21 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant: Evolution of Merchant Capitalism in the Coromandel Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kanakalatha Mukund Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Orient Longman Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Kanakalatha Mukund Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place Hyderabad Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Orient Longman Title A name given to the resource The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant: Evolution of Merchant Capitalism in the Coromandel India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Tale of an Anklet: An Epic of South India. The Cilappatikaram of Ilanko Atikal Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atikal Ilanko R. Parthasarathy Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Columbia University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Atikal Ilanko Translator R. Parthasarathy Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Columbia University Press Title A name given to the resource The Tale of an Anklet: An Epic of South India. The Cilappatikaram of Ilanko Atikal India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Southeast Asian Ship, An Historical Approach Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pierre-Yves Manguin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Pierre-Yves Manguin Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Issue 2 Pages 266-76 Publication Title Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Title A name given to the resource The Southeast Asian Ship, An Historical Approach Volume 11 Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/afd95b2da6233918c93b7845bed55df2.pdf 8447339fe70d9267a84d49330bbd5769 PDF Text Text What lies beneath the Sydney Opera House? Veronica M. Bullock1 Abstract When Australia celebrated the bicentenary of European settlement in 1988, a high profile bicentennial project was the construction of a new lower concourse for the Sydney Opera House. During excavations some giant chains were recovered. The „Sydney Cove Chain‟ was ultimately identified as (British) Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain (APMC). Much less well known than Admiralty Pattern Anchors and Buoys, APMC is likely to persist on seafloors at British anchorages around the globe due to it‟s high quality iron composition and hefty design - each link measures around 1 metre in length and bar width is typically 60 – 100 millimetres (mm). Also, because it sits on the sea floor, often beneath a layer of silt, APMC is likely to be well preserved by these anoxic conditions at many locations. In the case of the Sydney Cove Chain there is good evidence to support the theory that at least some elements travelled with the second Governor to the Colony of New South Wales in 1795 – just seven years after first settlement. There is also evidence that these same chains were used by Matthew Flinders to moor the ruined H.M.S. Investigator, after completion of the first circumnavigation of Australia in 1803. More startling than this is the possibility that such chains were used in the boom defence of Sydney Harbour, against such potential foes as the French, Russians, Spanish and Americans. In fact, between Napoleonic wars the French scientific expedition led by François Baudin camped with permission yet unease on Bennelong Point – the site of the current Sydney Opera House. What other archaeological treasures remain buried in this area? In 1987 the contract archaeologist monitoring the building site determined that it was too disturbed to yield significant archaeological evidence (Higginbotham 1987b:8; NSWHO / DUAP 1996:8-9). Master‟s research in 2003 questioned this conclusion, and presented a „statement of significance‟ containing more positive findings (Bullock 2003). Where it all began In 1988 Australia celebrated 200 years of European settlement. 2 It was the biggest party Australia had ever seen! Many and varied preparations were made across the country to commemorate the event in which heritage featured. As a newish country settled by Britons (but only just), there was collective soul searching about what it might mean to be Australian at that time. Officially discovered in 1770 by Captain James Cook of the Royal Navy while searching for the fabled Great Southern Land, Britain realised the use it could put Australia to at about the time it lost the War of Independence in North America (17861783) – Australia was established as the largest gaol the world had ever seen. The most „iconic‟ site in Australia is Sydney Cove. It is where the ships of the „First Fleet‟ dropped anchor on 26 January 1788. It is now instantly recognisable the world over as it is framed by the Sydney Harbour Bridge on its western headland (Dawes Point), and the Sydney Opera House on its eastern headland known as Bennelong Point - named after the Aboriginal Australian who lived there for a while at the first Governor‟s pleasure. 1 2 Significance International; info@significanceinternational.com For many of the original inhabitants of Australia the occasion became known as „Invasion Day‟. 1 �Figure 1. Sydney Cove: the site of first settlement of Australia, with the Sydney Opera House in the foreground and the Sydney Harbour Bridge in the background. The archaeological material discussed here was recovered from the land near the „East Sydney Cove‟ label. Bennelong Point served as a site for many functions – livestock pen, limeworks, saltworks, sandstone quarry, Governor‟s landing place, inter-racial laboratory, guest campsite (Malaspina 1793; Baudin 1802), defensive battery then fortification, promenade, parade ground, horse ferry, boat shed, steamship wharf, tram depot, and finally Australia‟s most recognisable opera house (Kerr 1993:1-13). One bicentennial celebration project was to create a new lower concourse for the Sydney Opera House with shops and extended promenades. Bennelong Point remained public land, despite challenges from the world of commerce - which nevertheless encroached from the western shore. After the construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge by 1932, a more picturesque use for Bennelong Point than the obsolete Fort Macquarie Tramshed was proposed by the city fathers in the 1950‟s. An international competition to design a „National Opera House‟ was announced in 1956. The competition was won by Dane Jorn Utzon, with his „white sails‟ design. It was a long and difficult building project, partly because of the innovative design which presented new problems, and partly due to the personalities involved. Utzon left the project well before it was finished and the work was completed by the New South Wales Public Works Department (the Department). Archaeological investigation Up to the time of the opening of the Sydney Opera House in 1973, it appears that no official archaeological investigations had been carried out on the site. 2 �In 1986 the Department began to dig up the past towards the creation of the bicentennial lower concourse. An official permit to investigate the archaeology of the site was not sought or granted under the State Heritage Act, and so any recovered material did not officially have to be conserved, or lodged anywhere. However, when demolishing a seawall on the western shore of Bennelong Point (also known as East Sydney Cove or East Circular Quay), some intriguing large-scale objects were discovered.3 Figure 2. Lengths One (right) and Three (left) of the „Sydney Cove Chain‟ near the find location at the Sydney Opera House forecourt 1986. Reproduced courtesy of the Australian National Maritime Museum. 3 It should be noted that at this heady time in Australia‟s history, proper civic planning and development procedures were sometimes not followed. In Sydney, public outcry focussed on expedited development of the next large bay to the west of Sydney Cove, known as Darling Harbour (location of the Australian National Maritime Museum), which was modernised with considerable disregard for heritage. 3 �Figure 3. Archaeological material donated to the Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) from the Sydney Opera House site in 1987. ANMM Registration Department assigned „Object Numbers‟ (00000XXX, N/N, NCXXXXX), and link numbers 1 – 20 used in Bullock (2003) are shown. „Sydney Cove Chain‟ material includes all links, rings and staples numbered 1 – 20. Engineering_artefacts N/N, 00000149 and 00000150 are not directly related to the Sydney Cove Chain, but were recovered from the same archaeological site. Drawn by V. M. Bullock from object photographs. Not to scale. It appears that the Department engaged an archaeologist from November 1986 until August 1987 to conduct „archaeological monitoring‟ of the site, almost as an afterthought. This type of minimal archaeological investigation is usually recommended because a site is likely to have low significance or because it has been so disturbed through usage that any archaeological evidence yielded would be of limited value due to compromised archaeological context (NSWHO / DUAP 1996:8-9). When the first large-scale objects were excavated and began reacting adversely with the above-ground atmosphere a metals conservator from the fledgling Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) was consulted. In due course many of the recovered objects were acquired into the National Maritime Collection (Higginbotham 1987a; Higginbotham and Bullock 2003; Hughes 1987:18). The archaeologist, Edward Higginbotham, began by documenting two sections in the vicinity of the discovered objects at Bennelong Point. The sections were located about 40 metres apart, midway between the eventual find sites, which were roughly 200 metres apart. The sections reveal seawall and slab construction from different engineering phases at the tidal location - built over piles, tar, concrete, rubble, fill, silt, soil, mud, slurries or sandstone bedrock. He found the type of material typical of past activity at many historic engineered sites e.g. salt glazed ceramic pipes, wooden fittings 4 �(wharf and deck structures), large scale metal fittings (including fixtures for seawall and perhaps for cranes), and also glass bottles and broken glass (Higginbotham 1987b). Higginbotham considered that the deposits were associated with a seawall completed in 1884 relating to Circular Quay (Sydney Cove) commercial shipping. This determined the theme under which the objects were acquired into the National Maritime Collection as „Economic and Commercial History‟. His 1987 conclusion, „confirmed the absence of archaeological deposits associated with the early development of Sydney Cove and Circular Quay‟ (Higginbotham 1987b:8). On Australia Day, 26 January 1988, Queen Elizabeth launched the bicentennial celebrations for Australia at the Sydney Opera House, and in 2007 the Sydney Opera House became a World Heritage Site (UNESCO 2007). . The Sydney Cove Chain Conservation Plan The 2003 „Sydney Cove Chain Conservation Plan‟ (the Conservation Plan) reduced the uncertainty surrounding the significance of the Sydney Cove Chain by calibrating visual and documentary evidence to revise back the dates of deposition of the artefacts by at least 20 years, and firmly identified the chain artefacts typologically with initial naval usage of the Cove - from the arrival of the second fleet in 1795 until the navy moved operations one bay to the east (Farm Cove) in 1841. Condition problems (delaminating stone and metal surfaces) and lack of time to conduct conservation or significance assessment led to suggestions by 2000 that the objects be de-accessioned It was at this point that the objects were suggested as the subject of a student project – in the first instance to devise a treatment regime compatible with both metal and stone components. Once this was done, however, it became clear that no treatment would be undertaken unless someone could show that the objects were of some significance. This is when conservator turned into curator, as relevant staff curators still had no time to investigate the significance of the objects. Sydney Cove Chain ‘statement of significance’ Following is the „statement of significance‟ 4 created for the ten items comprising the Sydney Cove Chain acquired into Australian National Maritime Collection (ANMM) in 1987: The massive wrought iron chain pieces recovered from Sydney Cove in 1986-1987 are typical Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain deployed around the globe between approximately 1580 and 1988. These objects are rare in Australian maritime experience and unique in Australian maritime collections, because such chains are commonly left in situ on the seafloor to continue serving as permanent moorings – or are abandoned. The Sydney Cove Chain was imported from Britain and used to moor hulks and convict transports in Sydney Cove shortly after English settlement (~1795-1823+), during the primarily naval phase of use of the Cove. 4 A „statement of significance‟ is „a reasoned, readable summary of the meaning, values and importance of an item or collection. A statement of significance makes the importance of items and collections accessible to a wide audience.‟ (Russell and Winkworth 2009:63). 5 �The Chain tells us about naval equipment and practice at a time before the full phasing in of chain for shipboard use (beginning 1817), and the incorporation of a clump anchor, hewn from local rock, is symptomatic of the shortages of naval stores experienced in the colony. There is evidence to suggest that Captain Matthew Flinders laid such a chain for his hulked ship H.M.S. Investigator, after completion of a major part of his circumnavigation of the continent he named Australia. Apart from association with the earliest period of English settlement, the Chain is also connected with later phase commercial usage of Sydney Cove, as parts of it were dredged up and used as fill behind civic seawalls from around 1860. The Sydney Cove Chain is in poor condition and in need of conservation treatment. The iron retains friable but treatable original surfaces, and the corrosion expansion of one link threatens the integrity of the sandstone clump anchor. The rarity and representativeness of the Sydney Cove Chain and related artefacts is significant for early Australian history, and a range of significances have been assigned to the objects according to archaeological provenancing detail. The capacity of these extremely heavy gauge objects to support interpretations of the past, which seek to demonstrate the stamina and ingenuity of earlier generations in creating and positioning equipment, without motorisation, or making-do in local circumstances (clump anchor), is also significant. The Sydney Cove Chain may also be used to interpret late eighteenth-early nineteenth century quarrying practice, wrought iron production and chain production, as well as the naval practices of mooring and boom defence. Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain A fundamental problem with the Sydney Cove Chain when research began was that noone consulted at the ANMM or the Sydney Heritage Fleet had seen chain of that large size before. Each of the three lengths comprise three iron links approximately 1 metre long each, and one ring. Length One is attached to a large sandstone block with a similarly large iron staple. The heavy gauge of the Chain is extraordinary – the bar it was made from ranges between 2 and 4 inches in diameter. After a national and international search the object type was finally identified by the Chief Salvage and Mooring Officer of the Ministry of Defence in the United Kingdom, Mr Morgyn Davies O.B.E., as „Mooring Cable, Square Link‟ or Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain (APMC) (Davies 2003a). He explained that its main usage in British Admiralty permanent moorings meant that it mostly remains on the seafloor, where it is often purchased in situ by commercial port managers in the knowledge that a diver check will confirm that corrosion and fouling are not advanced (Davies 2003b). Whether made from wrought iron, cast iron, forged steel or cast steel, the heavy gauge and high quality metal used in Admiralty Pattern designs, the absence of a welded stud link between each long side (as found in ship-board chain), and location on the seafloor often in a layer of silt, promotes corrosion resistance. Davies is aware that all production types continue in active use at many locations around the world (Davies 2003b). The Sydney Cove Chain appears to be made from rolled wrought iron. It is not now possible to tell whether it was also oiled, painted or tarred against rusting, although it may have been „case hardened‟ 5, with the same aim in mind. Testing revealed high 5 Surface carbon layer added during forging process. 6 �phosphorous content, which along with sulphur is a traditional corrosion inhibiting inclusion. Metallurgical analysis concluded that the phosphorous content indicated an English origin, even though archival evidence was found of massive chain production in Australia by at least 1822 (SRNSW 6053 4/1756:152-155). The Conservation Plan traces Sydney Cove mooring patterns from the first day of European settlement. The muddy bottom and rocky foreshores were found to favour the local creation of clump anchors, and the three lengths of chain may represent specific usage in „Resilient type‟ or 3-arm‟ moorings, but they may also have been used in „Trot‟, „Single‟, or as Matthew Flinders‟ log book attests, in „Bridle type four-arm‟ moorings (Curryer 1999:137; L C of A 1951:154). Figure 4. Types of moorings for ships. Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty 1951:154. An alternate use of APMC is in the construction of defensive chain barriers and booms. Research revealed large iron chains to keep unwanted shipping away from certain locations from at least the Fourth Crusade in 1203, when the Venetians broke the chain protecting Golden Horn Bay on the Bosphorus. They carried it back to Venice, along with the four bronze horses from Constantinople‟s Hippodrome which now adorn St Mark‟s cathedral (Diamant 1989:87). Various locations in England, Europe, the Mediterranean and North America have been defended in this way. Notable examples include „ye mightie chayne of iryne‟ which failed to stop the Dutch invading a tributary of the Thames to steal the English flagship Royal Charles in 1667, and „George Washington‟s Watch Chain‟, which succeeded where Benedict Arnold failed, in deterring the British at West Point in 1780 (Diamant 1989:1-2). In the 7 �American Civil War (1861-1865) the Confederates 6 were credited with being particularly inventive in such matters of the emerging field of „psychological warfare‟ (Diamant 1989:xv). At Charleston they combined Dutch chevaux de frises timber bulwark and iron spear technology with chains to flummox Union ship captains (Diamant 1989:39). Debate raged for centuries as to the effectiveness of chains and booms as deterrents (Baker Brown 1910:7; Clinch 1915:210, 215). Consensus found that, if deployed, defensive chains and booms should be operated from and protected by the firepower of overlooking fortifications on headlands (Corp. of Royal Engineers 18531862:172, 288). This matter was played out in Sydney as naval, military and civic advisors informed successive government enquiries into Colony defences. The two main schools of thought battled over whether to focus on protecting Sydney Cove or the larger Sydney Harbour (Port Jackson), closer to the open ocean (Bullock 2003:117-122; Austin 1979:264, 150; SRNSW 6052 4/1752:156. With batteries 7 on Bennelong Point and Dawes Point just 666 metres apart, Sydney Cove was amenable to such defensive chain deployment. From first settlement batteries had been „thrown up‟ along Sydney Harbour in panicked reaction to European conflicts e.g. Garden Island in 1796 against the French and in 1820 against the Russians (Macey 2002); George‟s and Middle Heads against the Spanish from 1801 (Austin 1979:151; Hendy-Pooley 1903:135). The French were the abiding enemy, with their presence being felt from the first with de La Perouse‟s vessels only prevented from making landfall at Botany Bay by strong winds, as the British First Fleet scouted the same Bay for a suitable settlement site in late January 1788 (Marchant 2011). Fear of America was fuelled by the 1839 clandestine appearance of Captain Charles Wilkes‟ U.S. Naval Expedition in Sydney Harbour. He bragged, „Had war existed, we might, after firing the shipping, and reducing the great part of the town to ashes, have affected a retreat before daybreak, in perfect safety‟ (Jones 1986:13). By 1873 visiting English novelist Anthony Trollope made the following observations about the „martial ardour‟ of Sydneysiders (Dow 1966:36): I had previously no idea that the people of New South Wales were either so suspicious of enemies, or so pugnacious in their nature. I found five separate fortresses, armed, or to be armed, to the teeth with numerous guns – four, five or six at each point – Armstrong guns, rifled guns, guns of eighteen tons weight, with loopholed walls, and pits for 8 riflemen, as though Sydney were to become another Sebastopol …There was a boom to be placed across the harbour, and a whole world of torpedoes ready to be sunk beneath the water, all of which were prepared and ready for use in an hour or two. It was explained to me that „they‟ could not possibly get across the trenches, or break the boom, or escape the torpedoes, or live for an hour beneath the blaze of guns. „They‟ would not have a chance to get at Sydney. 6 The Confederate States were the southern states of the now United States of America. During the American Civil War the southern and northern states were at war. 7 A defensive battery is a simple form of defence and comprises earthen or stone walls, cannons and / or rifles, along with people trained to fire ammunition and return fire. 8 Sebastopol was the capital of the Crimea. The Crimean War was waged between Great Britain and Russia between 1892 and 1896. 8 �A comprehensive scheme for upper harbour protection with booms and large chains was proposed to Parliament in 1863, and there is some evidence that materials were bought. To date, however, there is no evidence that such defences existed at the mouth of Sydney Cove. The matter of the effectiveness of these deterrents was decided with the invention of more powerful guns and mines, and the consequent outdating of fortifications. Also, Australians seemed finally and uneasily to accept the English philosophy: that by maintaining its maritime supremacy in the Northern Hemisphere attacks on its interests on the far side of the world would be averted (Lambert 2001:100104). Conclusion Australia‟s 1988 bicentennial party caused the Sydney Cove Chain to be discovered. It is unfortunate that the opportunity to conduct a more serious archaeological investigation was not taken at the time, as quick work left the ANMM, as custodial institution, with long-term challenges concerning these surprisingly delicate objects. The Conservation Plan allowed deeper investigation. A number of firm results reduced the uncertainty surrounding the assemblage, and twenty-two recommendations cover the topics „General Heritage and Museum Practice‟, „Implementation of Conservation Plan‟ and „Significance Research‟, making the path clear for the Museum when it is in a position to act (Bullock 2003). Most of the recommendations can be achieved in-house. A major external recommendation is that heritage bodies acknowledge the ongoing difficulties cases like the Sydney Cove Chain confer on custodial institutions, and that they adjust and enforce their regulations to avoid such outcomes. In 1996 the New South Wales heritage legislation and bureaucratic structures changed for the better (NSWHO 1996, 2002), but some feel that still more could be achieved for historical evidence (Heritage Act Review Panel 2009; Curby and McClean 2009). A further bold recommendation is internal to the collecting institution – that it seriously address its object accessioning backlog before trails go cold. To this end some alternatives were suggested, ranging from engaging student volunteers or paid extra staff in a significance assessment and documentation drive, through to implementing a moratorium on new acquisitions until backlogs are addressed. In view of the Conservation Plan research it was also suggested that the objects should be reclassified under the „Maritime Archaeology and Ship Technology‟, „Naval Service in Australia‟, or even „Colonial Exploration‟ (rather than „Economic and Commercial History‟) collecting themes, pending evidence obtained through further significance research.9 The Sydney Cove Chain is positive proof that archaeological deposits at Bennelong Point may indeed hold keys to a range of early usages at this site of fundamental importance to Australia‟s history and identity. As significance assessment changes when new evidence becomes available and according to the perspectives of the people consulted, I hope that further evidence comes to light following the „Significance Research‟ recommendations in the Conservation Plan. This should further 9 Please note that the ANMM Collection Development Plan was updated in 2005, so the particular collecting theme names would now need to be adjusted. 9 �reduce uncertainty about these unusual objects, as well as other aspects of Bennelong Point‟s past. Epilogue The Sydney Opera House Conservation Plan of 1993 has been updated twice. The third edition dated 2003 describes the bicentennial lower concourse building works of the late 1980‟s, assigning to these modern works a „B‟ level of significance i.e. „considerable significance‟10 (Kerr 2003:33). The eminent author of this report James Semple Kerr recognises the surviving parts of the 1860‟s seawall as one of the two major surviving elements of early occupation of the site in this area. Although, „encased in concrete or buried in mud‟ (Kerr 2003:94) he recommends its removal only, „where it becomes necessary for the stability of the broadwalk or associated structures above‟ (Kerr 2003:57). Kerr concludes that the Bennelong Point site „is now so heavily disturbed that sub-surface cultural remains are limited‟ (Kerr 2003:94). Although official comprehensive investigation of Bennelong Point seems out of the question now, development work has continued at the site e.g., the Sydney Harbour Tunnel (1992) (passes underneath this archaeological locale); the Sydney Opera House Parking Station (1993). The fullest report on the archaeological potential Bennelong Point appears to have been produced in preparation for the current general site development in 2010 (GML 2010). One result is that this year archaeological investigation is being made of the other element that Kerr noted as significant: a nineteenth-century Bennelong Drain (GML 2010). After learning of this work I contacted the consultants to make them aware of the Higginbotham reports and the Conservation Plan, in the hope that they may recover some better provenanced APMC material, or perhaps even some anchor points for a Sydney Cove chain defence! Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Australian National Maritime Museum for granting permission and providing assistance for my study of these objects, as well as the many people who provided jigsaw pieces along the way. In particular I thank Dr Christopher Jenkins for baseline support and help with all things digital, and the Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority for awarding the thesis its 2004 Heritage Prize. Abbreviations NSWHO SRNSW New South Wales Heritage Office State Records of New South Wales BIBLIOGRAPHY Austin, M., 1979 10 The Army in Australia 1840-1850. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. The scheme ranges from A = exceptional significance to D = little significance. 10 �Bullock, V.M., 2003 Baker Brown Lieut. Col. W., 1910 Clinch, G., 1915 Corps of Royal Engineers (eds), 1853-1862 Curby, P., and McClean, S., 2009 Curryer, B.N., 1999 Davies, M., 2003a Davies, M., 2003b Diamant, L., 1989 Dow, H., (ed), 1966 GML (Godden Mackay Logan Pty Ltd), 2010 Hendy-Pooley, G., 1903 NSWHO, Heritage Act Review Panel, 2007 Higginbotham, E., 1987a Higginbotham, E., 1987b Sydney Cove Chain: conservation plan, Unpublished Master‟s thesis, University of Western Sydney, Sydney. History of Submarine Mining in the British Army, Royal Engineers Institute, Chatham. English Coast Defences – from Roman Times to the Early Years of the Nineteenth Century, G. Bell and Sons Ltd., London. Aide Memoire to the Military Sciences. (Framed from contributions of officers of the different services). John Weale, High Holborn. „Position re Heritage Amendment Bill 2009‟, Professional Historians Association of New South Wales, Sydney. Available at: http://www.phansw.org.au/publications/Heritage_Act_Position_P aper_PHA_(NSW)_June_2009.pdf Anchors – an illustrated history, Chatham Publishing, London. Commentary on data provided and three questions from Ms V. Bullock – Letter dated 12 February 2003. Commentary on data provided and ten questions from Ms V. Bullock. Chaining the Hudson: the fight for the river in the American Revolution, Carol Publishing Group for Lyle Stuart, New York. Trollope’s Australia: a selection from the Australian passages in Australia and New Zealand by Anthony Trollope, Thomas Nelson (Aust) Ltd, Melbourne. Sydney Opera House: Vehicle and Pedestrian Safety Project (VAPS), Archaeological Management Plan and Archaeological Impact Assessment, Report prepared for the Sydney Opera House Trust, February, Sydney. Available at Appendix D: http://majorprojects.planning.nsw.gov.au/index.pl?action=view_j ob&job_id=3623 Defenders and Defences of Australia, with Military Reminiscences In The Australian Historical Society Journal and Proceedings [Read before the Society 5th October 1903]: 130140. A Review of the New South Wales Heritage Act 1977 - Report of the Independent Expert Panel, December 2007. Available at: http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au/docs/mediareleases/heritagact_r eview_report.pdf Interim Report on Mooring Rings and Chains from circular Quay East and the Opera House Forecourt, Edward Higginbotham & Associates Pty Ltd / Consultant Archaeological Services for the Department of Public Works, New South Wales, May 1987. Archaeological Watching Brief During the Remodelling of the Opera House Forecourt, Sydney, New South Wales, Consultant Archaeological Services for the Department of Public Works, 11 �Higginbotham, E., and Bullock, V., 2003 Hughes, J., 1987 Jones, C., 1986 Kerr, J.S., 1993 Kerr, J.S., 2003 Lambert, A., 2001 L C of A (Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty), 1951 Macey, R., November 2002 Marchant, L., R., 2011 NSWHO, 2002 NSWHO, Heritage Act Review Panel, 2007 NSWHO / DUAP, 1996 Russell, R. and Winkworth, K., 2009 New South Wales, December 1987. email correspondence, 7 March 2003. 'Caring for maritime artefacts‟ in Heritage Conservation News, Vol. 4 ,2, Heritage Council of New South Wales, Sydney. Australian Colonial Navies, Australian War Memorial, Canberra. Sydney Opera House: an interim plan for the conservation of the Sydney Opera House and its site, Commissioned by New South Wales Public Works for the Sydney Opera House Trust, December, Sydney. Sydney Opera House: a plan for the conservation of the Sydney Opera House and its site (third edition), Sydney Opera House Trust, Sydney. „Australia, the Trent crisis of 1861 and the strategy of imperial defence‟ In (eds) D. Stevens and & J. Reeve, Southern Trident: History and the Rise of Australian Naval Power, Allen and Unwin, Sydney. Admiralty Manual of Seamanship (seventh impression 1977), Volume III, Her Majesty‟s Stationery Office, London. “Island‟s Tourism Birth a Date with History” In Sydney Morning Herald Newspaper, Fairfax Press, Sydney. 'La Pérouse, Jean-François de Galaup (1741–1788)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University: http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/la-perouse-jean-francois-degalaup-2329 Local Government Heritage Guidelines, New South Wales Heritage Office, Sydney, Chapter 3, Section 3.1.1, Available at: http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au/guidelines/index.htm A Review of the New South Wales Heritage Act 1977 - Report of the Independent Expert Panel, December 2007. Available at: http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au/docs/mediareleases/heritagact_r eview_report.pdf Archaeological Assessments, New South Wales Heritage Office / Department of Urban Affairs and Planning, (NSWHO / DUAP), Sydney. Significance 2.0: a guide to assessing the significance of collections, Collections Council of Australia / Commonwealth of Australia, Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/publications/significance 2-0/ 12 �SRNSW, Reel 6053 4/1754, 1822 SRNSW Reel 6052 4/1751, 1820 UNESCO, 2007 Overseer of Blacksmiths, New Lumberyard, Referred to in papers and evidence, and testified before the Board of Enquiry into the Engineers Department, December 1821 – March 1822. J.T. Bigge on the Defence of New South Wales, 2 October 1820: 156. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/166 13 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource What lies beneath the Sydney Opera House? Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource When Australia celebrated the bicentenary of European settlement in 1988, a high profile bicentennial project was the construction of a new lower concourse for the Sydney Opera House. During excavations some giant chains were recovered. The ‘Sydney Cove Chain’ was ultimately identified as (British) Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain (APMC). Much less well known than Admiralty Pattern Anchors and Buoys, APMC is likely to persist on seafloors at British anchorages around the globe due to it’s high quality iron composition and hefty design - each link measures around 1 metre in length and bar width is typically 60 – 100 millimetres (mm). Also, because it sits on the sea floor, often beneath a layer of silt, APMC is likely to be well preserved by these anoxic conditions at many locations. In the case of the Sydney Cove Chain there is good evidence to support the theory that at least some elements travelled with the second Governor to the Colony of New South Wales in 1795 – just seven years after first settlement. There is also evidence that these same chains were used by Matthew Flinders to moor the ruined H.M.S. Investigator, after completion of the first circumnavigation of Australia in 1803. More startling than this is the possibility that such chains were used in the boom defence of Sydney Harbour, against such potential foes as the French, Russians, Spanish and Americans. In fact, between Napoleonic wars the French scientific expedition led by François Baudin camped with permission yet unease on Bennelong Point – the site of the current Sydney Opera House. What other archaeological treasures remain buried in this area? In 1987 the contract archaeologist monitoring the building site determined that it was too disturbed to yield significant archaeological evidence (Higginbotham 1987b:8; NSWHO / DUAP 1996:8-9). Master’s research in 2003 questioned this conclusion, and presented a ‘statement of significance’ containing more positive findings (Bullock 2003). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica M. Bullock Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6169611b35d3f3059f6d1d65e97d84c3.pdf e2f35c603602e5239aa0501114267fbb PDF Text Text Capacity Building using social networking sites Stevens Titiml Abstract The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a country characterized as having the most dispersed set of islands in the Pacific Region. The RMI Historic Preservation Office (HPO) is responsible for preserving and managing the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) which spans 2 nearly two million square kilometers (km ) of ocean. While the task is daunting, we realize that other Pacific Island nations face similar challenges. At this time, the RMI-HPO office is fully staffed with an Anthropologist and Archaeologist, while some of our affiliated offices in the Micronesian region do not staff one or the other and in some cases do not have either. With our offices spread out across the Pacific Region, and preservation programs characterized by limited funding, short staffing, and reliance on contracted professionals, collaboration on preservation work can be instrumental in protection of the UCH. We are small island offices with limited resources, but a larger community of countries whose interconnectedness can be traced to prehistory. With our invaluable UCH to care for, we propose the utilization of popular social networking tools to build capacity. Building a communication site online where we share resources, information and project ideas would be a first step in tackling some of the issues that compound our work. This paper explores several avenues of technology to build capacity, and is the first step towards the creation of a collaborative network. Introduction The Republic of the Marshall Islands Historic Preservation Office (RMI-HPO) is responsible for all preservation related work in the Republic. The RMI HPO office is responsible for all preservation work in the Marshalls which consist of 29 low coral atolls and five small coral islands spread over nearly 2 million km 2 of ocean, the Marshall Islands are the most dispersed set of islands in the Pacific Region. The RMI-HPO office is fully staffed with an Anthropologist and Archaeologist; however some of our affiliated offices in the Micronesian region do not staff one or the other and in some cases do not have either. With our offices spread out across the pacific: communication and collaboration on preservation work are nonexistent with limited funding and high transportation cost. The Micronesian Endowment for Historic Preservation (MEHP) meets annually to report back to National Parks Service (NPS) what each individual office has accomplished the previous year. It is a prime time for showcasing each office’s achievements and projects that proved to be difficult in both time and resource for numerous reasons and of course the most universal issue that we all have in common is the lack of funding available for all offices. We can all agree that we can all use a little, if not a lot, more funding from NPS or outside grants to be able to contribute quality work on sites that are so far spread and hardly accessed by both our staff and tourist alike. Our affiliated offices throughout Micronesia are wholly funded by the NPS under the Compact of Free Association (COFA). With the limited amount of funding we receive from NPS through The Department of Interior, it continually proves to be the most problematic issue for The Marshall Islands HPO, as stated �earlier, due to the relative size and make-up of the atolls and the funding amount we receive. Generally we are required by law under the Use of Cultural and Historical Properties: to preserve all sites which include both terrestrial and underwater sites in all of the Marshall Islands atolls (RMI 1992.). With so many sites and a limited number of resources, we are spread thin and even more so with little funding set aside for outer island travel to be able to conduct any survey. This is equally more compounded by the fact that inter island travel is reduced to slow moving charters which can drain our offices resources quickly and the unreliable domestic air service. Building a communication site online where we can have a dedicated site to share information and project ideas would be a first step in tackling some of the issues that compound our work. I think basic information sharing on what each office is doing will greatly increase our capacity to help each other, especially in situations where one office has dealt with an issue successfully and can provide guidance to another office undergoing the same issue. Sharing ideas on projects that parallel our work, offering advice, problem solving issues on administrative, field work, and how we involve public participation of local residents and traditional leaders would greatly enhance our ability as an individual office and for our responsibility to the entire Pacific Region. The first question of course is the word capacity building. What is capacity building? The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has defined "capacity" as, "the ability of individuals, institutions and societies to perform functions, solve problems, and set and achieve objectives in a sustainable manner". The terms "capacity building" or "capacity development" describe the task of establishing human and institutional capacity. Capacity building is a very broad term and has many uses. In this term of course, it is used to refer to building the capacity of those many individual HPO’s that compromise the Freely Associated States (FAS) in their efforts of preserving their history and culture. I am a strong believer that social learning and empowerment of learned information from professionals and peers in your field of work rely on each other to fully be successful in any particular field of work. It is especially important when the information used in the process of enhancing capacity of individuals in the historic preservation field, who are on the ground making efforts to improve on the preservation of underwater sites and/or department heads, that they have the tools to make choices regarding site administration and planning, with the ability to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes. In an area such as Micronesia with its diverse underwater sites and very unique aqua culture, we are able utilize the knowledge of traditional experts of navigation as it is passed on from one generation to the next. Comparing the Marshall Islanders navigation tools and knowledge the sea in accordance with sea and weather �patterns, we can look at both similarities and differences in their approach. All this can be done using a social network site for research purposes. People responsible for activities under historic preservation and planning attended training and workshops but neglected to impose or implement the knowledge learned. This loss led to the misunderstanding that a capacity-building training or workshop does not go beyond the conventional perception of training . The main concerns of this paper are to address the social aspects and impacts of many social-networking tools available online. These are that are essentially easy to set up through the internet for collaboration and information sharing. This could be done on one of the many popular social networking sites that are available to use at a minimal cost to our office, and easily accessed by our affiliated offices throughout Micronesia. It would help to keep our offices connected on a more social basis. Rather than the traditional email exchange, this can be difficult to relay. Through this interaction we may create possible ideas or avenues of exploration and share over a broader network. Social networking sites such as: Facebook, Google Friends, Myspace, Bebo are some of many such sites that have become a popular and easier means of communication with friends, family, or colleagues. It is a tool of which the function of it is based on an internet connection. This only requires the payment of basic high-speed broadband bills but not the oscillating prices of long-distance phone calls. Virtual communities are essentially formed with a click of a button and people are invited to join in a social networking environment that encompass discussion of common issues and interests. These communities are composed of people connected together by work, office, purpose, goal, and overall desire to improve on the overall issues of a region. Our main interest is, of course, focused on the underwater sites that blanket the Pacific area compromised of the FAS, namely Palau, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Guam, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and American Samoa. The Marshall Islands alone has a plethora of underwater sites that are well beyond the developed capitol atoll of Majuro. Needless to say, we need help in developing a system that inputs our data , we need to clarify how to share that information, and how to gain access to the ideas of others so we deepen collaboration between offices and improve on site planning and restoration projects. In my opinion we have not equally addressed our maritime culture as we have with the terrestrial preservation of historical sites or traditional bwebwenato sites (traditional stories). It is of course not because of lack of interest, one can only assume in my short time I have been here, that such an oversight has to do more with the fact that there is relatively no money available for underwater sites. The realities are the time it takes to travel, train staff properly, acquire and maintain gear, and hire a qualified underwater archeologist, especially considering the amount of area that needs to be covered. There are numerous underwater sites that are already renowned as underwater marvels that were created as a result of World War Two (WWII) (see in this volume works by Ishimura; McKinnon; Arnold) and many more naturally �made eco-systems that are also in need of preservation. One such marvel that man created is Bikini Atoll, of which the popular search engine Wikipedia defines it as : Prior to the explosion of the first atomic bomb on the island, the lagoon at Bikini was designated as a ship graveyard after World War II by the United States Navy. Today the Bikini Lagoon is still home to a large number of vessels from the United States and other countries. The dangers of the radioactivity and limited services in the area led to divers staying away from one of the most remarkable potential scuba diving sites in the Pacific for many years. The dive spot has become popular among divers since 1996. However, oil prices have severely curtailed diving operations to the point of being suspended since August 2008 and through 2009, restricted to fully self-contained vessels by prior arrangement. The lagoon contains a larger amount of sea life than usual due to the lack of fishing, including sharks, increasing the fascination with the spot as a diver's adventure spot. Food including fish is contaminated so tour boats must bring all their own supplies. (Wikipedia 2011) Recently Bikini Atoll was inscribed into United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural, Organization (UNESCO) list of World Heritage Sites (UNESCO 2010) under these two criterions: Criterion (iv): Bikini Atoll is an outstanding example of a nuclear test site. It has many military remains and characteristic terrestrial and underwater landscape elements. It is tangible testimony of the birth of the Cold War and it bears testimony to the race to develop increasingly powerful nuclear weapons. In the wake of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs, the Bikini Atoll site confirmed that mankind was entering a nuclear era. It also bears witness to the terms of population displacement and public-health issues. Criterion (vi): The ideas and beliefs associated with the Bikini nuclear test site, and more generally with the escalation of military power which characterized the Cold War, are of international significance. These events gave rise to a large number of international movements advocating nuclear disarmament; they gave rise to powerful symbols and to many images associated with the “nuclear era”, which characterized the second part of the 20th century. Namdrik Atoll (Figure 1) is another atoll that has a unique aquaculture. It is located approximately 145 kilometres (90 miles) west-southwest of Jaluit, and 117 kilometres (73 miles) northwest of Ebon Atoll. The atoll consists of two large wooded islets. The larger (also called Namorik) wraps around the central lagoon from the southwest to the northeast, while the smaller island closes off the northwest corner of the lagoon. A coral islet stands between them on the reef, with numerous black boulders. The very shallow lagoon is cut off from the sea by the drying coral reef. Boats can cross the reef with difficulty, at high water on the west side of the atoll. Landing near the west side of Namorik Islet can be affected to about 90 meters south of it. There is no shelter during northeast winds, and it is dangerous with strong southwest winds when there is a heavy sea. There is a fringing reef which extends about 135 meters in the vicinity of the landing place. There is �depth of about 1.2 meters and there are rocks in places. Two stranded wrecks lie about 90 meters off the south shore along the reef line. Figure 1. Namdrik lagoon, Republic of the Marshall Islands (Picture taken by Stevens R. Titiml) Conclusion These two types of underwater cultural heritage sites are one example of how we can tackle the collaborative work being done. We have a varied landscape which ranges from flat atolls to mountainous peaks. Of course this would mean that all of the FAS-HPO’s working environments are not quite the same, but we share the similarities of small islands scattered in the Pacific Region and the ability to progress with our work initiative using up-to-date technology. We share the same goals for our islands and we hope that our work will provide future areas of further intellectual stimulation and general enjoyment of available resources. The general colloquial saying goes, “our Ocean is our oyster”. It is often said and it rings so true when talking about our underwater sites. We encompass a big part of history. The seabed of our islands are riddled with material culture of man's stories and exceptions of natures' majesty. The HPO attempts to reveal �what it can of those stories and implement/monitor preservation of the sites so that stores are told and sites visited many times over. It is projected that an online social network website would reach beyond our office and out to communities. It is important that we play a role in fostering the social networks and information exchange needed to educate, not only our affiliates, but also serve as an outreach for our office to empower and educate the public on community building. This would move us forward in our mandate to manage change, to resolve conflict, to manage institutional pluralism, to enhance coordination, to foster communication, and to ensure that data and information are shared (the HPO mandate). All of these action points require a broad and realistic view of capacity development. This definition covers both institutional and community-based capacity-building of what our office needs and the impact of the message we can send to the public. Information sharing is needed from colleagues but also from our peers and the general public. It is not true that our office is only here for preserving WWII and historical sites. Producing a social networking website is going to probably be the speediest and most efficient step towards our goals. The issue that we will have to tackle is the site administration itself and the amount of content that we want, or are willing, to put up for the purpose of sharing and gaining comments. We hope that this site can bring mutual understanding and a concise effort to collaborate on undertakings, in not just the Marshall Islands, but also in other regions in the FAS. To use each office as a resource to make not just one island, but a whole region, in equal standing with underwater archeology as in the rest of the world. Informative public awareness is a something that will expose our online material so that the public and professional institutions are aware that we are not just about land modification permits and preserving historical sites but a whole lot more concerned with preserving the national treasures that lay just below our waters. We should not let the downsides of social networking hinder us from being able to compile a site that is truly ours to view, share, and collaborate on projects. While social networking sites have become places for establishing connections and meeting friends, they have also become likely places for identity theft and fraud. As you have to provide certain information such as your e-mail address, name, and location. Criminal’s steal identification information and pretend to be you, especially when they are into illegal activities. The worries are if someone is pretending to be somebody else that they can make you believe that he or she is up to some business offer (project funding, capacity funding) and ask to meet up with you, at which point they may take your money. It has also become easier for someone to stalk you and harass you online. Like in any social situation people must learn to conduct themselves safely and productively. One should consider the pros and cons of social networking sites and take precautions in the kind of people to trust and share information with. The debate whether you should or should not be part of the social �networking community is never ending. And, at the end of the day, the best weapon that you have is sound judgment. Not only do we need to share information with colleagues, but the fact is the RMI are all privately owned lands leased and subleased, to a great extent, to public and national offices to use. The development aspect of using private property for development purposes whether residential or for commercial us in any area within the capitol of Majuro or outer islands comes under the aegis of the land owners and what they want and need. This is a very sensitive issue because land ownership is considered a highly regarded right in traditional Marshallese Custom; so understanding anthropological studies and their soil impacts on the local to wider communities would open further discussions on how to handle certain issues. We are small island offices with limited resources, I have suggested we have a social networking website in order to exchange information and keep everybody updated and informed. With which we would have a tool to build on our current information and work together on projects so as to build on our capacity as a whole. Abbreviations RMI Republic of Marshall Islands Bibliography RMI 992 UNESCO 2010 Wikipedia 2010 Wikipedia 2011 Historic Preservation Legislation Bikini Atoll Test Site- website- Accessed July 31 2010, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1339 Namdrik Atoll- website- Accessed July 2010, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namdrik_Atoll CapacityBuilding-website-Accessed October 2011, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_building � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Capacity Building using social networking sites Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a country characterized as having the most dispersed set of islands in the Pacific Region. The RMI Historic Preservation Office (HPO) is responsible for preserving and managing the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) which spans nearly two million square kilometers (km2) of ocean. While the task is daunting, we realize that other Pacific Island nations face similar challenges. At this time, the RMI-HPO office is fully staffed with an Anthropologist and Archaeologist, while some of our affiliated offices in the Micronesian region do not staff one or the other and in some cases do not have either. With our offices spread out across the Pacific Region, and preservation programs characterized by limited funding, short staffing, and reliance on contracted professionals, collaboration on preservation work can be instrumental in protection of the UCH. We are small island offices with limited resources, but a larger community of countries whose interconnectedness can be traced to prehistory. With our invaluable UCH to care for, we propose the utilization of popular social networking tools to build capacity. Building a communication site online where we share resources, information and project ideas would be a first step in tackling some of the issues that compound our work. This paper explores several avenues of technology to build capacity, and is the first step towards the creation of a collaborative network. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Stevens Titiml Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/77710d6077603fe8957d2fc6dab9a195.pdf 5c710db27a5bc588c9f61d14659dc159 PDF Text Text In-situ preservation In Tropical Seas: Case Study on the Avondster Shipwreck Chandraratne Wijamunige Abstract The VOC ship Avondster sunk on 2nd July 1659 when anchoring near the beach in Galle Bay, geographically located in the southern part of Sri Lanka. She was re-discovered in 1993 and subjected to a series of research projects including excavation in the bow, stern and mid-ship areas. Due to construction work in Galle Harbour it was important to protect the shipwreck in situ. The environment in the Galle Bay badly affected the wreck site and it was a big challenge to overcome all the harmful factors that were likely to damage the remains of Avondster. In order to preserve Avondster a plastic net was introduced as a protective layer over the wreck site. This was monitored constantly throughout and after the research period. The protective layer was used over the fragile timbers for nearly 8 years before a violent tsunami hit Galle Bay in December 2004. Despite the serious damage caused on the land by the tsunami, it had less effect on the site and the covering-plastic net was still intact. From that time on monitoring has continued every two months. This paper discusses in detail the present condition of the in situ protection and its validity as a preservation technique in the conditions found in tropical seas. Introduction The requirements to preserve the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) are now emphasized in the maritime archaeological field more now than previously. Due to new technology and well developed equipment diver numbers have increased. Some divers are engaged in various tasks and functions that can be harmful to the UCH in many ways. Submerged archaeological remains are regularly found all over the world day-by-day due to increased diving activities. The idea of preserving in-situ as seen in parts of the European continent and other economically developed countries prior to the year 2000. This trend is seen in the Asian region after the year 2000. For example, in Sri Lanka there were more than 30 maritime archaeological sites reported in the Southern coastal belt, of which 26 are in Galle Bay harbour. Despite the scarcity in human and technological resources, funds and minimal political involvement; the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) team was able to record and do research on most of these sites during the last decade. In a developing country, such as Sri Lanka, the new trend to conduct insitu preservation and analysis is a better option than to excavate. It is an efficient way to scientifically identify the deterioration threats on recorded UCH sites which are being continuously discovered, and to rebury them and/or utilize other protection methods. Excavation costs huge amounts of money. In both the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) 1996 Charter and Article 01 of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) emphasis is placed on, “in-situ protection should be the first option” (Prott 2003:xxiii). �One of the pioneer countries to have undertaken in-situ conservation methods on UCH is the Netherlands. Since the early 1980s they have identified the needs of in-situ preservation and practiced it with their projects. One of these was a project to conserve more than 30 sites in-situ in Zuiderzee - bed in the flevopolders area. Further in 1988 the BZN3 shipwreck site, which was owned by Dutch East India company (VOC), was protected physically and by the law (Manders, et al. 2004:1251-1252). In the same manner several shipwrecks were preserved in-situ in Europe, Australia and Canada: the wooden shipwreck in Red Bay, Canada (Manders, et al. 2008:179-194); the German 14th century merchant vessel Darssar Cog (Manders, et al. 2008:189); the 4th century Roman quay in the Netherlands (Manders, et al. 2008:190); and in Australia, the William Salthouse (1841) in Victoria and the James Matthews wreck (1841) in Fremantle (Manders, et al. 2008:192). Different methods were followed to preserve these sites considering the following facts: location, deterioration threats, environment, utility to the public and the technological improvements during that period. For example, sacrificial anode (see Godfrey, Richards and Cha this volume) treatment was used to preserve the metal parts of the James Matthews wreck in Fremantle, Western Australia (see Carpenter and Richards this volume). Thus far, Sri Lanka has only one example regarding in-situ conservation, the Avondster shipwreck situated in Galle Bay harbour. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the process of in-situ protection implemented on the Avondster shipwreck and its necessity, success or failure. History of Avondster Shipwreck The Avondster was originally a British ship (30-40 meters in length), captured and modified by the Dutch (http:cf.hum.uva.nl/galle/). The vessel was constructed with two decks and the capacity was 250-260 tonnage. After a long life span of long distance trans-oceanic voyages it was assigned to short-haul coastal runs. It was wrecked on July 2nd 1659 while anchored in the Galle Bay harbour (Parthesius, et al. 2005:220). After the ship was discovered in 1993 the site was monitored; it became clear that the wreck was increasingly exposed through changes in the dynamics of the seabed, and it was considered important to implement a rescue archaeology project on the site to safeguard this important collection (Manders, et al. 2004:1253). The wreck lies close to the shore, in 6 metres of murky waters (Figure 1). From the year 2001 until the end of 2004 important sections of the ship have been excavated and conserved in-situ. Explorations revealed in-situ wooden parts of the hull, brick construction of the galley, six iron cannons and one of the ship’s anchor. At the time when the yacht sunk the rudder was separated from the stern section because it struck the sandy sea bed (http:cf.hum.uva.nl/galle/). The rudder now lies 18 meters away from the main shipwreck. �Figure 1. Location of the Avondster/Site L. (Photo – WA museum) Reasons for Preservation in situ Even before the official discovery of the Avondster shipwreck, looters collected artefacts from the surrounding zone. With the monsoon activities every year the sea bed become rough with high waves and exposed to erosion. It had become a common practice of the local divers to collect exposed artefacts and things moving on the sea bed after the monsoon season (Carpenter 1996:44-50) The marine drive, built by the Road Development Authority of Sri Lanka in the late 1960’s, reduced the distance between the seashore and the wreck to 90 meters (previously it was about 150 meters); and in 2002, with the second stage of this development, reduced it to 70 meters. These developments and the construction of the stone barrier to stop sea erosion caused rapid changes to the coastal seabed. The natural sand and sediments which existed for hundreds of years shifted every year (Parthesius, et al. 2007:159). The high slope of the stone barrier directly impacted the seabed adjacent the beach, where the Avondster shipwreck lies. The waves from the open ocean struck the stone barrier with more force than the natural shore. This rolling wave pattern moved the sand from side by side causing erosion on the wooden wreck parts. The explorations made during the years 1997, 1998 and 1999 emphasized that the movable artefacts should be excavated and undergo sustainable conservation to prevent further erosion. This was included in the aims for the Avondster 2001 field season project (Parthesius, et al. 2005:221-222). In both theory and practice in-situ conservation is an acceptable method for Sri Lanka. I will explain why, first, through the legalities. This country’s legislature has the capacity to provide what is needed to protect the UCH. Under the Sri Lankan law conservation of both maritime heritage and UCH is included (Antiquity Ordinance No.19 of 1940 and it’s Amendment No.24 of 1998). �Avondster is one of the well preserved oldest wooden yachts found in Sri Lanka. As such there is a responsibility to keep it protected from damaging physical factors. At the time that three excavation trenches were initiated at the site there were neither maritime archaeologists armed with enough technological and scientific knowledge available in the country nor the infra-structural facilities needed with the MAU. The necessity of conserving this type of heritage for further scientific method study by future generations influenced the direction for its preservation. Though the legal protection bans treasure hunters, looters and fishermen, it isn’t enough to protect against the natural physical, chemical and biological processes. Avondster is situated in a place facing direct impact from tidal movement and/or changes in water circulation and sediment erosion (Manders, et al. 2004:1253), these actions cause an aerobic environment within which more oxygen enters the exposed wreckage creating good conditions for wood-borers and many bacteria (Bonke, et al. 2007:133). Also the fresh water flowing from two networks of gutters coming from the city increased this situation and brought more bacteria. It was a common scene to see the waste and garbage coming from the city floating in the water over the Avondster. During the first archaeological excavation on Avondster, on its front bow section, we were able to identify and observe the quick deterioration on the wooden parts after they were exposed. Due to above circumstances we had to cover the Avondster site. In February 2003 we decided to do a test project. A 4 x 4 meter area on the Avondster bow section was selected for the purpose. The highest parts of the hull's timber were coming out from the sea bed up to one and a half feet. A black plastic net (100% polypropylene and 60% density) was used for this purpose (Parthesius, et al. 2007:162). In order to prevent the net moving with the swell old iron chains were placed on it using plastic zip-ties/ty-raps (small plastic straps use to tie things). After covering it was monitored twice a week for one month. During the first month success was observed. At the end of the first month tears were seen in a number of points on the net. A sand deposit 10-15 cm thick was found under the net. As the marine growth has covered the small holes of the net any further deposit of sand could not be identified. The marine growth on the net helps to gather sand on the net and keep it stable (Weerasinghe and Manders 2003:10). Although it was believed for some period that the test programme would be a success and that we can use this system for the rest of the wreck, when we checked the situation a few month later (the diving was stopped for nearly four months due to the monsoon rain) the whole plastic covering was destroyed by the high waves. It was not strong enough to resist it. This helped us to understand the situation in this area and to select a more suitable net of greater strength and to better secure it. �Covering the shipwreck In implementing the main in-situ project after the failure of the first test our challenge was to select a more suitable and stronger net. We had to check many samples for the strength and for the density (strength by checking the material and try to tear it and density by checking the size of the holes of the net). Finally the 100% polypropylene and 40% - 50% density manufactured in Israel was selected as the most suitable net. The area needed for coverage on the Avondster shipwreck was estimated to 400 square meters. Fourteen pieces of 25 x 4 meter size nets were purchased. The specialty of this net was that it is stronger and wider than the previous one. With less density the holes in the net will help sand to permeate and deposit under it. The covering was placed in November 2003 from the bow section. Before taking the strip of net to the sea it was rolled from both sides to the middle. After placing it on the wreck the rolled strip was unrolled to the each side covering the wreck. In order to prevent the net from swinging some bags of sand were placed on both ends. The second net was placed overlapping the first one and the ends tied with plastic threads (zip-ties/ty-raps). In total four strips of net covered the ship from bow to mid-ship. Sand bags were put on some sharp wooden edges to prevent the damage caused to the net by swells (Weerasighe and Manders 2003:9). On some points we covered the wreck with some sand by using a water dredge in reverse, especially on the excavated areas. Monitoring and stabilization We placed sand bags on the net to prevent movement and damage but it did not stop it completely. The movement of the net helps sand and silt go though the net. Fine sand and silt deposits are quite suitable for the creation of a stable anaerobic environment (Richards 2007: 119-120). As such, the swinging motion of the net is similar to a filter (sieve) used for removal of gravel and pebbles from the sand used in construction (Author’s personal experience). In the preliminary monitoring and maintenance programme the team of divers always paid attention in the prevention of damages to the net and measured the sediment deposition. Monitoring by way of visual observation, was made four times within one week after the process of conservation. Thereafter monitoring was made in the aforesaid manner once every two weeks. Monitoring revealed within the first week that sand deposits under the net ranged from 5-15cm. Our MAU Avondster in-situ Data Sheets from fieldseasons 2005-2009 recorded minimum deposition was observed on the starboard side and the maximum was deposited towards the port side. We did not expect to see sand deposits on every part equally. We noticed the port side gained more sand than the starboard. Minimum deposition was observed towards the west corner of the bow section. The mid-ship area was not covered because there was an ongoing excavation on that area. In April 2004 two strips of nets were used to cover the 4 meter space towards the stern section from the galley. After placing the net it was covered with sand immediately because the monsoon season was beginning and there was no time to let the net �fill naturally. We did not try to cover the galley because it stands nearly 5 feet above the sea bed. After the excavation of the mid-ship area, the decision was made to cover the trench through the same system. After the excavation the trench was filled with sand using the water dredge in reverse, and again after the net was laid. Also two strips of net were placed on the trench. During the diving in May to September we noticed the nets were damaged in several places due to the high waves. The nets were loosened and moving from side to side. The nets on the excavation trench were in bad shape. The hull was exposed in this area and the net was torn badly in some places. Especially the places near the wooden parts of the hull. But we were not able to do anything about these issues due to the rough sea conditions. Our MAU Dive Report for October 2004 recorded that this work resumed and the tears were covered with sand bags. The sand is resting on the nets again and the net at the stern area is in good shape. Up to December 23rd 2004 these visual monitoring activities were conducted, together with the excavation, on the end of the stern section. During a period of three months, from October to December, we noted a sedimentation pattern had formed that was conducive to an anaerobic environment. Three days after the end of the Avondster project on December 26th 2004 a strong tsunami wave hit Sri Lanka destroying many coastal areas. The city of Galle was also badly affected and the MAU laboratory and the diving unit were completely destroyed. Luckily no one was hurt because it was a Sunday and the unit was closed. It took more than three months to get-back on to our feet and start work. The MAU building was partly reconstructed and most of the artefacts and equipment that were left were brought to a new building inside the Galle fort. In March 2006 we did our first dive on the Avondster to find out its situation. We were expecting to see more damage on the galley, which was in an unstable situation even before the tsunami and to examine the damage to the nets. The site was completely covered with sand. We were not able to see any wooden parts at the bow section. It was covered with a thick layer of sand, including the edges of the nets. The upper part of the galley was located and the brick structure was well intact. Two cannons and some wooden hull parts were detected at the stern section. The condition of the galley gave us hope for the rest of the wreck. The whole seabed was destroyed with waste and debris that came with the tsunami. A lot of fibreglass (from boats) hung all over the Avondster site. We also noticed few large tree logs on the site that we worried were harmful to the galley. �Figure 2. Location of the covering nets and the control points for monitoring (Drawn by R. Muthucumarana). The day we had our fist dive we had very bad visibility. During the following months we did more diving on Avondster and found out the wreck survived without further damage. The sand layers deposited under and on the net withheld against the tsunami wave firmly and protected the wreck. Forming a system for monitoring As there was no sufficient equipment to do the biological and chemical analysis of the shipwreck we decided to monitor the sediments on the wreck. The sedimentation level was measured manually. In November 2005 four aluminum poles were hammered and fixed vertically around the wreck near the net. Each was 3.5 meters long and had a 2 inch diameter. They were secured at 1.5 meters depth and each pole stood 2 meters above the seabed. Two were fixed near the bow section and two near the stern. Rods were not placed in the center of the shipwreck because it was thought that it would damage the artifacts attached to the vessel. The poles were marked using plastic tape and zip-ties/ty-raps. Zipties/Ty-raps were used to mark 5cm intervals. In order to find the poles more easily during occasions of low visibility, the rods were inter-connected with nylon rope. A diving data sheet was prepared to record the measurements. The monitoring work was begun in November 2005 and is planned to continue through the coming years (once every two months). During the monsoon season this is expected to be difficult and also when the team going on the field work out of the Galle region. �Result Analysis Generally inside the Galle bay there are no seasonable and noticeable deferences in pH level (see Godfrey, Richards and Cha this volume), salinity, water temperature and Oxygen percentage. Also we didn’t have the sophisticated and necessary equipments to measure these things regally. The only topic given attention is sedimentation or its fluctuations. Most of the time anaerobic biological situations are formed due to the thickness of the protective sand layer or direct impacts caused by this. It is generally accepted that an anaerobic biological situation is formed under a sand layer with a minimum of 15 cm coverage (Richards 2007: 116-117). However, this is based on the type of protective layer. For example, a protective layer made of core sand or pebbles, of somewhat large size, is not as stable as a protective layer made of silt or fine sand. The spaces among the large particles circulate oxygen creating a welcoming environment for organisms. As such, not only the thickness of the protective layer but the composition and the steadiness were also considered. Table 1.Sedimentation levels taken from the measuring poles from 2005- 2009 (MAU Avondster In-situ Data Sheets 2005/2009) Pole Pole Pole Pole Date B C D A 2005/12/04 2006/04/26 2006/10/27 2007/03/30 2007/11/04 2008/04/30 2008/12/16 2009/04/08 2009/10/12 9cm 17cm 11cm 15cm 13cm 18cm 4cm 20cm 26cm 13cm 22cm 16cm 23cm 19cm 28cm 14cm 24cm 32cm 15cm 28cm 24cm 33cm 36cm 46cm 42cm 55cm 63cm 23cm 34cm 32cm 41cm 48cm 56cm 44cm 71cm 92cm �Chart 1Sedimentation levels taken from the measuring poles from 2005- 2009 (MAU Avondster In-situ Data Sheets 2005/2009). At the time when the monitoring system was established in November 2005; a considerable level of erosion had occurred towards the starboard side of the shipwreck. At the time, we start the monitoring a 40-50 cm sand mound was observed on the net along the port side hull. This sand mound was recorded as established up to December 2009 when monitoring work ceased. Data extracted from the aforementioned diving data sheets are given below. The sediment level on the net or on the middle of the wreck was taken between A-C and B-D poles with a bubble-level which was attached to a string. Table 1 summarizes the data collected. �Chart 2a and b. Measurements taken from the poles and from the sand mound near the port side hull 2005- 2009 (Dive reports from 2005/2009) Conclusion Preserving organic wreckage in tropical and shallow seas with high oxygen concentration and temperature is a challenge. In these conditions the wrecks can vanish without any trace (Manders, et al. 2004:1253). There is no 100% reliability with regard to the success of the in-situ preservation even after 8 years of process. The wreck is still open to the risk of natural, biological and human factors. To some extent the wreck is protected from looters and fishermen. Before covering the wreck, after the monsoon activities, there were a lot of loose artefacts moving on the seabed around the wreck. Now that situation is fully controlled. Deep in the mid-ship area within an excavation trench we found a thick layer of steady protective silt with well protected wooden/organic remains. The trench is now fully filled with sand and may have a stable anaerobic environment. The effectiveness of the polypropylene net covering was quite successful. The edges that can be found in some places are still in good strength, so we recommended this type of net we used in other tropical regions attempting in-situ preservation projects. By using the 2 meter wide stripes to cover the wreck the advantage is ease of access to excavate or re-open the wreck site, or a part of a site. We can easily remove the sand by a water dredge and uncover the exact area we seek by removing the associated strip. There is no need to cut or remove the whole net. �Overall we can report that the port site of the wreck’s hull is relatively safe and some parts of the starboard side is exposed, especially during the monsoon season. Bibliography Amendment No. 24 1998 Bonke, H., Parthesius, R., Ketel, C.V.D.P., 2007 Carpenter, J., Richards, V., 1996 Green, J., Parthesius, R., 1997 Law No. 19 1940 Manders, M.R., Chandraratne, W.M., Dayananda, A.M.A., Muthucumarana, R., Weerasena, K.B.C., Weerasinghe, K.D.P., 2004 Manders, M.R., Gregory, D.J., Rechards, V., 2008 Parthesius, R., Millar, K., Devendra, S., Green, J., 2003 Parthesius, R., Millar, K., Devendra, S., 2004 Parthesius, R., Millar, K., Jeffery, B., 2005 Prott, L.V., 2003 Amendment No.24 of Antiquity Ordinance No.19 1998. Artifacts Catalogue Avondster Site, 1998-2004, Centre For International Heritage Activities, The Netherlands. Conservation in Galle, interim report of the Galle Harbour Project. "Galle - A Port City In History", in Papers from the seminar Australian Centre For Excellence in Maritime Archaeology. Antiquity Ordinance No.19 of 1940. “The Physical Protection of a 17th century VOC shipwreck in Sri Lanka”, in Current Science, Volume, 86. No.09. India. In-situ Preservation of Archaeological Sites Underwater An Evaluation of Some Techniques, The Netherlands. Avondster Project Report 2001-2002, Amstradam Historisch Museum, The Netherlands The Mutual Heritage centre, Sri Lanka. Avondster Project. Galle 2001-2004, Mutual Heritage Cooperation Sri Lanka, The Netherlands, Australia. "Preliminary Report on the excavation of the 17th century Anglo - Dutch East- Indiaman Avondster in bay of Galle Sri Lanka", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. "Finishing The Interrupted Voyage", in Papers of the UNESCO Asia Pacific workshop on the 2001 convention on the protection on the underwater cultural heritage, Institute of �Richards, V., Carpenter, J., Parthesius, R,. 2007 Art and Low, UNESCO. Avondster conservation survey report, Department of Materials Conservation, Western Australian Maritime Museum, Excavation report of the VOC ship Avondster, Special Publication No.1, Centre For International Heritage Activities, The Netherlands. "In-situ Monitoring and Stabilisation of the James Mathews Shipwreck site", in Proceeding of the 10th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Amsterdam. Richards, V., Godfrey, I., Blanchette, R., Held, B., Gregory, D., Reed, E., 2007 Weerasinghe, K.D.P., The Physical Protection of The Avondster Wreck Site, Manders, M., Attachment 02, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Sri Lanka. 2003 Dive reports, 2005 to Dive reports, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Fort, Galle. 2009 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource In-situ preservation In Tropical Seas: Case Study on the Avondster Shipwreck Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource The VOC ship Avondster sunk on 2nd July 1659 when anchoring near the beach in Galle Bay, geographically located in the southern part of Sri Lanka. She was re-discovered in 1993 and subjected to a series of research projects including excavation in the bow, stern and mid-ship areas. Due to construction work in Galle Harbour it was important to protect the shipwreck in situ. The environment in the Galle Bay badly affected the wreck site and it was a big challenge to overcome all the harmful factors that were likely to damage the remains of Avondster. In order to preserve Avondster a plastic net was introduced as a protective layer over the wreck site. This was monitored constantly throughout and after the research period. The protective layer was used over the fragile timbers for nearly 8 years before a violent tsunami hit Galle Bay in December 2004. Despite the serious damage caused on the land by the tsunami, it had less effect on the site and the covering-plastic net was still intact. From that time on monitoring has continued every two months. This paper discusses in detail the present condition of the in situ protection and its validity as a preservation technique in the conditions found in tropical seas. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chandraratne Wijamunige Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8dcc145c0d68e506a96edfc6d7f3c7db.pdf d6373b77f2f2069061deaafe3742bb10 PDF Text Text Rocks, Wrecks and Relevance: Values and Benefits in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Bill Jeffery1 Abstract A small limestone outcrop is located on part of Tanzania‟s coastline on the island of Kilwa Kisiwani (now a World Heritage Site). Local folklore depicts this as an Arab dhow, turned to rock following prayers offered by the local residents, fearful that the crew of the dhow were coming to harm them. This folklore was recorded during some oral history work in a maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) project at Kilwa Kisiwani. It was a reminder of what the local people valued and equally, if not more important, to their cultural identity. This presentation will use three locations, from Chuuk and Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia to Kilwa Kisiwani in Tanzania to explore their tangible and intangible maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and how they are valued.. In all these cases local communities know what are the significant MUCH sites and stories, yet other site types and/or other (non-local) values can dominate management programs. This is compounded by international agreements such as the United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) giving prominence to more dominant cultural values and in pursuing management processes that marginalize local sites and values. This causes some indifference in developing MUCH programs in some countries which is further influenced by the fact that not all countries can afford or want to implement MUCH programs, particularly if the programs do not provide real benefits to communities and stakeholders. Within this context, the presentation will explore what forms of empowerment programs have been used or are being considered in realising the MUCH aspects of a community‟s cultural identity. Chuuk Chuuk (formerly Truk) is located in the Western Pacific Ocean 3,700 kilometers (km) south-east of Tokyo and is made up of the central most populated area Chuuk Lagoon, and five coralline atoll groups. Today it forms one of the four States of the independent Nation, the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). Chuuk has been inhabited for about 2,000 years and the inhabitants were initially coastal dwellers living in stilt houses who produced a simple undecorated pottery from local clays (Rainbird 1993). As time moved on, Chuukese moved from being coastal dwellers to hill top inhabitants. Edward Hall and Karl Pelzer (1946:22) state that, „Truk society is divided into three large groups: chiefs, chief‟s people and common people or low-class people‟. Land ownership has been and continues to be very important to Chuukese. The Chuuk landscape has spiritual associations known through traditional stories. Many landscape features provide spiritual connections to Chuukese history, mythology and settlement of the islands as well as in a metaphorical manner, through the Itang language (Figure 1). The sites and stories are still a strong and tangible part of Chuukese society in the same way as land ownership. 1 Coordinator, Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Program, CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities, billfjeffery@gmail.com 1 �Figure 1. Tonaachaw, viewed as a supernatural octopus, kuus, whose tentacles stretch out across Chuuk Lagoon to the outer islands (King and Parker 1984:55), Photograph by Arimichy Rudolph, 2006. Chuukese cultural practices, customs and traditions are inherent in every part of daily life. Aspects of these cultural practices can be manifested in what is sometimes called tangible heritage but much is intangible. All constitute an important part of being Chuukese. In contrast to western, scientific construction of heritage, tangible heritage is of less value in relation to Chuukese cultural identity. Colonial history Chuuk, as with all of Micronesia, had Spanish (only as a presence from 1565 but formally as a colonial ruler from 1885-1898), German (1899-1914), Japanese (19141945) and the United States of America USA (1945-1991) colonial rulers, with the Japanese and Americans having the greatest influence on current lifestyles. In 1919 under the League of Nations (the forerunner to the United Nations) Micronesia (apart from Guam which remained as an American territory) was entrusted to Japan to administer as a Mandated Territory. Given the vigor and size of the Japanese bureaucracy involved in this administration and the ineffective restrictions placed on it by the international community, Japan was able to, „Japanize the islanders through education, propaganda, intermarriage, and in general the promotion of cultural changes‟ (Mirrer 1971:23). World War II (WWII) The Japanese Navy wanted to expand further south to the resource-rich lands of Indonesia, Malaysia and Borneo so Micronesia was seen as stepping stones to this region. In 1939, the Japanese Navy established the Fourth Fleet to guard Micronesia establishing Chuuk as one of four Micronesian headquarters (Peattie 1988:251). Japan considered that Chuuk Lagoon‟s natural fortifications made it one of the best anchorages in the world and a „formidable naval base‟ (U.S.SBS 1947:2). 2 �The later development of the military base in Chuuk Lagoon meant great changes to the islands, particularly around the coastline. Three airstrips were built on the islands of Weno, Etten and Param (for fighter and bomber aircraft) and two seaplane bases located on Tonoas and Weno. Major facilities were constructed to cater for the various naval fleets. The main island of Tonoas had over 1,200 buildings erected on it in addition to Dublon Town for civilians and many coastal defence guns were established on the majority of the islands (JICPOA 1994:10). In February and May 1944 a total of 3,450 aircraft bombing flights from an American Carrier Task Force of over 50 ships sunk more than 60 Japanese navy and merchant ships located within Chuuk Lagoon, and destroyed over 300 aircraft, and the airstrips and many of the buildings on the islands in Chuuk Lagoon. Chuukese suffered the greatest loss of life in all the Caroline Islands from the almost daily bombing (Poyer, et al. 2001:147). Initial USA plans for Chuuk were for a USA fleet anchorage and recreation centre (Blake 1945). Within a short time, and a change of plans not to proceed with the recreation facilities, USA impacts and aims became similar to earlier Japanese time—imposition of another official language, alienation of land, manipulation of the traditional political and social structures, and acquisition of the territory through a United Nation system leading to independence with strings attached. “Japanizing” Micronesia was replaced with “Americanizing” Micronesia. Yap Yap (Waab, the traditional name) is located 840 km south west of Guam.. Yap is one of the four States of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) and like Chuuk it contains a more populated region of high volcanic islands (Yap proper) and some outer coralline atoll groups. The population today is about 11,700. Traditions, customs and cultural practices remain a core of Yapese society. The outer islanders are famous for their canoe building, sailing, navigation and related customs and practices (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010). In Yap proper, stone money still plays an important role in Yapese cultural practices and traditional dances are performed to honour the spirits and ancestors, and tell of the suffering during World War II, amongst other things (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010). German administrators had a significant impact on Yapese society although it was Japanese emigrants who arrived in great numbers that dominated Yapese. The biggest impact during the Japanese times was in the decline of the number of Yapese; the population dropped to 2,400 from an estimated 27,000 pre western contact, and about 7,800 in 1899 (Adams 1997:16; Hunter-Anderson 1983; Useem cited in Takeda 1999:4). Kilwa Kisiwani Kilwa Kisiwani is a small island located on the southern coast of Tanzania, East Africa, about 270 km from the capital city of Dar es Salaam. 3 �Kilwa Kisiwani was a prominent, perhaps a pre-eminent Swahili port and city during much of its time but primarily during the 12 th-15th centuries (Sutton 1998). The Swahili Coast of East Africa covers 3000 km of Kenya and Tanzania and was linked to Persian traders seeking gold, ivory and slaves in Africa and bringing back to Africa cloth, silver, perfumes and jewelry from India, and ceramics from China (see Bita this volume). As a result the Kiswahili language developed from the mix of the African Bantu language and Arabic and Persian words, and other key aspects of the Swahili culture greatly developed, including Islam, Arabic art and architecture. The Portuguese attacked Kilwa in 1505, bringing decline along with loss of control of the gold trade (Pollard 2009). Kilwa Kisiwani had periods of decline after the Portuguese, then great activity mainly through the slave trade operated by the Omanis from Zanzibar up until the mid 19th century (Sutton 1998). A reminder of Kilwa Kisiwani‟s importance, prosperity and culture can be seen in the ruins of palaces, residences, a fort, about 80 small and large mosques, and a number of cemeteries (Figure 2). Figure 2. The great mosque on Kilwa Kisiwani, Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2010. 4 �2001 Convention The 2001 Convention contains a number of general articles on the best practice of underwater cultural heritage management. It applies to „heritage sites‟ not just „shipwrecks and artefacts‟ which means it should be the catalyst for many broader based programs that have relevance to and benefit many people. The 2001 Convention should therefore, as a priority, actively promote these broader based programs especially where traditional sites and traditional cultural practices are strongly developed and maintained in a country or region and they contribute to a local cultural identity. Project implementation Kilwa Kisiwani Since 2009, a four-phased capacity building program developed by Centre for International Heritage Activities CIE has been implemented in Tanzania. A phased program implemented over a period of time was considered appropriate for a number of reasons. It provided the necessary time for teams to build the skills (in many cases this needed to start with swimming and diving training)and it gave the trainers time to build a relevant and beneficial local program (Parthesius and Jeffery 2009). The program has involved many theoretical and practical sessions, from learning to dive through to the implementation of a non-disturbance survey of a shipwreck off Zanzibar, and reporting on their activities (see Mahudi this volume). An Action Plan subsequently developed by the Tanzanian Stakeholders called for more advanced training in association with the implementation of a project to survey the MUCH sites at Kilwa Kisiwani. It was considered that the project would raise the awareness of the value of MUCH sites and the need for ratification of the 2001 Convention, in addition to helping to sustain the MUCH Unit as the Competent Authority. The Kilwa Kisiwani project was also recommended due to the need to assist in the Integrated Approach to the Protection and Safeguarding of Cultural Heritage of the Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, Endangered World Heritage sites which had as a major aim, „to improve living standards and ensure long-term sustainability of the site‟ (UNESCO Tanzania 2008)2 The project was implemented in November 2011 with the major activities being site investigations, building a relationship with the local community, collecting oral histories. The team also gained experience in the use of a magnetometer and searching for some ship remains, and an anchor possibly from one of the three 16th century Portuguese ships wrecked in the area was located during the project (Theal 1898:40; Theal 1901:390-391, 476-477) Of great interest with many of the residents of Kilwa Kisiwani was a site called Jiwe la Jahazi (English translation is „stone dhow‟). Local folklore depicts the site as an Arab dhow turned to stone following prayers offered by the local residents, fearful that 5 �the crew of the dhow were coming to harm them. The dhow and the crew changed form and were therefore unable to harm the residents of Kilwa Kisiwani and it is now a significant site in the maritime cultural landscape of Kilwa Kisiwani (Figure 3). Figure 3. Jiwe la Jahazi „stone dhow‟ on Kilwa Kisiwani, Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2010. In a meeting with Kilwa Kisiwani‟s elders, they expressed interest and some reservations about the MUCH project. They were very keen to obtain some lasting tangible benefits in collaborating with researchers at the World Heritage Site and from their experience with previous researchers, ongoing benefits were rare. In the MUCH program, community engagement priorities from the elders were training in new skills, ongoing employment and economic benefits. Chuuk A comprehensive survey was used in identifying the sites and in gaining an understanding of their nature, integrity, condition and value (Jeffery 2007). This work included a range of methods in order to gain an appreciation of who maintains a „sense of belonging‟ to the submerged WWII sites. This included many participant observations in Chuuk and the collection of oral histories from Chuukese which provided broad socio-historic and socio-political views of Chuuk (Jeffery 2007).The type of underwater surveys employed combined with an emic approach 6 �made it possible to interpret information about different societies and their relationships without employing any destructive site analysis3. It was revealed that the submerged WWII sites contain both tangible and intangible heritage aspects but the management focuses on the tangible aspects according to a dominant Euro-American perspective. This is related to the iconic pedestal that the tourism industry has placed the sites on which is widely promoted through websites, and primarily American publications. To Chuukese, the tourism industry centred on the submerged WWII sites brings considerable economic benefit to the government and tourist operators, as does dynamite fishing and artefact recovery to many Chuukese families. Although these activities do conflict in relation to the management and longevity of the sites, the government appears powerless to stop it. Although the submerged WWII sites are used as mnemonic devices by some Chuukese to remember when the war started, it is the terrestrial WWII sites that have family and suffering connections and reflect elements of a Chuukese identity (Jeffery 2007).It is contended however, that the submerged WWII sites do not provide Chuukese with a sense of place, meaning there is no sense of belonging (Jeffery 2007). The investigation of the Chuuk Lagoon submerged WWII sites has shown that the value and use of the sites from a Chuukese perspective, and from a Japanese and American perspective as well as how they imposed their values on the Chuukese, has provided an understanding of Chuukese identity, and the impacts of colonialism in Chuuk. It provides concepts of empowerment for the Chuukese in constructing local identities using foreign material culture, as well as empowering them to manage these sites but not with a marginalized voice. Chuukese and other Pacific Islanders have expressed an indifference to, or a reaction against the global hegemonic view of what constitutes underwater cultural heritage as highlighted in a comment made at a UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972 meeting of Pacific Island Nations in Vanuatu in 1999: “Protection of Underwater Heritage”, within the Pacific, at the moment seems to refer more often to underwater wrecks from World War II, despite the existence of other underwater sites such as sacred cultural sites existing in many areas of the Pacific. The meeting urged the protection of these sites as well as those on land that may be protected by the World Heritage Convention. (WHC 1999) Yap Traditional sites are a primary focus for heritage management in Yap. The Yap Historic Preservation Office (HPO) is very interested in their fish weirs (aech). During the last few years, funding had been provided to some aech owners for aech restoration. It was considered that a comprehensive survey of the aech, many of which are unknown to Yap HPO, was warranted to assist in prioritising further restoration work and revitalising what Yapese saw as a sustainable fishing practice. An estimated 700-800 aech are thought to be located on the reef flat. 3 Knowledge about cultures can be gained through an emic approach; a subjective, insider’s perspective about what things mean to members of a society, and/or an etic approach which is an objective, analytical interpretation of the same customs. 7 �In 2008-2009, the author in collaboration with Yap HPO, with US National Park Historic Preservation funding commenced a survey of the aech in association with the aech owners, village chiefs and Yap HPO staff. The project was completed in August 2009 and the location of 432 aech, together with detailed surveys of 46 aech were implemented (Figure 4) (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010). This work demonstrates that maritime archaeology, if implemented in a broad and contemporary manner can help in some important social, cultural and environmental issues. Figure 4. Yapese artist Luke Holoi‟s impression of an aech, based on site and oral information Conclusions The 2001 Convention is a significant step forward in the management of underwater cultural heritage sites around the world. The impetus came from effective systematic and scientific archaeological work, as well as from the conflicting and detrimental commercial salvage work on shipwrecks, which were pursued by affluent western nations and nationals. This 2001 Convention and its best practices are now being promoted for implementation around the world including countries that have no background in implementing maritime archaeology, although they have a significant maritime cultural heritage and identity. 8 �The types of heritage sites that some developing countries are more concerned with are their traditional cultural sites. There are also local values in many foreign sites as has been highlighted in this paper. However, many provisions of the 2001 Convention focus on sites that are not a priority from a local perspective or are valued from a dominantly foreign cultural perspective. For example, a number of countries can have an interest in a shipwreck, e.g. the owner of the ship, where it was built, where cargo was collected, where it was destined for, and the nationality of the crew are just a few examples of the different nationals that can be involved in shipwrecks. It may or may not have value to the local community but there are a number of provisions in the 2001 Convention that encourage and support these many national interests and the funding that could possibly flow. Traditional cultural sites however do not have other interests and therefore the 2001 Convention does not as comprehensively support the management of these sites as there is not the potential funding benefit that could come through international collaboration. And in developing countries that need money for the basics; health, food, housing, education, this means money for MUCH is a low priority. It is gratifying to see an account or „fund‟ has been established to support the 2001 Convention and for supporting developing nations manage their traditional cultural sites although how much and when money will be available is still not clear4. In regard to some specific issues that come out of this paper, in Yap, the broad community (politicians, government agencies, citizens) led/directed what they wanted in regard to maritime archaeological investigations rather than outside researchers directing what type of investigations should be implemented. In Kilwa Kisiwani there is great potential for maritime archaeology with little having been done which, with the same approach as in Yap, could lead to relevant projects being implemented that achieve realistic benefits for the community. I attempted to go into greater detail about Chuuk to highlight the complexities that can be inherent in a region‟s history and what this greater level of understanding can lead to. Amongst other things, it helps to understand the relevant sites to a community. Sites that need protection and intangible heritage are part of the cultural heritage and identity of all stakeholders. It also illustrated how foreign heritage sites could be used to reveal information about local cultural identities. It is my view that researchers in the field of maritime archaeology need to have an emic approach—to spend time with communities in understanding the many, perhaps complex social issues—as well as having an etic approach. Even more appropriate would be to have local citizens implement projects and ongoing programs. Hence the need to develop programs in building capacity for the many different stakeholders who could pursue local approaches and reveal information about relevant sites and their histories, and provide tangible benefits for their citizens. Bibliography Adams, (ed.), W.H., Yap Archaeology. Archaeological survey of Gachlaw village, Gilman municipality, Yap, Federated States of Micronesia. 4 Resolution from UNESCO Convention of the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001: Second meeting of State Parties, Paris, 1-3 December 2009 9 �1997 Micronesian Resources Study, Micronesian Endowment for Historic Preservation, Federated States of Micronesia and U.S. National Park Service, San Francisco. Blake, R., Engineering Assistance, Truk. Memorandum from Prospective Brigadier General, Island Commander to Island Commander, Guam. 2 September 1945a 1945. NARA Project No. NW 23238. Record Group No. 313, NARA Washington Hall, E.T., and The economy of the Truk Islands: An anthropological and economic study, Micronesian Seminar, Pohnpei. Pelzer, K.T., 1946 Yapese Settlement Patterns: an Ethno-archaeological Approach, Hunter-Anderson, R.L., Pacific Studies Institute, Agana, Guam. 1983b War graves, munition dumps and pleasure grounds: A postJeffery, W.F., colonial perspective of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II 2007 sites. Doctoral dissertation, James Cook University, Townsville. Jeffery, B., and The aech of Yap: a survey of sites and their histories. Yap State Pitmag, W., Historic Preservation Office, Yap. 2010 Joint Intelligence “Information Bulletin, General Survey Truk Islands, No. 41-44, Center Pacific April 1, 1944”, in Military Intelligence in the Pacific 1942-46: Ocean Areas Bulletins of the Intelligence Center, Pacific Ocean Area; Joint Intelligence Center, Pacific Ocean Area; and the Commander-in(JICPOA), Chief, Pacific Ocean Area, Microfilm Roll 10, Menzies Library, 1944f Australian National University, Canberra. King, T.F., Parker, P.L., 1984 Mirrer, B.M., 1971 Parthesius, Jeffery, W., 2009 Peattie, M.R., 1988 Pollard, E., 2009 and Pisekin Nóómw Nóón Tonaachaw. Archaeology in the Tonaachaw Historic District, Moen Island. Occasional Paper No. 3., University at Carbondale, Center for Archaeological Investigations, South Illinois Educational Change in Truk, Micronesia, Master of Arts dissertation, University of Ohio. R., “Universal rules, local approaches: Reflections on capacity building programmes to support the implementation of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001”, in Paper presented at two UNESCO Conferences; in Cape Town, South Africa and in Honiara, Solomon Islands in 2009. Nan’yō: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 18851945, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. “Settlement Adaptation to a Changing Coastline: Archaeological Evidence from Tanzania, during the First and Second Millennia AD”, in Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 4, 1, pp.82107. 10 �Poyer, L., Falgout, S., Carucci, L.M., 2001 Rainbird, P., 1993 Rainbird, P., 2001 Sutton, J. E. G., 1998 Takeda, J., 1999 Theal, G.M., 1898 Theal, G.M., 1901 UNESCO Tanzania, 2008 United States Strategic Bombing Survey (U.S.SBS), 1947 World Heritage Committee (WHC), 1999 The Typhoon of War: Micronesian experiences of the Pacific War, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Report on the Cultural Resource Management in the Coastal Area of Chuuk Lagoon, Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. “Round, Black and Lustrous: A View of Encounters with Difference in Truk Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia”, in (eds.) Torrence, Rick and Clarke, Annie, The Archaeology of Difference: Negotiating Cross-Cultural Engagements in Oceania, Routledge, London, pp. 32-50. “Archaeological sites of East Africa”, in Azania, Special Volume 33, The British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Fishing-gleaning activities on reef flats and/or reef margins in coral ecosystem in Yap, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Article with Yap Historic Preservation Office. Records of South-Eastern Africa Collected in various Libraries and Archive Departments in Europe, Volume II, The Government of the Cape Colony, Cape Town Archives. Records of South-Eastern Africa Collected in various Libraries and Archive Departments in Europe, Volume V, The Government of the Cape Colony, Cape Town Archives Kilwa draft comprehensive project document, January, UNESCO Dar es Salaam “The Reduction Of Truk”, in Pacific War Series No. 77, U.S. Navy, Washington. Second World Heritage Global Strategy Meeting for the Pacific Islands region, UNESCO, Vanuatu, Accessed online 12 June 2007: http://whc.unesco.org/archive/vanuatu99.htm. 11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Rocks, Wrecks and Relevance: Values and Benefits in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource A small limestone outcrop is located on part of Tanzania’s coastline on the island of Kilwa Kisiwani (now a World Heritage Site). Local folklore depicts this as an Arab dhow, turned to rock following prayers offered by the local residents, fearful that the crew of the dhow were coming to harm them. This folklore was recorded during some oral history work in a maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) project at Kilwa Kisiwani. It was a reminder of what the local people valued and equally, if not more important, to their cultural identity. This presentation will use three locations, from Chuuk and Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia to Kilwa Kisiwani in Tanzania to explore their tangible and intangible maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and how they are valued.. In all these cases local communities know what are the significant MUCH sites and stories, yet other site types and/or other (non-local) values can dominate management programs. This is compounded by international agreements such as the United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) giving prominence to more dominant cultural values and in pursuing management processes that marginalize local sites and values. This causes some indifference in developing MUCH programs in some countries which is further influenced by the fact that not all countries can afford or want to implement MUCH programs, particularly if the programs do not provide real benefits to communities and stakeholders. Within this context, the presentation will explore what forms of empowerment programs have been used or are being considered in realising the MUCH aspects of a community’s cultural identity. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0af9b30251118b20038e180a55a4676c.pdf e6018cebd4ceada3296992bfa5518326 PDF Text Text Establishing a Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit in Tanzania Humphrey Mahudi1 Abstract Tanzania has a coastline of about 1,424 kilometres (km) with many famous ancient coastal towns such as Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mafia and Bagamoyo. The town’s host many underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites which are not yet documented. About 40 shipwrecks have been documented but most have not been surveyed. Tanzania Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programme (TMUCHP), which started in 2009, aims at empowering a number of Tanzanian stakeholders and staff to establish the Tanzanian Maritime Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Unit with skills and resources to record, document and monitor UCH sites. The various stakeholders come from different government departments and Dar es Salaam University in the United Republic of Tanzania which includes the Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar. The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) through United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and Government of the Royal Kingdom of Netherlands has been implementing various activities in the TMUCHP. The programme has achieved the survey of the Great Northern shipwreck in Zanzibar, and a preliminary survey at the World Heritage Site of Kilwa Kisiwani. The programme has included training sessions aimed at raising awareness amongst the Tanzanian community about the importance of implementing a MUCH programme and to enhance this discipline with various stakeholders. It has also imparted knowledge and skills on diving and working on archaeological sites. The programme contains other achievements including, stimulating the Government of Republic of Tanzania to start the process to ratify the UNESCO 2001 Convention for Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention); signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between the government stakeholders and CIE; the establishment of a database as an ongoing process; and attending Regional workshops and training in various countries. The establishment of a MUCH programme faces many challenges; shortage of funds for strengthening an understanding of maritime archaeology and conducting more surveys. Capacity building amongst team members by visiting other countries with successful maritime archaeology practices is also sought after. Lack of diving and survey equipment is also limiting further work. While the program has had some successes, Tanzania’s many maritime and UCH sites are not yet uncovered; I will expand on what we see as the way forward in this paper. 1. Introduction Tanzania has a rich maritime history. Swahili culture is closely related and has a long history of interaction with the Arabs. It is important to educate and share this rich history with local people and the world. Tanzania also has a rich natural heritage including world famous National Parks such as Serengeti, Lake Manyara, Ngorongoro crater and Mount Kilimanjaro which is regarded as the roof of Africa this is a non- exhaustive list. These natural heritage sites are valuable to local communities since they create economic opportunities through employment, trading and other income generating activities. The natural heritage sites also are tourists’ attractions in which both local and foreigners visit. 1 Mafia Island Marine Park and Team Leader, Tanzanian MUCH Unit 1 �Agriculture contributes most to Tanzania’s national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) while in the tourism industry an average of 500,000 tourists visit Tanzania annually and contribute 22.6% of the national GDP; with the number of tourists escalating every year (MNRT 2011). There are several categories of cultural heritage in Tanzania, e.g. the land based cultural heritage and the underwater heritage that include water bodies such as oceans, lakes, rivers and wells (Patience 2006). Currently, only 40 shipwrecks are documented along the coast of Tanzania (ibid). There are many different underwater cultural remains in Tanzania which have not yet been explored such as shipwrecks (ancient and modern), aircraft, submerged or dry maritime infrastructures e.g. harbour, lighthouses, navigation aids and cities ; submerged prehistoric coastal settlements (fish traps and weirs, salt pans), submerged lakeside settlements (crannogs), riverine and swamps systems with associated sites and remains (ship, indigenous watercraft, settlements), (Lane 2005) and land-based sites showing maritime related iconographies (rock painting and engravings, see Sukkham and Taçon this volume). The development in diving technology has made them more accessible and therefore susceptible to anthropogenic destruction. 2. Location and History of Tanzania in Maritime and UCH Tanzania has an area of 945,000 square kilometers located in the eastern part of Africa. Dodoma is the official capital city while Dar es Salaam is the administrative city. It had an estimated population of 39,024,800 in 2006 while more than 80% of the population lives rurally, 95% of the population are Bantu consisting of 130 tribes. Tanzania has a distinct geographical environment including central plateau, lakes in north and west, coastal plains, southern highlands, lakes (Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyasa). Half the country is forested. The country comprises of the islands Zanzibar and Pemba. Mount Kilimanjaro is the highest peak in Africa at 5,895 meters. Tanzania also has the world first known site of modern man’s ancestors in Olduvai Gorge. And last, but not least, we have the Ngorongoro Crater, which is 14.5 km across and 762 meters deep. 2 �Figure 1. Map of Tanzania (source http://zhenghe.tripod.com/maps/tanzania.jpg) 2.1 Tanzania cultural heritage sites In Tanzania there are many cultural heritage sites but in this paper I will mention three famous sites which are associated with detailed surveying done by MUCH. The sites are Zanzibar, Kilwa and Mafia. Zanzibar The main city of Zanzibar, Stone Town evolved through several millennia of maritime mercantile interaction. The surviving town is a physical reflection of testimony to this long-term interchange of human values within the coastal region of East Africa. It gives an authentic impression of the living Swahili culture and it is the best preserved example of its kind. The layout, technology, and design of the Stone Town buildings, expertly blending imported and local ideas, materials, and techniques, makes Stone Town an example of indigenous creativity. Its continuous use as a residential and commercial town is a powerful medium for manifesting the memories of the slave trade and of explorers such as Vasco de Gama and David Livingstone (ICOMOS 2000). Two major cultural traditions merge to form the Swahili civilization on the East African coast. A series of harbour towns developed under influences from the interior of Africa and from the lands across the Indian Ocean. There was a loose confederation of small coastal city states known as the Zenj bar (Black Empire) which operated in the 8th-10th centuries (ICOMOS 2000). The best preserved of these towns is Zanzibar, the name of which is derived from the Perso-Arabic word meaning, “the coast of the blacks”, (ibid). The earliest of these 3 �towns has been excavated at Unguja Ukuu on Zanzibar Island, where 5th century Common Era (CE)2 Roman and Sassanian-Islamic pottery has been found (ibid). Kilwa Neville Chittick (1974:27) considered settlement on Kilwa Kisiwani to have begun around CE 800. Kilwa was a small place with limited external trade and a subsistence economy based upon fishing, shell gathering, bead grinding, and iron smelting (Chittick 1974:28-29; Shepherd 1982:136). The site offered security as it was separated from the mainland by a channel 1 to 2 km wide, protected from ocean storms, and a harbor with sufficient depth to moor sailing vessels, including ocean-going dhows3 (Sutton 1998:133). Late Stone Age and early Iron Age artifacts from the 4th century have been discovered at Kilwa Kisiwani (Moon 2005:6). Kilwa Kisiwani therefore contains about 1600 years of tangible and intangible heritage in connection with the coast and sea and the development of the Swahili culture. It is a very significant site and while considerable work has been implemented on land to interpret and promote the value of the site, very little has been carried out on underwater sites. Mafia Island Mafia Island is located 120 km south of Dar es Salaam. The western side of the island faces the extensive Rufiji river delta. The history of Mafia is attributed by Shiraz who dominated trade in East Africa during 11th - 13th centuries (URT 2000;MIMP 2002). They built their settlement at Kua and Ras Kisimani. Ruins at Kisimani are earlier (12th Century) and have been partially washed into the sea, but Kua have survived with outstanding walls and archways still standing (URT 2000). In 19th century Kua, being a capital of Mafia, was invaded by “Sakalafa” people from Madagascar (MIMP 2002). In 1890 Germany took over and controlled the whole of Mafia (URT 2000). 3. Tanzania Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Program The status of UCH in Tanzania dates back to 2006. Stakeholders meetings and training sessions on UCH were conducted both to raise awareness on the field building capacity of Tanzanians and, as per stakeholders opinions, the requirements for possible ratification of the 2001 Convention. 2 A Georgian Calendar designation starting at year one, which is marked by the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with each year, added one by one. 3 A Traditional Arab, wooden built Sailing canoe commonly used for carrying goods or passengers along the coasts of Indian Ocean. 4 �Figure 2. Tanzania Maritime and Cultural Heritage team (House of wonders, Zanzibar). In 2008 the Tanzanian government, through the Antiquities division under Ministry of Natural Resource and Tourism (MNRT), requested the Embassy of the Kingdom of Netherlands (EKN) to assist in a capacity building program in the field of UCH in the country. In February 2009, phase 1 of the program in building the capacity of Tanzanians in implementing maritime and UCH activities commenced under the leadership of the experts from the Centre for Heritage Activities – CIE of Netherlands. Since 2009 a series of training sessions were conducted and a team of 14 trained personnel currently operate in Tanzania. Participants of the team are accrued from the following institutions namely Marine Parks and Reserves, National Museum of Tanzania, Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute, Antiquities and Museum – Zanzibar, University of Dar es Salaam, and Zanzibar Ports Authority. These experts could effectively implement a number of aspects required for maritime and UCH program through the Department of Antiquities as the national coordinator. Marine Parks and Reserve Unit is one stakeholder who’s mission is to establish and manage marine protected areas (MPA) for sustainable use. There are several MPAs which are already established in Tanzania. These are Dar es Salaam Marine Reserves (2005), Mafia Island Marine Park (1995), Mnazi Bay and Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park (2000) and Tanga Coelacanth Marine Park (2009).The Marine Parks and Reserves Act of 1994 speculates on conservation of cultural heritage that are within the MPA. 5 �The TMUCHP (2008) aims at, Protecting and researching significant Tanzania maritime heritage sites, establish a “Competenty Authority” and implementing a proactive programme, implementing community engagement and awareness, implementing community academic and heritage management projects and developing a sustainabble tourism programme. The program has involved many theoretical and practical sessions from learning to dive, through to the implementation of a non-disturbance survey of a shipwreck off Zanzibar and Kilwa, community involvement , and reporting these activities. Tanzania has not ratified the 2001 Convention, but is preparing to do what is best for the ratification. In April 2011 the Department of Antiquities (Tanzania) in conjunction with the UNESCO Office in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania organized a workshop to raise awareness to member countries of the UNESCO on the relevance of ratifying the 2001 Convention, and the benefits behind the convention. The state parties countries which participated in this workshop include Kenya, Comoro, Seychelles, Mauritius, South Africa, Mozambique, Uganda, Kenya, Madagascar, International experts from the Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) – Netherlands and the host country Tanzania. 3.1 Implemented training projects MUCH Program has implemented several projects: the great northern shipwreck survey in Zanzibar, Tanzania; signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU); stake holders meetings and workshops; Kilwa (world cultural heritage) survey and database establishment. 3.1.1 The Great Northern Shipwreck survey Zanzibar, Tanzania The Great Northern shipwreck survey was carried out by the MUCH Unit and is in partial fulfilment for the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) Part II Certification4. The Great Northern shipwreck is located to the south west of Zanzibar about 8 km from Stone town. 4 Fulfillment of NAS II training you have to undertake a site survey and prepare a report 6 �Figure 3. Undertaking Site survey (Photo by Bill Jeffery, 2009). The Great Northern was a British-built ship used to lay steel cables, which sunk on New Years Eve in 1902. A non-disturbance survey of the shipwreck site was undertaken to ascertain the identity, nature, integrity and condition of the site. The shipwreck has archaeological, ecological and recreational significance (TMUCH 2009). 3.1.2 Signing Memorandum of Understanding between Tanzania government agencies The MoU was signed in 2009 between the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania and the CIE through the Netherlands Government. The MoU depicted issues on training cooperation in maritime heritage management, collaboration in maritime management, funding/finance of program and administration. 3.1.3 Regional workshop and collaboration Five Members of MUCH, Tanzania attended the Regional workshop conducted by South Africa Heritage Resource Agency (SAHRA) with collaboration with the CIE in 2010 and 2011.The workshop was held at Robben Island Museum, Cape Town, South Africa from 17 February – 10 March 2010. The aim of the workshop was raising awareness of the UNESCO convention on the protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and also entailed strategic planning on management of UCH resources (UNESCO convention 2001). Sub Saharan Africa regional cooperation was enhanced by the meeting held in Dar es Salaam in April 2011. The meeting was supported by UNESCO and participant countries included Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa. Each country gave a report on the progress of MUCH activities and the countries agreed to cooperate on MUCH policy and database. 7 �3.1.4 Development of the Tanzanian MUCH database The Tanzanian team eventually managed to develop the Tanzanian MUCH database after being trained for two days. The database contains the following headings: General information, shipwreck, maritime infrastructure on land / intertidal area, natural heritage site with cultural values, traditional cultural site, and other type of site on land or underwater and administrative information. The database will expose all surveyed and not surveyed cultural sites in Tanzania and it will enhance its management. 3.1.5 Kilwa Survey (World cultural heritage site) Kilwa is among the world cultural heritage sites located in south eastern Tanzania (http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/tz). The survey at Kilwa has two aims: on one hand it aims at removing the Ruins of Kilwa from the World Heritage in Danger List; and on the other it attempts to foster sustainable development and social cohesion in the Kilwa district through implementation of various heritage related activities. The survey involved community engagement, site investigation and site inspection. Community engagement The report on the survey of the World Heritage Site Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara in November 2010 concluded, amongst other things, consideration of the needs and benefits of the Kilwa Kisiwani and Kilwa Masoko communities when implementing a MUCH project in the area. The survey carried out in November, 2010 was a first step in engaging the communities but more community engagement needs to be done, particularly given their comments about previous researchers at Kilwa and their lack of follow-up (Jefrey 2011). Site investigation The following sites were investigated through oral history i.e. accumulated or dropped of Ceramic pots off pier on Kilwa Kisiwani, Submerged ruins at Songo Mnara and intangible remain story of “Jiwe la Jahazi “(Stone Dhow) which narrated that a dhow and its crews turned to be a stone when tried to invade Kilwa during British era. Site inspection The survey managed to find the iron anchor which is 2.4 meters along the length of the shaft and 1.9 meters around the crown from fluke to fluke5. It was the only ships’ remains found in an area of about 80 meters radius from the anchor. It is located on a hard limestone seabed and other lighter, smaller ships’ remains would get easily broken-up and washed away (Jeffery 2011). 5 The end points of an anchor which holds a vessel by attaching to a seabed substratum. 8 �Fluke 2.4 m meme t Fluke Figure 4. An iron anchor found in Kilwa survey (Photo by Bill Jeffery, 2010) Benefit of the implemented projects - - Members were trained in site surveying methods theoretically and practically including scuba diving. Revealed / uncovered the Great Northern shipwreck located at Zanzibar by conducting a non disturbance survey. Establishing MUCH database of cultural heritage sites which will have status records of sites in Tanzania. Engaging local communities by raising awareness on the importance of cultural heritages sites and become ready to co-operate in managing and conserving. The Government of the Kingdom of Netherlands supported MUCH Tanzania some facilities to assist in the implementation of the program: a digital camera and an underwater housing, laptop computer, GPS, slates, measuring tapes, waterproof film, pencils, several books, a large carry case, food containers and a 12 volt battery. However the team members do not have their own diving gear such as wetsuit, BCD, regulator, mask, snorkel and fins. To date this gear is hired when projects are implemented. This is a significant expense each time. It also slows the project as gear is returned each day and picked-up again the next day. Regional cooperation was enhanced through Workshop and Training (e.g Tanzania is now cooperating with Mozambique and South Africa through SAHRA). Challenges on implementing the projects - The unit lacks sufficient surveying equipment and the costs to conduct survey are high. Shortage of funds for strengthening an understanding of maritime archaeology and conducting more surveys. Members of MUCH unit are not responsible full time therefore members spend most of their time on work for their respective institutional responsibilities. 9 �General Challenges of Much in Tanzania - - Tanzania as a developing country faces many economic challenges related to poverty hence funds are usually allocated to the most sensitive issues such as education, health, developing infrastracture. Therefore less funds are allocated to cultural heritage conservation. Most of Tanzanian communities are not aware of cultural heritage hence they destoy and use the sites for other economic activities. Cultural heritage is not given as high priority as natural heritage since it is not familiar and as a result does not generate as much revenue as natural heritage does. The cultural heritage sites are vuneralble to environmental hazards and human activites but yet less efforts are made to combat the situation. The way forward - Capacity building amongst team members by visiting other countries with successful maritime archaeology practices is sought after. - Securing diving and surveying equipment and other necessary resources, these will minimize the costs which MUCH incurred by hiring equipment. - The team sees the need to implement regular site surveys, to continue to improve their skills in implementing MUCH activities, in addition to building-up the Database of MUCH sites in Tanzania (TMUCH 2011). - Strengthen Tanzania UCH Unit and ensure the Unit facilitates community awareness, particularly on the management of cultural heritage sites. - In order to accelerate MUCH activities in Tanzania, the ratification of the 2001 Convention should be given priority. - Conducting more regular site surveys in order to develop three areas which are identified as priority areas to conduct surveys: Kilwa, Zanzibar and Mafia, and there maybe other areas that warrant surveys for other reasons (eg. Tanga)6. - Members of the Tanzanian MUCH to participate in regional and international workshops. - Developing and disseminating an action plan to all appropriate Tanzania stakeholder agencies for them to put it into their media in addition to their funding proposals. Conclusion Tanzania has potential cultural sites which need support to protection. We need to conserve and share them. Unlike other countries, Tanzania has strong ethical 6 Famous Coastal town in Tanzania which was chosen in 1889 as military post of German East Africa 10 �approaches for banning treasure hunting but it needs funding to implement activities to protect and promote UCH. Regional and international cooperation is the necessary tool for maritime and UCH to prosper. Collaboration and support from stakeholders from various countries would no doubt assist with the protection of marine cultural heritage in Tanzania. Acknowledgements Special thanks to the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania particularly the stakeholders comprising: Mr. D.M.K. Kamamba, director of the Department of Antiquities, late Dr. N. Kayombo, former director general of the National Museum of Tanzania, Dr. H. Omar, director of Antiquities, Museum and archives of Zanzibar , Dr. A. Chande, Manager of Marine Parks and Reserves Unit , Dr. E.T. Kessy and Dr. Saanane, University of Dar es Salaam ,Dr. Y. Budeba, Former general director of Tanzania Fisheries Institute , and Mr. Mussa Jumbe, director of the Harbour of Zanzibar. I convey sincere gratitude to the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Tanzania for providing funding to support the maritime cultural heritage training of Tanzania. I also thank the Centre for International Heritage Activities and especially director Dr. Robert Parthesius, who in partnership with UNESCO Tanzania organised the Tanzania MUCH program. Also I would like to give thanks to Dr. Bill Jeffery for his tireless effort of training the team. Also, I give thanks to South African Heritage Resources Agency for support and preparation on Regional Workshop and Training on Maritime Archaeology development. Lastly I grateful acknowledge my fellow team-members of Tanzania MUCH for their involvement in the program and help in producing this paper. Abbreviations ICOMOS TMUCH International Council on Monuments and Sites Tanzania Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliography Chittick, N., 1974 ICOMOS 2000 Jeffery, B., 2011 Lane, P., 2005 Mafia Island Marine Park, 2002 Ministry of Natural Resource and Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast, The British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Zanzibar Report, stone town, Zanzibar, September. Report on Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage site survey at Kilwa kisiwani and Songo Mnara. Maritime Archaeology: A Prospective Research Avenue in Tanzania. Mafia and Kilwa, African Publishing Group, Harare. Annual statistical Bulletin 2010, Beknet Tanzania Ltd, Dar es Salaam. 11 �Tourism, 2011 Moon, K., 2005 Patience, K., 2006 Shepherd, G., 1982 Sukkham, A., 2011 Sutton, G., 1998 TMUCH Unit, 2009 TMUCH Unit, 2011 UCH Management Programme Tanzania, 2008 UNESCO 2001 United Republic of Tanzania, 1994 United Republic of Tanzania, 2000 United Republic of Tanzania UNESCO World Heritage Centre Kilwa Kisiwani: Ancient Port City of the East African Coast, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania. Shipwrecks and Salvage on the East African Coast, Kingdom of Bahrain. “The making of the Swahili: A view from the southern end of the East African Coast”, in Paideuma, 28, pp. 129-147. Diversity in Approaches to Maritime Archaeology, Underwater Cultural Heritage and Related Areas. Archaeological sites of East Africa, Tanzania Special Volume 33, The British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Maritime Archaeological Survey Report on the Great Northern Shipwreck, Zanzibar, Department of Antiquities, Dar es Salaam. Database of Marine and Underwater Cultural Heritage sites in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam. Proposal for Building sustainable capacity, TMUCH. Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. The Marine Parks and Reserves Act Mafia Island Marine Park General Management Plan. Dar es Salaam: Board of Trustee, Marine Parks and Reserves, Ministry of Natural Resource and Tourism, United Republic of Tanzania. http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/tz 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Establishing a Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit in Tanzania Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource Tanzania has a coastline of about 1,424 kilometres (km) with many famous ancient coastal towns such as Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mafia and Bagamoyo. The town’s host many underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites which are not yet documented. About 40 shipwrecks have been documented but most have not been surveyed. Tanzania Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programme (TMUCHP), which started in 2009, aims at empowering a number of Tanzanian stakeholders and staff to establish the Tanzanian Maritime Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Unit with skills and resources to record, document and monitor UCH sites. The various stakeholders come from different government departments and Dar es Salaam University in the United Republic of Tanzania which includes the Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar. The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) through United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and Government of the Royal Kingdom of Netherlands has been implementing various activities in the TMUCHP. The programme has achieved the survey of the Great Northern shipwreck in Zanzibar, and a preliminary survey at the World Heritage Site of Kilwa Kisiwani. The programme has included training sessions aimed at raising awareness amongst the Tanzanian community about the importance of implementing a MUCH programme and to enhance this discipline with various stakeholders. It has also imparted knowledge and skills on diving and working on archaeological sites. The programme contains other achievements including, stimulating the Government of Republic of Tanzania to start the process to ratify the UNESCO 2001 Convention for Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention); signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between the government stakeholders and CIE; the establishment of a database as an ongoing process; and attending Regional workshops and training in various countries. The establishment of a MUCH programme faces many challenges; shortage of funds for strengthening an understanding of maritime archaeology and conducting more surveys. Capacity building amongst team members by visiting other countries with successful maritime archaeology practices is also sought after. Lack of diving and survey equipment is also limiting further work. While the program has had some successes, Tanzania’s many maritime and UCH sites are not yet uncovered; I will expand on what we see as the way forward in this paper. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Humphrey Mahudi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a2d61e9895bb43aab704ef74a85f7214.pdf 6fe2bf1dfe0fde1aaa85c31569d1979d PDF Text Text Identification of export porcelains from early 17th Century VOC shipwrecks and the linkage to their cultural identification1 Christine Ketel2 Abstract Ceramics recovered from sunken vessels have drawn much attention in recent years. They are significant historical and aesthetic items but only a few reports have been made for scholarly purposes; many have been salvaged for commercial gain. Porcelain shards from underwater sites can be used as identification material for cultural heritage: porcelain was an important trade commodity of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and had an enormous impact on the cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Europe. The VOC trade routes included inter-Asian markets and the transport of porcelain to these ports also had an influence on the local cultural heritage. This paper will give an insight on the distribution routes by VOC ships with porcelain cargoes and the shards from some VOC shipwrecks as identification material of such porcelain. During a recent symposium in Hong Kong, it was evident that researchers in China and Taiwan consider the porcelain trade of export wares for the western market as part of their cultural heritage. For example, a certain type of export porcelain known as kraak ware has been found in several tombs in China. There was a discussion on the value and usage of this porcelain: was it used as a „gift‟ for the deceased? Or was it a show of being well-to-do? Other topics such as the influence of orders of porcelain for the western market on the inland markets and economy were also discussed. Another discussion was the value of ceramics discovered at underwater sites. Chinese researchers have done enormous work at sites on the maritime trade routes. Only token shards were salvaged for study purposes and shards have no value on the collectors market. Another issue discussed concerned the salvage of historic shipwrecks, a continuing debate between archaeologists, who value wrecks largely for their historical value, and profit-motivated salvage companies, who care only about their market value. We discussed how can we preserve shipwreck materials and documentation for future research in an ethical manner. The author suggested the following: In the past years there have been numerous archaeological researches, on land as well as from shipwrecks. The best way to preserve this knowledge is to put together all the results into one global Internet platform which would give the opportunity to leave and discuss drafts, ongoing research and reports. It could also host an agenda of events and links to useful websites. In this way researchers can keep in touch and keep each other updated. The Civilisation Centre of the City University of Hong Kong has agreed to cooperate and others will surely follow. Introduction The study of the cargos of the ships and shipwrecks of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) are an important asset to the history of maritime trade between Asia and Europe and within Asia itself. However, it is just as important to study archaeological excavations because these are also a time capsule. In the past ten years many young archaeologists have been able to undertake excavations in different countries in East and South East Asia. Conferences have been held where the results have been presented.3 1 This paper is part of the research for the PhD. Thesis at Leiden University. Phd. Candidate Leiden University, Independent researcher, Centre for International Heritage Activities, Leiden, Email: c.ketel@heritage-activities.nl 3 See papers given at conferences Singapore, March 2007, Hong Kong, June, 2007 and Taipei, November 2007. 2 1 �In order to achieve a view of the porcelain trade network it is therefore necessary to link together the research done by international maritime and landarchaeologists with historical data from documents. This paper will give an insight on the early years of the VOC trade in porcelain based on ceramics from three VOC shipwrecks, supported by archives of the VOC with information on the ships‟ movements, their cargoes, and destinations. As the Portuguese were the first Europeans to import products from Asia to Europe, Dutch merchants were dependant on the commodities of spices, silks and porcelain brought to Lisbon. After 1581 Portugal and Spain were at war with Holland and these became difficult to obtain (for details see Boxer 1965: chapters 1 and 2). From 1595, Dutch traders set up their own private trading companies which were incorporated into one single official company, in 1602, the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie -VOC). The main ambition of the VOC was to take over the monopoly of the Portuguese trade by taking over their trade routes and trade posts. At the start of the !7th century, porcelain was a scarce trade commodity but became very much in demand. In order to understand the growth of this trade commodity, (which has sadly been neglected in literature) the question rises: what were these porcelains? The lists on ships‟ invoices give amounts and indicate sorts such as plates, dishes, cups, bowls etc. but this does not give us a tangible identity. The finds from shipwrecks and land sites are essential to analyse the types, their usage and consumers. Therefore the following aspects are studied: 1. Identification of the shipwreck and its cargo: how much porcelain was part of the cargo (from VOC ships‟ invoices and salvage information). 2. Identification of the production area: where was this particular type of porcelain produced? (from archaeological finds at kiln sites) 3. Identification of the trade route: which transport routes were used to bring porcelain to the buyers? Where were the overhaul posts? What were the destinations? (VOC documents and site finds) 4. Identification of the consumer: who were the consumers? What did they use porcelain for? What are the cultural links? (Inventories /tomb finds in China) identification of the shipwrecks and its porcelain cargo As ceramics, especially porcelain is a material which can endure hundreds of years of sea water, these finds are often the only available tangible items remaining at a shipwreck site. In the case of these early 17th century VOC shipwrecks, the porcelains have given a great amount of information about the date of production, the variety in types (coarse or fine), and the consumers‟ demand. Three early 17th century shipwrecks containing ceramics and porcelain have been analyzed: the Mauritius, sunk in 1609, the Witte Leeuw, sunk in 1613 and the Banda, sunk in 16154 (see Table 1). 4 Other shipwrecks with kraak porcelain such as the so-called Wan-li shipwreck and the Hatcher cargo(1643-46?) have not been dated accurately as the salvage has not been documented correctly and are therefore unusable. 2 �Table 1. porcelain from VOC shipwrecks Types Plates with flat rim - 50 cms diam - 30-38 cms - 20-21 cms - 14 cms Dishes without rim-20cms. Diam. Klapmuts: - 17 cms. dia - 14cms diam Crowcups Bottles Kendi Betelboxes Other types: - teacups - winecups - rice bowls Plates with special design Zhangzhou martavaans other Grey pots Mauritius: 1609 WitteLeeuw 1613 Banda+Geuinieëerde Provinciëen:1615 20:unglazed base 5 29 38,of which 29x14cmsD. 30;unglazed base none 40 50 6-10 55-70 none none 17 70 15 50 5-10 30 4-6 10 2-3 Yes,same as WL. Also with stem several many yes 20-30 50 30 15x20cms.D. ? yes yes Various size Chinese bowls 5-10 pieces ? The Mauritius, sunk in 1609 in the Gulf of Guinée was excavated by Michel L‟Hour in 1985 (L‟Hour 1993). The ship contained various commodities from the East and only a small supply of porcelain, probably a private purchase or a private order. Of the about 215 pieces about 165 pieces are of the kraak-ware type. There are only 7 pieces of Zhangzhou ware and some typical Chinese type stem cups. The first salvaged shipwreck of the VOC with a substantial amount of porcelain is the Witte Leeuw, one of four ships that formed the return fleet from Bantam to Holland in 1613. During a stopover at Saint Helena Island to take in fresh water and goods, the fleet encountered several Portuguese ships. In the fight that followed, one of the cannons on the Witte Leeuw exploded and the ship sank. The Belgian marine archaeologist, Robert Sténuit discovered the wreck in 19765. The 200 – 300 kilos of shards, apart from the 290 complete pieces, as well as specific quantities of identical types and shapes, clearly point to a bulk cargo. There is however, no list of any porcelains on the invoice of the Witte Leeuw. This is rather a mystery as the records of the VOC are usually very accurate. However, on the invoice of the Vlissingen , another ship of the fleet of which the Witte Leeuw was also part, the amount of 38,641 pieces is listed, and it may very well have been possible that part of its cargo was transferred onto the Witte Leeuw before leaving Bantam. 5 A complete account of the salvage and the finds is published in Van der Pijl-Ketel (ed) 1982. 3 �The shapes mentioned on that list coincide with the shapes salvaged from the Witte Leeuw. There was clearly a mixture of Chinese (minyao) wares and kraak wares. The third case is that of the Banda, which was part of the fleet that left Bantam bound for Holland together with the Delft, the Geünieerde Provincieën and the Gelderland. The fleet arrived at the island of Mauritius beginning of March 1615 where an enormous hurricane shipwrecked the Banda. Documents show that the cargo contained cloves, nutmeg and a certain number of Chinese porcelains. These were sets of plates and dishes, and small shallow bowls, a „set‟ of tiny wine cups and a wine bottle, all identical to those from the Witte Leeuw. As one of the passengers was Governor Both, who was returning home, these porcelains were most probably his personal possession6. Types of porcelains From the finds of these three shipwrecks, it is possible to get an idea of what kinds of porcelains were available for sale at the trade post of Bantam around 1610-1615, a period when the V.O.C merchants did not yet place orders with the merchants on mainland China. The varieties in the types of porcelain also show what was produced and transported by the Chinese merchants to be sold to the western merchants at that time. (See Table 2) Table 2. Types of Porcelain from the Witte Leeuw Types of kraak ware Types of Chinese ware (minyao) Serving dishes: Large dishes/basins with a flattened rim(lampetschotel)(type.1.1.1 Witte Leeuw) Bowls: large or full-sized,small, half-sized,third and quarter-sized(groote/heel commen, cleijne commen, halve commen, drielinge commen,) (for example, types 3.2-3.6 and 3.9 and 3.10, Witte Leeuw) . Plates(schootels):plates with a flattened rim, (type 1.1.2-1.1.4 Witte Leeuw) Bowls with lids, (Type 3.8 of the Witte Leeuw) dishes (saucieren ): dishes without a flattened rim and moulded round medallions (type 1.2, Witte Leeuw) cups and cups for drinking brandy(pimpelkens). (Witte Leeuw, type 2.0) 6 the Gelderland and the Geunieerde Provincieen were also shipwrecked. The numerous porcelain shards washed on the shores of Mauritius clearly came from these ships. 4 �Klapmuts (Clapmuts):. (Type 1.3, Witte Leeuw) Wine pots (kannekens): small sized with covers (Witte Leeuw, type 3.11) Pots with lids: (potgens) (Witte Leeuw, type 3.12) Small jugs with spouts: (olie- en azijn kannetjes,/ tuytpottekens) for oil and vinegar (Witte Leeuw,type 3.17) Crow-cups: (kameelscop): Kendi‟s (kan, kannekens) Bottles for brandy:(Persiaensche fleeschen) (type 1.7.1 and 1.7.2 from the Witte Leeuw). Flatware:small saucers a. minyao: typical Chinese wares. Such porcelain items have been and are still used daily in China and other parts of Asia. They include : rice bowls, soup bowls, bowls with lids as well as small saucers (for pickles), small cups for wine/wine pots, small cups of various sizes, teapots, covered pots (for ginger or pickles). b. . western shapes especially made for the European market: kraak ware (figure 1). The term kraak ware has become a regular term to be applied to a specific type of export porcelain made in Jingdezhen kilns for the western market. 7 These include: plates, dishes, shallow bowls, bowls and bottles, all with a specific panel design. During the compilation of the catalogue of The Ceramic Load of the Witte Leeuw, it was decided to make a clearer definition of what should be depicted as kraak porcelain. There are still continuing discussions on this definition but most 7 the word was not applied to porcelain by the VOC but only to the Portuguese ships, whilst the Portuguese only used the word nao for their ships, not carracas. 5 �researchers now use the typology made at the Rijksmuseum in 1982 (Van der PijlKetel 1982). Figure 1. Kraak Ware c. Zhangzhou wares (figure 2): A variety of provincial types of wares were found the above mentioned VOC shipwrecks, an indication that not only fine export quality was included in their cargoes. Still, the relatively few pieces from the Witte Leeuw indicate that the pieces were probably either owned by crewmembers or used in the ship‟s galley (This ware being of a thicker type of porcelain, it would withstand a galley‟s daily usage.) Most originate from the kilns around Pinghe, Fujian province, and are now known as Zhangzhou wares (Tan 2007). This type of ware was not produced for the European market but was constantly in demand for the South East Asian and Japanese markets. Figure 2. Zhangzhou wares. d. Stone ware jars (martavans/martaban 8 ) have regularly been found amongst western shipwreck finds9. The majority of these types originate from kilns of Southern China; most are covered with a dark brown glaze, some having a stamped square mark with a Chinese character. Stoneware jars from Thai kilns are also known as martabans. These jars were used for fresh water, wine or preserving food on the long voyages. VOC documents regularly list them filled with ginger or pickled goods or even opium.10 Figure 3. Stone ware jars. 8 this term can be misleading as it has been associated with jars made in the vicinity of Martaban, which was an export port on the coast of what is now called Myanmar (Gulf of Siam, Burma). In the VOC archives there are numerous references to this port. However, stoneware jars were not produced there but were transported from Thai kilns overland to this port. 9 Nossa Senhora dos Martires(1600) and the Spanish trader, the San Diego (1600); the Witte Leeuw had several sizes and sorts. 10 Several documents mention martavan pots filled with opium (1610, invoice of the Griffoen from Bantan) 6 �Identification of production sites from porcelain finds As the production of Chinese porcelain has a long written history, it should not be difficult to identify the types of porcelains found in and around shipwreck sites. However, in the case of early VOC wrecks, the porcelains found were not always easy to analyse; in the 1980‟s not much archaeological research had been carried out in China. Kiln sites producing porcelain dating from early dynasties had the main attention of Chinese archaeologists at that time; plain minyao ceramics were not interesting. At the time of writing the catalogue of the Witte Leeuw., in 1980-82, several museums in China were asked whether they had any of this kraak type in their collections: their answer was that this was not Chinese porcelain as it had never been seen in China. Gradually some pieces came to light during the research at tombs and excavations at the porcelain production areas of Jingdezhen city and Chinese researchers, stimulated by the finds from the Witte Leeuw, became interested. From 1999 there have been several discoveries in and around Jingdezhen of this typical export porcelain (Cao Jianwen and Luo Yifei 2006:16-24). Even this year, in May, several papers were given on the subject of kraak ware. 11 Identification of the trade routes which transport routes were taken to bring porcelain to the buyers? Where were the overhaul posts? What were the destinations? In order to understand the flow of trade commodities, in this case export porcelains, it is important to know where the VOC set up their trade posts and which shipping routes were used. These can be divided according to specific regions. 12 The major aim of the VOC was to purchase pepper and spices for the home market, but there were also a limited amount of luxury items such as silk, precious stones and porcelains bought. It was also necessary for the VOC to partake in intraAsian trade in order to fund the operations in Asian and to purchase the return cargoes. Consequently ships had to sail inter regionally to trade and collect the requested cargoes but also trade commodities not meant for the European market. 13 11 International conference. May 28-30, 2011. The Eastern quarters: - between Batavia and the Indonesian Archipel;- from 1632-1658 TaiwanJapan-Batavia and back to Holland;- Siam(Thailand)/Vietnam The NW region: westerkwartieren:-West coast of India: Goa/Surat :as entrepot serving Persia and Arabia The NE region: Gulf of Bengal/East coast of India: Coromandel area/Ceylon (Galle: overhaul station 1640-1650‟s) ( Parthesius 2010) 13 Another trade route was along Patani and Siam towards Japan. From 1610 trade contacts with Quinam and Tonckin (in present day Vietnam) were held for inter-Asian trading purposes. From about 12 7 �The Director was responsible for dividing the cargoes between the ships of the specific VOC Chambers and ensure that they had the correct ratio for the internal distribution.14 Furthermore, the return fleets had to depart on time to avoid storms and to arrive at favourable auction times in Holland. During the first years of trade, there were as yet no specific orders for porcelain from Holland and invoices of the return ships show hap hazard amounts. (see Table 3). The VOC depended on what the Chinese junks brought to be sold to foreign merchants at Bantam or Patani and from 1612, Batavia, and what they could capture: as they were granted the right of booty the Dutch realised that a lucrative way to acquire Chinese merchandise was in fact to capture the vessels, sailing for the Spanish and Portuguese, carrying these goods.15 In this way, large profits were made from cargoes captured from the Chinese junks. Table 3. Invoices of Early VOC Ships Name of ship Invoice date Amount of porcelains Gouda Bantam Mauritius(sank 1609) Roode Leeuw met Pijlen Wapen van Amsterdam Vlissingen Witte Leeuw(sank 1613) Zwarte Leeuw+ter Veere Gelderland Banda(sank in 1615) Geuinieëerde Provinciëen 1608 1608 1 barrel with 8 large dishes 278 large porcelain dishes, two broken 1610 1612 1612 1612 1614 1614 1614 1614 9227 pieces 5 barrels, each with 5 dishes 38,641 pieces* Same fleet as above 4277 corgees (each=20 pieces) 69,057 Rotterdam Mauritius Dolphyn Hart Gouda. Leeuwinne van Jacarta Mauritius Walcheren 1616 1616 1616 1616 1622 1622 1623 1623 Together with the Banda shipwrecked at island of Mauritius 8014 + 27,997 23,023 7679 3730 17,500 6361 62,931 pieces 10,845 pieces Inter-insular trade As porcelain was not a primary commodity for inter-insular shipping, the VOC took sporadic amounts of porcelain just to fill their ships and make a sale whenever possible; these were mainly Zhangzhou wares. There were, however, some demands for specific „fine porcleians‟. 16 In 1637, a total of 161,419 pieces were shipped to various destinations in the archipelago, including gifts, "Sent to the regent of Tegal by the Company: 3 large dishes as gift" (Volker 1957:196). 1620, the VOC was able to establish trade posts at Suratte and Persia (Gamron) and Mocha. From Batavia, porcelain was also transported to these posts. 14 Porcelain was packed in bundles (of straw)/tubs (wooden barrels)/packages of 20 pieces (corgees) and often packed „lose in the pepper‟. 15 Hugo de Groot wrote a special law for „the right to booty‟: De Jure Praedae . 16 in 1636: King of Acheen orders: coarse porcelains: receives a total of 120,400 pieces! 1636:;each month porcelain, mainly coarse ware is sent from Batavia to Java/Bali/Sumatra/Borneo and Jambi 8 �Formosa The turning point in the porcelain trade started from 1624, when the Dutch started a steady trade from Formosa, where the trade post Fort Zeelandia was built. It took another ten years before a regular flow of porcelain took place: from the kilns of Jingdezhen to the merchants at the seaports of Fuzhou, Quanzhou and Guangzhou and from there by the junk trade to Formosa. The VOC needed extra vessels to transport goods to and from the trade post to the larger ships at the Pescadore islands as the roadstead at Zeelandia was too shallow to dock at and often had dangerous weather conditions. „Captured‟ Chinese junks were used for this and other transports. Many invoices with porcelains state …‟bought at the River of Chincheuw‟ or „ captured‟, again proof of the VOC‟s rigorous continuation of pirateering.17 Most of the shipments went to Batavia where it was transshipped onto homeward bounders. Other shipments went to Japan and, from 1638, directly to the Coromandel coast and Surat. The shipments to Japan had to coincide with the strict dates set by the Japanese authorities and the monsoon period. From Japan the shipments had to arrive on time at Batavia for the return fleets at Easter and Christmas. Japan The VOC established its first trade post in Japan at Hirado in 1609, ;from 1640, the Dutch were forced to trade from an enclosed island of Deshima in the bay of Nagasaki. Most export porcelain found in this area are Japanese copies of kraak ware but several original kraak pieces from China also have been found , including Zhangzhou ware (Kawaguchi 2007), but these were shipped to Japan by the Chinese junk trade as indicated by several VOC documents.18 IDENTIFICATION OF THE CONSUMER: links between the products and the consumers Holland VOC records show that between 1604-1657, VOC ships transported about 3 million pieces of porcelain to Holland. This would indicate a large offset market there. However, porcelain was considered a scarce, luxury good in the first half of the 17 th century and was certainly not possessed by the majority of the population, but limited to the upper classes. This is proven by archaeological finds from rubbish pits and inventories of nobility and VOC merchants who bought porcelain as private „trade”. As Mark Staniforth (1996:13-18) mentions porcelain had, "..an important role not only for utilitarian purposes but also as a means to display socio-economic-status (or class) to demonstrate good taste and allow people to negotiate and construct their place in society". The usage is a following puzzle.The names which are written in early 17 th c. Dutch on invoices with amounts and types are often difficult to link to the actual shapes, considering that there are numerous ways of indicating a plate( 17 examples: in 1626: the Shiedam has 12,814 porcelains „bought at the River of Chincheuw‟ (Quangzhou).Another list shows 75 corgees with porcelain dishes from a captured Portuguese ship the Nossa Sig.na d'Assencon.In 1627, it is noted that the Hollandia and the Frederich Hendrick have: ‟16 tubs of captured porcelain‟ and the „Wapen van Delft‟ has „ 9440 various porcelains partly captured, partly bought at the River Chincheuw‟. 18 1642:Chinese junks to Nagasaki from Fu Chou : 130 teapots;1643:Chinese junks to Nagasaki: 11 barrels of porc. + from Fu Chou teapots;1644:-Chinese junks from Fu Chou: teapots+porcelain+coarse porc.; 13 junks with 802 teapots,etc. 9 �schootels,saucieren), bowl (kop, kameelscop), shallow bowl (klapmuts). Only by comparing the shipwreck shards to the nomenclature, is it possible to decipher what is meant by a name. Due to typology made from the large amount of shards from the Witte Leeuw, it was possible to attempt an interpretation. Early 17th century Dutch and Flemish still life paintings depict porcelain pieces with butter, cheese, fruit, lobsters (see Table 4). So not only do these paintings give the aesthetic value but they also show in some way what the pieces were used for. Table 4. Consumption: Shapes linked to paintings. Types hele schotel: dish with a flattened rim. diamete r 50 cms. halve schotel :dish with a flattened rim. 29- 36 cms. een-derde( one third):dish with a flattened rim. 21-23 cms. Boterschootel (butter dish): saucer dish with moulded round medallions instead of straight panels. 10- 12 cms. Saucier:saucer dishes (singel and double) 14 -16 cms. 20-22 cms. Klapmuts clapmuts: Hele klapmuts: (whole) 20 – 24 cms. shapes 10 �Halve klapmuts:(half) 12- 14 cms. Cop, commekens: Bowls Hele (whole) 14-16 cms. Halve (half-sized) 12-14 cms. Japan Excavations at the Hirado trade post site have revealed Chinese minyao types such as bowls and cups, as well as western kraak type porcelain, 19 an indication that the export of kraak ware to Japan was a fact during this period. When the Chinese kilns stopped their production around 1650, the Japanese took over and used the kraak style for porcelain ordered by the VOC merchants. Since the 1970‟s around 1000 sites have been excavated in present day Tokyo, revealing a limited amount of Western artefacts( Beardman jars, glass and parts of clay pipes), as well as Chinese export porcelain. These were possibly gifts from VOC merchants to Japanese dignitaries but could also have been private trade goods (Horiuchi 2007). Besides requests for Chinese porcelain from the Japanese dignitaries, there were also demands for Dutch ceramics! 20 So this is a clear case of cultural links where the Japanese came to appreciate the daily ceramic ware used by the Dutch as well as using Chinese porcelain for producing their own kraak type of porcelain. China The increase in demand from western merchants resulted in higher production and output at the Jingdezhen kilns. Because of the closure of the imperial kilns after riots in 1608, many skilled workers went to the „common‟ workshops. This resulted in a mixture of very finely potted and finely painted pieces with a coarser type with sketchily drawn designs. Gradually kraak type became a mass-production with many pieces of lower quality.21 The establishment of the Formosa trade post also effected the production as can be seen from the increase in amounts on VOC invoices and stocks at Fort Zeelandia. 22 The numerous finds of kraak porcelain found in tombs in Jiangxi province led researchers in China to question the usage of these pieces (Bao Ping 19 Hirado Archaeology Department for example, in 1640, the Daimyo of Kaga requests pottery from Holland.(Volker 1954:122)/ Daimyo Arima orders 10-12 dishes of Dutch earthenware and fine Dutch white clay . 21 the so-called “Wan li” shipwreck and the „Hatcher cargo‟ has examples. 22 stocks at Zeelandia: 1636:212,144 pieces/1638:890,328 pieces/1645:163,716 pieces. 20 11 �2011). Most were misfired pieces but were discovered in tombs from commoners to provincial commissioners. One interpretation given ….they were probably sold, along the route of transporting from Jingdezhen to coastal ports for exporting, to local people for mere funeral purposes, at a much reduced price. This view is supported by a burial custom popular in Ming-Qing period Jiangxi, whereby porcelain plates may be placed under the head of the deceased as pillows, which are called shoupan or “longevity (i.e. afterlife or funeral) plates (Bao Ping, et al. 1993:3) The interest in the link of a western type of porcelain being used as a funerary object was discussed by several researchers at the Hong Kong symposium. Conclusion The change in the value of Chinese export porcelain. From the start of the 20th century, travels to the Far East were made and because China was struggling economically, uninterested in their cultural past, it was easy to buy and bring back all kinds of porcelains, from the early dynasties to the last, for next to nothing. During the period of about 1900-1950, porcelain collectors were able to buy precious porcelains from the country whose museums now have to buy them back at exorbitant prices at auctions. 17th century blue and white export ware, including kraak ware was labelled „provincial ware‟ by art historians and collectors looked down on these types. Art historians and collectors gradually became aware that porcelains from a dated shipwreck is the only guarantee for an end date as they are sealed in time capsules, and fairly precisely datable. As Richard Kilburn (Sheaf and Kilburn 1988:76) stated, “It is often difficult to be sure in which century ceramic wares were made, so that being able to associate specific pieces with a datable event such as a shipwreck is a valuable start towards establishing a chronology for them”. This was first done with the porcelain finds from the VOC ship the Witte Leeuw. The 200 kilos of shards were valueless and luckily the Rijksmuseum‟s department of history was willing to take them over for research purposes. A group was formed and the pieces were sorted out; for the first time a typology was made which resulted in the catalogue The Ceramic Load of the Witte Leeuw. This is still being used world wide for research purposes. However, shipwrecks also increased their value. The massive auctions at Christie‟s in 1984 and 1986 of undocumented and unethically salvaged Chinese porcelain caused a „hype‟ in collecting shipwreck porcelain.23 Even common export wares became unaffordable for research purposes. At the time of the auctions, China had begun to develop their maritime archaeology and just started in shipwreck salvages and salvaged items, because it is part of their cultural heritage. As a Chinese maritime archaeologist noted :‟ we were given 3000$ to buy some pieces but were unable to cope with the bidders at these auctions, and so returned emptyhanded‟. 23 As these salvages were not properly documented, there was protest from historians and a symposium was organised: Pillage or Enrichment of maritime history? There was much discussion on whether items which had been salvaged in an unethical way should be taken up in national museums as gifts( paying off?); how we can keep national heritage without pillage, and much more. 12 �=============================================================== EPILOGUE: HOW TO PRESERVE RESEARCH RESULTS. In the past years there have been numerous archaeological researches, on land as well as from shipwrecks. The best way to preserve this knowledge is to put together all the results into one global database. By forming a working group with participants from all countries taking part in this type of research, results can be kept. Each participant will be able to log into the website to place his research results and keep them updated. In this way we can keep in touch and keep each other updated. Bibliography Bao Ping, 2011 Bao Ping, Xue Qiao and Liu Jinfeng, 1993 Boxer, C.R., 1965 Cao Jianwen and Luo Yifei, 2006 Chen Lili, 2004 Desroches ,J.P., and Goddio, F., L‟Hour, M., Dupoizat, M.F., Pourvoyeur, P., 1994 Dumas, J., 1981 Exchange of material culture over the sea, 2007 Horiuchi, H., 2007 L‟Hour, M., 1989 International Conference Hong Kong 2011 Kawaguchi, Y., "Kraak porcelain from tombs and kiln sites in China", Paper at symposium Chinese Export Ceramics in the 16 and 17th centuries and the spread of civilisation, Hong Kong City university, Chinese Civilisation centre, may. "Cultural relics unearthed in south Jiangxi and the change in export routes of Jingdezhen porcelain during the transitional period of Ming and Qing dynasties", in Relics from The South, pp.3. The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800, Hutchinson and Co. London. "Kraak Porcelain discovered at some kiln sites in Jingdezhen City in recent years", in Oriental Art, Vol.I, nr. 4. "Kraak porcelain plates and burial customs", in Minsu yanjui (Folklore studies), 4. Le San Diego. Un trésor sous la mer, AFAA, RMN, Paris. Fortune de Mer a l’Ile Maurice, Atlas Films S.A., Paris. Exchange of material culture over the sea. Contacts between Europe and East and Southeast Asia in the 16 th to 18th centuries. Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, (to be published). "The Material Cultural Interaction from an Archaeological Point of View, the artefacts excavated from Edo sites focused on trade ceramics", Paper given at symposium: Exchange of Material culture over the Seas, Taipei, 2007 Le Mauritius. La mémoire engloutie, Grenoble. Cross the Sea: Chinese Export Ceramics in the 16th and 17th centuries and the spread of Material Civilisation, Chinese Civilisation Centre, City University Hong Kong, May, 2011 (to be published). "Archaeological results of Nagasaki in the 16-18th 13 �2006 National Archives Parthesius, R., 2010 Sheaf, C., and Kilburn, R., 1988 Seminar, 1991,1994 Staniforth, M., 1996 Symposium , Singapore, 2007 Tan, R., 2007 Van der PijlKetel,C.L., (ed.), 1982 Volker, T., 1954 centuries", in Trade Ceramics Studies, nr. 6.1987(in Japanese). National Archives of the VOC, The Hague. Dutch ships in Tropical Waters. Amsterdam University Press. The Hatcher Porcelain cargoes: the complete record, Oxford, p. 76. China and the Maritime Silk Road, Unesco Quanzhou International Seminar 1991. Maritime silk road studies Vol.1; Vol.2. "Tracing artefact trajectories- following Chinese export porcelain", in Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 20, 1, pp.13-18 Chinese Export Ceramic Trade in Southeast Asia, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore, (unpublished papers) Zhangzhou ware found in the Phillipines, Oriental Ceramic Society of the Philippines. The Ceramic Load of the Witte Leeuw (1613), Rijksmuseum. "Porcelain and the Dutch East India Company as recorded in the Dagregistes of Batavai Castle,those of Hirado and other contemporary Papers 1602-1682", in Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum van Volkenkunde, nr.11, Leiden. 14 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Identification of export porcelains from early 17th Century VOC shipwrecks and the linkage to their cultural identification Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource Ceramics recovered from sunken vessels have drawn much attention in recent years. They are significant historical and aesthetic items but only a few reports have been made for scholarly purposes; many have been salvaged for commercial gain. Porcelain shards from underwater sites can be used as identification material for cultural heritage: porcelain was an important trade commodity of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and had an enormous impact on the cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Europe. The VOC trade routes included inter-Asian markets and the transport of porcelain to these ports also had an influence on the local cultural heritage. This paper will give an insight on the distribution routes by VOC ships with porcelain cargoes and the shards from some VOC shipwrecks as identification material of such porcelain. During a recent symposium in Hong Kong, it was evident that researchers in China and Taiwan consider the porcelain trade of export wares for the western market as part of their cultural heritage. For example, a certain type of export porcelain known as kraak ware has been found in several tombs in China. There was a discussion on the value and usage of this porcelain: was it used as a ‘gift’ for the deceased? Or was it a show of being well-to-do? Other topics such as the influence of orders of porcelain for the western market on the inland markets and economy were also discussed. Another discussion was the value of ceramics discovered at underwater sites. Chinese researchers have done enormous work at sites on the maritime trade routes. Only token shards were salvaged for study purposes and shards have no value on the collectors market. Another issue discussed concerned the salvage of historic shipwrecks, a continuing debate between archaeologists, who value wrecks largely for their historical value, and profit-motivated salvage companies, who care only about their market value. We discussed how can we preserve shipwreck materials and documentation for future research in an ethical manner. The author suggested the following: In the past years there have been numerous archaeological researches, on land as well as from shipwrecks. The best way to preserve this knowledge is to put together all the results into one global Internet platform which would give the opportunity to leave and discuss drafts, ongoing research and reports. It could also host an agenda of events and links to useful websites. In this way researchers can keep in touch and keep each other updated. The Civilisation Centre of the City University of Hong Kong has agreed to cooperate and others will surely follow. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Christine Ketel Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/87b2bf213fd1ab2c9ae4c07cefd584d8.pdf 128a91919393cc03d17dce9ef6093136 PDF Text Text Spain and the Underwarter Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Area Xavier Nieto1 Abstract In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan reached the Mariana Islands in the name of king Charles I of Spain. His travel of exploration to seek out a westward route to the Spice Islands lead to a long standing presence of Spain in the Asia-Pacific region. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi established the first Spanish colony in the Philippines in 1565 and only a few months later, Andrés de Urdaneta had made a safe return trip to Acapulco which lead to the establishment of the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade route that lasted until Mexico’s independence in 1815. Today, Spain’s maritime legacy is dispersed around the world, with a large number of settlements and wrecks located in the Asia-Pacific region. For the past 30 years, the Spanish government has done enormous efforts to study its past overseas, especially in the Americas. Finally, the time has come to rediscover our links with Asia-Pacific countries and redesign our cultural ties with the region. In this paper I will analyze Spain’s institutions and laws that will hopefully lead to a new collaboration paradigm that will re-evaluate Spain’s role in the history of Asia-Pacific. It is well known that a sunken ship is a valuable document to be taken into account to explain the history of any country. For centuries the world was Spain’s action field and the ships were the most important means of transport for men and products. Consequently our history is deeply linked to that of countries where our ships called at. No wonder, therefore, the interest of Spanish institutions to participate in conferences like the present one. Sometimes we are there to make scientific contributions and in other cases, like the present one, to learn about participants’ new ideas so as to initiate and strengthen personal and institutional relationships that will surely bring about new possibilities for the understanding of Spanish links with the Asian-Pacific zone. My intervention will focus on the importance of the joint work among countries, under United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recommendations, in order to locate, preserve and work on these documents submerged in the seas and oceans all over the world. Introduction We cannot forget, significant as it is, that the Philippines owes its name to Infant Felipe, who would later reign in Spain under the name of Philip II (1556 1598), a monarch who would eventually also become king of Portugal, under the name of Philip I (1581 - 1598). Once the Portuguese colonies had been incorporated to the Spanish ones, this double crown allowed the monarch to extend his administrative and political control over territories located in five continents. This new development forced the monarch to design new strategies based on naval communications, thanks to which Spain asserted its presence, 1 Director del Museo Nacional de Arqueología Subacuática – ARQUA, Ministerio de Cultura de España 1 �both culturally and administratively, in the Philippines and the Pacific for more than three hundred years between 1565 and 1898. The failure in 1524 of the Spanish-Portuguese meeting held in Badajoz in order to find solutions for the dispute over ownership of The Moluccas, gave reasons for the Spanish Kingdom to send, the following year, six ships commanded by Juan Garcia Jofre de Loaysa following the route opened by Magellan in the Pacific. Despite the failure of the expedition, it was possible to reach The Moluccas and the Philippines and to gather enough experience to assess the difficulties involved in making the journey around South America, forcing them to open a new route, this time from Mexico. The mission fell to Alvaro de Saavedra, who in 1526 was ordered by king Charles V to establish a route to the Pacific departing from Zihuatanejo, in current Mexico (González 1964:210-211). Two vessels reached the East Indies with relative ease, however the return trip was a complete failure. Spain would have to wait another twenty years before a successeful return route could be established. The Treaty of Zaragoza (Tratado de Zaragoza 1529) clarified, in theory, the division of Asia between Spain and Portugal. Althoughit was not respected, it had the advantage of focusing the interest of Spain over the archipelagos which were not under Portuguese influence. In particular, the Spanish focused on the Philippines, which had already been named so by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos during his expedition in 1542. In the seventeen years between the expeditions of Jofre de Loaysa and that of Lopez de Villalobos` the first phase of a typical process of naval colonization had been completed. Characterized by progressive geographic penetration through a rather uneven process, gathering experience through trial and error assessment, accumulating geographic and seafaring knowledge, studying economic efficiency and establishing a framework for sharing power and influence with pre-existing populations.. This allowed Miguel Lopez de Legazpi to carry out the last "jump" and in April 1565 he settled down in Cebu Just two months later he sent the San Pedro back with a cargo of cinnamon. The Manila Galleon trade route had been opened (see Junco this volume). .Coinciding with the transfer of the capital from Cebu to Manila this route joined the Asia-Pacific to Mexico and Europe.. Bearing in mind that the Spaniards soon gave up the exploitation of unprofitable resources in the area, This route would not have been particularly noteworthy had it not been for the role of Manila as the port of redistribution and the prompt abolition of the trade ban imposed on individuals. Chinese silk arrived in Manila and cotton from India, in whole rolls or as dresses, shirts and tablecloths as well as all kinds of manufactured goods (Pérez Herrero 1989; Schruz 1939). From Japan, during the short period of sporadic direct contacts, people arrived with manufactured metal parts, lacquered pieces and furniture (Ibid.). Traders, in turn, would redistribute products from elsewhere and in this way tapestry and carpets would come from Persia (Ibid.). An extensive and ramified network had been created which facilitated the arrival of Eastern exoticism to Spain and at the same time that of Mexican and Peruvian silver to Western countries. This was done through an intense maritime traffic, not without dangers which no doubt has marked the seas with underwater archaeological remains. Nowadays this could be seen as a legacy of the Asian- 2 �Pacific and Spanish history, which is to be preserved for historical research and public enjoyment. Preservation Ships of different origins, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, British to name just a few, are now a fragile, irreplaceable and valuable cultural heritage. It is essential to know the national history and the interplay of cultures that shaped and conditioned the history and culture of mankind Unfortunately, traditional practices of recovery accelerated in recent decades by technological means and by the increased economic value of recovered things has caused the destruction of a cultural heritage. This can sometimes lead to loss of historical information involving countries different from those where the discovery occurs. That is why the preservation of this heritage should be a multinational task characterized by collaboration among affected countries. There are many threats to this heritage as many countries still poorly or inadequately protected by national laws. These are either subjected to internationally recognized texts or the responsible body fails to implement the rules. Despite a countries ratification of international conventions they simply lack the means for compliance. Nor is it a minor obstacle the important differences, sometimes irreconcilable, among national laws of the countries involved in the partnership for historic preservation of a sunken ship. We are facing a fragmented and diverse legal system that reflects very different legal positions of the different states whose interests are sometimes brought face to face: old naval powers against States that had been colonized and later become independent, flag states in front of coastal states (Aznar 2009). The United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of the 10th of December 1982, which by its wide acceptance could be a valid or at least guiding document, barely deals with Underwater Cultural Heritage. Only two articles, 149 and 303, refer to the issue: Article 149 states: Archaeological and historical objects. All objects of an archaeological and historical nature found in the Area shall be reserved or disposed of for the benefit of mankind as a whole, particular regard being paid to the preferential rights of the State or country of origin, or the State of cultural origin, or the State of historical and archaeological origin. Although this article states that the archaeological remains found in the area "... will be preserved or disposed of for the benefit of all mankind ..." the ambiguity of the text allows for various interpretations by failing to establish, for example, the meaning of "... preferential rights ... "or what is meant by" ... dispose of ... " Article 303 Archaeological and historical objects found at sea. 1. States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea and shall cooperate for this purpose. 2. In order to control traffic in such objects, the coastal State may, in applying article 33, presume that their removal from the seabed in the zone referred to 3 �in that article without its approval would result in an infringement within its territory or territorial sea of the laws and regulations referred to in that article. 3. Nothing in this article affects the rights of identifiable owners, the law of salvage or other rules of admiralty, or laws and practices with respect to cultural exchanges. 4. This article is without prejudice to other international agreements and rules of international law regarding the protection of objects of an archaeological and historical nature. The obligation that the articles place upon all States to protect archaeological objects and to do so through international cooperation is most valuable but it is true that the ambiguity involved in making it obligatory all over "... the sea ..." introduces elements of conflict as when regarding its application in international waters, for instance. Paragraph 3 does not solve, at least for coastal states, the legal dispute with flag States and leaves a door open to apply the rules of rescue for boats of historical value. Regardless of legal interpretations, that which underlies the UNESCO 2001 Convention is the obligation of the protection of underwater archaeological sites given their value for all mankind and the fact that this protection requires close collaboration among all the countries involved. It is the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) which prohibits commercial exploitation as one of the main causes of damage and destruction, insisting on the universal value of this heritage and the need for international collaboration. Thus the 2001 Convention becomes a hindrance to the activities of treasure hunter companies which see their profits threatened both by the decline in the price of their stock market values and the lack of product to sell. Not surprisingly treasure hunters are continuously taking actions against the 2001 Convention. Present Situation towards Underwater Archaeological Heritage Spain has a long tradition in the preservation of the historical heritage and it is contemplated both in the Constitution (Constitución del Reino de España 1978) currently in force and in various sectorial laws. Thus Article 46 of the Constitution of 1978 provides that: Los poderes públicos garantizarán la conservación y promoverán el enriquecimiento del patrimonio histórico, cultural y artístico de los pueblos de España y de los bienes que lo integran, cualquiera que sea su régimen jurídico 2 y su titularidad. La ley penal sancionará los atentados contra este patrimonio A specific law, 16/1985 on Spanish Historical Heritage provides in Article 40 Forman parte del Patrimonio Histórico Español los bienes muebles o inmuebles de carácter histórico susceptibles de ser estudiados con metodología arqueológica, hayan sido o no extraídos y tanto si se encuentran 2 Public authorities will guarantee the preservation and will promote the enrichment of the historical, cultural and artistic heritage of the peoples of Spain and the goods that form part of it, whichever is its legal regime and ownership.The Criminal Law will sanction the attacks against this heritage. Spanish Constitution, 1978, Article 46 4 �en la superficie o en el subsuelo, en el mar territorial o en la plataforma continental. Forman parte, asimismo, de este Patrimonio los elementos geológicos y paleontológicos relacionados con la historia del hombre y sus 3 orígenes y antecedentes This article which summarizes the legal position of Spain in this field has some peculiarities that deserve to be mentioned: a) .- Unlike the 2001 UNESCO Convention, Spain does not set the 100-year period as necessary to give any asset historical heritage value, so that its value is acquired not by age but by their potential value as a source of historical documentation. b) .- No legal distinction is made among archaeological objects whether they come from ground or underwater findings. c) .- Archaeological objects are protected whether they are extracted or not. d) .- As in national and international legislation, ships are considered as buildings, the law protects both the vessel and its cargo. e) .- All these objects are part of the Spanish Historical Heritage, which prevents, among other actions, commercial exploitation by private people. Since Article 46 of the Spanish Constitution establishes that the criminal law shall punish any offences against this heritage, the Penal Code provides in Article 323 that: “Será castigado con la pena de prisión de uno a tres años y multa de doce a veinticuatro meses el que cause daños en … yacimientos arqueológicos”.4 After analyzing the articles and annexes of the 2001 Convention we can see that essential aspects such as the concept of heritage as a public good are excluded from any commercial transactions and the need of protecting it as a value for society. This presents remarkable similarities with present Spanish law. On 6 June 2005 the Spanish Parliament ratified the 2001 Convention which from January 2, 2009 became part of the legislation that sets the Spanish activities in this field. Although Spain joined with some delay in the practice of underwater archeology, the creation in the 70’s of the so-called Patronatos de Investigación Arqueológica Submarina (Submarine Archaeological Research Trusts) marked the institutional positioning that allowed in the 80’s and 90’s the emergence of stable institutions dependent on the Ministry of Culture and the Autonomous Governments. Right now the National Museum of Underwater Archaeology, commonly known as ARQUA, dependent on the Ministry of Culture and the centers of Underwater Archaeology in Catalonia, Valencia and Andalusia provide staff and technical expertise enabling them to act on underwater cultural heritage. These legislative developments and infrastructure are supplemented by 3 The Spanish Historic Heritage is composed by movable and immovable heritage of historic character that are subject to be studied with archaeological methodology, that have been or haven't been extracted and if they are either on the surface, subsoil, in territorial waters or in the continental platform. Also considered part of this Heritage are the geological and paleonthological elements related to the history of mankind and its origins and history. Spanish Historical Heritage Law, 16/1985, Article 40 4 It will be punished with a sentence of up to three years in prison and a fine of between twelve and twenty four months to whomever might cause damage in...archaeological sites. Spanish Penal Code, Article 323 5 �the National Plan for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Green Paper 2010). This document sets targets to achieve over the coming years. There is a publication, Green Paper: National Plan for Protection of Underwater Heritage (Aznar, et al. 2010). that, after a diagnosis of the present situation, presents remedial corrective measures necessary to advance in the treatment of this heritage. A POSSIBLE FUTURE The signing on December 2, 2010 in Washington of a partnership between the Spanish Ministry of Culture and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) included, among other issues, the protection and research of wrecks in the respective countries. It is a good example of the kind of activities that can be carried out There is a large chapter in Spanish history that requires all the information provided by Spanish vessels sunk in the Asia–Pacific area. They should therefore be treated as historical artefacts in accordance with the spirit of the 2001Convention. Two aspects of the 2001 Convention are essential in this type of activity: no commercial exploitation of archaeological sites and collaboration between the States concerned. Spain has, as part of its heritage, important archives essential for a full scientific understanding of an archaeological site. At the same time we also have very good professional historians and underwater archaeologists capable of working together to provide a complete vision of the Spanish presence in Asia-Pacific territories. The National Museum of Underwater Archaeology - ARQUA is the technical section of the Ministry of Culture competent in these matters and collaboration with other research teams. It can carry out work of cataloguing the underwater archaeological sites of Spanish history with Pacific countries. With this catalogue we will have a tool to manage the underwater cultural heritage. It will allow us to establish the most effective actions to perform, bearing in mind its preservation and further scientific research. Bibliography Aznar Gomez, M. Green Paper. National Plan for Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture, Madrid, access et al., (http://museoarqua.mcu.es/patrimonio_subacuatico/plan_na 2010 cional/index.html) Aznar, M., La protección jurídica internacional del Patrimonio Cultural 2009 Subacuático, Arqueología Nàutica i Subaquàtica, Monografies del CASC, 8, pp. 35-46. Constitución del Boletín Oficial del Estado, núm. 311, 29/12/1978 Reino de España, 1978 Pérez Herrero, El Galeón de Manila: Relaciones Comerciales entre Oriente y América. In: de Paula Solano Pérez-Lila, F. Extremo P., 1989 Oriente Ibérico: Investigaciones Históricas, Metodología y 6 �Schurz, W.L., 1939 Tratado de Zaragoza, 1529 Estado de la Cuestión. AECID, Madrid, pp.445-458 The Manila Galleon, E.P. Dutton, New York. Tratado de Zaragoza. [manuscript] Archivo General de Indias (AGI), Patronato, 49, Nº2, ramo 9. The text is reproduced in full in Rumeu de Armas, A. 1992: El Tratado de Tordesillas Mapfre, Madrid. UNESCO, 2001Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. United Nations, 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Paris. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Spain and the Underwarter Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Area Subject The topic of the resource Session 9 Spain and the Asia-Pacific region Description An account of the resource In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan reached the Mariana Islands in the name of king Charles I of Spain. His travel of exploration to seek out a westward route to the Spice Islands lead to a long standing presence of Spain in the Asia-Pacific region. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi established the first Spanish colony in the Philippines in 1565 and only a few months later, Andrés de Urdaneta had made a safe return trip to Acapulco which lead to the establishment of the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade route that lasted until Mexico’s independence in 1815. Today, Spain’s maritime legacy is dispersed around the world, with a large number of settlements and wrecks located in the Asia-Pacific region. For the past 30 years, the Spanish government has done enormous efforts to study its past overseas, especially in the Americas. Finally, the time has come to rediscover our links with Asia-Pacific countries and redesign our cultural ties with the region. In this paper I will analyze Spain’s institutions and laws that will hopefully lead to a new collaboration paradigm that will re-evaluate Spain’s role in the history of Asia-Pacific. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xavier Nieto Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 9