment Observations carried out on soil environment, and water. b. Climate measurements. c. Observation of the damage level and deterioration boat. Direct observation should be done on the object and recorded the damage that occurs and the factors that influence it. d. Sampling Soil and wood materials should be taken for further analysis. 2. Laboratory experiments a. Cleaning wood samples Wood samples have been taken are grouped according to estimates by type of wood. Each timber is cleaned with caution because the condition is very soft. Cleaning is done with plain water assisted by hand and brush. b. Desalination sample Clean samples that have been soaked in fresh water to remove salt dissolved. In order to the end result does not change the color of the wood, then the samples were stored in EDTA solution. c. Chemical test for wood dimension stabilization The chemical used is a Polyethylene Glycol (PEG). The reason of using the PEG in the experiments, because it is the most effective result over other materials. Variations in the concentration of PEG 400 �5 usage was 20%, 30%, 40% (Cahyandaru, et al. 2010), and continued by PEG 4000 on the outer layer of the wood. Research on the effectiveness of the use of PEG 4000 is still ongoing at Borobudur Conservation Research Laboratory, Magelang. 3. Results and Discussion The results of microscopic tests conducted by the archaeological office in Yogyakarta and the Faculty of Forestry Gadjah Mada University on the structure of ancient boats have identified three types of wood Scorodocarpus borneensis, Palaquium javense, Eucalyptus alba, and the rope fibers. The field test results indicate waterlogged wood in visually fragile condition. Fragile condition can be observed directly as the hardness of the wood components are relatively low. This was tested by the pressure of our thumb nails showed deep imprints; as well as the bond between a loose wood fiber. It is indicated by wooden damage that are cracked, broken, and split (Suranto 2010). There are two main factors of degradation and deterioration processes on the components of the ancient wooden boat that it was due to the influence of internal and external factors: a. Internal Factors Natural properties of waterlogged wood include the material quality and structure of the wood. This will determine the resistance of the object's interactions with environmental factors. b. External Factors External factors are environmental conditions where underwater archeological remains are located, both for still being in sea water and having been excavated (Cahyandaru, et al. 2010) Based on the process, the degradation that occurs on the waterlogged wood can be grouped into four: the process of mechanical damage, physical damage, chemical deterioration and biotic deterioration. Fluctuations in humidity and temperature can cause both chemical and biological damage. Fluctuations of humidity can cause the dissolution of salts, and high temperatures can cause rapid chemical reactions. Moisture can accelerate chemical reactions that cause the decomposition of organic material, especially an ancient boat. The ancient wooden boat has long been submerged in salt water, soaking of the boat has been going since the seventh century. As a result of soaking the wood moisture content increased even reaching the watersaturated conditions. Water saturated conditions lead to the development dimension and the timber having the water volume at maximum levels, even reaching the level of swelling of the wood. Swelling of the wood until it reaches maximum volume indicates a disintegration of the wood components. Disintegration of wood �6 components take place at various levels, both at the tissue level, cellular, and in the level fibrils, even at the chemical level. Disintegration of wood components will carry consequences for the form of wood that has been missing all the basic properties of wood. Its chemical properties, physical properties, mechanical properties, and natural durability properties have been degraded so that the trait has been detached from the timber, unless the nature of the structure still exists (Suranto 2010). Disintegration at the tissue level can be seen from the presence of cracks, breaks, and even splits on various timber for boat preparation. For example, a part of the timber separated from the ancient boat. Disintegration at the cellular level can be seen from the fragility of wood in the longitudinal direction on a variety of wood making up the boat. Disintegration at the level of the chemical can be proven through further research activity of organisms to analyze the chemical properties of wood using the equipment in the laboratory. More generally, the disintegration of the chemical components of wood can be seen from the texture of wood. Wood that has disintegrating components can be seen in acute texture, namely that the wood does not have the ability to reflect light again, the wood is not shiny. In other words, the timber as part of the components of the boat looked bleak (Suranto 2010). Based on the above data, the right technology for the handling of an ancient boat in Rembang Regency is the technology of preservation and dimensional stabilization of wood technology. The growth of fungus appeared in the field observations. Fungus is microorganism that have no chlorophyll and so can not make their own food. Therefore to survive it rides on other living things, in this case a boat whose condition is already fragile as a medium for the growth of fungi. Hyphae into the wood fiber so that the wood becomes softer. Marine worms is a marine borer organism that can degrade the quality of wood to be softer. Based on the results of laboratory tests conducted by the Centre for Conservation of Borobudur, Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia in 2010 are as follows. Based on field measurements showed the following results i.e: outside temperature. 24,8ºC (at 6 a,m) -31,4(at 11.30 a.m), outside humidity: 59 -85%, wind speed 1,6 -27,4 km/h, in temperature 24,8 ºC 34,5 ºC. While based on the results of laboratory studies on the water content of wood before treatment is equal to 326%, after immersion in PEG 20% moisture content to 106%, after immersion of PEG was increased to 30% moisture content to 54%, and levels of immersion in PEG 40% moisture content to 18% as an equilibrium moisture content. Its experiment of immersion duration is four weeks. �7 Table 1. The observation of the condition of the wood components of an ancient boat.(Kusumastuti, et al. 2010) No. Parameter Results 1. Fungi 80% 2. Crack > 30% 3. Humidity 100% 4. Hardness Very soft No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Table 2. The results of chemical analysis of soil samples (Kusumastuti, et al. 2010) Parameters are Samples analyzed (%) S1 S2 SiO2 89,30 77,63 Ca 1,60 1,60 Mg 1,46 1,95 Al 2,58 2,49 Fe 1,79 1,34 SO4 3,07 3,07 Cl 0,79 0,99 Remarks: S1: grayed soil samples S2: yellowish soil samples Results of measurements of soil permeability indicate that the soil around the boat has a -3 -5 low permeability with rate speeds of between 10 - 10 is in the form of fine sand. Table 3. Salt content of wooden components on an ancient boat (Kusumastuti, et al. 2010) No. Phase Salinity pH Temperature Remarks Sea water >1,641 ppt Chemical analysis 1 1th Desalination Process 1,641 ppt 7,67 20 ºC 2 3 4 5 6 7 2nd 3th 4th 5th 6th Tap water 1,517 ppt 1,045 ppt 427,3 ppm 326,8 ppm 276,1 ppm 239,6 ppm 6,18 6,90 6,59 6,90 6,65 6,51 Salinity meter 24,2 ºC 22,7 ºC 24,4 ºC 24 ºC 24,9 ºC 24,8 ºC Therefore, treatment programs of ancient boat should be done by the following method: �8 a.Desalination Desalination should be done, because the wood in the sea water contains very high levels of salt. Salinity can disrupt the process of conservation, if not removed. Desalination process is carried out by immersing the waterlogged wood in plain water or mineral-free water. Soaking is done in stages with running water, so that the soluble salts can be removed from the soaking tub. Desalination is done until the soaking water is not saline. Salinity can be monitored with a measurement tool or with the analysis of levels of chloride Cl ). The most damaging salt is sodium sulfite. b.Cleaning Cleaning is done simultaneously with desalination. During the cleaning, water continues to flow so it carries away salt impurities. Common impurities in the waterlogged wood is soil / mud, sand and other impurities. Impurities in the form of soil or sand are relatively easy to clean manually. The surface is very soft wood and because of this during cleaning one should use a soft tool like a paintbrush. Careful cleaning by hand can also be done because the surface of the skin of the hands can touch and feel the part that is still dirty, and the required pressure level can be set with professionally attuned touch. Wood is often found under the sea overgrown with corals and marine animals (sea crabs, marine worms). Corals are extremely hard, harder than artifact. Therefore, in situ cleaning of the wood must be done manually with caution. The use of chemicals can harm the object if not careful. Manual cleaning is assisted by means of a scalpel, needle, taper pliers, small hammer and others in a very careful manner so as to not damage the object. c.Impregnation and Stabilization The process of impregnation and stabilization is needed in the conservation of waterlogged wood in situ. Impregnation is the process of inserting chemicals into the cell structure of wood so that it is filled by the chemical and free water pushed out from the cell, so the wood becomes more stable. The chemical used is Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) 400 as well as 4000 with the formula H2OCH (CH2OH2) CH2OH. Before implementation of soaking one must first prepare a watertight soaking tub. Due to high cost for ancient boat conservation at this moment their is limited state budget in Indonesia to make and appropriate shell or soaking tub for the boat. So the chosen alternative is in situ conservation, because to transfer the object to another place to make the shell is very expensive. Besides explanation above, in 2011 will be made the preparation of Master plan of Ancient boat sites and Area Preservation and Development Punjulharjo surroundings. Master plan preparation purposes is an ancient boat handling, and preparing the Grand Design Museum Ancient Boat Punjulharjo. This activity will be conducted by Regional Government of �9 Central Java Province, Indonesia in the three terms level i.e. short term, medium term, and long term. 4. Conclusions Based on experiments that have been done in order to conserve the ancient boat in Rembang regency can be summarized as follows: a. Water affects the condition of the boat where it is located on sandy soil with low permeability rates and high salinity. b. The existence of both temperature and humidity fluctuations. Outside temperature is 24.8 °C in the morning and temperature reached until maximum is 31.4 °C at noon. The air humidity showed inverse ratio with the air temperature. If the air temperature increases, then the humidity goes down. c. Results of observations indicate that the condition of the boat is very serious level of damage. The wooden components of the boat is very soft, and it is very suitable as a medium for the growth of fungi. In addition there are also other organisms of fungi namely marine worms (Marine borer). Marine worms is that the longer an animal borer will decrease the strength of the wood itself. Condition of the wood has cracks more than 30%. Wood cracking was evident on the first layer. d. Conservation methods used are desalination, cleaning, impregnation and stabilization. e. Development and utilization of sites Punjulharjo boat is done in three terms: short term, medium term, long term Figure 1. Condition of the ancient boat on November 2008, by Waluyo Agus P. �10 Figure 2. The boat was covered by wet cotton flannel. This photo was taken by Waluyo Agus P. on the last September 2011. Figure 3. Environment of Punjulharjo ancient boat site on the last September 2011. It was taken by Waluyo Agus P. 5. Bibliography Agrawal, O.P., 1977 Cahyandaru, N., Swastikawati, A., Brahmantara, Kusumawati, H., Atmaja, Y., 2010 Conservation and Preservation of Museum Objects, National Research Laboratory for Conservation of Cultural Property, New Delhi, pp.72-76 Laporan Hasil Kajian Konservasi dan Konsep Pengembangan Perahu Kuno Rembang, Balai Konservasi Borobudur, Magelang, Jawa Tengah, Indonesia �11 Methods of Conserving Archaeological Material from Underwater Sites, Conservation Research Laboratory, Center for Maritime Archaeology and Conservation, Texas A & M University. Charter on The Protection and Management of ICOMOS, Underwater Cultural Heritage. 1996 The Law of The Republic of Indonesia number 11 Kemenbudpar, of 2010 concerning items of Cultural Property, p.58. 2010 Kusumastuti, H., Hasil Sementara Studi Konservasi Terhadap Wahyuni, S., Perahu Kuno Rembang, Varuna Jurnal Arkeologi Atmaja, Y., Bawah Air, Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air, 2010 Direktorat Jenderal Sejarah Dan Purbakala, Kementerian Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata, Indonesia. Siswanto, Abbas, Ringkasan Hasil Penelitian Situs Perahu N., Punjulharjo, Kabupaten Rembang, Varuna Jurnal 2010 Arkeologi Bawah Air, Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air, Direktorat Jenderal Sejarah Dan Purbakala, Kementerian Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata, Indonesia. Suranto, Y., Sumbangan Pemikiran Bagi Penanganan Perahu 2010 Kuna Punjulharjo Rembang, Varuna Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air, Direktorat Jenderal Sejarah Dan Purbakala, Kementerian Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata, Indonesia. Covention on The Protection of The Underwater UNESCO, Cultural Heritage. 2001 Hamilton, D.L., 1999 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Conservation Research and Treatment Programs: Case Study of Ancient Boat Site in Rembang Regency Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource The ancient boat was made around the 7th century A.D. It was found on July 26, 2008 at 07.30 p.m. at Punjulharjo Village, Rembang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia. The boat site is covered by soil as deep as two metres and is located at the southern of coastline with a distance of 0,5 to 1 km. When the ancient boat was found, the shape of the boat was still intact. Size of the boat is 15 metres length and 5 metres width. Not only the shape is relatively intact but also the disclosure of data of the archipelago's unique technology could be held within this boat that was almost complete. Tambuku is the type of palm fibre rope, pegs was used in the boat and other components that have never been encountered before is really a remarkable data essential for the development of maritime archaeology, especially in Indonesia. The ancient boat has important value for history, science, technology, and culture. As an important cultural asset and potential, its existence must be well managed and sustainable by optimizing in situ conservation. Conservation research should be conducted to identify the ancient boat such as the kind of materials for making a boat, condition of boat materials, the site condition of the boat, and environmental condition. Conservation method should be based on the results of diagnosis in the laboratory as well as in the field. In situ conservation is another important approach to preserve the ancient boat, which simultaneously give positive impacts to tourism aspects and development to the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Waluyo Agus Priyanto Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c5ada19fc0e04fa4bd18c3a9c29c2d3d.pdf 97e9e325fc493d2ce6ebaaf45b222552 PDF Text Text The Archaeological Investigation of “Kamikaze” The Mongol Invasion of Japan Randall J. Sasaki Abstract The historical event that produced the term “Kamikaze,” the Mongol Invasion of Japan led by Kubilai Khan in 1281 Common Era (C.E.), was shrouded in mystery until a chance discovery off Takashima Island in Japan revealed the remains of his fleet. It is said that more than three thousand Chinese and Korean ships met catastrophic ends as a result of the powerful storm. Scholars have asked why such a large number of ships perished; their answers range from the effects of a typhoon to ill-prepared ships to the skills of Japan’s Samurai defenders. Despite detailed research efforts, no conclusion has been reached due to the lack of substantial evidence. The archaeological remains discovered at the Takashima underwater site may change how we view this significant battle that changed Japan’s history. Based on his own research, the author discusses various reasons why the invasion may have failed and whether the analysis of archaeological remains can add new evidence for understanding the fate of Kahn’s fleet. In particular, the author focuses on the construction and outfitting of the vessels used for the invasion. Ships are arguably the most complex “artifacts” that humans have created and thus reflect the environment, society, and people that were involved in building the vessel. Furthermore, ships were the essential component for the invasion of Japan. Anchors, degraded timbers, possible repairs, artifacts such as personal effects and weaponry, as well as timber species analysis and the study of fleet organization all tell a story about what took place in the past. Close examination of information from Takashima sheds new light on the cause of the largest naval disaster in the pre-modern era. Introduction Legends tell us that a catastrophic storm obliterated Kublai Khan’s fleet of more than 4,000 ships off Takashima Island in Southwestern Japan during his second invasion in 1281 C.E. (Figure 1). However, many have doubted the storm was the only cause and proposed several reasons for the failure of the invasion (Conlan 2001; Saeki 2003; Turnbull 2010). This paper tries to answer whether it was human or environmental factors that caused the invasion to fail. A Japanese archaeological team has successfully located fragments of hull timbers from this ill-fated fleet along the southern shores of the island of Takashima (Matsuura Board of Education 2008). This is not a typical archaeological excavation because the entire bay may be considered an archaeological site; perhaps only 1 % of the “site” has been properly excavated. Several excavation projects were conducted intermittently for the past 20 years at Takashima (Matsuura Board of Education 2008). In 2004, the author initiated a project funded by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University and RPM Nautical Foundation to analyze over 500 pieces of timber excavated at Takashima underwater site. The data gathered from subsequent analysis provide hints of the organization of the fleet, as well as signs of poorly constructed ships and evidence of possible Japanese defense (Sasaki 2008). This research has provided evidence for various factors that played a significant role in an event that changed the course of Japanese history. �Figure 1. A Map of Southwestern Japan and Takashima Island Takashima Underwater Site A unique characteristic of the Takashima underwater site is that there is no discernable distribution pattern of artifacts and the large majority of the artifacts appear to be small broken fragments. A brief analysis showed that 90% of the timbers were less than 1 meter (m) in length. In addition, close to 70% of the timbers were simply too degraded to provide any useful information. The author believes their degraded state to be attributable to a series of post depositional events. All excavations conducted at Takashima were rescue projects and mainly areas close to the shoreline were excavated. The near shore zones are usually directly affected by current and have been heavily churned up. The visual inspection of the timber fragments exhibited shipworm damage typical of such conditions. Although the majority of areas excavated were heavily disturbed zones, clear signs of an undisturbed layer were found when a small but slightly deeper location was excavated; the discovery of well preserved anchors described below �evidenced such condition. Four wooden anchors were found in situ as if these were cast overboard during the legendary storm (Figure 2). These anchors, all aligned in the same direction, were set to prevent the ships from striking against the shore and their directions indicate that the wind was blowing from south - a typical typhoon wind direction in the area (Takashima Board of Education 1996: 31-33). The estimated original length of the largest anchor’s shank may be 5 m or more. Based on his study of a military treatise, Kinya Yamagata (1996:128130) estimates that the vessel may have been about 40 m in length. There appears to be no need for further proof that there was a storm other than the four anchors in the same direction trying to prevent the ships from being blown against the shore. The Takashima underwater site has the potential for retaining a number of intact and well-preserved vessels. Until this breakthrough discovery takes place we must rely on broken isolated fragments to tell us the story of this historic event. Figure 2. The Four Anchors Found at Takashima in situ. (After Takashima Board of Education 1996: fig.13) Organization of the Fleet The first invasion of Japan in 1274 C.E. provides excellent insights into how the second invasion may have been organized. Historical accounts mention three types of vessels being prepared; one-thousand-Liao ships, Baator fast-boats, and water transport boats). The Liao ship can be considered a large vessel that �is 300 tons or more, the Baator ship is most likely a slender landing craft, and the water transports can be considered as miscellaneous small boats (Yamagata 2004: 48-49). Any invasion across the sea requires a large amount of grain, thus large cargo vessels were a necessary asset of the Kublai Khan fleet. Such vessels, however, must be accompanied by smaller craft to carry supplies between ships and shore. A large vessel, although excellent at keeping a straight course in deep water, cannot navigate in shallow water because of its deep draft. In addition to V-shaped deep draft cargo vessels, it was necessary to bring shallow draft watercraft capable of beaching to quickly disembark troops. The composition of the first invasion fleet makes perfect sense. The author assumes that the second invasion was organized with a similar strategy in mind. Written sources note two separate fleets organized for the second invasion; one set out from Korea and another from the Yangtze River mouth. Historian Kōki Ōta (1997) suggests that the fleet from Korea carried the main fighting force, while the ships from China were to support the operation and to carry supplies to the front. He based this hypothesis on differences in circumstances and physical environment. The number of ships and troops, and the amount of grain that each fleet carried appears to support this claim. It also appears that Kublai may have organized the two fleets using different ships knowing the types of vessels built in the area and the types of vessels best suited for a specific task. Ōta (1997:46) notes a remark in Koryo Sah made by Kublai stating “ships from the Song are big but not strong; Korean ships are small but strong.”This implies that he was aware of different ships available for his use and the characteristics of those ships. Besides the 900 ships built in Korea, Kublai ordered the provinces and towns of Yangzhou, Hunan, Kanzhou, and Quanzhou to build 600 vessels. Korean flat-bottom vessels were constructed to navigate in shallow waters and withstand the harsh sea environment (Sasaki 2010; Kim 1994). Vessels built in Yangzhou were suited for both estuaries and coastal waterways while Hunan and Kanzhou are known for excellent river-craft that they built (Worcester 1971). These vessels were made with flat, to rounded-bottom, structure hull shape best for miscellaneous functions including reconnaissance and transporting supplies and soldiers between ships and near shore. Quanzhou is a famous shipbuilding town in Fujian province where large ocean going ships with V-shaped hulls were built (Kimura 2010). Based on the evidence discussed above, it can be suggested that the fleet from Korea was composed of shallow draft vessels capable of landing troops, while the fleet from China was composed of large deep draft vessels that could carry large cargo as well as miscellaneous ships suited for various tasks including reconnaissance and transporting goods for short distances. Based on the discussion above, the ship timbers from Takashima should include fragments from large vessels built in Fujian province and smaller watercraft built along the Yangtze River. First, the size of timbers from Takashima is a good indication of the general composition of the fleet. Only a handful of planks from Takashima were thicker than 8 cm, suggesting that many of the timbers belonged to small vessels, most likely from the Yangtze River. �Most of these timbers were beams, railings, supporting timbers, and broken planks. A possible hull frame was found and this artifact may suggest a gentle curving hull typical of the Yangtze estuary ships. Many of the complete timbers were also from smaller ships. While not representing a significant portion of the remains, at least one large vessel with a V-shaped hull built in Fujian province was present (). The 6 m wide bulkhead plank is from a large ship, based on its size and construction features similar to those observed in other excavated vessels, including the Shinan and Quanzhou shipwrecks (Green, et al. 1998; National Maritime Museum of Korea 2006) (Figure 3). The estimated length of the vessel may be beyond 30 m and its capacity may have been 300 tons or more. In my research, I realized that what seems to be a minor construction feature, such as differences in joinery methods, can be used to identify the original port of a vessel. Korean shipwrights built ships without using a single iron nail, while the Chinese built their vessels with the liberal use of iron nails (Kimura 2010). One area of possible hull remains was isolated from other timbers at the Takashima site, and close to two thirds of its timbers contained at least one nail. Furthermore, none of the timbers from this site could be confirmed with certainty as having originated from Korea. It must be noted that other types of artifacts, such as ceramics, suggest a similar scenario; almost all artifacts were from China, and only a small percentage were Korean made. This evidence seems to correspond to the historical records. According to historical accounts it is known that most of the Korean ships were saved (Ōta 1997:71-76). Overall, the archaeological evidence gleaned from Takashima seems to correspond well with the organization of the fleets derived from historical documents. Figure 3. The 6 m wide V-shaped Bulkhead Planks of a Cargo Vessel Discovered at Takashima Sign of Poorly Constructed Ships It is difficult to imagine how Kublai amassed more than 4,000 ships and thus it is often argued that it was not the storm but rather poorly constructed ships that ultimately caused the invasion to fail. Analysis of historical documents tells us that the use of merchant and pirate ships for naval use was a common practice �at the time (Lo 1969). One important artifact, a wooden tag with lacquer inscription, was uncovered at Takashima. This tag reads, “in the first year of …., [name of an official] inspected, repaired, and approved [this item]” (Yokkaichi 2002). It is logical to assume that the item repaired was something important, perhaps a ship. If this was indeed the case, it implies that not all ships were newly constructed. From Takashima, no less than twenty timbers exhibit evidence of possible repair and recycling. More than a dozen timbers had multiple nails of different sizes from various angles placed in close proximity--often less than 2 cm--which can be taken as a sign of recycled wood. It is not logical to place so many nails in such a close proximity and I believe these are signs of repairs. The presence of such signs indicates some repairs took place, but does not shed light on how many vessels were repaired or how extensive these repairs were. Considering the nature of the site, it is difficult to know exactly what percentage of the ships were repaired. Many timbers, including a possible mast step and 6 m long bulkhead planks, exhibit what seems to be a sign of poor craftsmanship. However, a deeper understanding of East Asian shipbuilding tradition may alter such ideas. For instance, a mast step from Takashima has been noted as an example of poor craftsmanship (Man 2006; Turnball 2010) However, mast steps in East Asian ships played a minor role in the hull’s overall integrity, compared to Western ships and should not be used as a clear evidence for the ship being built in a poor manner. A mast step played an important role in supporting a mast in Western built ships (Steffy 1994). On the other hand, in Chinese shipbuilding tradition, the stress from the mast is distributed to the hull through tabernacles, carlings, and bulkheads. A mast step is only a small component in supporting the weight of the mast. Thus, a poorly constructed mast step alone may not indicate that the ship itself was constructed in a hasty manner. At the same time, some timbers exhibit evidence of excellent craftsmanship and attention to detail. A representation of one or two example(s) of poorly constructed or well-crafted components does not tell us about the relative strength of a vessel. Nonetheless, it is clear that not all ships in the invasion fleet were new. The species identification of wooden artifacts from Takashima may hold the key to the riddle, and these analytical results may be essential to understanding the strategy for preparing the invasion. Historical accounts as well as archaeological evidence from some shipwrecks reveal that traditional shipwrights had a preference in choosing the types of wood they used to build vessels. In general, Chinese shipwrights used camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) or China fir (Cunninhamia lanceolata) to construct ship hulls (Xi 1999). It can be assumed that if the shipwrights were constructing vessels in a hasty manner and were subject to environmental pressures, the species that shipwrights used to build vessels would vary. The species identification of 475 samples of wood from Takashima was conducted and the results published (Matsuura Board of Education 2008: 193230). The author isolated 174 samples of hull components from the rest of the timbers, and 32.8% are camphor wood, while pine accounted for 22.4% and China fir accounted for 14.9% of the sample group. Fifteen timbers were �identified as possible bulkheads and twelve of these were manufactured from camphor wood. Also, fifteen timbers thought to be hull planks included nine samples of camphor. Smaller components and thin planks showed more variety in wood species while larger and thicker components showed less variety of wood types. The analysis of firewood, perhaps the most overlooked item in the archaeological record, was also important in determining the potential environmental pressure that China experienced at the time of the invasion. A total of 80 timbers from Takashima were identified as firewood (Figure 4). One important use for firewood was for communication between ships. The use of signal fires to keep the fleet intact and guide its vessels (many of which had few navigators), was a well known practice in East Asia (Batten 2006:83; Ōba 2001:1). The result of the species identification revealed that 80% of these logs were softwood, with 63% of them pine. Softwood, such as pine, does not require much time to season and can be used when slightly damp, which makes an excellent choice for use on board a vessel. Softwood also produces more smoke than hardwood. The analysis of the wood species indicates that preparation for the invasion was not based on the strategy of, “using whatever wood they could get their hands on”, but was based on, “using the wood types that best fit the purposes”. It appears that when constructing these vessels shipwrights were not forced to use alternative less desirable timber. Figure 4. A Large Number of These Firewood were Found at Takashima. �Evidence of Possible Japanese Defense Thomas Conlan (2001) claims that the Japanese did not need a great typhoon to win the war; the Samurai’s bravery and fighting skills combined with the defensive walls that the Japanese built, were effective in keeping the Mongols from landing. The timbers found at Takashima contain clues to the actions of the Japanese defenders. Charred ship timbers may be one such clue. Close to forty timbers appear to have been scorched and many more timbers showed traces of fire damage. These charred timbers may be parts of vessels consumed by Japanese fire attacks. Furthermore, remnants of heavily burnt upper hull structures add credence to the argument that the samurai set fire to the enemy’s ships (Man 2006; Turnball 2010). Another clue is an elongated plank the surface of which was covered with numerous nails. Various sizes of nail holes were found and no order was found in the placement of nails. It might have been part of a spiked gunwale that prevented the enemy from boarding the vessel; when enemies tried to board the vessel, their hands would be caught on these nails. Yamagata (2004:88) mentions a Chinese treatise stating the use of such a defensive device. The presence of the spiked gunwale, if indeed that is what this artifact represents, implies that the Mongols were prepared for the possibility of Japanese attacks on their vessels. Conclusions The archaeological evidence from Takashima contributes new data to the ongoing discussion of what really took place during the second Mongol invasion of Japan. Although the site’s environment would appear to prevent its meaningful interpretation, careful analysis has revealed a variety of potential research directions. Although it is clear that there was indeed a powerful storm at the time of the invasion, there was no single cause that led to the invading fleet’s destruction. When discussing whether human or environmental factors caused the failure of a particular event in history, we forget that the environment often shapes human decisions. First, Kublai Khan decided upon an invasion across an open sea, which can be considered an “environmental barrier”. A large number of troops had to be gathered with enough provisions to sustain them during and after the battle, and the invasion ships had to be built to withstand open sea conditions. The presence of shallow water along the Japanese coastline made it necessary to bring smaller, shallow-draft vessels. These would necessarily include vessels not suited for open ocean sailing or the ability to withstand a storm, but the plan to bring such vessels was part of Khan’s larger military strategy. The wood species analysis and interpretation implies the vessels were constructed using preferred timbers. From historical documents, it is known that the Mongols could not take control of the land and were kept at bay by Japanese fighters for a prolonged period of time. The Japanese defending forces that prevented the Mongols from landing contributed significantly to the outcome of the invasion event. Considering that the invasion took place during the typhoon season, the chances of the Mongol forces being struck by a storm increased day by day as long as they remained in their ships. �Discovery of a complete vessel in the near future may or may not confirm this interpretation of the Mongol invasion event. The research presented here is based on actual remains of participating vessels and their associated artifacts, but is still far from complete. Historians and archaeologists must actively debate these analyses in order to clarify what really took place, and it is hoped such discussion persists for the foreseeable future. Bibliography Conlan, T., 2001 Green, J., N. Burningham., and Museum of Overseas Communication History 1998 Kimura, J., 2010 Kim, Z.G., 1994 Lo, J. P., 1969 Man, J., 2006 Matsuura Board of Education., 2008 Nahm, A., 1988 Ōba O., 2001 Ōta K., 1997 National Maritime Museum of Korea 2006 Saeki, K., 2003 Sasaki, R., 2010 In Little Need of Divine Intervention, East Asia Program, Ithaca. "The Ship from Quanzhou, Fujian Province, People's Republic of China", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27,4, pp. 277-301. “Historical Development of Shipbuilding Technologies in East Asia”, in (ed.) Jun Kimura, Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies in East Asian Maritime Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 1-25. Hangug eu Bae. Seoul: Seoul University Press. “Maritime Commerce and its Relation to the Sung Navy”, in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 12, 1, pp. 57-101. Kublai Khan: From Xanadu to Superpower, Bantam Pess, London. Matsuura-shi Takashima Kaitei Iseki: Matsuura-shi Bunkazai Chōsa Hōkokushyo Dai 2 Shyū, Matsuura Board of Education, Nagasaki. Korea:Tradition and Transformation, Hollym, New Jersey. Hyōchakusen Monogatari, Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo. Mōko Shūrai: Sono Gunjishiteki Kenkyū, Kinseisha, Tokyo. The Shinan Wreck I. Mokpo, National Maritime Museum of Korea. Mongol Shūrai no Shyōgeki: Nihon no Chūsei 9, Chūō kōron shinsha, Tokyo. “Goryeo Dynasty Shipwrecks in Korea”, in (ed.) Jun Kimura, Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies in East Asian Maritime �Sasaki, R., 2008 Sasaki, R., 2005 Steffy, R., 1994 Takashima Board of Education., 1996 Turnbull, S., 2010 Worcester, G.R.G., 1971 Xi, L. F., 1999 Yamagata K., 2004 Yamagata K., 1996 Yokkaichi Y., 2002 Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 56-73. The Origin of the Lost Fleet of the Mongol Empire, M.A. Thesis, Texas A&M University. “The Legend of Kamikaze: Nautical Archaeology in Japan”, in The INA Quarterly, 32,1, pp. 3-8. Wooden Shipbuilding and Interpretation of Shipwrecks, College Station, Texas A&M University Press. Takashima Kaitei Isek III – Takashima-chō Bunkazai Chōsa Hōkokushyo Dai 2 Shyū, Takashima Board of Education, Nagasaki. The Mongol Invasion of Japan: 1274 and 1281, Osprey, Oxford. The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis. Zhong Guo Zao Chuan Shi, Jiayu Shanxi Chuban She, Hubei. Rekishi No Umi Wo Hashiru, Nōbunkyō, Tokyo. “Bunken kara Mita Gendai Senpaku to Sōbi ni Tsuite”, in Takashima Kaitei Isek III – Takashima-chō Bunkazai Chōsa Hōkokushyo Dai 2 Shyū, Takashima Board of Education, Nagasaki, pp. 128-130. “Takashima Kaitei Iseki Ni Miru Genkō Kenkyū No KanōSei”, in Shiteki, 24, pp. 111-124. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/93d6fa932d54f9ca6a51dc6dfe8e44fb.jpg 9e53fe84cdc1d80a5af0c281a98bfe05 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeological Investigation of "Kamikaze" The Mongol Invasion of Japan Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource The historical event that produced the term “Kamikaze,” the Mongol Invasion of Japan led by Kubilai Khan in 1281 Common Era (C.E.), was shrouded in mystery until a chance discovery off Takashima Island in Japan revealed the remains of his fleet. It is said that more than three thousand Chinese and Korean ships met catastrophic ends as a result of the powerful storm. Scholars have asked why such a large number of ships perished; their answers range from the effects of a typhoon to ill-prepared ships to the skills of Japan’s Samurai defenders. Despite detailed research efforts, no conclusion has been reached due to the lack of substantial evidence. The archaeological remains discovered at the Takashima underwater site may change how we view this significant battle that changed Japan’s history. Based on his own research, the author discusses various reasons why the invasion may have failed and whether the analysis of archaeological remains can add new evidence for understanding the fate of Kahn’s fleet. In particular, the author focuses on the construction and outfitting of the vessels used for the invasion. Ships are arguably the most complex “artifacts” that humans have created and thus reflect the environment, society, and people that were involved in building the vessel. Furthermore, ships were the essential component for the invasion of Japan. Anchors, degraded timbers, possible repairs, artifacts such as personal effects and weaponry, as well as timber species analysis and the study of fleet organization all tell a story about what took place in the past. Close examination of information from Takashima sheds new light on the cause of the largest naval disaster in the pre-modern era. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randall J. Sasaki Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 1