21 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1257bc0d9c32ea0e55f0b7a75e208d04.pdf 24a6b748ec4fc4bc38c21eeabc5f0fd6 PDF Text Text Expedient Field Modifications of a WWII Amphibious Landing Craft in Saipan W. Shawn Arnold1 Abstract The June 1944 the United States of America's (USA) invasion of Saipan was the largest amphibious invasion of a Pacific island up to that time. Specialized craft constructed specifically for this invasion were utilized in order to deliver American forces across Saipan’s fringing reefs and lagoons to shore with relative safety. Although these amphibious craft, known as Landing Vehicles Tracked (LVTs), were designed for this particular incursion, the troops operating these vehicles found it necessary to modify their vessels to better suit anticipated combat needs. Modifications of this sort have been termed field expedient armor modifications (Boal 2006). Field expedient armor modifications to LVTs influenced future production designs following the launch of the first model and can be traced through archaeological and historical records. These modifications are demonstrated in an LVT (A)-4 archaeologically recorded in Saipan and are testament to the ingenuity and survival instincts of the crews that operated these machines. Introduction This study focuses on a LVT(A)-4 (Figure 1) located in Tanapag Lagoon, Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI). The aim of this paper is to further understand the significance of amphibious vehicles used during World War II (WWII), particularly in relation to the Battle of Saipan. The advent of amphibious watercraft such as the LVT for use during WWII is directly responsible for saving numerous USA lives. The ability to drive invasion forces through the water, over shallow reefs and deliver them on shore prevented considerable causalities, as it prohibited the invasion force from having to wade hundreds and sometimes thousands of meters across lagoons under heavy enemy fire (Bailey 1986). Unfortunately, these machines have been nearly forgotten through time and have taken a back seat to other technology such as the planes and tanks of the era. 1 Marine Archaeologist, C&C Technologies, shawn.arnold@cctechnol.com �Figure 1. Comparison of an early and late production model LVT(A)-4 (Mesko 1993). The LVT, also known as the amphibious tractor or Amtrac, was the workhorse for USA forces during WWII in the Pacific region. Their unique ability to travel both in and out of the water provided them an advantage other vehicles lacked. LVTs were called upon to perform a wide array of tasks including delivering assault troops to the beach, evacuating wounded, delivering supplies, and acting as mobile command posts and mobile weapons platforms (Croizat 1953). The LVT The acronym LVT and name Amtrac are general terms referring to an amphibious vehicle that is propelled on land and in the water by a tracked propulsion system. Following the military designation LVT is a number, which signifies the production model. An “A” in parenthesis signifies that the LVT is an armored version. The title "armored" can refer to the fact that the LVT in question is covered in armored plates for assault purposes or that it is equipped to operate as a mobile artillery unit. The artillery versions are easily recognizable because they have a large caliber weapon mounted on the top. The LVT was one of the first true amphibious vehicles. These vehicles have a single engine propulsion system consisting of tracks mounted on both the port and starboard sides. The vessel’s tracks mount cleats known as grousers (Figure 2). These grousers act as paddles in order to propel the vehicle through the water and provide traction while crossing reef flats and shoreline terrain (United States Marine Corps Air-Ground Museum 1997). LVTs were constructed of steel and kept afloat by air contained in pontoons on both sides of the vehicle. �Figure 2. LVT grouser assembly (Department of the Army 1951). Carrying capacity and the intended mission of the LVT changed through time and design modifications reflect these changes in LVT manufacture. The versatility of the LVT allowed for the easy adaptation of a wide range of roles in amphibious warfare. The first military production model is known as the LVT-1, which saw its first combat action during the Solomon Islands campaign in 1943 (Croizat 1999). LVTs were intended to only carry cargo to the landing zone once the Marines secured a beachhead; however, because the fringing reef was too shallow for the traditional landing craft to deliver the Marines close to shore, LVTs were used to ferry the invading forces to the shoreline (Croizat 1999). Thus began the LVT’s life as a troop carrier and assault craft. This change in its role affected military doctrine for the remainder of WWII in the Pacific region. Military leaders recognized the potential for the implementation of the LVT as an amphibious assault vehicle from its first combat use (Bailey 1986). Invasion forces added additional machine guns to their existing LVTs and placed orders for more LVTs with pre-mounted weapons (Bailey 1986). As the war continued on, it became apparent additional modifications were needed and the production of diverse special purpose designs commenced. As a result, a definite seriation of LVT design exists from cargo carrier (LVT-1) to armored troop delivery systems (LVT (A)-2 and LVT-4 [Armored Cab]) to armored artillery platforms (LVT [A]-1 and LVT [A]-4, also known as Amphibious Tanks or Amtanks). Interestingly, the people who operated these machines devised ways to improve the LVT with field expedient armor modifications in order to prolong not only their own lives but also the life of their LVTs (Baker 2004). Boal (2006: 5) defines “field expedient armor modifications” as changes made to a vehicle after it has left the production facilities. These improvisations have been documented by historians and are observable on the LVT (A)-4 site in Saipan. Further, these �modifications are the specific focus of this paper in relation to individual and troop action as demonstrated in the archaeological record. Approach Utilizing a holistic approach to explore the use of LVT (A)-4s in the Battle of Saipan, archaeologists set out to identify processes that may have affected this site in order to determine the conditions under which it formed. Muckelroy pioneered site process evaluation for maritime archaeological sites in his book Maritime Archaeology (1978). Since that time others have expanded the method of process evaluation. Ward, Larcomb and Veth. (1999) expand on Mulckelroy’s site formation process model by including environmental, chemical and biological factors. Richards (2002) identifies site signatures that provide researchers with clues to the types of salvage, discard, reuse, scrapping and abandonment behaviors that may have occurred at a site. Gibbs (2006) identifies the importance of the relationships between documentary, archaeological and oral data sets in order to recognize discrepancies. Jung (2009) recognizes WWII wreck site patterns in determining site formation processes on sunken aircraft. Process analysis has not been used previously to evaluate an archaeological site involving an amphibious vehicle. Thus, there is no model for what a salvaged versus un-salvaged LVT should look like, or the signature of a site lost in battle opposed to one deposited in the water post-battle. The amphibious nature of LVTs yields the possibility that the craft my have been catastrophically lost on shore and then discarded in the water. Process analysis has been particularly useful to maritime archaeologists studying historic period sites who often use this method for the purpose of determining site formation where historic records are conflicting or non-existent (Gibbs 2006; Jung 2009). Understanding the various cultural and environmental processes that may have influenced the formation of this archaeological site is key to determining the reason for its location. Site signatures presented in the work of Muckelroy, Ward et al., Richards, Gibbs and Jung were used to determine the nature of the site and the extent of salvage efforts conducted on it. Gibbs’s process model is also useful in relation to pre-impact questions of modification and behavior. The works of Muckelroy, Ward, Richards, Gibbs and Jung as they apply to loss and salvage were used to create a process model (Figure 3) for better understanding the site formation of amphibious vessels. �Figure 3. Process model for Evaluating LVT Sites (Arnold 2010). Historic Research In-depth historical research was conducted concerning WWII in the Pacific islands campaign, and more specifically, amphibious warfare and the use of LVTs. Primary documents concerning the Battle of Saipan describe in detail how forces fought the battle and the terrain troops encountered. Troop movements and obstacles that hindered them are described in numerous historic accounts and in some cases are supplemented by detailed maps (Headquarters Fourth Marine Division 1944; Gugeler 1945; Bartholomees 1948; Adams 1950; Bailey 1976; Croizat 1992). These maps were used to demonstrate the dynamics of the battlefield and how terrain influenced the use of LVTs. This information was used to evaluate possible battle locations near the LVT (A)-4 site in Tanapag Lagoon. Perhaps the most important primary source for understanding potential processes that may have affected this site is the Department of the Army’s Technical Manual for LVT (A)-4s (1951). This manual provides instructions for the LVT’s operation, maintenance, armament and storage, as well as its destruction to prevent it falling into the hands of an enemy. Of particular interest are guidelines for the evacuation and/or destruction of essential parts once an LVT is disabled in combat. After all usable items have been evacuated from the �vessel these procedures go on to include descriptions of how to dispose of the LVT by means of sinking, burning, demolition and gunfire. Works by Alfred Bailey (1976) and Dale Barker (2004) give firsthand accounts of LVT crews conducting field expedient armor modifications to LVTs as preparations before engaging in battles in the Gilbert Islands, the Marshall Islands, and the Mariana Islands. This information facilitated creation of a list of items to be investigated on the Tanapag Lagoon LVT (A)-4. Pre-Impact Threats, Strategies and Assessments As Identified in the Historic Record In order to clearly demonstrate the need for and use of amphibious landing craft in the Battle of Saipan, it is necessary to first identify the pre-impact threats, strategies and assessments of USA forces. The USA invaded Saipan from the western side of the island (Ministry of Defence 1995), and in doing so positioned itself to intercept Japanese counter attacks and resupply efforts. This decision was based on intelligence reports which gave a good indication that the Japanese fleet was near the Philippines, west of Saipan (Ministry of Defence 1995). Additionally, the USA learned through aerial reconnaissance that Saipan’s western beaches were not as heavily fortified as the rest of the island (Goldberg 2007). Earlier air and naval bombardments eliminated the threat from key areas on the western side of Saipan, such as aircraft standing by on airstrips and large caliber weapons located on Managaha Island. However, the beaches chosen for the invasion possessed a fringing reef roughly 1500 meters offshore of the chosen landing sites. This reef was far too shallow for traditional landing boats to cross and would have left the invading troops completely exposed while walking toward the beach under concentrated enemy fire. The fringing reef and lagoon were not the only challenging features of the terrain. The western beaches contained Japanese fortifications in the form of reinforced concrete bunkers containing artillery and machine guns, as well as dense vegetation further inland. Additionally, range markers were located throughout the lagoon allowing Japanese artillery and mortar crews the ability to rapidly and effectively fire on the arriving USA forces (Adams 1950; Goldberg 2007). These factors obviously influenced the decision to modify LVTs by means of field expedient modifications. Overcoming Threats and Creating Strategies through Technology and Modification The Landing Vehicle Tracked (Armored)-4 (LVT [A]-4) was designed specifically to destroy Japanese reinforced bunkers in response to the pre-impact threat phase of planning the operation (Mesko 1993). The USA air and naval bombardment ceased once the landing vehicles neared the beach. The LVT (A)4s provided the only close-in, large calibre weapons support for troops arriving �behind them (Barker 2004). These amphibious tanks led the way for the waves of landing forces coming ashore. These vehicles had the job of being the first in the line of enemy fire, it is no wonder that the crews operating them chose to modify their vehicles for better protection. Crews learned from previous battles that LVT armor is relatively thin. However, the manufacturer never corrected this weakness due to buoyancy requirements at sea and speed requirements on land set forth by the USA Department of the Navy. It is noted historically that the LVT crews regularly added sheets of steel boilerplate to the bows of their craft because the armor was so thin that coral would often puncture it while crossing shallow reefs (Barker 2004; Mesko 2004). Also documented is the fact that the armor was incapable of preventing small caliber rounds from penetrating to the interior of the vehicle (Bailey 1976). This fact is acknowledged by the adoption of a policy to carry wooden plugs for the purpose of plugging any holes while the vessel was underway (Bailey 1976). The addition of sandbags across the deck added a layer of extra protection for the men inside (Barker 2004). Vehicle modifications were not just limited to the exterior; some crews covered their radios with ponchos and rolled condoms over the microphones as makeshift waterproofing (Barker 2004). Archaeological Investigations The LVT(A)-4 site in Tanapag Lagoon was originaly noted by Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc. (SEARCH) in a survey report in 2008 (Burns 2008). No further archaeological investigation was conducted by SEARCH beyond positive target identification. In July 2009 Students and staff from Flinders University conducted initial site investigations on the LVT (A)-4 to assess the feasibility of including it in a WWII maritime heritage trail. This work was conducted in partnership with not-for-profit organization Ships of Exploration and Discovery (SHIPS), to which the USA National Park Service provided funding through a grant under the American Battlefield Protection Program. Saipan’s Historic Preservation Office (HPO), Coastal Resource Management (CRM), and Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) provided support in the form of survey equipment, boats and personnel. The remainder of equipment and staff were provided through Flinders University. In February 2010 students and staff from Flinders University and SHIPS conducted further investigations at the site. The purpose of this survey was to record the site in detail in order to complete an accurate site plan (Figure 4), record field expedient modifications and possible evidence of salvage as well as gather any additional data that may yield clues as to why this LVT is in its present location. In order to expedite this process, scaled drawings of a LVT (A)-4 were scanned from World War II AFV Plans: American Armored Fighting Vehicles (Bradford 2007). The existing portions of the site were then traced from the images on to Mylar™ and attached to slates so divers could more easily and accurately record what they were seeing. This information was intended to not only record the site in its present condition but also aid with monitoring changes �to the site and its environment in the future. No cultural material was removed or disturbed. Figure 4. Profile and plan view of LVT (A)-4 site. (Arnold 2010). �The LVT (A)-4 is resting at a slight angle in a depth of between 0.6 meters (m) and 3.1m of water on a sandy area between patch reefs in Tanapag Harbour, Saipan. The lower superstructure is mostly intact however the majority of exterior armor plating and superstructure is missing from the upper portion of the craft around the turret. Also missing are the armor track covers and the armor covering of the cab as well as some engine components. Other notable damage includes large, jagged holes in the bow armor and in the ballast area (pontoons) on both sides of the LVT (A)-4. Researchers also noted that modifications were made to this vessel. Archaeological Evidence of Field Expedient Armor Modifications It is reasonable to assume that the crews operating these machines were the first to notice design flaws and set about modifying the LVTs in order to compensate for the lack of armor and armament prior to the amphibious assault on Saipan. These features undoubtedly influenced the design of later production models of LVT (A)-4s. In-depth analysis revealed this LVT possessed many field expedient armor modifications. Both the upper and lower bow had been reinforced with 3/8 inch(inch?) boilerplate. A 0.30 calibre machine gun was added to the cabin at the radio operator’s seat. A steel shield had been welded around the commander’s turret and a pintle machine gun mount was added to the port side of the turret. The modifications of this particular LVT are significant because they reflect the mindset of individuals responding to pre-impact threat processes during WWII. The crews of these vehicles were confronted with difficult missions and design limitations that are reflected in the archaeological record. Extensive field expedient armor modifications for the sake of self-preservation were deemed necessary by LVT crews in order to accomplish the many tasks they faced. Conclusion Following the process model established by Muckelroy (1978) and Richards (2002), the archaeological signature of this site demonstrates that it has been heavily salvaged. There are no loose materials in or around the site and no ammunition of any kind (spent or unspent) was located. The site appears to have been subjected to primary salvage due to the lack of howitzer, machine guns, turret elevation machinery, optical sights, electronic devices and weapons as outlined in the USA Army’s technical manual for LVTs. It is unclear how much, if any, secondary salvage has occurred. To date no historic records have been located that tie this site to any actions of use, disposal or loss. It is reasonable to assume that this LVT was damaged in battle; however the lack of any debris field(s) suggests that this LVT (A)-4 was not damaged at its current location but discarded after salvage efforts occurred elsewhere. �The 1951 Army technical manual (USA Department of the Army 1951) describing the proper disposal of LVTs appears to have been followed. All sensitive equipment and weapons were removed and the vessel was sunk. Although this manual is dated after WWII there was likely to have been an earlier version. The inability to acquire an LVT technical manual preceding 1951 makes it unclear if the disposal methods were set forth prior to, or established as a result of, the Battle of Saipan. The study of field expedient armor modifications, as they relate to the process of pre-impact threat assessments, presents the basis for understanding the degree of modification standardization between units and services, by both the USA and other nations. These modifications have provided insight into the mindset of those operating LVTs and have illustrated a direct influence on the seriation of later production LVT models. A process model for LVT sites enables researchers to quickly and more accurately interpret LVT site formation). Further study of LVT sites will allow archaeologists to develop a site signature for both the catastrophic loss and the deliberate disposal of LVTs. Bibliography Adams, R.E., (ed.)., 1950 Armagnac, A.P., 1945 Arnold, W.S., 2010 Bailey, A.D.M.U.R., (ed.)., 1976 Barker, D.L., 2004 Bartholomees, J.B., 1948 Boal, M.A., 2006 The Operations of Company "B", 715th Amphibian tractor Battalion During the Assualt Landing Of Saipan Island, 15 June 1944 (Personal experience of Company Commander), unpublished manuscript, The Infantry School Fort Benning. "Meet the LVT's: Beach Busters", in Popular Science, 147, 3, pp. 121-124. Investigations in Invasion Innovation; The Archaeological and Historical Study of a WWII Landing Vehicle Tracked in Saipan, master’s thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide. "Alligators, Buffaloes, and Bushmasters: The History and Development of the LVT through World War II", in The History and Museums Division Headquarters, United States Marine Corps, Washington D.C. Hitting the Beaches: The First Armored Amphibian Battalion in World War II (United States Marine Corps), First Armored Amphibian Battalion, Atlanta. Operations of the 773D Amphibian Tractor Battalion (Attached to the 27th Division) in the Operation on Tanapag Plains, Saipan, 7-8 July 1944 (Western Pacific Campaign) (Personal Experience of Battalion Executive Officer) unpublished manuscript, The Infantry School Fort Benning. Field Expedient Armor Modifications to US Armored Vehicles, master’s thesis, Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth. �Bradford, G., 2007 Burns, J.M., 2008 Croizat, V.J., 1953 Croizat, V.J., 1992 Croizat, V.J., 1999 Department of the Army, (ed.)., 1951 Gibbs, M., 2006 Goldberg, H.J., 2007 Gugeler, R.A., 1945 Headquarters Fourth Marine Division, 1944 Jung, S., 2009 Mesko, J., 1993 Ministry of Defence, 1995 Muckelroy, K., 1978 Richards, N., 2008 United States World War II AFV Plans: American Armored Fighting Vehicles (World War II Armored Fighting Vehicle Plans), Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg. Archaeological Survey Of Tanapag Lagoon Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Site report submitted to Historic Preservation Office, Saipan Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., Gainesville. "The Marines' Amphibian", in Marine Corps Gazette, 37. Across the Reef: The Amphibious Tracked Vehicle at War, Marine Corps Association, Washington D.C. "Battle Honors of the Marine Amphibian II. Offensive Defense", in Marine Corps Gazette, 83. "Tracked Landing Vehicle MK 4 (LVT [4]), Tracked Landing Vehicles (Armored) MK 4 (LVT [A] [4]) and MK 5 (LVT [A] [5])", Department of the Army, Washington. "Cutural Site Formation Process in Maritime Archaeology: Disaster Response, Salvage and Muckelroy 30 Years on", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 35, pp.4-19. D-Day in the Pacific: The Battle of Saipan,Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Army Amphibian Tractor and Tank Battalions in the Battle of Saipan 15 June-9July 1944, unpublished manuscript, 1st Information and Historical Service. Fourth Marine Division Operations Report Saipan: 15 June to 9 July 1944, declassified document, Fort Leavenworth. "Site Formation Process (Wing Inversion) at Catalina Flying Boat Wreck Sites Lying in Roebuck Bay, Broome, WA", in Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 33: (19-31). AMTRACS in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., Carrolliton. The South-East Asia Operations and Central Pacific Advance, Ministry of Defence, London. Maritime Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Ships' Graveyards: Abandoned Watercraft and the Archaeological Formation Process, University Press of Florida, Gainsville. The Alligator Amphibian, American Society of Mechanical �Marine Corps Air-Ground Museum, 1997 Ward, I.A.K., Larcombe, P., and Veth, P., 1999 Engineers International, Quantico. "A New process-based Model for Wreck Site Formation", in Journal of Archaeological Science, 26, 5, pp. 561-570. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3f124e1adf8bd7864425d468ce554883.jpg 6aeff8f62930952a26fceae6b4c20e94 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 760 Height 575 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expedient Field Modifications of a WWII Amphibious Landing Craft in Saipan Subject The topic of the resource Session 1: Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource The June 1944 the United States of America's (USA) invasion of Saipan was the largest amphibious invasion of a Pacific island up to that time. Specialized craft constructed specifically for this invasion were utilized in order to deliver American forces across Saipan’s fringing reefs and lagoons to shore with relative safety. Although these amphibious craft, known as Landing Vehicles Tracked (LVTs), were designed for this particular incursion, the troops operating these vehicles found it necessary to modify their vessels to better suit anticipated combat needs. Modifications of this sort have been termed field expedient armor modifications (Boal 2006). Field expedient armor modifications to LVTs influenced future production designs following the launch of the first model and can be traced through archaeological and historical records. These modifications are demonstrated in an LVT (A)-4 archaeologically recorded in Saipan and are testament to the ingenuity and survival instincts of the crews that operated these machines. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource W. Shawn Arnold Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Exploration for Shipwrecks off Sunchi Reef, Goa, West Coast of India Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sila Tripati A. S. Gaur Sundaresh Bandodker S. N. Bandodker Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Feb., 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Sila Tripati A. S. Gaur Sundaresh Bandodker S. N. Bandodker Item Type Journal Article ISSN 00438243 Abstract Note Archival records show that a number of ships have sunk in the waters off Goa, on the west coast of India, as a result of foul weather, warfare and human error. Explorations were carried out in 1997-9 to locate shipwrecks using a boat-towed metal detector and visual surveys in 3 to 9m water depth off Sunchi Reef. A wreck was discovered and its investigation revealed guns, a shot, potsherds, glass bottle pieces, a broken rudder and dressed granite stone blocks. These finds suggest that the wreck dates from the Portuguese period (seventeenth to eighteenth century AD) and was therefore a wooden-hulled ship. The most probable cause of the wrecking was the shallow laterite shoals in the region. Although modest in scope, this project is important as one of the few underwater investigations yet to be undertaken by Indian archaeologists. Access Date 2009-11-28 07:14:12 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Feb., 2001 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Issue Title: Shipwrecks / Full publication date: Feb., 2001 / Copyright © 2001 Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Issue 3 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 355-367 Publication Title World Archaeology Title A name given to the resource Exploration for Shipwrecks off Sunchi Reef, Goa, West Coast of India URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/827927 Volume 32 India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/784b54b32524e81495e98918d0c23b07.pdf 0aebe55a1801867239cb797bb5bead16 PDF Text Text Exploring the Sunken Military Heritage of Midway Atoll Madeline J. Roth East Carolina University Jason T. Raupp East Carolina University Kelly A. Keogh Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument Bert Ho, Submerged Resources Center, National Park Service Abstract Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Japanese Imperial Navy readied their forces to secure the Pacific Theatre through one final blow to the US aircraft carrier fleet. The target of that attack was the US base at Midway Atoll, which provided support as a naval air station and submarine refit center. In June 1942, the Japanese Navy launched an aerial attack on Midway in an effort to destroy its defenses and lure the remaining aircraft carriers into combat. Although outgunned and outnumbered, US aviators surprised the Japanese fleet and succeeded in destroying four of their carriers, thereby crippling Japanese aerial defenses for the remainder of the war. Today, Midway Atoll is situated within the boundaries of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument and many of its World War II naval facilities are preserved as a memorial to those who lost their lives. Recent interest in the battle has led to a renewed effort to locate and document the submerged cultural heritage of the atoll and to create outreach materials addressing both the tangible and intangible heritage of the battle. This paper provides an overview of the history of the atoll and the Battle of Midway, describes significant archaeological sites so far located there, and discusses recent survey projects focused on identifying the remains of aircraft associated with the battle. Key words: Midway, World War II, survey, aircraft Introduction Located at the northwest end of the Hawaiian island chain (Fig. 1), Midway atoll is geographically isolated, sitting approximately 1300 miles northwest of Honolulu (FWS, 2000). Managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service �(FWS) and part of the larger Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM), the atoll is protected as a National Wildlife Refuge, National Memorial, and a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site (NOAA, 2017). Furthermore, the WWII-era facilities on Eastern and Sand Islands are designated as historic structures on the US National Register of Historic Places (Thompson, 1986). Visitation to the atoll is currently restricted, limiting public interaction with the atoll's historic resources to outreach materials. As such, there has been an increased interest by PMNM (in partnership with FWS and the US National Park Service, NPS) to better understand and present the historical significance of Midway atoll to the public through archival research, archaeological site detection and documentation, site visitation, and mapping. Fig. 1: Midway Atoll, located at the eastern part of the Northwestern Hawaiian Island chain. (NOAA) �Historical Background Concerned with the increasing Japanese presence in the Pacific, the United States (US) Navy began construction on a naval air station at Midway atoll in 1938 (FWS, 2000). The two islands within the atoll soon became host to the 6th Marine Defense Battalion and the 2nd Raider Battalion when construction of the base was completed in 1941 (Thompson, 1986). As Midway was (and remains) geographically isolated, the islands' infrastructures emphasized coastal defense, fuel storage, and air transport facilities. In May 1942, the Imperial Japanese Naval code was deciphered, revealing an imminent attack on the base (Layton et al., 2006). Reinforcements of submarines, motor torpedo (PT) boats, and aircraft were sent to Midway while the US aircraft carriers sailed north of the atoll (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943:3). Submarines and small craft began patrolling nearby waters while aircraft stationed at the base participated in daily scouting trips (Nimitz, 1942:4). The evening of 3 June 1942, US scout bombers located Japanese ships to the west of the atoll, approximately 470 miles from the air station (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943:9). By 6:00 a.m., on 4 June, radar stationed at the atoll had picked up numerous aircraft flying at 12,000 feet approximately 93 miles from the base (Simard, 1942:2). Targeting communications buildings, the power plant, and fuel storage areas, Japanese aviators succeeded in disrupting communications and caused substantial damage to the seaplane base (Fig. 2). Furthermore, many of the base's defenses proved useless against Japanese planes. Antiaircraft guns were too slow to match Japanese bombers, as were American fighter planes; of the 27 Brewster F2A-3 Buffalos and Grumman F4F Wildcats which had departed Midway to meet the coming onslaught, �only a handful of planes returned unharmed (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943). Fig. 2: Japanese attack on Midway Atoll as depicted by Norman Bel Geddes for Life Magazine (Official U.S. Navy Photograph). As personnel on Midway prepared for a second attack, Japanese aircraft on carriers faced an escalating emergency; bomber aircraft from US carriers had located the Japanese fleet. A carrier war emerged out of the chaos—by 7 June, US forces had destroyed the Japanese carriers Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū and Hiryū while a Japanese submarine succeeded in sinking the carrier USS Yorktown. A total of 332 Japanese and 147 American aircraft were lost during the battle (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943:54; Thompson, 1986). With the Japanese carrier fleet destroyed, the Imperial Japanese Navy was forced to retreat. Those stationed at Midway began rebuilding and strengthening the islands’ defenses (Thompson, 1986:3). Publicized as the ‘turning point’ for war in the Pacific, the battle of Midway has become �synonymous with American valor (Thompson, 1986). However, heroes emerged on both sides of the during the attack and the battle was not without sacrifice—over 300 Americans and 2,400 Japanese gave their lives in service to their countries (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943: 54; Thompson, 1986). Following the battle, the Japanese Navy remained a formidable opponent. While US forces had succeeded in keeping control of the atoll, American aircraft were repeatedly out-maneuvered by their Japanese counterparts such as the Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter. Major Jo Warner who was stationed at Midway during the attack would later state, "…the saddest story was our fighters. The PBYs and dive bombers are slow, but the Grumman and Brewsters used by the marine fighter outfits didn't have a chance against the Zeros” (Warner, 1942:7). Following the battle, engineers strove to redesign American fighter aircraft. The resulting F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair proved far superior to the Buffalos and remained in use through the end of the war. Following the battle of Midway, the atoll remained important in the US Navy’s Pacific strategy through the construction of a submarine base (Ellis, 2002). After WWII, it was used as a US Naval base for the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Downgraded to a Naval Air Facility in 1978, the atoll was designated a National Wildlife Refuge in 1988. In 1993, the atoll was transferred to FWS Papahānaumokuākea following Marine base National closure. Expansion of Monument (formerly the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument) in 2006 placed atoll management under the jurisdiction of FWS and NOAA. Currently, the atoll is closed to visitors; as such, emphasis is currently placed on digital outreach by cultural resource managers. Archaeological Investigations of Midway’s Submerged Heritage �Archaeological investigations of Midway atoll’s sunken heritage began in 1998 (Van Tilburg, 2002a). Since that time, surveys have focused on the documentation of previously known wrecked or dumped watercraft and airplanes, as well as searching particular areas in the vicinity of historically reported wrecks. Along with the many craft lost at the Battle of Midway, historical accounts indicate that a number of 19th and early 20th century vessels are known to have come to grief upon the atoll’s reefs. These include the two-masted schooner Julia E. Whalen (1903), the schooner General Seigel (1886), the bark Wandering Minstrel (1888), the threemasted bark Carrolton (1906), the sloop Helene (1915), and an unidentified Japanese sampan lost in 1925 (Van Tilburg, 2002b; PMNM, 2011). Of those sites, only the bark Carrolton has been identified and thoroughly documented (Maynard et al., 1998; Van Tilburg, 2002b; Van Tilburg, 2003; Van Tilburg, 2005). Towboarding and drift diving have been the most fruitful methods for identifying underwater cultural heritage that represents many of the various events and activities that have occurred at Midway over time. Such surveys have resulted in the discovery of a range of materials and sites such as 19th and 20th century anchors and chain, WWII-era aircraft wreckage and unexploded ordinance, and sites of 20th century scientific data collection (Raupp, 2015). USS Macaw The wreck of the submarine rescue vessel USS Macaw is among the most prominent and well-known underwater archaeological sites at Midway Atoll. Situated on the eastern side of the main shipping channel, the site lies in 8-12 meters (m) (25-45 feet (ft)) of water. The wreck was first investigated in 1998 with a detailed site plan and photomosaic produced by an archaeological team from NOAA, East Carolina University, and University of Hawaii in 2003 (Van Tilburg, 2003; PMNM, 2011). In 2005, �the wreck was extensively documented using high definition video equipment and digital still photography (Van Tilburg, 2005) and monitoring surveys are conducted regularly with a focus on photographic and video documentation. Although US Navy divers attempted to reduce the ship’s superstructure and clear the channel post-wrecking, substantial hull remains – including the relatively intact bow section – are scattered over an approximately 75 m (240 ft) area. Associated material culture including three large anchors, the detached rudder anchor chains, and heavy bronze artifacts remain scattered throughout the site (Van Tilburg, 2003). A Midway-based dive shop took advantage of the easy access to the site and for several years ran tours during slack tide and optimum weather conditions; however, no changes are known to have occurred to the site since salvage operations ended in 1944 (Van Tilburg, 2003a; Van Tilburg, 2003b). The location and remains of USS Macaw have been further researched since the time of its wrecking. Archival data indicates that the Chanticleer class USS Macaw (ASR-11) was launched in 1942 in Oakland, California and received a commission by the US Navy in July 1943. The vessel first sailed to the south Pacific to participate in a hydrographic survey of uncharted coral reefs. Soon after it was sent on its first salvage mission to Midway Atoll, where in January 1944 it ran aground while attempting to assist the submarine USS Flier (Van Tilburg, 2003a; Van Tilburg, 2003b; PMNM, 2008). Foul weather and sea conditions thwarted the numerous efforts to extract USS Macaw from the reef and it was ultimately abandoned and sunk. The ship was later salvaged of useful equipment before explosives flattened the superstructure and cleared the channel (Van Tilburg, 2003a). Vought F4U Corsair �The remains of a Vought F4U Corsair aircraft were first identified by members of the "Coral King Dive Club" in 1976 (NOAA, 2017). Resting in approximately 35 m (115 ft) of water on a sand seabed, the site is situated off the south shore runway on Sand Island. Archaeological surveys conducted between 2002 and 2008 focused on site documentation and a special photographic survey of the site was conducted in 2008 to capture data for use in the creation of a computer generated three-dimensional rendering of the site (Fig. 3)(Gleason, 2008; PMNM, 2011). The wreck site is comprised of two distinct areas situated approximately 200 m apart; one incorporates the largely inverted fuslage and wing portion of the plane with its retractable landing gear down and the other is a large and wellpreserved radial engine. The fuselage and wing section is largely intact and the artifacts identified on the seabed are pieces of the plexiglass from the cockpit canopy and rolls of .50-caliber ammunition (Van Tilburg, 2002). Due to the mostly flat and featureless bottom, the site provides a wide variety of fish species with a wealth of habitats in which to shelter” (Van Tilburg, 2007:4). �Fig. 3: Photogrammetric model of the Vought F4U Corsair at Midway Atoll (Image courtesy of Bert Ho, Exploring the Sunken Heritage of Midway Atoll expedition 2017). The distinctive bent-wing design of the wrecked aircraft make it easily identifiable as a F4U Corsair. In production between 1942 and 1952, the Corsair was powered by a Pratt and Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp aircooled radial engine with a large Hamilton Standard propeller which produced a top speed of over 400 miles per hour (Tillman, 2001). Although the exact date for the loss of this F4U Corsair is unknown, it occurred sometime after Battle of Midway since the type was only introduced to the Pacific theater in 1943. Based on the postion of the retractable landing gear, it is likely that the plane crashed either on appraoch or shortly after take off from the runway at Sand Island (Van Tilburg, 2002a). F2A Brewster Buffalo In 2012, divers from NOAA’s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral Reef Ecosystem Division located the remains of a wrecked Brewster �F2A Buffalo while conducting marine debris surveys at Midway Atoll. Located in approximately 3 m (10 ft) of water on the eastern side of the lagoon, the site consists of disarticulated military aircraft components concentrated in a discreet area of the seabed. An archaeological survey of the site by a team of researchers from PMNM produced detailed sketches of artifacts, a site plan, photographic and video records, and a photogrammetric model of the main concentration of wreckage. Reconnaissance surveys of the surrounding area found a large scatter of associated wreckage, which suggests that the plane likely broke up on impact with the water. Artifacts recorded at the site include a Wright R1820-40 Cyclone radial engine and mangled propeller, four .50-caliber Browning machine guns, .50-caliber ammunition, cockpit canopy glass, a control column, a tail cone, and multiple components of a Buffalo’s distinctive landing gear (Raupp and Green, 2012). No previous knowledge of the site or evidence of anthropogenic impacts have been located in archives or historic documents. The shallow nature of the site and the fact that no fuselage remains were identified, however, suggest that the majority of the wreckage may have been recovered sometime after impact for disposal. Archival research did provide information on the aircraft and the wrecking event; in February 1942, a squall caused United States Marine Corps (USMC) Lt. Col. Charles W. Somers, Jr. to crash into the lagoon at Midway Atoll while trying to land at Eastern Island (TIGHAR, 2012:27). Somers survived the crash and went on to fight in the Battle of Midway. He was later appointed as the first commanding officer of VMF-214, also known as the Black Sheep Squadron (Allison, 2003:68). �P40 Warhawk While conducting routine towboarding operations in 2014, PMNM archaeologists discovered the remains of a P-40K Warhawk fighter aircraft off the southeastern portion of Midway Atoll’s barrier reef. Resting at a depth of approximately 8m (25 ft) and situated in two distinct areas within a relatively small area of the spur and groove reef system, the site is located just offshore of one Eastern Island’s historic runways. Site surveys produced detailed sketches of individual artifacts and a site plan, as well as photographic and video records of the site. Identified among the scattered wreckage were a large inline engine, components of landing gear, two propeller blades, three .50-caliber machine guns, a machine gun muzzle, and .50-caliber ammunition (Gleason, 2014). Determination of the aircraft type proved simple due to the distinct design of the motor; identified as an Allison V-1710 12 cylinder liquid-cooled engine, it was used to power the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk aircraft. Markings on some of the artifacts further supported this identification. The .50caliber shells marked “1941” offered at date of production, and manufacturing on the muzzle indicated that was intended for use with a .50-caliber Browning machine gun (Gleason, 2014). No previous knowledge of this site or any impacts that have occurred to the wreck over time have been located. The fact that no fuselage remains were identified is unsurprising, given the large swells created by winter storms which have likely broken up and displaced the lightweight aluminum hull and deposited only heavier iron objects. Archival research indicates that only one P-40K Warhawk is known to have wrecked off the eastern shore of Eastern Island. In February 1943, US Army Air Force (USAAF) Lt. Ray Obenshain, Jr. was forced to ditch �his P-40 and parachute to safety when the controls froze shortly after takeoff (NOAA, 2017). This plane was one of twenty-four aircraft detailed to the USAAF 78th Fighter Squadron, which set an aviation milestone when they arrived at Midway in January 1943. After equipping the planes with special belly tanks to provide extra fuel, the squadron departed Barking Sands Air Force Base on Kauai and flew 1100 miles, the longest over-water flight of a single engine, land-based airplane ever attempted (Bennett, 2009). Aircraft Wreck SW Components of an unidentified aircraft wreck were identified in the southwestern portion of the barrier reef in 2015. Phenomenal sea conditions allowed a team PMNM of researchers to conduct towboard surveys close to the reef in the generally difficult to operate portion of the atoll. Lying in approximately 3 m (10 ft) of water in a channel of the spur and groove reef topography, an intact three-bladed propeller, hub, shaft, gears, and other engine components were identified. Time constraints allowed for only preliminary archaeological recording of the site but produced sketches of artifacts, photographic and video records, and a photogrammetric model of the propeller and nearby artifacts. Artifacts identified in the surrounding area included a tailhook painted with alternating red and white stripes, two .50-caliber machine guns, a cylinder cover from a radial engine, rubber fittings, wiring, a loaded ammunition canister, and deteriorated portions of the plane’s hull (Raupp et al., 2015). The area was considered a priority for survey as archival research suggested a P-40 Warhawk had been lost in the vicinity (Linville, 2010:12). While the aircraft has not been identified as a Warhawk—and is in need of further archaeological and archival research—limited survey of the site suggests the aircraft hit the water and/or reef very hard, �breaking apart on impact. As with the P-40K site identified off the southeast of Midway’s barrier reef, the lack of substantial fuselage remains identified in this location is unsurprising. Heavy swells appear to have displaced hull structure by forcing lightweight artifacts into crevices under the reef and depositing heavier objects on the seabed. 2017 Survey A total of 31 WWII-era aircraft wrecks occurring within 5 miles of Midway have been identified through archival research (Linville, 2010:10-14). As only four of these sites were documented archaeologically, NOAA and NPS archaeologists (in partnership with FWS personnel) returned to Midway in 2017 (coinciding with the 75th anniversary of the battle) to continue surveying for material culture. Funded through the NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, the project was aimed at identification of submerged aircraft remains associated with the atoll’s World War II heritage. Over the course of one week, 200 linear nautical miles were surveyed with a magnetometer. 102 anomalies were identified, 86 of which yielded material culture. While many of these findings date to the 19th and early 20th century, two WWII era sites were located during the survey. The first site has been (tentatively) identified as a Pratt and Whitney Twin Wasp Engine (Ho and Keogh, 2017). While this model was prevalent during the war, an F4U Corsair was the only plane with this engine flown at Midway. As the Corsair only arrived at the atoll in October 1942, this site post-dates the battle. The second site, found during the last day of diving operations, consists of a partial radial engine. Due to the fragmented nature of the site, further research must be conducted before a positive identification can be made (Ho and Keogh, 2017). �Ongoing Research Additional research addressing the WWII cultural heritage at Midway were conducted as part of the 2017 fieldwork. Prior to physical fieldwork at the atoll, researchers revisited archival material to assess the battle’s military terrain through KOCOA analysis (Roth and McKinnon, 2017). Widely used to interpret historic naval and terrestrial engagements, little has been done to adapt KOCOA to historic aerial combat (Babits et al., 2011, Spennemann, 2011:360, Frye and Resnick, 2013). Thus, re-evaluating KOCOA parameters to include aerial combat aided researchers in better understanding decisions made by pilots during the battle. Furthermore, the KOCOA data could be presented in cartographic form (Fig. 4). Fig. 4: WWII Era Facilities at Midway Atoll. (Authors 2017) The resulting geo-spatial data was used in conjunction with biographies of WWII-era crash casualties at Midway (see Linville, 2017) to create an �ArcGIS Story Map. Archaeologists have found the Story Maps program is opening new avenues of interactive digital outreach (Alemy et al., 2017). Given the current constraints of visiting Midway and accessing the atoll’s tangible heritage, the Story Map presents interactive content and a platform for public outreach on a global scale. Conclusions Aircraft wrecked within the shallow waters of Midway have undergone extensive mechanical deterioration associated with the dynamic marine environment found at the atoll. Comparative preservation of the F4U Corsair, located in a much deeper and more stable environment, suggests that offshore survey may yield sites with better preservation. Nevertheless, the 2017 survey results suggest WWII heritage remains submerged in shallower atoll waters and can contribute to the ongoing study of war in the Pacific. Further research into the activities at the atoll post-battle may shed light on the newest WWII-era submerged sites. While none of the remains located thus far are associated with the battle, they are significant cultural resources which contribute to understanding the role Midway played in the War. Digital outreach materials addressing this history offers new ways for the public to engage with both tangible and intangible remains of a shared aviation heritage. �References Alemy, Alexis, Sophia Hudzik, and Christopher N. Matthews, 2017. Creating a User-Friendly Interactive Interpretive Resource with ESRI’s ArcGIS Story Map Program. Historical Archaeology. Vol. 51(2):288-297. Allison. F. H., 2003. The Black Sheep Squadron: A Case Study in the U.S. Marine Corps’ Innovation in Close Air Support. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Babits, Lawrence, Christopher T. Espenshade, and Sarah Lowry, 2011. Battlefield Analysis: Six Maritime Battles in Maryland Revolutionary War and War of 1812. Final Report. New South Associates, Stone Mountain, Georgia. Bennett, John D., 2009. Barking Sands Army Air Base World War II History. Manuscript on File at Pacific Missile Range Facility Barking Sands, Kekaha, Hawaii. Ellis, D.R., 2002. The History and Strategic Importance of the Midway Islands. USAWC Strategy Research Report, Carlisle Barrack, PA. Frye, Lori, and Benjamin Resnick, 2013. National Register of Historic Places Registration Form: Ewa Plain Battlefield. National Register of Historic Places Registration Form. GAI Consultants, Inc., Homestead, Pennsylvania. FWS, 2000. Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington D.C. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/umn.31951d01858169p. Gleason, K., 2008. Activity Report: Maritime Heritage Resources Survey HA-08-04. Submitted to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/ Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Gleason, K., 2014. Activity Report: Maritime Heritage Resources Survey HA-14-04. Submitted to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Ho, Bert and Kelly Keogh, 2017. Beneath the Surface: Exploring the Sunken Heritage of the Battle of Midway. Gooney Gazette, Summer 2017. Friends of Midway Atoll NWR, San Anselmo, CA. �Layton, Rear Admiral Edwin T., Captain Roger Pineau, and John Costello, 2006. And I Was There : Breaking the Secrets - Pearl Harbor and Midway. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD. Linville, Nicholas, 2010. Maritime Heritage Remote Sensing Survey of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: Archival Research Report. Prepared for NOAA and PMNM by SEARCH, Inc. Linville, Nicholas, 2017. Biographical Study of World War II Aircraft Crash Casualties at Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Midway Atoll, US Minor Outlying Islands. Prepared for NOAA by SEARCH, Inc. Maynard, Sherwood, Hans K. Van Tilburg, David Pence and Elizabeth Kumabe, 1998. University of Hawaii Team Visit to Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge 10-17 June 1998. Marine Option Program report submitted to USFWS July 1998. NOAA, 2017. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. January 30. http://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/new-about/. Accessed 19 April 2017. Nimitz, C.W., 1942. Battle of Midway. United States Navy, Pearl Harbor, HI. Report on file at the National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD. Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943. Combat Narratives Battle of Midway June 3-6, 1942. United States Navy, Washington D.C. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM). 2011. Maritime Heritage Research, Education, and Management Plan: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Honolulu, Hawai‘i. Raupp, Jason T. 2015. PMNM RAMP Cruise 2015 Maritime Heritage Activity Report. Report Submitted to Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, HI. Raupp, Jason T. and Cathy Green, 2012. HI-12-03 Maritime Heritage Cruise Activity Log. Report Submitted to Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, HI. �Roth, Madeline and Jennifer F. McKinnon, 2017. Aerial Combat and Heritage: KOCOA Analysis of the Battle of Midway. Report prepared for NOAA by East Carolina University, Program in Maritime Studies, Greenville, NC. Spennemann, Dirk H. R., 2011. The Cultural Landscape of the World War II Battlefield of Kiska, Aleutian Islands: Findings of a Cultural Heritage Survey. Carried out in June 2009. ABPP Grant, U.S. NPS. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW, AU. Simard, C.T., 1942. Report of Engagement with Enemy, Battle of Midway 30 May to 7 June, 1942. Battle Report. United States Naval Air, Midway Island, HI. Report on file at the National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD. TIGHAR, 2012. “Lessons from a Buffalo:” TIGHAR Tracks: The Journal of the International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery, Vol. 28(1):26-29. Tillman, B., 2001. Warbird Tech Series, Volume 4: Vought F4U Corsair. Specialty Press Publishers and Wholesalers, North Branch, MN. Thompson, Erwin N., 1986. World War II-Era Military Facilities, Midway Islands National Register Nomination. National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form. National Park Service, Washington D.C. Van Tilburg, H., 2002a. Underwater Archaeology, Hawaiian Style, in C.V. Ruppé and J.F. Barstad (Eds.), International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers: 247-266. Van Tilburg, H., 2002b. Maritime cultural resources survey: Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Report Submitted to Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve. Van Tilburg, H., 2003a. Kure and Midway Atoll Maritime Heritage Survey 2003. Report Submitted to Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve. Van Tilburg, H.K., 2003b. U.S. Navy Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: An Inventory of Submerged Naval Property. Report Submitted to Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C. �Van Tilburg, H., 2005. Maritime Heritage Resources Assessment 2005 Activity Log. Report Submitted to Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve. Van Tilburg, H., 2007. Activity Report: Maritime Heritage Resources Survey HI-07-07. Report Submitted to Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument. Warner, Jo K., 1942. Journal of VII Bomber Command Liaison Officer at Midway. Journal Entry. U.S. Navy, Midway Island, HI, June 13. Report on file at National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD. Biography Jason Raupp is the Staff Archaeologist for the Program in Maritime Studies at East Carolina University. He holds a B.A. in Anthropology from Northwestern State University, M.A. in History and Historical Archaeology from University of West Florida, and Ph.D. in Archaeology from Flinders University. Over the past twenty years he has been involved with maritime and terrestrial archaeological research in the US, West Africa, Australia, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific region. He has extensive experience in public and private sector cultural heritage management, as well as diving and boating safety. Jason’s research interests include historical and maritime archaeology of the Pacific Ocean, culture contact, historic fisheries, military technologies, battlefield studies, and contact-period rock art. Madeline Roth is a current graduate student at the East Carolina University Program in Maritime Studies. Her research interests include WWII heritage, resource management, and identity construction. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 1: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology and Capacity Building in the Pacific Islands Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) spanning human history from the Stone Age to the atomic age. Since the first Pacific UCH Workshop held in Solomon Islands in 2009, the Pacific island nations have been progressing in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme by awareness raising, research and capacity building activities through inter-disciplinary cooperation and promoting synergy with the Pacific World Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage Programmes. Notable progresses include, among others, the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Outcome Document of the 3rd UN International Cooperation on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Samoa, 2014) that contains references to the importance of UCH for sustainable development of SIDS and SIDS ratification of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), as well as the enhanced cooperation between universities in the Pacific islands and professional training institutions through UNESCO University Twinning and Networking Programme (UNITWIN) for Underwater Archaeology. With this as its background, the session “Underwater and maritime archaeology and capacity building in the Pacific Islands” will be held with the aims to: i) share information on recent progress in awareness raising, research and capacity building activities in underwater and maritime archaeology in the Pacific Islands, ii) identify priority actions, iii) foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. The session especially welcomes presentations focusing on the protection and management of UCH belonging to indigenous community shared UCH in the Pacific, addressing challenges and opportunities facing Pacific SIDS in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme and the promotion of the UCH Convention, presenting good practice in ensuring the effective engagement of Pacific island countries and community in UCH management for their sustainable development, and proposing collaborative projects in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, Samoa Andrew Viduka, Maritime and Commonwealth Heritage, Australian Government, Nicolas Bigourdan, Western Australian Museum Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Exploring the Sunken Military Heritage of Midway Atoll Description An account of the resource Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Japanese Imperial Navy readied their forces to secure the Pacific Theatre through one final blow to the US aircraft carrier fleet. The target of that attack was the US base at Midway Atoll, which provided support as a naval air station and submarine refit center. In June 1942, the Japanese Navy launched an aerial attack on Midway in an effort to destroy its defenses and lure the remaining aircraft carriers into combat. Although outgunned and outnumbered, US aviators surprised the Japanese fleet and succeeded in destroying four of their carriers, thereby crippling Japanese aerial defenses for the remainder of the war. Today, Midway Atoll is situated within the boundaries of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument and many of its World War II naval facilities are preserved as a memorial to those who lost their lives. Recent interest in the battle has led to a renewed effort to locate and document the submerged cultural heritage of the atoll and to create outreach materials addressing both the tangible and intangible heritage of the battle. This paper provides an overview of the history of the atoll and the Battle of Midway, describes significant archaeological sites so far located there, and discusses recent survey projects focused on identifying the remains of aircraft associated with the battle. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Madeline J. Roth Jason T. Raupp Kelly A. Keogh Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Madeline J. Roth Jason T. Raupp Kelly A. Keogh Asia-Pac Session 1 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/34b414ba51dcc2fe4f0f2a29849ddeeb.pdf 6375b0a513e7a93fb6b439a9b197a13f PDF Text Text Feasibility study on capacity building in Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific Jennifer F. McKinnon East Carolina University Program in Maritime Studies Greenville, 27858 USA Email: mckinnonje@ecu.edu Abstract The first UNESCO regional workshop on Pacific underwater cultural heritage (UCH) took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs: systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on a Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Capacity Building Program was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. Key words: UNESCO, Capacity Building, UCH, Training Programme, Pacific Introduction Experts from Pacific Island nations and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) practitioners identified the need for UCH capacity building during the December 2009 workshop “Towards the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific” held in Honiara, Solomon Islands and sponsored by the UNESCO, Apia. During this meeting it was identified that, although there are limited resources available, most Pacific nations recognize the need to develop a program of UCH management and have staff trained in recording, managing and protecting this heritage. As possible steps towards building capacity for managing UCH, participants at the meeting specifically identified the following needs: systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; strengthening assessment and mitigation techniques for negative impacts to underwater sites; and developing a training and education program for managers. These views were expressed in light of increasing threats 1 �posed by lack of legislation, tourism, development, natural disasters and climate change. The UNESCO Apia Office contracted Flinders University’s Program in Maritime Archaeology to conduct and write a feasibility study for developing capacity in UCH management in the Pacific (McKinnon and Kimura, 2011). The Program has a history of participation in UNESCO sponsored programs and an ongoing research agenda on UCH within the Pacific region and was suited to conduct such a project. Selected Existing and Planned Capacity: Programs, Projects and Activities The development of a capacity building program rests on knowledge of what capacity already exists and any future planned capacity. Thus a review of existing programs, projects and activities including UNESCO Pacific member, associate member and non-member nations located in the Pacific was conducted. This included the following nations: Australia, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (non-member), Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam (non-member), Hawaii, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau (Associate member), Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. A review of the existing programs included thorough Internet searches, library searches and targeted emails to relevant practitioners to identify activities related to UCH. Each program, project and activity was then reviewed and information was collected to assess their capacity. Data collated included: institution name, geographic area, previous and current research/work/projects related to UCH, available facilities, contact information, associated websites and publications/texts/references. This information was compiled into a database and each nation was assessed for their potential to contribute to or host a capacity building program. For the purposes of identifying capacity building potential, the definition of “capacity” in the feasibility study involved two key criteria: framework and sustainability. In order for a project, program or activity to be viable and capable of supporting long-term capacity it should provide a general framework that may include, but not be limited to expertise, administration and funding. As well, that project, program or activity must be sustainable over time, that is, not a one-off effort. Thus the existing and planned capacity projects, programs and activities outlined in the feasibility study fulfilled both these criteria. The following nations were outlined for their potential to contribute capacity building programs for UCH in the Pacific: Australia, Commonwealth of the 2 �Northern Mariana Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, Hawaii, New Zealand and Palau. The programs, projects and activities of these nations were investigated further and subdivided into the following categories: government organisations, university programs, non-government (NGOs) and not-for-profit (NFPs) organisations, museums and private organisations and businesses. The best location for hosting a UCH capacity building program was identified as Fiji, discussed further below. A new Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Capacity Building Program During the December 2009 workshop in Honiara, participants discussed the possibilities for building capacity in the Pacific region and decided that it was too early to attempt establishing a Regional Centre of Excellence Field Training Facility as had been done in the Asia region at Chanthaburi, Thailand. Thus, the capacity building program in the Pacific would need to take an approach suited to the Pacific. As a result, the capacity building program focused less on the need for certification in SCUBA and diver training and more on knowledge building and knowledge transfer. Most practitioners and agencies would agree that knowledge is at the core of sustainable capacity development. By increasing knowledge, the capacity building program would develop a framework for training future practitioners to have actual UCH working capacity. The UNESCO Apia Office outlined the following requirements for a capacity building program (UNESCO, 2010a):  combine classroom/online lectures with field training for diving at UCH sites, including those in Pacific island countries  use ICT as a tool for knowledge sharing and networking  be based on public-private partnership, involving tourism diving industry, in order to ensure sustainable funding These three requirements were incorporated into the design of a program that met the needs identified by Pacific nations during the workshop (UNESCO, 2010b) including:  systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites  exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites 3 � strengthening assessment and mitigation techniques for negative impacts to underwater sites  developing a training and education program for managers as possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH Training Based on the above needs identified by Pacific nations, a capacity building program would include an intensive, regional training in one of the Pacific nations involving relevant representatives from each nations’ management authorities and experts in the field of UCH and heritage management. The training would focus on basic knowledge and capacity building. It could be offered during one long training session (i.e. three-four weeks) or divided into two, three, or four sessions over an extended period. The following was a proposed outline for the training separated into sessions, modules and subject matter: Session 1: Underwater Cultural Heritage: Identification, Recording and Database Management Module 1: Defining UCH using a Pacific approach: Introduction to UNESCO and ICOMOS; What is intangible and tangible heritage? Regional priorities in Pacific UCH management Module 2: Requirements for systematic recording of UCH: site identification, recording and delimitation: What types of sites are UCH? Cultural maritime landscape and seascape approaches; Recording techniques for UCH; Defining site boundaries Module 3: Understanding site significance: The Burra Charter process; What is significance? Writing a significance statement; Thematic frameworks and approaches Module 4: Building and maintaining a database of UCH: What is a heritage database? What is included in a database? What software to use? Maintenance of databases; Successful uses of databases Module 5: Practice in recording sites: Conduct an actual archaeological survey of a UCH site 4 �Session 2: Underwater Cultural Heritage: Management Module 1: Identifying risks to intangible and tangible heritage: What are the risks to Pacific UCH? Preventative approaches; Case studies Module 2: In situ conservation and preservation: What is in situ conservation and preservation? Developing and conducting conservation surveys; Developing a conservation management plan Module 3: Disaster risk management and developing a plan: What are natural disasters? Vulnerability of various types of UCH; Planning for disasters; Writing a disaster risk management plan Module 4: Assessment and mitigation of impacts to UCH: Damage assessment investigation and surveys; Violation investigations; Damage assessment report preparation; Case studies Module 5: Developing a network of support: local and regional capacity: Strengthening inter- and intra-island communication and collaboration; Identifying regulatory agencies for partnerships; Trainings for law enforcement on UCH protection; Public outreach programs; Developing local heritage interest groups Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage: Interpretation and Heritage Tourism Module 1: Methods in public interpretation: in situ and museum approaches: What is public interpretation and what forms does it take? In situ interpretation and museums; Traditional approaches to museum interpretation Module 2: Respecting Indigenous UCH places and values: What is an Indigenous heritage place? Identifying traditional owners’ rights and interests; Consulting with traditional owners; Dealing with disputes Module 3: Restricting access to UCH by the public: licensing, permitting and regulation: Legal implications of restricting access; Licensing and permitting schemes using case studies; Regulation of access restriction; Dealing with breaches of access restriction Module 4: Heritage tourism strategies: What is heritage tourism? Regional issues and how can it be sustainable; Working with and training local tour companies and dive shops; Developing a plan for monitoring heavily visited sites; Developing site stewards programs; Heritage Awareness Diving Seminar Trainings Module 5: Successful heritage tourism approaches: UCH parks, trails and preserves; Case studies 5 �Location The preferred location chosen was Fiji. Fiji is an accessible island nation and is serviced by three international airlines including Air New Zealand (Star Alliance member), Air Pacific (Fiji’s national airline) and Pacific Blue (Virgin) as well as several smaller regional airlines. This makes getting to and from Fiji easy for both Pacific nation representatives and experts. Fiji was chosen as the location because the government and the Fiji Museum have previous experience with hosting UNESCO capacity building training programs (Smith and O’Keefe, 2004). The previous capacity building training was run with the permission and support of the Ministry of Fijian Affairs; the Department of Culture and Heritage; the Fiji National Commission for UNESCO; and the National Trust for Fiji. Fiji also was chosen due to the location of the University of South Pacific and the possibility of a partnership between the University’s School of Marine Sciences (SMS) and the Fiji Museum. This would increase capacity for the use of infrastructure such as classrooms, wet and dry labs, boats and ICT tools. According to USP, “SMS is situated in a modern, state-of-the-art facility on the shore of Laucala Bay in Suva, not far from the main Laucala Campus. Its buildings were purpose-built through a grant from Japan, and include offices, science and computer laboratories, lecture theatres, aquaria, a comprehensive library (PIMRIS), a modern fish processing laboratory, collection, SCUBA and boat service facilities”. SMS has a fully equipped and self-contained dive shop with lockers, showers and change-rooms and equipment hire is available. Additionally, there is continual availability of small and medium boats with capacities of 6-20 persons. All are equipped with navigational and safety equipment and operated by trained personnel. Once the training is completed there exists the opportunity to continue taking advantage of USP resources through their online ICT services. USP has campuses located in Suva, Labasa and Lautoka, Fiji; Apia, Samoa; Port Vila, Vanuatu; Rarotonga, Cook Islands; Tarawa, Kiribati; Majuro, Marshall Islands; Nauru; Alofi, Niue; Honiara, Solomon Islands; Tokelau; Nuku'alofa, Tonga; and Funafuti, Tuvalu. The town of Levuka on the island of Ovalau, Fiji, was chosen as the dive training site because Levuka offers a diverse array of prehistoric, colonial and post-colonial heritage in the form of built and archaeological heritage and more specifically shipwrecks. Three historic shipwrecks in Levuka Harbour have already been 6 �archaeologically surveyed (Hosty and Hundley, 1998). These sites are easily accessible and lie in 5m, 12m and 20m of water. Shallow sites such as these with good visibility are excellent sites to use for training purposes. Alternatively, for those participants with no SCUBA qualification, there are inter-tidal and terrestrial “maritime-related” sites that could be chosen for the practical component. Delivery The delivery mode of the training modules was designed to be face-to-face and involves experts in the field of UCH and heritage management in the Pacific delivering module lectures, practical and discussions. This approach was preferred due to the difficulty of content and the need to demonstrate during practical sessions and discussions. It is understood that for this capacity building exercise to be sustainable and to build a stronger network of practitioners who interact on a regular basis, several follow-up developments should be put in place. The first development would be the production of a CD for distribution to participants that includes all of the readings, training modules, PowerPoint slideshows, lectures and other materials developed for the program. This CD could be used by participants to review materials and develop programs based on some of the examples and case studies presented. Another development would be two Webinars whereby the participants and experts participate in an online web-based seminar to discuss any issues that developed out of the program, relate any advances made in the recording and management of UCH sites, and ask questions of the experts about specific queries or directions for future work. The Webinars could be conducted through an online program such as GoToMeeting™ (http://www.gotomeeting.com.au/fec/). Another development would be the creation of a listserv for practicing professionals and experts in the field of UCH in the Pacific. Such a listserv would provide a useful communication vector for discussing ideas, issues and developments in UCH in the Pacific. Finally, another option would be the creation of a blog through WordPress.org on the topic of UCH in the Pacific. A blog would facilitate discussion and interaction in a slightly more creative and interactive way. The blog could be a place to post photographs, stories, developments, questions, etc. The development of the blog could begin with a short training session during the program so that all participants are able to utilise the software. Access could be restricted to only those who 7 �participated in the program. Restricting access would allow potentially sensitive information from being distributed widely. Steering Committee The steering committee was designed to include a range of practicing professionals and experts in the field of UCH and cultural heritage management. It would consist of individuals from a variety of institutions and countries with a focus in research and management within the Pacific region. Timeframe The development of such a capacity building program would take 9-12 months of planning so that the maximum amount of participation can be achieved. Below was an estimated timeframe: Planning (9-12 months) Develop steering committee Send out invitations to training Develop curriculum Organise logistics such as airfare, lodging, transportation, boats, diving needs, training classrooms, site survey areas, etc. Training (1 month) Run training over one month period or split into two or three sessions of a week or two each Follow up Developments (6 months) Organise and run Webinar at 3 months and 6 months after training Organise and run Listserv Organise and run blog Create CD of course materials Total timeframe (16-19 months) Table 1. Timeframe for developing a capacity building program Budget An estimated budget for the costs of running a capacity building program was created. It included costs related to travel, accommodation and equipment for up to 25 participants. The 25 participants would include between three to five trainers and the remainder would be trainees. The budget did not include the costs of organising the training or curriculum development, nor did it include the follow-up organisation of Webinars, a list serve or blog. It is expected that some of the training content and curriculum development might exist in some capacity within organisations identified 8 �in the list of capacity building programs reviewed in the study. For example, Flinders University offers courses and curriculum in the subject of maritime archaeology and has run similar trainings in the past (i.e. ALA Fellowships). If partnerships or arrangements were made with such organisations, these training components and curriculum could be made accessible. However, it was recommended that a specific curriculum that is catered to the Pacific region that deals with Pacific issues be developed for this program. This would require financial support that could be negotiated through a one-off contract with an organisation already equipped with the capacity to develop such a program (i.e. existing framework, specialists, administration support, etc.). This program curriculum could then be used in the future in other locations or successive years. An estimated budget for the development of the curriculum and the delivery of curriculum (for one person/organisation) was provided separate from the main budget for operating the program. The budget assumed the trainers would participate as volunteers and present content relevant to their own experiences/projects/programs and did not include preparation time or salaries. Conclusion In concluding it is pertinent to re-state that the Pacific region has its own unique set of challenges and issues that are quite different to adjacent regions. Thus it is important when designing a UCH capacity building program that other “models” for capacity building, training, and management are not applied wholesale to this region. A careful approach that considers the challenges and difficulties the Pacific is facing should be taken, and a program that is suited to deal with these challenges and resolve them into the future should be outlined for a successful program of capacity building. As Anita Smith has stated in Contested Heritages in the Pacific, “Communities and governments in the region are keen to engage with international conservation programs not only because they are interested in protecting their heritage and resources but also as they provide a source of income, training and avenue for communication with the global community. The challenge is for processes of heritage protection and national legislation to govern and enforce this protection to be based in and evolve from traditional systems of governance and cultural practices rather than imposed from the outside”. 9 �Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge and thank Jun Kimura and Ross Anderson who provided input on the original UNESCO feasibility study. References Hosty, K., and Hundley, P., 1998. Maritime Archaeological Investigation off the Port of Levuka, Island of Ovalau, Fiji. Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney: 151. McKinnon, J. F., and Kimura, J., 2011. Feasibility Study on a Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Capacity Building Program. Flinders University, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, South Australia: 1-32. Smith, A., and O’Keefe, D., 2004. Training Workshops in Cultural Heritage Management in the Pacific Island Nations: Interim Report, Workshop 1. Report prepared for UNESCO Division of Cultural Heritage, Paris: 1-63. UNESCO., 2010a. Financing Activities Contract between UNESCO and Flinders University. On file at UNESCO, Apia Office: 1-2. UNESCO., 2010b. Report on Workshop: Towards the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific, Honiara, Solomon Islands, 16-18 December 2009. On file at UNESCO, Apia Office: 1-53. Jennifer McKinnon is an Assistant Professor at East Carolina University in the Program in Maritime Studies. Prior to teaching at ECU, she was a Senior Lecturer at Flinders University, South Australia for seven years. Jennifer is a Research Associate of the non-profit organization Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Corpus Christi. She has conducted a number of archaeological research projects on terrestrial and UCH sites in the Pacific. Jennifer’s research focuses on public and community engagement and collaborations with coastal and heritage agencies. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 1: UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Cooperation Description An account of the resource The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the UN. It has 195 Member States. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted in 2001 is the international community’s response to the destruction of submerged archaeological sites by treasure hunters and industrial activities. It reflects the growing recognition of the need to ensure the same protection to underwater heritage as that already accorded to land-based heritage. It provides legal protection, enables States Parties to adopt common approaches to preservation and provides effective professional guidelines on underwater cultural heritage. The Convention and its Annex have been officially endorsed by most professional associations of underwater archaeologists. The 2001 Convention entered into force on 2 January 2009. Today it has been ratified by 44 States. The objectives of the UNESCO session are to: * Enhance understanding of the 2001 Convention in terms of its background, its benefits, its ethics and its potentials for contributing to sustainable development, * Identify a strategy for enhancing capacity in the protection and research of underwater cultural heritage, * Identify a way forward for increasing ratifications of the 2001 Convention by the countries in the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Etienne Clement Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Feasibility study on capacity building in Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific Description An account of the resource The first UNESCO regional workshop on Pacific underwater cultural heritage (UCH) took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs: systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on a Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Capacity Building Program was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Asia-Pac Session 1 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ee00d417f8cd191959bae3b9f3bc2453.pdf 3bf6912c8b6445fe261e6899db601f92 PDF Text Text Filling the Gap: A 19th Century Shipwreck in Tanapag Lagoon, Saipan Sarah Nahabedian1, Jason T. Raupp2 and John D. San Nicolas3 Abstract Over the past 4000 years several cultural groups have utilized the island of Saipan in the archipelago now known as the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) for a variety of purposes including settlement, trade, provisioning and as a strategic position for wartime activities. Maritime heritage sites ranging from ancient coastal settlements to those of wrecked ships, planes and other World War II era sites have been identified on the island and in the surrounding waters. Over the past five years the CNMI Historic Preservation Office has endeavored to better understand and protect the submerged heritage of the island through remote sensing surveys, site inventories and site inspections. Recently the remains of a previously undocumented site were located along the island’s fringing reef in Tanapag Lagoon. A multi-agency investigation of this site determined it to be the partial remains of a mid- to late-nineteenth century sailing vessel. This investigation represents the first archaeological study of an early colonial shipwreck in the CNMI and helps to fill a gap in the archaeological record of pre-World War II period maritime sites. This paper examines the historic maritime activities in the CNMI during the midnineteenth to early-twentieth century and discusses the significance of this site to them. Though data pertaining to Saipan during this period is sparse, historical documents suggest that five wooden sailing vessels are known to have wrecked there during that time. The historical and archaeological analysis of these remains contributes to a broader understanding of colonial interaction and trade in the CNMI and the Pacific region in the nineteenth century. Introduction Since the time of first colonization around 3500 years ago (Rainbird 2004:81), several cultural groups have utilized the island of Saipan in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) for settlement, trade, provisioning and as a strategic position for wartime activities. While archaeological investigations on the island have revealed many sites of ancient coastal settlements and World War II (WWII) era ship and airplane wrecks, until recently a nearly four hundred year gap in the submerged heritage record of its colonial period has existed. The discovery of an artefact scatter associated with the wreck of a 19th or 20th century sailing vessel presented an opportunity to begin filling that gap. Historical and archaeological investigations of this site have produced a list of possible candidates for the identity of this wreck and provided the groundwork for a colonial shipwreck survey for the CNMI. 1 Please send all correspondence to: Sarah Nahabedian, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, GPO 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, AUSTRALIA, naha0004@flinders.edu.au, 0449 711 208 2 Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, ADELAIDE, SA 5042 3 Coastal Resources Management Office, SAIPAN, COMMONWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS �Saipan Maritime Historical Context Since the late 15th century the Pacific Ocean has served as a trading highway for European nations by aiding in the movement of people and the colonization of new areas. Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Mariana Islands in 1521 and named them “Islas de Ladrones”, or Thieves’ Islands, after a misunderstanding in trade practices with the Chamorro people (Marche 1889:3). Regardless, their geographic location offered a perfect refuge for vessels caught in storms and a reprovisioning point during the lengthy Pacific crossing (Olive y García 2006:7). For the next three centuries, continual exchange existed between Spain’s colonies in the New World and those in the Far East and the Marianas operated as an entrepôt for the galleon trade (see Junco this volume; see McKinnon and Raupp this volume). By the late 17th century Spanish efforts to Christianize the Indigenous population resulted in their subjugation. To colonize the entire archipelago, the native Chamorro were forcibly removed from all of the northern islands and resettled into church-centred villages on Guam (Hezel 1983; Carrell 1991). Until the end of the 19th century, the islands to the north of Guam served mainly as ranches or infirmaries; as a result only sparse records of the activities that occurred there exist. In the early 1800s, Spanish authorities granted a request from a group of voyagers from the central Caroline Islands to establish a settlement on Saipan (Russell 1984:2). By the middle of the 19th century, whale ships and trading vessels commonly visited the island to obtain supplies. Subsequent to Spain’s loss in the Spanish-American War in 1898 all Spanish Micronesian possessions except Guam were sold to Germany, thus beginning what is known as the German Colonial Period (Spennemann 2007:7). The settlement of Garapan on the west coast of Saipan served as the administrative seat of the Marianas District. Between 1898 and 1907 German colonists constructed an administration building that was visible to approaching ships, a landing pier and shelters along the waterfront, and roads linking villages on the island (Fritz 1901:34-46). An important aspect contributing to the growth of Garapan was its proximity to Tanapag Harbor, considered by most shipmasters as the second best anchorage in the Marianas (Russell 1984:46). Though Germany held claim to the Northern Mariana Islands throughout this period, the Japanese controlled trade and economic life, primarily through large-scale sugar cane production (Peattie 1988:22). Shortly after Japan declared war on Germany in World War I, German officials in Saipan abandoned their post and Japan quickly seized several Pacific islands including the Northern Marianas (for an example of warship activity here see Arnold this volume; see Ishimura this volume). From that time through the 1930s, the Japanese government increased maritime works, including the building of a lighthouse and channel markers to guide ships coming into and out of Saipan. Also during this period, Japanese military infrastructure construction was clandestinely increased in preparation for war. Upon the entry of the United States (US) into WWII, the islands of the Pacific basin were subjected to events beyond their control and eventually Saipan would play a pivotal role in the war. “Operation Forager” was the �codename for the Allied plan to seize control of the Northern Mariana Islands from Japan. The 1944 invasion and capture of the islands by US forces caused devastation on both sides and left military vehicles and debris scattered on land and in the water surrounding the island. From 1945 to 1947 the islands continued under US military occupation (Carrell 2009:348). In 1947 the Northern Mariana Islands came under US Trust Territory status and in 1978 the constitutional government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands took office. Previous Investigations of Saipan’s Submerged Sites The submerged cultural resources of the island of Saipan have been the subject of both public and private archaeological surveys, as well as commercial salvage over the past thirty years. Beginning in 1979, the first literature search and diver visual surveys were conducted, which resulted in the location of objects from the Japanese, WWII and American periods (Thomas and Price 1980). In the 1980s the US National Park Service (NPS) and private archaeological consulting firms assessed the submerged WWII remains in Saipan (Miculka and Manibusan 1983; Miculka, et al. 1984; Pacific Basin Environmental Consultants 1985). In 1986 and 1987, a treasure hunting company, Pacific Sea Resources, commercially salvaged the 1638 wreck of Nuestra Señora de la Concepción off the south coast of Saipan (Mathers, et al. 1990; see Junco this volume). Upon completion of the salvage project the artefacts were divided between the treasure hunting company and the CNMI government. In 1990 the NPS again documented the WWII sites in the lagoons on Saipan (Miculka, et al. 1990), and in 1991 published a comprehensive submerged cultural resources summary for all of Micronesia which included details of more than 50 shipwrecks and abandoned vessels in Saipan (Carrell 1991). Little research or fieldwork was conducted on Saipan until 2001, when the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) initiated an abandoned vessel inventory for the CNMI (Lord and Plank 2003). This survey identified 28 historic resources, most of which were WWII-era pontoons/barges and freighters (Lord and Plank 2003). Beginning in 2008, interest in Saipan’s underwater cultural heritage was reignited. That year Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc. conducted extensive remote sensing and diver identification surveys of Saipan’s western lagoons, which identified over 1500 magnetic targets; of these only 142 were identified through diver investigation, side scan sonar or were previously known (Burns 2008a; Burns 2008b). Using this survey data, a research project to document the submerged remains of the WWII Battle of Saipan was initiated in 2009 by researchers from Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc. and Flinders University. This project has resulted in the creation of an underwater heritage trial based on these sites (McKinnon, et al. 2011). �Archaeological Investigation of the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck” In February 2010, a marine biologist from Saipan’s Coastal Resources Management Office (CRM) notified maritime archaeologists from Flinders University of a possible wooden shipwreck site in Tanapag Lagoon. Initial investigations found several shards of green bottle glass, iron and copper-alloy fasteners and a piece of burnt wood buried in the sand and encrusted in the coral reef. The site was assessed as the remains of a wooden shipwreck or anchorage debris field. As there is little archaeological documentation of pre-WWII historic maritime-related artefacts within Saipan, the uniqueness of the site justified further investigations. In April 2011 a team of archaeologists joined staff from the CNMI Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) and CRM Offices to record the extent of the artefact scatter. The site is located approximately one kilometre (km) from shore, along the edge of the lagoon’s shipping channel and was archaeologically investigated over a two-day period. The site is scattered over approximately 90 metres (m) in sandy pockets of the fringing reef adjacent to the shipping channel. It was recorded using baseline offsets, trilateration and triangulation to collect data on site dimensions, major site features and artefact locations. This data was then used to produce detailed scale drawings and a two-dimensional site plan. Photographic surveys of the artefact scatter were completed before and during the investigation in order to document the site and to aid in the completion of the site plan. Most features and artefacts were documented in situ; however, a limited number of portable artefacts were recovered for more detailed drawing, photography, and measurement onboard the diving vessel, then returned to their original locations (Gould and Conlin 1999:208). Artefacts A total of 114 artefacts were recorded on this site and overall the assemblage indicates an association with a wooden sailing vessel. Artefacts noted during this investigation included ship construction and rigging materials, as well as shipboard items and some likely intrusive objects. Artefacts associated with the vessel’s hull consisted mainly of ballast stones, sheathing and fasteners of various sizes, forms, and material. Small, oval-shaped, granite ballast stones were found scattered around the site and a dense concentration was identified directly adjacent to the shipping channel. Fastener types included heavily concreted iron drift pins or bolts, copper bolts and copper nails and tacks. Four copper sheathing pieces were identified around the site; these would have been placed on the outer hull planking of a vessel protecting the vessel from marine borers (Bathe 1978:3.10; Burns 2003:61-62; McCarthy 2005:101-102). One peculiar piece of identified ship’s hardware was a lead object in the shape of an Arabic number “4”. Research has concluded that this is a draft mark, which would have been attached to the stem and sternpost to indicate the depth at which each end of the hull is immersed (Steffy 1994:270). Many elements of standing rigging were found on the site. The most dominate and diagnostic of these were portions of broken wire rigging. By the �early 1850s most large British ships had wire standing rigging and by the 1860s wire rigging was in use by US shipbuilders (Macgregor 1984:151; Stone 1993:69). Several of the noted sections were end pieces, as indicated by the tear shape created by back splicing them to situate a thimble. Other components of standing rigging included a chainplate and deadeye contained within an iron strop. Chain plates were solidly bolted to the ship’s side to which the shrouds are secured by a system of deadeyes and screws and were used to steady the masts (Bathe 1978:4.08; Stone 1993:72). A heavily concreted metal oarlock was found on the site. Also known as a crutch or rowlock, these were u-shaped metal swivels that mounted on a boat’s gunwales for an oar (Bathe 1978:9.02). The oarlock has a ribbed horn-style opening and is most likely off a gig or lifeboat (Bathe 1978:9.01). A number of artefacts related to shipboard life were also located. Whole glass bottles, bottle fragments and ceramic sherds scattered across the site represent a wide date range. Many of these are thought to be associated with the wreck, and others are likely intrusive artefacts deposited by cultural or natural means. The most diagnostic of these artefacts are the bottles; types include dark green, three-piece mould or “Ricketts mould” bottles which date between the 1820s and 1920s and a two-piece mould or “turn-mould” bottle which was most common from the 1870s through around 1920 (Toulouse 1969:532). Several artefacts of questionable provenance were found scattered around the site. These included glass bottles embossed with characters that indicated Japanese origin and dated from the 1870s through around 1920 (Toulouse 1969:532); two fragments of an unidentifiable ceramic vessel; a stoneware body and rim shard of indeterminate date; and a shard of blue on white porcelain. Though the manufacture dates for these could be contemporary with this wreck, it is likely that they are intrusive artefacts deposited through cultural or natural means after the time of loss. Wood Samples An unidentified conglomeration of wood, iron and copper-alloy metal was the only piece of wood found on the site. Though no part of the object was identifiable, a timber sample was obtained from the object for possible specie identification. Timber analysis showed the sample as birch (Betula sp.) and the structure of the wood is most likely yellow birch after comparison with other samples (J. Illic, email, May 2011). Site interpretation Through archaeological recording and historical research it has been determined that this site is the remains of a ship dating to the mid-19th or early- 20th century. The presence of ballast stones, copper sheathing and tacks, as well as iron drift pins and bolts, indicate that it was a wooden vessel, and the hemp core wire rope, wooden deadeye and chain plate specify that it was a sailing vessel. The small collection of glass and ceramic fragments further signify a mid-19th to early20th century use and illustrate an aspect of shipboard life at this time. The oarlock �found on the site is most likely from the vessel’s gig or could be an extra oarlock to be used in case one was lost. Timber analysis indicates yellow birch, a species found in North-eastern North America and commonly used in shipbuilding. The close proximity of the ballast area to the channel suggests that the vessel hit the reef and wrecked while entering or exiting the lagoon through the channel. The shallow nature of the site, the length of the scatter and fact that no major features of the ship were found is a good indication of post depositional salvage. The discovery of burnt wood during the February 2010 fieldwork and the overall lack of timber on the site could be evidence of salvage. Often wrecked wooden vessels were burned to their waterline so that below deck cargo could be salvaged or metal fasteners could be removed for recycling. However it is important to note that the abundance of marine wood-boring organisms in the tropical water would have aided in the degradation of any wood left on the site whether the vessel was salvaged or not. Possible Candidates Forty-one documented ship losses have occurred in and around Saipan between 1552 and 1941 (Carrell 1991: 280). Though data pertaining to the island during this period is sparse, historical documents suggest that seven wooden sailing vessels are known to have wrecked in Saipan’s water between the mid 19th and turn of the 20th century. Though little historical information pertaining to any of these was located, comparison between them and the archaeological evidence recovered indicates four of them as possible candidates for the identity of the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck.” The barque William T. Sayward was built in Rockland, Maine in 1853 (Fairburn 1946(5):3421). Accounts state that the barque was sailing from San Francisco to Shanghai with a cargo of flour and $164,000 in specie4, when it sprang a leak off the “Ladrone Islands” and was abandoned on December 21, 1854 (Daily National Intelligencer 1855, Plain Dealer 1855, Salem Register 1855). Unfortunately details about the exact location where William T. Sayward came to rest are vague and therefore its association with the wreck in Tanapag Lagoon is unknown. The next sailing vessel reported to have wrecked around Saipan is the US ship Lizzie Jarvis. Historical sources present some discrepancies about the fate and identity of this vessel. One source reports that the whaler Lizzie Jarvis was lost in the “Ladrone Islands” while travelling from Hong Kong to San Francisco in 1855. The ship was previously known as Lady Pierce and was owned by Mr. Silas E. Burrows, who at one time intended to present the vessel to the Emperor of Japan (Ward 1967(4):187). A later report states that the ship was actually John N. Gossler, another vessel of the same owner which traded between the US and China and which wrecked in 1855, 150 miles Northeast of Saipan (Lévesque 2002(20):73; Ward 1967(4):187-188). Though the loss location of 4 The ship was carrying $164K in coin, or specie. �John N. Gossler would exclude it, the confusion surrounding the loss of Lizzie Jarvis make it a possible candidate for the identity of the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck.” An unknown barque was lost in 1876 in Saipan (Carrell 1991:280). Current historical research was unable to ascertain further information about this wreck. Until further information pertaining to this vessel and its loss are obtained, it is impossible to determine an association between it and the wreck in Tanapag Lagoon. The 103-ton American schooner Iolanthe was wrecked at Saipan in 1896. All hands survived and were transported to Guam on the Japanese schooner Chomey-Maru (Lévesque 2002 (20):512). Little information was found about this vessel aside from the fact that it was built in Essex, Massachusetts in 1883 (Record of American and Foreign Shipping 1896). Again the limited data relating to this vessel or the circumstances and location preclude any direct association with the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck.” Discussion Though the identity of the shipwreck recently located in Tanapag Lagoon was not absolutely determined, this investigation is considered significant for its contribution to increasing knowledge of a little explored period in Saipan’s history. As stated previously, until the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck” was identified, a nearly 400-year gap existed in the archaeological record pertaining to shipwrecks that had occurred around the island. The study of this 19th or early 20th century sailing vessel has produced archaeological data that will be added to the growing database of sites in the waters surrounding Saipan, as well as providing the impetus for building a comprehensive understanding of archival information relating to colonial ship losses in the CNMI. Thus the compilation and analysis of this data has begun to fill the gaps, and in doing so provides insight into colonial interaction and trade in the Pacific region around the turn of the century. The investigation of the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck” also represents the first multi-agency archaeological investigation of a submerged non-military shipwreck in Saipan. This approach allowed multiple local government agencies to collaborate with archaeologists from Australia and the US to assess and record this important piece of CNMI heritage. Due to the site’s location along the fringing reef, it also allowed agencies concerned with reef health and environmental quality an opportunity to monitor and protect the reef that has grown around this site. Ultimately this kind of collaboration offered all groups involved the opportunity to better understand and appreciate each other's work and can be seen as best practice for the protection and management of Saipan’s marine resources. Bibliography Bathe, B. W., The visual encyclopaedia of nautical terms under sail, Crown �1978 Burns, J.M., 2003 Publishers Inc., New York. The life and times of a merchant sailor: the archaeology and history of the Norwegian ship Catharine, Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers, New York. Burns, J.M., Archaeological survey of lagoons on the West Coast of 2008a Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Unpublished report prepared for Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Historic Preservation Office by Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., Pensacola, FL. Burns, J.M., Archaeological survey of Tanapag Lagoon Saipan, 2008b Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Unpublished report prepared for Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Historic Preservation Office by Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., Pensacola, FL. Micronesia submerged cultural resources assessment. Carrell, T. (ed.), 1991 Southwest Cultural Resource Centre Professional Papers No. 16. Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, National Park Service, Santa Fe, NM. Maritime history and archaeology of the Commonwealth of Carrell, T., the Northern Mariana Islands. Submitted to the CNMI 2009 Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation by Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc. Daily National ‘Telegraphic Correspondence Rumored Insurrection in Intelligencer, Australia-Disastrous Shipwreck and Loss of Seven Hundred 1855 Lives’, 15 March, viewed 14 July 2011, <http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/?sort=_ra nk_%3AD&lname=&fnam52 e=&minit=&kwinc=Ladrone+Island&kwexc=&formDate=Marc h+1855&processingtime=>. Fritz, G., Yearly report 1901. Submitted to Imperial Governor of 1901 German New Guinea (Translation on file with Trust Territory Headquarters, Saipan). Gould, R., and “Archaeology of the Barrel Wreck, Loggerhead Reef, Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida.” International Journal of Conlin, D., Nautical Archaeology, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, pp. 207-228. 1999 The first taint of civilization: A history of the Caroline and Hezel, F.X., Marshall Islands in Pre-Colonial days, 1521-1885. Pacific 1983 Islands Monograph Series No. 1. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. History of Micronesia, bibliography of Micronesia, ships Lévesque, R., through Micronesia cumulative index, Vol. XX, Lévesque 2002 Publications, Quebec. Surveys of abandoned vessels: Guam and the Lord, C., and Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Unpublished Plank, C., 2003 report prepared for National Oceanic and Atmospheric �Administration, National Ocean Service, Office of Response and Restoration by Research Planning, Inc. Columbia, SC. Macgregor, D.R., Merchant sailing ships 1815-1850: Supremacy of sail, 1984 Conway Maritime Press Ltd., London. The Mariana Islands. Translated from French by S.R. Cheng, Marche, A.A., 1889 1982. In R.D. Craig (ed) MARC Publication Series No. 8., University of Guam, Guam. Archaeological Report: The recovery of the Manila Galleon Mathers, W.M., Parker, H.S., and Nuestra Señora de la Concepción. Pacific Seas Resources, Copus, K.A., Sutton, Vermont. 1990 Ships’ fastenings: From sewn boats to steamship. Texas McCarthy, M., 2005 A&M University Press, College Station, TX. Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail. McKinnon, J. F. and Carrell, T. L., Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Corpus Christi, 2011 Texas. Submerged cultural resources assessment American Miculka, J.E., memorial park. Report prepared for War in the Pacific and Manibusan, R.S., National Historic Park, Guam. 1983 Submerged cultural resources assessment Saipan lagoon Miculka J.E., Carter, K.J., and 03-05 December 1984. Report prepared for War in the Pacific Ichihara H., National Historical Park, Guam. 1984 The Mariana Islands Random Notes Concerning Them, Olive y García, Second Edition. Translated from Spanish by M.G. Driver. F., 2006 University of Guam: Guam. Underwater survey of Tanapag Lagoon for historic properties. Pacific Basin Environmental Report prepared for CNMI Department of Community and Consultants, Cultural Affairs, Historic Preservation Office by Pacific Basin 1985 Environmental Consultants, Guam. Nanyo: The rise and fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885Peattie, M. R., 1945. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 1988 Plain Dealer, No headline, 17 March, viewed 14 July 2011, 1855 <http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/?sort=_ra nk_%3AD&lname=&fname=&minit=&kwinc=Wm++Sayward& kwexc=&formDate=March+1855&processingtime=>. The archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press, Rainbird, P., 2004 Cambridge. Record of Viewed 3 June 2011, American and <http://library.mysticseaport.org/initiative/SPSearch.cfm?ID=5 Foreign 56672>. Shipping, 1896 From Arabwal to ashes: A brief history of Garapan village Russell, S., 1818 to 1945. Micronesian Archaeological Survey Report 1984 �Salem Register, 1855 Spennemann, D.R., 2007 Steffy, R.J., 1994 Stone, D.L., 1993 Thomas, M. and Price, S., 1980 Toulouse, J. H., 1969 Ward, R.G. (ed.), 1966 Series Vol. XIX, Saipan. ‘Loss of Specie at Sea’, 19 March, viewed 14 July 2011, <http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/?sort=_ra nk_%3AD&lname=&fname=&minit=&kwinc=Ladrone+Island& kwexc=&formDate=March+1855&processingtime=>. Edge of Empire. The German Colonial Period in the Northern Mariana Islands 1899-1914. Retrospect, Albury, NSW. Wooden ship building and the interpretation of shipwrecks.Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX. The wreck diver’s guide to sailing ship artifacts of the 19th Century. Underwater Archaeological Society of British Columbia, Vancouver. Cultural resources reconnaissance report for the Saipan small boat harbor study area. Report prepared for US Army Corps of Engineers Pacific Ocean Division by Pacific Studies Institute. “A primer on mold seams”. The Western Collector, Vol. VII, No. 11, pp. 526-535. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870: A history, geography and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the Pacific taken from contemporary newspapers etc., Vol. IV, pp. 186-189, The Greg Press, Ridgewood, New Jersey. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Filling the Gap: A 19th Century Shipwreck in Tanapag Lagoon, Saipan Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource Over the past 4000 years several cultural groups have utilized the island of Saipan in the archipelago now known as the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) for a variety of purposes including settlement, trade, provisioning and as a strategic position for wartime activities. Maritime heritage sites ranging from ancient coastal settlements to those of wrecked ships, planes and other World War II era sites have been identified on the island and in the surrounding waters. Over the past five years the CNMI Historic Preservation Office has endeavored to better understand and protect the submerged heritage of the island through remote sensing surveys, site inventories and site inspections. Recently the remains of a previously undocumented site were located along the island’s fringing reef in Tanapag Lagoon. A multi-agency investigation of this site determined it to be the partial remains of a mid- to late-nineteenth century sailing vessel. This investigation represents the first archaeological study of an early colonial shipwreck in the CNMI and helps to fill a gap in the archaeological record of pre-World War II period maritime sites. This paper examines the historic maritime activities in the CNMI during the mid-nineteenth to early-twentieth century and discusses the significance of this site to them. Though data pertaining to Saipan during this period is sparse, historical documents suggest that five wooden sailing vessels are known to have wrecked there during that time. The historical and archaeological analysis of these remains contributes to a broader understanding of colonial interaction and trade in the CNMI and the Pacific region in the nineteenth century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sarah Nahabedian Jason T. Raupp John D. San Nicolas Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Financial Administration under the T’ang Dynasty Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Denis Twitchett Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1970 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Denis Twitchett Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1970 Number of Volumes 2 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Title A name given to the resource Financial Administration under the T’ang Dynasty China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8a28bdda763226e8bfa6dee88d912eb4.pdf 4f33f4f0723bee9c2fdc6f0bcb73f000 PDF Text Text First Discovery and Mapping of Early Modern Grapnel Anchors in Ishigaki Island and Cultural Resource Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Okinawa Rintaro Ono Tokai University Shizuoka Japan, 424-8610 Email: rintaro@tokai-u.jp Hironobu Kan Okayama University Okayama Japan, 700-8530 Email: kan@cc.okayama-u.ac.jp Norimitsu Sakagami Tokai University Shizuoka Japan, 424-8610 Email: sakagami@scc.u-tokai.ac.jp Masayuki Nagao National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology Tsukuba Japan, 305-8567 Email: nagao-masayuki@aist.go.jp Chiaki Katagiri Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum Naha Japan, 900-0006 Email: katgiric@pref.okinawa.lg.jp Abstract Yarabuoki site, which contains iron grapnel anchors and early modern Okinawa ceramic jars in 12 to 32 m depth off the western Coast of Ishigaki Island, was discovered by a local diver and reported to Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center. In 2010, the Center conducted a distributional survey to confirm the site and its location. Although the survey found and pictured seven numbers of grapnel anchors that were first findings of this type in Okinawa area, the previous study did not record each position and the accurate depth of these artifacts and the site character such as shipwreck site or discarded shipping loads site is yet unclear. With such background and tasks, our team has conducted underwater archaeological research to record each location of grapnel anchors and ceramic jars using GPS. Furthermore, Kan and Nagao conducted a broadband multibeam survey around the Yarabuoki site and visualized the bathymetric 1 �results at a lateral grid resolution of 1m. This will enable us to create a threedimensional site map to plot the artifacts, while Sakagami (Tokai University) developed a low-cost and human-portable underwater robot to explore and record high resolution video of underwater sites, and the robot successfully worked during our surveys. Our paper reports the results and outcomes of the research at Yarabuoki site and other underwater sites in Ishigaki and the Yaeyama Islands and discusses the early modern marine transportations in Okinawa or the Ryukyu Islands. We also discuss the future possibility for cultural resource management of underwater cultural heritages in the Yaeyama and Okinawa. Keywords: Broadband multibeam survey, Okinawa, Yaeyama Islands, Yarabeoki site, Grapnel anchors, Cultural resource management Introduction The Academic and social interests on underwater cultural heritage is currently increasing in Japan. In 2011, for example, the Takashima site in Nagasaki Prefecture (in Kyushu Island) where the 13th century original Yuan ships from China were firstly discovered became the first National historical heritage of an underwater site. In such current movement, one of the hottest areas with increasing number of underwater archaeological surveys and underwater cultural heritages is Okinawa or Ryukyu Archipelago. The archipelago consists of 199 islands of various sizes and ranges about 1,200 km between Kyushu Island at its north end and Taiwan in its south end (see also Katagiri et al., in this volume). In fact, in the past 10 years surveys and researches by Kagoshima University and the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group (2010, 2011), the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum (e.g. Katagiri 2007, 2009, 2010; Miyagi et al., 2005), and the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (2013) have discovered and confirmed over 100 of underwater archaeological sites in relatively good condition. Yarabuoki site in Ishigaki Island is one of these newly discovered sites. The site produces a total of seven iron grapnel anchors and early modern Okinawa ceramic jars in 12 to 32 m of depth off the western coast of Ishigaki Island, which is the most populated island with the local capital city in the Yaeyama Islands (Fig. 1). Other major islands in the Yaeyama Islands are Iriomote Island, Taketomi Island, and Kuroshima 2 �Island etc, and other underwater archaeological sites are located off the coast of these islands (see also Fig. 1). In this paper, we report the recent results and outcomes of our underwater archaeological research at Yarabuoki site and discuss the early modern maritime transportations in Okinawa or the Ryukyu Archipelago. We also report and discuss our practices on cultural 1 Fig. 1 Locations of Underwater Archaeological resource management of underwater Sites in the Yaeyama Islands. (R. Ono) cultural heritages in the Yaeyama Islands and Okinawa. Discovery and Mapping of Yarabuoki Site In 2009, Yarabuoki site was firstly discovered by a local professional diver (Mr. Seiji Fujii) who has operated diving services over 30 years in Ishigaki Island. He reported the location of this site to the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center. In 2010, Katagiri (2010) conducted the first survey as the chief investigator from the Center with assistance of the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group (2011) to confirm the total of seven iron grapnel anchors of various sizes and numbers of early modern Okinawa pottery jars (Tsuboya-Yaki) in 2010. However, these previous surveys did not measure the detail location of each anchor and pottery jars, hence it was discussed whether the site could be classified as a sort of port/anchorage site or possible shipwreck site. In terms of dating the site, we could roughly estimate these artifacts belong to the early modern times between the 17th to 19th centuries (mainly Edo period in Japan), though it was hard to provide an exact date of these artifacts. With these background and research questions, we have conducted an interdisciplinary underwater research with multiple methodologies including GPS position coordinating and archaeological analysis of each artifact (Ono and Katagiri), a broadband multibeam survey searching (Kan and Nagao), and recording high-resolution video of the site and survey progress by a human-portable underwater robot (Sakagami). This interdisciplinary research is part of the larger-scale study project “Coastal Area 3 �Capability Enhancement in Southeast Asia” (headed by Dr. Satoshi Ishikawa) by the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Fig. 2 A Human-portable Underwater Robot Made and Used in Our Kyoto, Japan, and the Research. (R. Ono) robot (Fig. 2) was originally planned and made for this research project in low-cost value by Sakagami at Tokai University. Surveys were conducted in November 2012, August 2013, and November 2013. During these researches, GPS position coordinates and exact depth of all the seven iron grapnel anchors and the clustered area with ceramic jars were measured. Table 1 shows each position coordinate and depth of anchors and ceramics, while Figure 3 is the bathymetric map provided by Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GIS) with each location of artifacts plotted. As shown in Figure 3, the GIS bathymetric map is only mapped in 10m scale level and it is yet hard to locate the exact position of each artifact with this map. Concerning such mapping problem, Kan and Nagao conducted a broadband multibeam survey around the Yarabuoki site to visualize the bathymetric results at a lateral grid resolution of 1m during our research. Although the complete map is not come out in this moment, such map should enable us to create a three-dimensional site map to plotting the artifacts in much detail and exact position in the final stage of our research. Description of Grapnel Anchors and Ceramic Jars As shown in Figure 3 map, the distribution area of the grapnel anchors can be mainly separated into two zones as (1) eastern zone and (2) western zone. Each zone have about 400 m away in distance, hence it is highly Fig. 3 The GIS Bathymetric Map with Plotted possible that these seven grapnel anchors Each Location of Artifacts. (R. Ono) 4 �Fig. 4 The Iron Grapnel Anchors in Yarabuoki site. (Y. Yamamoto) 5 �could belong to more than two ships rather than a single ship. Such possibility might be also supported by the existence of various sizes of anchors in the site. Concerning the clustered area of ceramic jars, these jars are distributed close to the No. 1, 2, and 3 grapnel anchors, and there might have been any relationships with these anchors and jars. Here, we firstly introduce the condition and form of each grapnel anchors and ceramic jars, then discuss the possible age and character of the site from various aspects. No. 1 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.1 anchor shank is 1.97 m in length. All the four arms left in good condition, while two of them are buried in the sandy bottom (Fig. 4A). The width of joint base with shank and arm is about 20 cm and its cross section is square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm and no arm ring attached. No. 2 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.2 anchor is a bit smaller than No.1 as its shank is about 1.8 m in length. All the four arms left with good condition, while two of them are buried in the sandy bottom (Fig. 4B). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be estimated as square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 3 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.3 anchor is much smaller as its shank is about 1.5 m in length. Among the four arms, two of them are buried in the sandy bottom, while other two are expose only its point part. Both of these exposed arm points are not complete and broken (Fig. 4C). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be confirmed as square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 4 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.4 anchor is one of the smallest as its shank is about 1.2 m in length. Among the four arms, two of them are buried in the sandy bottom, while other two are expose only its point part. Both of these exposed arm points are not complete and broken (Fig. 4D). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be confirmed as square size. The width of shank point is 6 �about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 5 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.5 anchor shank is 1.6 m in length and almost. Among the four arms, two of them are buried in the sandy bottom, while other two are exposed in good condition as complete form (Fig. 4E). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be estimated as square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 6 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.6 anchor shank is about 1.65 m in length. Among the four arms, two of them are buried in the sandy bottom, while other two are exposed only its point part. Both of these exposed arm points are not complete and broken (Fig. 4F). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be confirmed as square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 7 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.7 anchor shank is about 2.05 m in length. Among the four arms, three of them are exposed in good condition as complete form (Fig. 4G), while another one is buried in the rocky bottom. The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be confirmed as square size. The width of shank point is about 20 cm with an arm ring (30cm in diameter) attached. Pottery Jars As shown in Table 1, these pottery jars locate close from No. 1 to 3 grapnel anchors and about 20 m in depth. In total of 12 jars are recently confirmed with some variety in size from about 40 cm up to 100 cm in height. Yet, all of these jars are similar in form and source material, and can be identified as early modern Okinawa pottery jars called “tsuboya-yaki” in local name and originally made in Okinawa Island (Fig. 5A). We measured the detail size and location of all of these jar but did not salvaged and kept them in the original position except one small jar (Fig. 5B) which was not fixed with coral or rocky bottom and easily movable. This salvaged jar is now kept in the Okinawa Prefectural Museum for further archaeological analysis to indentify the original production location and exact date of these jars. 7 �Fig. 5 The Early Modern Okinawa Pottery Jars in Yarabuoki site. (Y. Yamamoto) Discussions and Future Perspectives Early modern maritime transportations in Okinawa As described and discussed in previous chapters, the seven grapnel anchors are variety in size and its shape. Among these, No.1 to 4 anchors are basically distributed in eastern zone with pottery jars, while the other No. 5 to 7 anchors are located in western zone in the site around 13-32 m in depth. Such distribution patterns of the anchors tentatively indicate that more than two ships dropped their anchors around the site. In the Yaeyama Isands, including Ishigaki Island, there is no record of public port in historic times or during the Ryukyu Kingdom Period (from 1429 AD to 1879), and most of trading or loading activities were possibly done in off-coast by use of small boats (e.g. Oohama, 1999). With such situation, large size ships were basically anchored inside bays such as Nagura bay in western coast of Ishigaki or some anchorage points where they could avoid strong winds and waves. Yarabuoki site is located in the northern coast of Yarabu peninsula next to the large Nagura bay is also known as one of these anchorage points from historic times. In fact, there were some historical records of anchorage by drifting ships in local historic documents during the 17th to 19th centuries. Based on these historic facts, these grapnel anchors could belong to ships originally from Okinawa Island (where the capital of Ryukyu Kingdom located), Satsuma in 8 �Kyushu Island (where had occupied the Ryukyu Kingdom since 1609), or mainland China (during the Chin Dynasty) to visit in some purposes or drift off by accident to Ishigaki Island. However, there were no grapnel anchors discovered or kept in Okinawa except these seven anchors from Yarabuoki site. This fact can be the possible hint to estimate the types and origins of ships that equipped or loaded these anchors and pottery jars. There are no historical records either that mentioning what types of anchors were equipped with the local ships during the Ryukyu Kingdom period. The major ship types in Okinawa during the early modern times were “Shinko-sen” as the largest sized junk typed ship for international trading mainly with China (Ming and Chin Dynasty) and “Maran-sen” as the middle to small sized wooden ship for domestic trading mainly inside the territory of the Ryukyu Kingdom. The types of anchor equipped in these ships are unclear since no historic documents or records were discovered except a drawing of the old Ryukyu trading port (Naha city) on folding screen in the early 19th century (owned by Urasoko City Museum). Some Shinko-sen ships and the equipped anchors were drown in the folding screen, though these anchors are not grapnel and its material seems like wood and not iron (Katagiri, 2011). On the other hand, iron grapnel anchors were major anchors for Japanese style wooden ship called “Kai sen” and “Benzaisen” (sen=ship) during the Edo period after the 16th century. These early modern ships are usually equipped 6 to 8 different size of iron grapnel anchors identified as the first anchor to the eighth anchor. The first anchor was usually the largest, while the eighth anchor was the smallest among them (e.g. Kojima, 2012). For example, the largest sized-class wooden ship “Sengoku sen” (sen=1000, goku/koku = basic unit of volume used during the Edo period) which had over 278 kL/m3 loading capacity, was usually equipped with a fist anchor of over 2-3 m length and 300-400 kg weight. Based on these historical backgrounds and the size variety of Yarabuoki grapnel anchors between 2.0 to 1.2 m in length, it is possible that these anchors were equipped with Sengoku-sen class Japanese style wooden ship. Another possibility is visits of Chinese ships to Ishigaki and other islands in the Yaeyama since the early modern Chinese ships also usually equipped iron grapnel anchors. However, considering that all 9 �the pottery jars in Yarabuoki site are Tsuboya-yaki as the early modern Okinawa jars originally produced in Naha City in Okinawa Island, it is highly possible that at least the No. 1 to 3 grapnel anchors could be equipped with Japanese style wooden ship(s), probably from Satsuma in Kyushu Island since most of this type of ships in Okinawa were mainly from Satsuma after 1609 when the Ryukyu Kingdom was dominated by Satsuma. According to another drawing of the old Naha port on a folding screen from the 19th century (owned by Okinawa Prefectural Museum), there are some Satsuma ships equipped with iron grapnel anchor (Katagiri, 2011). Although it is yet unclear in which types of ships these anchors were used, we estimate some of them could belong to Satsuma ship(s). For further investigation and dating of these anchors and exact ships anchored in Yarabuoki, we need much detail analysis including accurate measuring of each anchor and comparative study of early modern iron anchors in China and Kyushu particularly Satsuma. In terms of the site type, there are still two possibilities as (1) the site also contains shipwreck(s) or (2) the site is just scattered seabed artifacts site with only anchors and pottery jars and no shipwreck (Ono et al., 2013). Although it is required to discover part of the shipwreck(s) to identify Yarabuoki as shipwreck site in future study, we consider that the distribution pattern as No.1 to 3 anchors are concentrated with clustered pottery jars in their center position may indicate the presence of a shipwreck. To confirm such possibility, further surveys including test excavation around the area are required. Use and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritages in Okinawa Lastly, regarding the use and management of underwater cultural heritages in the Yaeyama Islands or Okinawa Archipelago, we strongly consider there is great potential for cultural resource management of underwater cultural heritage in the Yaeyama or Okinawa. Since Okinawa Archipelago including the Yaeyama Islands locate in subtropic climatic zone with developed coral reefs in Japan, these islands, particularly the Yaeyama, located in the southern part of Okinawa, are the most popular diving area in Japan. Because of such environmental and social backgrounds, there is great potential for the use and management of underwater cultural heritages including Yarabuoki site as cultural, educational and tourism resources that the local community can properly manage and conserve (see also Ono et al., 2013). Our interdisciplinary underwater 10 �research and current surveys reported here can be considered as the first stage for this initiative of use and management of underwater cultural heritages in the Yaeyama and Okinawa in the near future. This work is important as an initial stage because it is essential to identify underwater archaeological or historical sites put forward the significance of cultural heritage in order to manage them. For the second stage, we should report and spread research outcomes to the public, particularly to the local community. Concerning this stage, we have also tried to report our research outcomes and information to the local schools, the museum and public offices after our first survey. With such outreach activities, the local museum (Ishigaki City Yaeyama Museum) held a special exhibition focusing on the underwater cultural heritage of the Yaeyama Islands, including Yarabuoki site and exhibited many of our research outcomes. The robot designed and tested by Sakagami during the surveys of 2013 was also exhibited. For the third stage, we consider the significance of operating educational and cultural programs to tell the historical or archaeological significance and future potentials of underwater cultural heritage to the local young generations (school students). With such reason, we also tried to operate the educational program for school students (mainly Junior high school and High school students) to make small-sized low-cost underwater robots to investigate shallow underwater in near shore coral reef zone in Ishigaki Island. As the robot could be one of the key tools to attract the student’s interest, trigger their curiosity and increase interest on underwater and underwater cultural heritage, Sakagami has leaded the program since 2012. In November 2013, we also conducted co-research in Yarabuoki site with some local high school students who had joined the robot making program. During this co-research program, the diving team members conducted their research of some anchors and pottery jars in the site, while Sakagami supervised the students on how to manage and operate the human-portable underwater robot for the observation of the underwater cultural heritage and underwater survey activity. Following such educational practices, we also held some town meetings in Ishigaki city to invite the school teachers, students, and local members of Educational board to openly discuss about the possibility of the underwater cultural heritages around Ishigaki Island and its potential use for further educational and cultural program. All of these trials and practices seem to have worked to get the local community involved and 11 �to increase their interests in our research and underwater cultural heritage as well. Now, our next target is to create the local society and its core members who want to join and continue to conserve their underwater cultural heritages as educational, cultural and tourism resources. As also mentioned by other Japanese scholars (e.g. Iwabuchi, 2012; Katagiri et al., 2010, Katagiri et al., in this volume), the concept of establishing Seabed Site Museums can be one of the ideal ways to accomplish our final goal for the use and management of underwater cultural heritage in the Yaeyama and Ryukyu Archipelago in the near future. Table 1 GPS Position Coordinate and Depth of Anchors and Ceramics. (R. Ono) Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge Mr. Seiji Fujii, Mr. Yuji Yamamoto, Mr. Toshiaki Hayashibara, Dr. Shiro Takemura, Mz. Yumiko Ogawa, Mr. Naoshi Inabatani, and Mr. Takehiro Furuse for their considerable support and assistance of our research in the Yaeyama Islands. The underwater research of the Yarabeoki site was funded by The Research Institute of Humanity and Nature, Japan. All the underwater pictures here were taken and provided by Mr. Yuji Yamamoto. Lastly, we are greatly indebted to Dr. Akihumi Iwabuchi and Dr. Tatsuya Nakata for their kind support and useful comments to our first draft as the session organizers. 12 �References Iwabuchi, A., 2012. The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage. Kagaku-dojin, Kyoto (in Japanese). Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economics and Humanities and Association for Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Studies, 2010. The report 1: A research report of the underwater cultural heritages in Nansei Islands in 2009. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, No. 3: 5-31 (in Japanese). Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economics and Humanities and Association for Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Studies, 2011. The report 4: A research report of the underwater cultural heritages in Nansei Islands in 2010. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, No. 4: 36-59 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2007.Enganchiikiisekibunpuchousagaihou (I) – Okinawa hontooyobishuhenrito hen. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2009. Enganchiikiisekibunpuchousagaihou (II) – Miyako Yaeyama hen. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre, Naha. (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2010. Enganchiikiisekibunpuchousagaihou (III) – gaiyoisekichizu hen. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., 2011. Iron Anchors discovered in Nansei Islands. In The Faculty of Law, Economics and Humanities and Association for Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Studies (Ed.), The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Nansei Islands. The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka, 136-141 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Yamada, H., Sakihara, T., Nakajima, T., Miyagi, H., and Watanabe, Y., 2012. The Report of an Underwater Cultural Heritage Tour in Kumejima –The Project of ‘The Museum of Underwater Cultural Heritage’. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, No. 5: 19-36 (in Japanese). Kojima, R., 2012, Areal Characters of Japanese Style Ships during the Early Modern Times. In H. Okamoto (Ed.), Difference and Similarity of Ship Culture in Eastern Asia: Perspectives from the Early Modern Ryukyu and Comparative Study, Kansai University, Osaka: 103-121 (in Japanese). 13 �Miyagi, H., Katagiri, C., Higa, N., and Sakihara, T., 2005. Preliminary Investigation into Discovering Sunken Ships in the Southwest Islands (II): Underwater Artifacts and marine Transportation. Bulletin of the Archaeological Study of Okinawa, No. 2: 81-108 (in Japanese). Ono, R., Katagiri, C., Sakagami, N., Kan, H., Miyagi, H. and Yamamoto, Y., 2013. Present and Future of the Underwater Cultural Heritages in the Yaeyama Islands: Perspective from the Recent Research of Yarabuoki. Proceedings of Yaeyama Museum, Vol. 22: 20-43 (in Japanese). Oohama, E., 1999.The Archaeology in the Yaeyama Islands. The Yaeyama Prehistoric Culture and Research Institution, Ishigaki (in Japanese). Biography Rintaro Ono is an Associate Professor in the School of Marine Science and Technologies at Tokai University, Japan. He has conducted numbers of archaeological fieldworks in Island Southeast Asia, the Pacific islands, and Okinawa. The primary focus of his research is development of the human’s maritime adaptation, maritime networking and resource exploitation in island ecosystem. Hironobu Kan is a Professor in the Graduate School of Education / Graduate School of Natural Sciences, Okayama University, Japan. The primary focus of his current research is Coral Reef Geomorphology using Multibeam Bathymetric Echo Sounder and SCUBA Diving Surveys. Norimitsu Sakagami is an Associate Professor in the School of Marine Science and Technologies at Tokai University, Japan. The primary focuses of his research are motion control of surface vehicles, underwater vehicles, environmental monitoring systems, and linear control systems etc. Masayuki Nagao is a Senior Researcher in the Institute of Geology and Geoinformationat, The National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan. The primary focus of his current research is Coral Reef Geomorphology using Multibeam Bathymetric Echo Sounder and SCUBA Diving Surveys. Chiaki Katagiri is the chief curator of the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum. He has been actively engaged in investigation and research of underwater cultural heritage in Ryukyu Archipelago. His papers include Research Studies of Ginama Foreign Shipwreck sites in Kunigamison, Okinawa (2012). 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource First Discovery and Mapping of Early Modern Grapnel Anchors in Ishigaki Island and Cultural Resource Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Okinawa Description An account of the resource Yarabuoki site, which contains iron grapnel anchors and early modern Okinawa ceramic jars in 12 to 32 m depth off the western Coast of Ishigaki Island, was discovered by a local diver and reported to Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center. In 2010, the Center conducted a distributional survey to confirm the site and its location. Although the survey found and pictured seven numbers of grapnel anchors that were first findings of this type in Okinawa area, the previous study did not record each position and the accurate depth of these artifacts and the site character such as shipwreck site or discarded shipping loads site is yet unclear. With such background and tasks, our team has conducted underwater archaeological research to record each location of grapnel anchors and ceramic jars using GPS. Furthermore, Kan and Nagao conducted a broadband multibeam survey around the Yarabuoki site and visualized the bathymetric 2 results at a lateral grid resolution of 1m. This will enable us to create a three- dimensional site map to plot the artifacts, while Sakagami (Tokai University) developed a low-cost and human-portable underwater robot to explore and record high resolution video of underwater sites, and the robot successfully worked during our surveys. Our paper reports the results and outcomes of the research at Yarabuoki site and other underwater sites in Ishigaki and the Yaeyama Islands and discusses the early modern marine transportations in Okinawa or the Ryukyu Islands. We also discuss the future possibility for cultural resource management of underwater cultural heritages in the Yaeyama and Okinawa. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rintaro Ono Hironobu Kan Norimitsu Sakagami Masayuki Nagao Chiaki Katagiri, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8fda1da9e417055ee3673c8e2224c1b0.pdf b3ea912057b4de202eb1a0b894f44b24 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 1: Asia-Pacific Maritime Cultural Landscape: an Austronesian Cultural Identity? Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fish Guests of the Stone Fish Weirs and Traps- Two Case Studies in Jibei and Qimei Islands, Penghu Archipelago, Taiwan Description An account of the resource The Penghu Archipelago, Taiwan, has the highest concentration of stone fish weirs in the world. Most built several hundred years ago, some of which are in use by local people today. This paper describes the longstanding traditional knowledge and systems of management of stone fish weirs by local peoples including catching, keeping, and consuming the fish and shellfish from stone weirs in Jibei Island. The island lies north of the Penghu, with 92 stone weirs covering 3.1 square kilometres around its coastline. The paper also details the record catch of Rainbow Runner (Elagatis bipinnulatus) in July, 2019 in the twin-heart basalt stone fish weir of the Qimei Island, the southernmost island in the Penghu archipelago. This paper plans to shed light on how the local community utilize stone fish weirs in a sustainable manner to decipher the long practiced ancient wisdom of Tienrengonghao 天人共好in Chinese, meaning “The universe and human in harmony”. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Shao, Meihua Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Shao, Meihua. 2021. “Fish Guests of the Stone Fish Weirs and Traps - Two Case Studies in Jibei and Qimei Islands, Penghu Archipelago, Taiwan.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung, Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/664 Asia-Pac Session 1 2021 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fishing Villages in Tokugawa, Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arne Kalland Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Hawai'i Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Arne Kalland Item Type Book ISBN 0824816323 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 355 Place Honolulu Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Hawai'i Press Title A name given to the resource Fishing Villages in Tokugawa, Japan Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/98ec433002f47a8ecca2eb29ba2fae28.pdf 06d3ef484b0c0c978884a05e24d9df3b PDF Text Text Fishing Weirs and Galo Mythologies from the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas Bina Gandhi Deori (Deputy Director - Research, SAARC, Cultural Centre, Colombo-7) binagandhideori@gmail.com ABSTRACT Traditional hunting and gathering ways of life have existed as the main mode of subsistence for humans since long and continue to be with some indigenous communities despite the onslaught of urbanization. Arunachal Pradesh, the North-easternmost state of India that shares international borders with the Republic of China, Bhutan and Myanmar is home to a large number of indigenous communities who still continue to live in traditional ways of life despite the changes brought by modernization. Traditional and community fishing is still practiced by them and the use of various types of weirs is still common. The weirs come in various shapes and sizes and are made by the community people themselves using bamboo splits and rattan. The making of the fishing weirs needs special skill as some take a longer period for the processing of the raw materials while some are made on the spot at the time of need, in both cases active participation to learn and develop the skill is necessary. What makes these fishing weirs special is the mythology behind it. The Galo indigenous community people hold these fishing weirs with utmost respect because of its importance in their mythology. The folk stories mention how the fishing weirs came to the human and the role played by the weirs in sustaining human life on this Earth. However, as the younger generation do not have much time to spent with their village/community elders, this tradition of making fishing weirs is not easily known to many and the myths behind it. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the different kinds of the fishing weirs and to bring out the importance of the related mythologies associated with them. Key words: fishing weirs, myths, indigenous communities, Himalayas INTRODUCTION Arunachal Pradesh located in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas is home to a number of indigenous people who still practice traditional mode of subsistence. As the land is gifted with numerous rivers and natural freshwater streams, the natives still do fishing on a regular basis using traditional fishing techniques. The data presented here are from a preliminary ethnographic study carried out between 2017-2019 on the subsistence mode of the Galos, one of the well-known ethnic communities mostly inhabiting the Leparada District of Arunachal Pradesh. The principal objective of the research was to provide a database documenting the traditional fishing weirs of the Galos and to explore the associated fishing myths or legends. The research also aims to understand the significance of these traditional weirs in the context of modern fishing equipment readily available in the market. The importance of fish in a Galo society cannot be ignored. As most of the villages are located near a river or stream, fishing is a very important economic activity and fish is an important source of food for them. Fish is not only important as a source of protein but also an important food item in any feast or ritual to entertain the guests. Sharing of fish is important socially and communally. Fish are exchanged during marriage, also offered as gifts when visiting distant relatives. Certain species of fish are only exchanged during marriage, others such as Amblyceps sp. (Tammii), Chaanna punctata (Talo), Pterokryptes afgana (tayek), botia sp. (Ribo-Ringum) etc. are not consumed or offered during weddings for consumption nor for gifting. And during the taboo period also, certain species of fish are not consumed for a stipulated time period. 1 �Galos still practice community fishing when all the community people gather on an appointment day to fish together. Fishing is not only a medium of food supply but it also brings the members of the clan together and through such exercise it binds the community further. For them fishing is not just an economic activity but also an important part of the learning process through which the young ones gain an understanding of the technique of using the fishing gears and learn about the fish behavior from the village elders. Through such on-spot training, the traditional knowledge is being passed on to the successive generations. Community fishing is a part of the cultural heritage of the Galos and it is still practiced by the community members. It is interesting to note that in many of the Galo folklores the mention of rivers, fish and the water world is invariably there. The tales of Jai Bonnw, Anyi-Kari-Karnya, Vmv lama Yo Vmv feature special mention of the water world and different techniques of fishing. It is in the folklore of Jai Bonnw that the first mention of herbal fishing occurs. Religious rites and other marks of respect are integral to the practice of fishing. Galos believe in the sacredness of nature and in the guardian spirits who are in charge of the mountains, hills, sky, streams, rivers, streams etc therefore before any large scale fishing mission or hunting, the shaman performed a ritual called ambin hunam. However, in the present day, this tradition is not strictly followed. In community fishing, men, women, young and even children take part. On the appointed day many families come together with their assorted indigenous fishing gear and whole day fishing is done. Meal is cooked by the river bank with the freshly caught fish and all the community members have their meal together. At the end of the day, the catch is divided among the participants who then either steam the fish in a bamboo receptacle or dry it over fire for preservation and future consumption. Fishing is done mainly during the winter season when there is abundance of fish in the rivers. The Galos are good fishermen and they can travel to far off places on foot, for days together and stay near the river in the forest for fishing. The most common fish consumed by them are Ngoru (Garra annandalei), Riibo (Schistura rupecula), Riingum (Nemacheilus devdevi), Orse (Semiplotus semiplotus) Ngopi (Labeo gonius) etc. (Bagra 2010). Due to the importance of fish amongst them many indigenous techniques have been developed. Some popular traditional methods of fishing are hand-gathering, trapping, stationary enclosures, indigenous basket-shaped wicker traps, bamboo weirs and use of stupefying aids to catch fish. These indigenous techniques are locally called qou nunam (ubnam), `lwwruu ubnam, tahum-kunam, ta`kom `gaanam, w`dwr`gaanam, `riigoo goonam, `higo `tonam, `hwl `monam, `lwwpum `pumnam, `paakam karnam, hi`bok pvnam. Though many new methods and machineries are available in the market, the age-old traditional methods are still used as specific fishing methods are very effective to catch particular species of fish. The indigenous gears used for fishing are made of perishable locally available material, bamboo, wood and cane. The indigenous traps are designed in such a way to make the entry easy and the exit difficult; once the fish enters inside it cannot escape. Traps are culturally almost universal. They make traps with various forms: conical, cylindrical and basket type. Some of the traps are used exclusively by the women and some by the men only. Traps can be either fixed or mobile. However, a number of techniques with various kinds of traps and weirs which can be operated by a single person are also practiced. A Glimpse into various Fishing methods ● Tahum /Tasum Kunam 2 �In this fishing method a conical shaped basket with narrow end and broad mouth, `raajuu is used to catch small fish in the rivers and streams. This gear is made of cane and bamboo. It is used by the womenfolk to fish. `Raajuu is put down in the water and fixed in between two legs, and slowly with both hands the bottom of the stones are searched. Because of the disturbance caused, fish come out of their hideouts and enter the `raajuu. The `raajuu is then lifted up and the catch is put in a small bamboo basket called `ginci, which is tucked under the waist for carrying the catch. The mouth of the basket is covered with ferns and leaves to prevent the fish from coming out of the basket. ● `Riigoo goonam This method is also practiced by womenfolk. In this technique the (cylindrical gear with wide mouth and narrow end) are fixed in the river in a straight line in such a way that the whole width of the river from one bank to the other bank is covered and the corners are sufficiently covered with ferns and other shrubs, so that no space is left for the fish to escape. From a distance of about 10 metres ahead, standing facing the mouth of the `raajuu, women start moving the stones vigorously with the hands or with the help of a stick etc. so that the fish come out of its hideouts and make an escape towards the side where the `raajuu are already fixed. Gradually the fish are herded towards the mouth of the `raajuu. Once the fish enter the `raajuu, they are immediately lifted out of the water and the fish caught in the individual `raajuu are taken. (Fig. 1) Figure 1.`Riigoo goonam ● Ta`kom `gaanam A traditional gear locally called ta`kom which is a hand-woven long funnel shaped wicker, is placed against the water current with some leaves inside it. A simple ta`kom can also be made of split bamboo. It can be kept overnight. As it is fixed against the water current, fish that enters a ta`kom could not turn around to get out. 3 �● W`dwr`gaanam It is a traditional basket weir fish trap about two meters long consisting of two wicker cones, one inside the other which is made in such a way that it is easy for the fish to get inside and hard to get out. It can be set as well as mobile. To catch fish, the trap is buried halfway in shallow water. Sometimes to lure the fish, baits are used. This is the most common gear used by men as it does not require guarding. It can be fixed in the evening or night and can be checked the next morning. Figure 2. `Lwwpum ● `Lwwpum `pumnam It is another traditional method of fishing where flat stones are piled underwater. This is done during the cold months when fish like to remain in holes. Choosing an appropriate site to pile the stones is the most important issue. A site with shallow water, medium current and sufficient sunlight is the most appropriate selection. Big flat stones are piled underwater in such a way that there is sufficient space inside for easy movement of fish. These piled stones are called `lwwpum (Fig.2). These piled stones are left undisturbed for 2-3 months, after which the fish gathered in the `lwwpum are harvested. A circular bamboo screen locally called cwergoo is used to cordon the `lwwpum. It is tightly fixed at the bottom so that fish cannot escape. From a small hole in the bamboo screen, w`dwr is fixed. Gradually, the piled stones are removed. It is practiced mainly from the month of October to February. The Galos also use different types of weirs for fishing. The large fishing weir structure is constructed from wooden posts, wattle fences and with stones at times. The wooden stakes are woven together to create a barrier or temporary dam that traps fish while letting water pass through. All the openings are blocked with traps, baskets or net traps. These are buried halfway in shallow water. In stone weirs, stones are arranged into rectangular walls on the 4 �edge of rivers. At regular intervals the wall is opened. Then the fisherman would wade into the walled trap and seize their catch. Today the government prohibits such massive trapping techniques during the fish breeding season. Herbal poisoning The use of fish stupefying plants is an old practice in the history of humankind all over the globe. Indigenous people using various fish poisons to catch fish are common among many tribes of North-East India. Fish poisons are extracted from several plant species and these are mixed with water which makes the fish numb. Even Galo ethnic community tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, due to their close contact with nature for a long period of time have acquired the knowledge of usefulness of certain plants to be used as fish poisons. The use of fish stupefying plants has historically been used by many hunter-gatherer societies to stun fish, so that the fish become easy to collect by hand. These stupefied fish can be eaten by humans without any adverse reaction. Mostly the plant species used as fish poison by the tribal are harvested exclusively in the wild. Use of herbs as fish stupefying agent (Hi`bok Pvnam) In this technique of fishing, all community members participate. It is performed in a festive mood. This technique requires group involvement where the male group constructs a barrier or a temporary blockage across a river using reeds, tree branches and stones which results in a drop in the water level downstream. For stupefying fish through usage of fish poisons, the selection of a suitable water body is very important. Poisoning or intoxication is generally done in shallow water bodies, slow flowing or stagnant water so that the concentrated poison can be more effective. When the flow of the water reduces, the leaves, roots, seeds or the bark of the plant which is to be used as poison is crushed into a pulpy mass and scattered in and around the base of rocks and into holes where fish might hide. A small opening is made in the blockade to let the water mix with the crushed material or it is simply thrown in the water so that it can thoroughly mix with the poison which starts affecting the fish right after 10 minutes and soon thereafter the fish starts floating belly upwards. The Galos use varieties of stupefying agents. Tamo is the common term for all the poisoned herbs. The use of these poisonous plants does not remain the same throughout the season as their effectiveness also changes. Oxor, `Diik-tamo are mostly used in winter whereas Rwpwk, `Talik, Taataa `puraa, Tanwr, `Rugdwk are used throughout the year. In the case of`Diik-tamo bundles of this bush are laid on stones thereafter pounded and crushed and the juice is mixed well with the water which is done only by men. Women and tabooed people (like people bitten by snakes or who carried a dead body and have not completed a stipulated time period etc.) are strictly restricted from touching such items. It is believed that if such people touch the herbal poison, the poisoning capacity gets reduced. Two to three people beat the plant upstream and the rest of them who are not engaged in beating and mixing the plants gather downstream with `raajuu or even with bare hands to catch the floating fish that succumb to the poison. Thus, the fish poison makes the fish float in a dazed state and come to the surface of water from where they can be captured easily. As the juice of the plant mingles with water the bio-active components present in the plant act on the fish and their activity slowly gets paralyzed. The fish become stupefied and they rise to the bank or the surface of the river, where they are caught with bare hands and thrown on to the bank or put inside a container which is tagged along the waist. The effect of the poison does not last for more than 20 or so minutes. Therefore, the stunned fish are collected immediately and any fish that were washed out of the pools or overlooked in the gathering 5 �would recover and swim away, since the toxins merely stupefied the fish rather than killing them outright. The poison does not adversely change the taste and quality of fish. These stupefied fish can be eaten by humans without any adverse reaction (Fig.3. and Fig.4.). Figure 3. Herbal Poisoning Figure 4. Hi`bok Pvnam The government prohibits such massive trapping techniques during the fish breeding season. Indigenous techniques are eco-friendly and non-destructive at all other aquatic life forms. These traditional methods of fishing do not deplete the stock of fish in the river. The modern 6 �indiscriminate poisoning of creeks and ponds, however, has caused a decline in fish stocks. Presently, modern equipment and techniques like chemical poisoning, blasting and electro fishing for catching fish are also used. Fish are killed by blasting dynamites in the river and then skimmed from the surface and from the bottom. These are responsible not only for fast depletion of the freshwater fish but also causes water pollution, therefore, the state government has very strict regulations regarding fishing. Recording and study of the traditional fishing techniques lead to conclude that all the materials used in fishing are highly perishable. In most of the cases the ecological factors are manipulated or molded to the advantage of the fishermen. In both cases, there is hardly any chance of leaving any trace of any kind. Therefore, the study of the ethnographic data can help us to get an insight into the archaeological gap of the traditional fishing practices of the indigenous community. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bagra, K., Kadu, K., Sharma, K. N., Laskar, B. A., Sarkar. U. K., Das, D. N. Ichthyologic Survey and review of the checklist of fish Fauna of Arunachal Pradesh, India, Checklist 5, no. 2 (2009): 330-350. Dutta, R., Bhattacharja, B. K. An Indigenous community Fishing Practice of Tirap Dist, Arunachal Pradesh, Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 7, no. 4 (2008): 624-626. Gurumayum, S.D. and Choudhury, M. Fishing methods in the rivers of North -East India, Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 8, no. 2 (2009): 237-24. Watters, I. Some Observations on the Material Culture of Aboriginal fishing in the Moreton Bay Area: Implications for Archaeology, Queensland Archaeological Research 2 (1985): 50-57. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fishing Weirs and Galo Mythologies from the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas Description An account of the resource Traditional hunting and gathering ways of life have existed as the main mode of subsistence for humans since long and continue to be with some indigenous communities despite the onslaught of urbanization. Arunachal Pradesh, the North-easternmost state of India that shares international borders with the Republic of China, Bhutan and Myanmar is home to a large number of indigenous communities who still continue to live in traditional ways of life despite the changes brought by modernization. Traditional and community fishing is still practiced by them and the use of various types of weirs is still common. The weirs come in various shapes and sizes and are made by the community people themselves using bamboo splits and rattan. The making of the fishing weirs needs special skill as some take a longer period for the processing of the raw materials while some are made on the spot at the time of need, in both cases active participation to learn and develop the skill is necessary. What makes these fishing weirs special is the mythology behind it. The Galo indigenous community people hold these fishing weirs with utmost respect because of its importance in their mythology. The folk stories mention how the fishing weirs came to the human and the role played by the weirs in sustaining human life on this Earth. However, as the younger generation do not have much time to spent with their village/community elders, this tradition of making fishing weirs is not easily known to many and the myths behind it. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the different kinds of the fishing weirs and to bring out the importance of the related mythologies associated with them. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bina Gandhi Deori Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Deori, Bina Gandhi. 2023. “Fishing Weirs and Galo Mythologies from the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Paul Montgomery, and Bill Jeffrey. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2007 Asia-Pac Session 11 2023