20 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ennin's Travels in TÊ»ang China Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Edwin Oldfather Reischauer Edwin Oldfather Reischauer Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Ronald Press Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Edwin Oldfather Reischauer Edwin Oldfather Reischauer Item Type Book Call Number 951.01.R375e Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Extra Leader: am 0c a Control Number: rla00280969 Fixed field: 820526s1955 nyuc 00100deng LCCN: 55006273 Local system no: CUDGR556273-B Local system no: (UPRA)tmp18756857 Cataloging source: CarP CStRLIN CU-A UPRA Geographic area code: a-cc LC Call Number: DS707 .R45 LC offprint number: Copy 2 Dewey class number: 951.016 Local LC call number: DS707 .R45 Physical description: xii, 341 p. : port. ; 24 cm Holdings: 951.01.R375e DEWEY 1 DOHSTK4WK 31275015170476 Held by: GRANDDEPOS Library Catalog library.usc.edu Library Catalog Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Ronald Press Co. Title A name given to the resource Ennin's Travels in TÊ»ang China China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0af9b30251118b20038e180a55a4676c.pdf e6018cebd4ceada3296992bfa5518326 PDF Text Text Establishing a Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit in Tanzania Humphrey Mahudi1 Abstract Tanzania has a coastline of about 1,424 kilometres (km) with many famous ancient coastal towns such as Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mafia and Bagamoyo. The town’s host many underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites which are not yet documented. About 40 shipwrecks have been documented but most have not been surveyed. Tanzania Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programme (TMUCHP), which started in 2009, aims at empowering a number of Tanzanian stakeholders and staff to establish the Tanzanian Maritime Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Unit with skills and resources to record, document and monitor UCH sites. The various stakeholders come from different government departments and Dar es Salaam University in the United Republic of Tanzania which includes the Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar. The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) through United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and Government of the Royal Kingdom of Netherlands has been implementing various activities in the TMUCHP. The programme has achieved the survey of the Great Northern shipwreck in Zanzibar, and a preliminary survey at the World Heritage Site of Kilwa Kisiwani. The programme has included training sessions aimed at raising awareness amongst the Tanzanian community about the importance of implementing a MUCH programme and to enhance this discipline with various stakeholders. It has also imparted knowledge and skills on diving and working on archaeological sites. The programme contains other achievements including, stimulating the Government of Republic of Tanzania to start the process to ratify the UNESCO 2001 Convention for Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention); signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between the government stakeholders and CIE; the establishment of a database as an ongoing process; and attending Regional workshops and training in various countries. The establishment of a MUCH programme faces many challenges; shortage of funds for strengthening an understanding of maritime archaeology and conducting more surveys. Capacity building amongst team members by visiting other countries with successful maritime archaeology practices is also sought after. Lack of diving and survey equipment is also limiting further work. While the program has had some successes, Tanzania’s many maritime and UCH sites are not yet uncovered; I will expand on what we see as the way forward in this paper. 1. Introduction Tanzania has a rich maritime history. Swahili culture is closely related and has a long history of interaction with the Arabs. It is important to educate and share this rich history with local people and the world. Tanzania also has a rich natural heritage including world famous National Parks such as Serengeti, Lake Manyara, Ngorongoro crater and Mount Kilimanjaro which is regarded as the roof of Africa this is a non- exhaustive list. These natural heritage sites are valuable to local communities since they create economic opportunities through employment, trading and other income generating activities. The natural heritage sites also are tourists’ attractions in which both local and foreigners visit. 1 Mafia Island Marine Park and Team Leader, Tanzanian MUCH Unit 1 �Agriculture contributes most to Tanzania’s national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) while in the tourism industry an average of 500,000 tourists visit Tanzania annually and contribute 22.6% of the national GDP; with the number of tourists escalating every year (MNRT 2011). There are several categories of cultural heritage in Tanzania, e.g. the land based cultural heritage and the underwater heritage that include water bodies such as oceans, lakes, rivers and wells (Patience 2006). Currently, only 40 shipwrecks are documented along the coast of Tanzania (ibid). There are many different underwater cultural remains in Tanzania which have not yet been explored such as shipwrecks (ancient and modern), aircraft, submerged or dry maritime infrastructures e.g. harbour, lighthouses, navigation aids and cities ; submerged prehistoric coastal settlements (fish traps and weirs, salt pans), submerged lakeside settlements (crannogs), riverine and swamps systems with associated sites and remains (ship, indigenous watercraft, settlements), (Lane 2005) and land-based sites showing maritime related iconographies (rock painting and engravings, see Sukkham and Taçon this volume). The development in diving technology has made them more accessible and therefore susceptible to anthropogenic destruction. 2. Location and History of Tanzania in Maritime and UCH Tanzania has an area of 945,000 square kilometers located in the eastern part of Africa. Dodoma is the official capital city while Dar es Salaam is the administrative city. It had an estimated population of 39,024,800 in 2006 while more than 80% of the population lives rurally, 95% of the population are Bantu consisting of 130 tribes. Tanzania has a distinct geographical environment including central plateau, lakes in north and west, coastal plains, southern highlands, lakes (Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyasa). Half the country is forested. The country comprises of the islands Zanzibar and Pemba. Mount Kilimanjaro is the highest peak in Africa at 5,895 meters. Tanzania also has the world first known site of modern man’s ancestors in Olduvai Gorge. And last, but not least, we have the Ngorongoro Crater, which is 14.5 km across and 762 meters deep. 2 �Figure 1. Map of Tanzania (source http://zhenghe.tripod.com/maps/tanzania.jpg) 2.1 Tanzania cultural heritage sites In Tanzania there are many cultural heritage sites but in this paper I will mention three famous sites which are associated with detailed surveying done by MUCH. The sites are Zanzibar, Kilwa and Mafia. Zanzibar The main city of Zanzibar, Stone Town evolved through several millennia of maritime mercantile interaction. The surviving town is a physical reflection of testimony to this long-term interchange of human values within the coastal region of East Africa. It gives an authentic impression of the living Swahili culture and it is the best preserved example of its kind. The layout, technology, and design of the Stone Town buildings, expertly blending imported and local ideas, materials, and techniques, makes Stone Town an example of indigenous creativity. Its continuous use as a residential and commercial town is a powerful medium for manifesting the memories of the slave trade and of explorers such as Vasco de Gama and David Livingstone (ICOMOS 2000). Two major cultural traditions merge to form the Swahili civilization on the East African coast. A series of harbour towns developed under influences from the interior of Africa and from the lands across the Indian Ocean. There was a loose confederation of small coastal city states known as the Zenj bar (Black Empire) which operated in the 8th-10th centuries (ICOMOS 2000). The best preserved of these towns is Zanzibar, the name of which is derived from the Perso-Arabic word meaning, “the coast of the blacks”, (ibid). The earliest of these 3 �towns has been excavated at Unguja Ukuu on Zanzibar Island, where 5th century Common Era (CE)2 Roman and Sassanian-Islamic pottery has been found (ibid). Kilwa Neville Chittick (1974:27) considered settlement on Kilwa Kisiwani to have begun around CE 800. Kilwa was a small place with limited external trade and a subsistence economy based upon fishing, shell gathering, bead grinding, and iron smelting (Chittick 1974:28-29; Shepherd 1982:136). The site offered security as it was separated from the mainland by a channel 1 to 2 km wide, protected from ocean storms, and a harbor with sufficient depth to moor sailing vessels, including ocean-going dhows3 (Sutton 1998:133). Late Stone Age and early Iron Age artifacts from the 4th century have been discovered at Kilwa Kisiwani (Moon 2005:6). Kilwa Kisiwani therefore contains about 1600 years of tangible and intangible heritage in connection with the coast and sea and the development of the Swahili culture. It is a very significant site and while considerable work has been implemented on land to interpret and promote the value of the site, very little has been carried out on underwater sites. Mafia Island Mafia Island is located 120 km south of Dar es Salaam. The western side of the island faces the extensive Rufiji river delta. The history of Mafia is attributed by Shiraz who dominated trade in East Africa during 11th - 13th centuries (URT 2000;MIMP 2002). They built their settlement at Kua and Ras Kisimani. Ruins at Kisimani are earlier (12th Century) and have been partially washed into the sea, but Kua have survived with outstanding walls and archways still standing (URT 2000). In 19th century Kua, being a capital of Mafia, was invaded by “Sakalafa” people from Madagascar (MIMP 2002). In 1890 Germany took over and controlled the whole of Mafia (URT 2000). 3. Tanzania Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Program The status of UCH in Tanzania dates back to 2006. Stakeholders meetings and training sessions on UCH were conducted both to raise awareness on the field building capacity of Tanzanians and, as per stakeholders opinions, the requirements for possible ratification of the 2001 Convention. 2 A Georgian Calendar designation starting at year one, which is marked by the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with each year, added one by one. 3 A Traditional Arab, wooden built Sailing canoe commonly used for carrying goods or passengers along the coasts of Indian Ocean. 4 �Figure 2. Tanzania Maritime and Cultural Heritage team (House of wonders, Zanzibar). In 2008 the Tanzanian government, through the Antiquities division under Ministry of Natural Resource and Tourism (MNRT), requested the Embassy of the Kingdom of Netherlands (EKN) to assist in a capacity building program in the field of UCH in the country. In February 2009, phase 1 of the program in building the capacity of Tanzanians in implementing maritime and UCH activities commenced under the leadership of the experts from the Centre for Heritage Activities – CIE of Netherlands. Since 2009 a series of training sessions were conducted and a team of 14 trained personnel currently operate in Tanzania. Participants of the team are accrued from the following institutions namely Marine Parks and Reserves, National Museum of Tanzania, Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute, Antiquities and Museum – Zanzibar, University of Dar es Salaam, and Zanzibar Ports Authority. These experts could effectively implement a number of aspects required for maritime and UCH program through the Department of Antiquities as the national coordinator. Marine Parks and Reserve Unit is one stakeholder who’s mission is to establish and manage marine protected areas (MPA) for sustainable use. There are several MPAs which are already established in Tanzania. These are Dar es Salaam Marine Reserves (2005), Mafia Island Marine Park (1995), Mnazi Bay and Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park (2000) and Tanga Coelacanth Marine Park (2009).The Marine Parks and Reserves Act of 1994 speculates on conservation of cultural heritage that are within the MPA. 5 �The TMUCHP (2008) aims at, Protecting and researching significant Tanzania maritime heritage sites, establish a “Competenty Authority” and implementing a proactive programme, implementing community engagement and awareness, implementing community academic and heritage management projects and developing a sustainabble tourism programme. The program has involved many theoretical and practical sessions from learning to dive, through to the implementation of a non-disturbance survey of a shipwreck off Zanzibar and Kilwa, community involvement , and reporting these activities. Tanzania has not ratified the 2001 Convention, but is preparing to do what is best for the ratification. In April 2011 the Department of Antiquities (Tanzania) in conjunction with the UNESCO Office in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania organized a workshop to raise awareness to member countries of the UNESCO on the relevance of ratifying the 2001 Convention, and the benefits behind the convention. The state parties countries which participated in this workshop include Kenya, Comoro, Seychelles, Mauritius, South Africa, Mozambique, Uganda, Kenya, Madagascar, International experts from the Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) – Netherlands and the host country Tanzania. 3.1 Implemented training projects MUCH Program has implemented several projects: the great northern shipwreck survey in Zanzibar, Tanzania; signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU); stake holders meetings and workshops; Kilwa (world cultural heritage) survey and database establishment. 3.1.1 The Great Northern Shipwreck survey Zanzibar, Tanzania The Great Northern shipwreck survey was carried out by the MUCH Unit and is in partial fulfilment for the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) Part II Certification4. The Great Northern shipwreck is located to the south west of Zanzibar about 8 km from Stone town. 4 Fulfillment of NAS II training you have to undertake a site survey and prepare a report 6 �Figure 3. Undertaking Site survey (Photo by Bill Jeffery, 2009). The Great Northern was a British-built ship used to lay steel cables, which sunk on New Years Eve in 1902. A non-disturbance survey of the shipwreck site was undertaken to ascertain the identity, nature, integrity and condition of the site. The shipwreck has archaeological, ecological and recreational significance (TMUCH 2009). 3.1.2 Signing Memorandum of Understanding between Tanzania government agencies The MoU was signed in 2009 between the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania and the CIE through the Netherlands Government. The MoU depicted issues on training cooperation in maritime heritage management, collaboration in maritime management, funding/finance of program and administration. 3.1.3 Regional workshop and collaboration Five Members of MUCH, Tanzania attended the Regional workshop conducted by South Africa Heritage Resource Agency (SAHRA) with collaboration with the CIE in 2010 and 2011.The workshop was held at Robben Island Museum, Cape Town, South Africa from 17 February – 10 March 2010. The aim of the workshop was raising awareness of the UNESCO convention on the protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and also entailed strategic planning on management of UCH resources (UNESCO convention 2001). Sub Saharan Africa regional cooperation was enhanced by the meeting held in Dar es Salaam in April 2011. The meeting was supported by UNESCO and participant countries included Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa. Each country gave a report on the progress of MUCH activities and the countries agreed to cooperate on MUCH policy and database. 7 �3.1.4 Development of the Tanzanian MUCH database The Tanzanian team eventually managed to develop the Tanzanian MUCH database after being trained for two days. The database contains the following headings: General information, shipwreck, maritime infrastructure on land / intertidal area, natural heritage site with cultural values, traditional cultural site, and other type of site on land or underwater and administrative information. The database will expose all surveyed and not surveyed cultural sites in Tanzania and it will enhance its management. 3.1.5 Kilwa Survey (World cultural heritage site) Kilwa is among the world cultural heritage sites located in south eastern Tanzania (http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/tz). The survey at Kilwa has two aims: on one hand it aims at removing the Ruins of Kilwa from the World Heritage in Danger List; and on the other it attempts to foster sustainable development and social cohesion in the Kilwa district through implementation of various heritage related activities. The survey involved community engagement, site investigation and site inspection. Community engagement The report on the survey of the World Heritage Site Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara in November 2010 concluded, amongst other things, consideration of the needs and benefits of the Kilwa Kisiwani and Kilwa Masoko communities when implementing a MUCH project in the area. The survey carried out in November, 2010 was a first step in engaging the communities but more community engagement needs to be done, particularly given their comments about previous researchers at Kilwa and their lack of follow-up (Jefrey 2011). Site investigation The following sites were investigated through oral history i.e. accumulated or dropped of Ceramic pots off pier on Kilwa Kisiwani, Submerged ruins at Songo Mnara and intangible remain story of “Jiwe la Jahazi “(Stone Dhow) which narrated that a dhow and its crews turned to be a stone when tried to invade Kilwa during British era. Site inspection The survey managed to find the iron anchor which is 2.4 meters along the length of the shaft and 1.9 meters around the crown from fluke to fluke5. It was the only ships’ remains found in an area of about 80 meters radius from the anchor. It is located on a hard limestone seabed and other lighter, smaller ships’ remains would get easily broken-up and washed away (Jeffery 2011). 5 The end points of an anchor which holds a vessel by attaching to a seabed substratum. 8 �Fluke 2.4 m meme t Fluke Figure 4. An iron anchor found in Kilwa survey (Photo by Bill Jeffery, 2010) Benefit of the implemented projects - - Members were trained in site surveying methods theoretically and practically including scuba diving. Revealed / uncovered the Great Northern shipwreck located at Zanzibar by conducting a non disturbance survey. Establishing MUCH database of cultural heritage sites which will have status records of sites in Tanzania. Engaging local communities by raising awareness on the importance of cultural heritages sites and become ready to co-operate in managing and conserving. The Government of the Kingdom of Netherlands supported MUCH Tanzania some facilities to assist in the implementation of the program: a digital camera and an underwater housing, laptop computer, GPS, slates, measuring tapes, waterproof film, pencils, several books, a large carry case, food containers and a 12 volt battery. However the team members do not have their own diving gear such as wetsuit, BCD, regulator, mask, snorkel and fins. To date this gear is hired when projects are implemented. This is a significant expense each time. It also slows the project as gear is returned each day and picked-up again the next day. Regional cooperation was enhanced through Workshop and Training (e.g Tanzania is now cooperating with Mozambique and South Africa through SAHRA). Challenges on implementing the projects - The unit lacks sufficient surveying equipment and the costs to conduct survey are high. Shortage of funds for strengthening an understanding of maritime archaeology and conducting more surveys. Members of MUCH unit are not responsible full time therefore members spend most of their time on work for their respective institutional responsibilities. 9 �General Challenges of Much in Tanzania - - Tanzania as a developing country faces many economic challenges related to poverty hence funds are usually allocated to the most sensitive issues such as education, health, developing infrastracture. Therefore less funds are allocated to cultural heritage conservation. Most of Tanzanian communities are not aware of cultural heritage hence they destoy and use the sites for other economic activities. Cultural heritage is not given as high priority as natural heritage since it is not familiar and as a result does not generate as much revenue as natural heritage does. The cultural heritage sites are vuneralble to environmental hazards and human activites but yet less efforts are made to combat the situation. The way forward - Capacity building amongst team members by visiting other countries with successful maritime archaeology practices is sought after. - Securing diving and surveying equipment and other necessary resources, these will minimize the costs which MUCH incurred by hiring equipment. - The team sees the need to implement regular site surveys, to continue to improve their skills in implementing MUCH activities, in addition to building-up the Database of MUCH sites in Tanzania (TMUCH 2011). - Strengthen Tanzania UCH Unit and ensure the Unit facilitates community awareness, particularly on the management of cultural heritage sites. - In order to accelerate MUCH activities in Tanzania, the ratification of the 2001 Convention should be given priority. - Conducting more regular site surveys in order to develop three areas which are identified as priority areas to conduct surveys: Kilwa, Zanzibar and Mafia, and there maybe other areas that warrant surveys for other reasons (eg. Tanga)6. - Members of the Tanzanian MUCH to participate in regional and international workshops. - Developing and disseminating an action plan to all appropriate Tanzania stakeholder agencies for them to put it into their media in addition to their funding proposals. Conclusion Tanzania has potential cultural sites which need support to protection. We need to conserve and share them. Unlike other countries, Tanzania has strong ethical 6 Famous Coastal town in Tanzania which was chosen in 1889 as military post of German East Africa 10 �approaches for banning treasure hunting but it needs funding to implement activities to protect and promote UCH. Regional and international cooperation is the necessary tool for maritime and UCH to prosper. Collaboration and support from stakeholders from various countries would no doubt assist with the protection of marine cultural heritage in Tanzania. Acknowledgements Special thanks to the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania particularly the stakeholders comprising: Mr. D.M.K. Kamamba, director of the Department of Antiquities, late Dr. N. Kayombo, former director general of the National Museum of Tanzania, Dr. H. Omar, director of Antiquities, Museum and archives of Zanzibar , Dr. A. Chande, Manager of Marine Parks and Reserves Unit , Dr. E.T. Kessy and Dr. Saanane, University of Dar es Salaam ,Dr. Y. Budeba, Former general director of Tanzania Fisheries Institute , and Mr. Mussa Jumbe, director of the Harbour of Zanzibar. I convey sincere gratitude to the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Tanzania for providing funding to support the maritime cultural heritage training of Tanzania. I also thank the Centre for International Heritage Activities and especially director Dr. Robert Parthesius, who in partnership with UNESCO Tanzania organised the Tanzania MUCH program. Also I would like to give thanks to Dr. Bill Jeffery for his tireless effort of training the team. Also, I give thanks to South African Heritage Resources Agency for support and preparation on Regional Workshop and Training on Maritime Archaeology development. Lastly I grateful acknowledge my fellow team-members of Tanzania MUCH for their involvement in the program and help in producing this paper. Abbreviations ICOMOS TMUCH International Council on Monuments and Sites Tanzania Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliography Chittick, N., 1974 ICOMOS 2000 Jeffery, B., 2011 Lane, P., 2005 Mafia Island Marine Park, 2002 Ministry of Natural Resource and Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast, The British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Zanzibar Report, stone town, Zanzibar, September. Report on Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage site survey at Kilwa kisiwani and Songo Mnara. Maritime Archaeology: A Prospective Research Avenue in Tanzania. Mafia and Kilwa, African Publishing Group, Harare. Annual statistical Bulletin 2010, Beknet Tanzania Ltd, Dar es Salaam. 11 �Tourism, 2011 Moon, K., 2005 Patience, K., 2006 Shepherd, G., 1982 Sukkham, A., 2011 Sutton, G., 1998 TMUCH Unit, 2009 TMUCH Unit, 2011 UCH Management Programme Tanzania, 2008 UNESCO 2001 United Republic of Tanzania, 1994 United Republic of Tanzania, 2000 United Republic of Tanzania UNESCO World Heritage Centre Kilwa Kisiwani: Ancient Port City of the East African Coast, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania. Shipwrecks and Salvage on the East African Coast, Kingdom of Bahrain. “The making of the Swahili: A view from the southern end of the East African Coast”, in Paideuma, 28, pp. 129-147. Diversity in Approaches to Maritime Archaeology, Underwater Cultural Heritage and Related Areas. Archaeological sites of East Africa, Tanzania Special Volume 33, The British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Maritime Archaeological Survey Report on the Great Northern Shipwreck, Zanzibar, Department of Antiquities, Dar es Salaam. Database of Marine and Underwater Cultural Heritage sites in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam. Proposal for Building sustainable capacity, TMUCH. Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. The Marine Parks and Reserves Act Mafia Island Marine Park General Management Plan. Dar es Salaam: Board of Trustee, Marine Parks and Reserves, Ministry of Natural Resource and Tourism, United Republic of Tanzania. http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/tz 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Establishing a Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit in Tanzania Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource Tanzania has a coastline of about 1,424 kilometres (km) with many famous ancient coastal towns such as Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mafia and Bagamoyo. The town’s host many underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites which are not yet documented. About 40 shipwrecks have been documented but most have not been surveyed. Tanzania Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programme (TMUCHP), which started in 2009, aims at empowering a number of Tanzanian stakeholders and staff to establish the Tanzanian Maritime Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Unit with skills and resources to record, document and monitor UCH sites. The various stakeholders come from different government departments and Dar es Salaam University in the United Republic of Tanzania which includes the Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar. The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) through United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and Government of the Royal Kingdom of Netherlands has been implementing various activities in the TMUCHP. The programme has achieved the survey of the Great Northern shipwreck in Zanzibar, and a preliminary survey at the World Heritage Site of Kilwa Kisiwani. The programme has included training sessions aimed at raising awareness amongst the Tanzanian community about the importance of implementing a MUCH programme and to enhance this discipline with various stakeholders. It has also imparted knowledge and skills on diving and working on archaeological sites. The programme contains other achievements including, stimulating the Government of Republic of Tanzania to start the process to ratify the UNESCO 2001 Convention for Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention); signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between the government stakeholders and CIE; the establishment of a database as an ongoing process; and attending Regional workshops and training in various countries. The establishment of a MUCH programme faces many challenges; shortage of funds for strengthening an understanding of maritime archaeology and conducting more surveys. Capacity building amongst team members by visiting other countries with successful maritime archaeology practices is also sought after. Lack of diving and survey equipment is also limiting further work. While the program has had some successes, Tanzania’s many maritime and UCH sites are not yet uncovered; I will expand on what we see as the way forward in this paper. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Humphrey Mahudi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/46e352444f0e75ce38da9cffebf0f619.pdf 3de433b4a692b905d29bb18bf5d20b93 PDF Text Text Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong: a collection of living maritime cultural heritage and oral history Shadi Kalantar (PhD candidate at University of Naples “L’Orientale”, skalantar@unior.it) Zeinab Hadi (PhD student at University of Tehran, zeinab.hadi@ut.ac.ir) ABSTRACT Bandar-e Kong is a port-town located in the Iranian coasts of the Persian Gulf, which flourished in the 17th century CE with the presence of the Portuguese. Since then, Bandar-e Kong has been a departure point for Iranian ships sailing the triangle trade to India, Africa, and the Persian Gulf. The topic of this paper fits best within the Session: Collections-Based Research because this paper aims to introduce Bandar-e Kong’s living maritime heritage through the Ethnological Museum’s collections. The Ethnological Museum collections were donated by the town residents. It was founded in 2011 by retired captains and mariners of Bandar-e Kong, sailors themselves to Africa and India. These sailors turned curators preserve the UNESCO’s intangible heritage of Traditional Skills of Building and Sailing Iranian Lenj Boats in the Persian Gulf. In 2020 the authors were funded by the Municipality of Kong to document the objects curated at this museum. Our holistic approach recorded all vessels and related tools. All objects underwent morphological analysis, and each sailor-curator was interviewed to amass oral histories on the construction and use of the objects. These details together ultimately produced an oral history of the port-town of Bandar-e Kong during August and September of 2020. *All letters and wording not in Latin alphabet are Persian. Keywords: intangible cultural heritage, maritime ethnography, Persian Gulf, Bandar-e Kong List of Pictures: Picture 1: top: the Portuguese remains on the coast of Kong (copyright permission by Ayub Zarei); bottom: boatyard of Kong looking to the east (recorded by Shadi Kalantar). Picture 2: left: Nakhoda Ḥạ̣ mūd (copyright permission by Ali Bahri); right: Sarhang (copyright permission by Mohammad Ḥasanzade). Picture 3: top left: a jahle, a jar which is also used as a drum (accession number KEM-309); top right: a wooden mortar made in Africa (KEM-138); bottom left: a fragrance burner for cloths, probably made in India (KEM- 206); a tambūre or tanbūn which is used in spiritual ceremonies (KEM-095). All images recorded by authors. Picture 4: top left: qādūfs (accession number KEM- 22-23); top middle: Indian oars (KEM- 24-25); top right: mīdāf (KEM35); bottom left: a glass buoy (KEM- 71); bottom right: mokassar (KEM- 26). All images are recorded by authors. 1 �INTRODUCTION The Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong is a public effort to safeguard the national intangible heritage of navigation and ship/boat building in Iran. Objects are donated, entrance is free and curators volunteer. These curators are retired mariners from the triangle trade between the Persian Gulf, India, and Africa. Their presence and conversation play integral roles in the museum collections. In 2020 the authorities of the Municipality of Kong funded the authors to create an inventory form and accession each object in the museum collection. The outcome resulted in eight overarching categories. This process of collections management and the ensuing discussion on our select objects is why our paper fits best within the Collections-Based Research Session. Of the 491 objects recorded, we narrow our discussion to four. We selected the four objects as examples of the richness of intangible heritage in our recording process. Following is a short introduction to the port-town of Kong, the creation of the Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong, our inventory framework and results, and discussion of four objects from the collection. BANDAR-E KONG Bandar-e Kong or “Kong Port” (‫)بندر کنگ‬, is a town in the west of Hormozgan province, on the Iranian coast of the Persian Gulf. Today, Kong is approximately 6.5 Km² with a +20,000 population. The Portuguese had their main port on the island of Hormuz until 1622 when Iranians repossessed it (Lorimer 1915, 23-27; Al-Salimi and Jansen 2015, 223-235; Vosuqi and Khayrandish 2005). Subsequently, the Portuguese attacked Iranian coasts to recoup their losses. In response, Iran’s king, Shah Abbas the Great, agreed the Portuguese could settle along the coast (pointedly not on an island) (Floor 2006, 238-239) (1625 CE). The Portuguese chose Kong and remained there until 1721-22 CE (Stiffe 1899, 297; Floor 2006, 429-439; Habibi and Vosuqi 2008, 13-16). The Portuguese presence is still visible with the castle ruins (picture 1 top) with more likely to the east, based on geomagnetic survey (Mohammadkhani 2020, 95-99). Aside from the Portuguese, Kong remained an active port for Iranian ships sailing to Africa, India and west of the Persian Gulf (Tavernier 1678, 94-95; L’Estrang 1686, 157; Lorimer 1908, 1041; Noorbakhsh 1996; Hassannia and Bahri 2018). This continues to the present day; the Mihandūst ( ‫میهن‬ ‫ )دوست‬voyage from Dubai to Mombasa that Kaplan reported is a good instance (trip completed in 1974 Kaplan 2015). There is still an active traditional (wood) boat-building yard (picture 1 bottom), at 33 hectares (calculated in Google Earth) possibly the largest along the Persian Gulf. The wooden ships, known as lanj/lenj in Iran, are still built, repaired, and sailed thus continuing nautical traditions. 2 �Picture 1: top: the Portuguese remains on the coast of Kong (copyright permission by Ayub Zarei); bottom: boatyard of Kong looking to the east (recorded by Shadi Kalantar). The living knowledge and practice of lanj building, in addition to the high number of old and retired mariners concentrated in this little town, characterises Kong as a centre for traditional maritime heritage. So, naturally the Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong’s collection of ship and boat related objects and traded goods were gathered by retired sailors, captains and boatbuilders. These mariners continue to carry their maritime cultural knowledge. Some ethnographic and oral history studies have been previously done, which attempted to record the oral maritime history and intangible maritime heritage of Bandar-e Kong, specifically the terminology and function of maritime and navigational tools curated in the museum (Noorbakhsh 1996; Parsa 2013; Hassannia and Bahri 2018; Hassannia and Zarei 2020). 3 �ETHNOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF BANDAR-E KONG History of the building The Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong (‫ ) موزه مردم شناسی بندر کنگ‬is in a building located on the property of Hadj Mohammad Rashedan (‫ )حاج محمد راشدان‬and descendants. This building was a tradehouse of goods from Africa, India, and the southern countries of the Persian Gulf. After decades of abandonment, in 2011, captain Ali Bahri (‫)علی بحری‬, better known as Nakhoda Ḥamūd (‫)ناخدا حمود‬ attempted to establish the museum. Serendipitously, Traditional Skills of Building and Sailing Iranian Lenj Boats in the Persian Gulf was inscribed on the UNESCO’s “List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding” (Nomination file No. 00534). So, through the public attempt to safeguard national maritime heritage the Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong came into existence. Nakhoda Ḥamūd, along with the former mayor of the town Ayoub Zarei (‫)ایوب زارعی‬, worked to support our project funded by the Municipality of Bandar-e Kong. In 2020 the authors documented the museum collections and recorded oral history of maritime Bandar-e Kong in interviews with the retired sailors who now volunteer as curators at the museum. THE PROJECT OF DOCUMENTATION Our project saw the value of the storytelling of the sailor/shipbuilder-curators. They gather together every evening for tea or coffee and share stories from their travels to India and Africa. Bystanders, including researchers or visitors, can listen to their experiences and guidance on the use of the museum collections. The collections were donated and include a variety of everyday-life objects to maritime and navigation tools. Framework The aim of our project was to document the museum collections for scholarly use and to create an inventory list for authorities and curators of the museum. This project was carried out from 15 August 2020 to the end of September 2020 on site, over four weeks, and an additional +two weeks to digitise and edit the pictures. In total 491 objects were measured, photographed and described in the inventory forms we created; in some cases, drawings were also made. The utility of many objects, especially boat and ship related objects, were unknown to the authors, therefore, interviews with the mariners-curators were carried out to figure out the utility as well as terminology of maritime objects and other unknown elements. Here, the challenge was that these maritime terms are in the local dialect of Hormozgan which is called bandari (Pelevin 2010) and they mostly have no synonym in standard Persian. So, it was decided to document the objects with their bandari terms in the inventory list and define them. As mentioned, bandari maritime terms have been studied before (Eqtedari 1963; Mohebbi 1996; Noorbakhsh 1996, 86-106; Tabibnezhad 2011; Parsa 2013, 145-150; Hassannia and Bahri 2018, 111-118), however, the terms that were previously undocumented are now written in the inventory list. In addition, the name of the donator, where available, is recorded in the inventory list with the accession number. To record the objects’ function Ali Baḥri /Nakhoda Ḥamūd (picture 2 left) and Mohammad Hasanzade (‫( )محمد حسن زاده‬picture 2 right), better known as Sarhang (‫ )سرهنگ‬were interviewed. Ali Baḥri, on the one hand, is a retired captain and his father, whose nickname was Ḥamūd, was a captain too. Nakhoda (‫)ناخدا‬, could be translated as both captain and shipowner in the past (Tibbetts 1971, 58; Agius 2008, 415), however, today it only refers to captain. In this article, Ali Baḥri, who is referred to in this article by his reputation as Nakhoda Ḥamūd, was born in 1936 in Kong. Since his 4 �father was a well-known nakhoda as well, he always kept his father’s company onboard as a child. He soon started to work on a fishing craft and later became a nakhoda himself. Picture 2: left: Nakhoda Ḥ̣amūd (copyright permission by Ali Bahri); right: Sarhang (copyright permission by ̣̣ Mohammad Ḥasanzade). Mohammad Ḥasanzade, on the other hand, used to be a sarhang onboard. Sarhang, which is also known as mojaddami (‫ )مجدمی‬and moqaddami (‫)مقدمی‬, oversees all the sailing tasks onboard such as landing and docking (Tibbetts 1971, 58; Agius 2008, 419, 178-181). Ḥasanzade, himself, says: ‘sarhang gets orders directly from nakhoda and he should know everything about a sailing ship, every piece of it. He supervises sails, docking, landing, rising, lowering and changing the directions of the sails’. He is thus referred to, in this article, as Sarhang. He was born in 1945 in Kong and when he was eleven or twelve years old, he went on his first sea voyage on a sailing ship with his father. They travelled to Abadan on the west of the Iranian coast of the Persian Gulf and then to Tanzania in Africa and back to Kong. Sarhang started working on a ship as an unpaid young trainee and slowly, over time, advanced to the position of being a sarhang. Now that we’ve introduced our main interviewees, we will explain how we documented oral histories. The authors posed questions to these sailor-curators, amongst others, at their daily gathering. The authors followed the conversation amongst them in relation to the question. The questions sometimes led to disagreements so, different opinions and points of views on a subject were compared. In this article, where information is provided by Sarhang or Nakhoda Ḥamūd, it is quoted by their names and where the information is gained from a group’s conversation, it is mentioned as “group-discussion”. Collections and Objects The museum’s collections were categorised into seven classifications: Boat and Ship Related ( ‫اجزاء و‬ ‫)الحاقات قایق و کشتی‬, Boat and Ship Models (‫)مدل قایق و کشتی‬, Handicrafts (‫)صنایع دستی‬, Vessels (‫)ظروف‬, Modern Items (‫)اشیاء مدرن‬, Musical Instruments (‫ )آالت موسیقی‬and Others (‫ )متفرقه‬for those that could not be categorised to any of the above mentioned ones. The Boat and Ship Related Collection includes paddles and oars, sailing affiliations, navigational tools, crew’s personal boxes and other tools such as glass buoys (picture 4 bottom left). Boat and Ship Models is a small collection of few locally made dhow models and some made in India. Vessels 5 �Collection has a variety of locally produced potteries (picture 3 top left), to Chinese and European fine ceramics and glasses, jars for carrying Indian pickles, and African mortars (picture 3 top right) that have been traded around the Indian Ocean in the 20th century. Handicrafts Collection has a variety of locally produced items to Indian and African items that sailors brought as souvenirs from their voyages (picture 3 bottom left), with handicrafts, such as baskets, that mariners made onboard during sail. Modern Item Collection includes radios, televisions, phones and clocks that mostly are bought and brought from Dubai and Kuwait in the second half of the 20th century. The Musical Instruments Collection mostly has local drums and one tambūre (‫ )تمبوره‬or tanbūn (‫ ) تنبون‬which is a string ceremonial instrument (picture 3 bottom right). We selected four objects from the Boat and Ship Related Collection to narrow our discussion. Picture 3: top left: a jahle, a jar which is also used as a drum (accession number KEM-309); top right: a wooden mortar made in Africa (KEM-138); bottom left: a fragrance burner for cloths, probably made in India (KEM- 206); a tambūre or tanbūn which is used in spiritual ceremonies (KEM-095). All images recorded by authors. Paddles and Oars Three pairs of wooden oars, one pair of wooden paddles and one single paddle are available in the Boat and Ship Related Collection. All the three paddles are the same type, but the oars are two different types. Sarhang and Nakhoda Ḥamūd recalled their names as following and other mariners in the group-discussion confirmed them: paddles are called qādūf ( ‫( )قادوف‬picture 4 top left) or African paddle ( ‫)پاروی اِفریقایی‬, one pair of oars are called Indian oar ( ‫( )پاروی هندی‬picture 4 top middle) and the other two pairs are mīdāf ( ‫( )میداف‬picture 4 top right). The shafts of qādūfs vary from 170 to 172 cm among the three qādūfs and the widest part of the blade is 60-61 cm. This type of paddle has an arrowhead shaped blade and in the top of the shaft has a handle to hold the paddle (grip). The paddles are carved out of wood in one piece and there is no joint 6 �in them. We were informed in a group-discussion that this kind of paddle was purchased in African ports such as Mombasa. Sarhang remembers that qādūf, or the African paddle, was only used for paddling on a canoe. The Indian oars, as qādūfs, are carved from the trunk in one piece and the only joint part is the grip. The shaft is 140 cm and the blade, which is round, is 30 cm. Mīdāf, from which two pairs are available, has a longer shaft, approximately 200-220 cm, and the blade, unlike the previous ones, is attached to it with iron nails. This study brought up a contradiction with previous terminological studies over the terms mīdāf and qādūf. In Parsa’s glossary for Bandari maritime terms (2013, 234) mīdāf is mentioned as an equivalent for jaddāf which refers to the wooden structure which is built out of water for ships to stay still when they are not in the water. Ghādūf or ghādif (qādūf), on the other hand, according to Agius (2008, 183184, 406) means sailor (lit. rower). In addition to that, we faced another controversy, this time among the mariners in the group-discussion, about the usage of the Indian oars. Some described the objects as oars, while others described the objects used both as oars for small boats and as paddles for canoes. Mīdāfs, however, are certainly oars, as Sarhang recalled a song that they used to chant while rowing with mīdāfs to synch the rhythm of rowing, which is the repetition of two words: ‘hele, yāmāl’ (in Persian ‫ یامال‬،‫)هله‬. Picture 4: top left: qādūfs (accession number KEM- 22-23); top middle: Indian oars (KEM- 24-25); top right: mīdāf (KEM- 35); bottom left: a glass buoy (KEM- 71); bottom right: mokassar (KEM- 26). All images recorded by authors. Mokassar Mokassar (‫( )مکسّر‬picture 4 bottom right) is a tool which, according to Sarhang, is for making ropes from date palm’s fibres or coconuts’ husks. The Arabic word means broken so maybe it refers to the shape of this tool which has four grooves on the four sides. Linguistic analysis of these words’ etymology requires further study and was not intended for our current study. 7 �Mokassar is 70 cm high and has a quadrangular shape and its lower part is wider than its upper part like a pyramid with a flat top; the lower part is 15 cm wide, and the upper part is 10 cm. There are four grooves on the four corners in which fibres cross and there is a hole on the upper part from which this tool is hung and spun. Rope is made from the spinning fibres. To make thicker ropes, thinner ropes would be spun together. CONCLUSION Cultural heritage belongs to nations and people. They are the best guardians of one’s heritage, especially intangible heritage. The Ethnological Museum of Kong is a good example of how people, in a public effort, can preserve their own heritage and without much money for support. Unlike many great ethnological museums that exhibit collections from locations at a great distance from their heritage, the Ethnological Museum of Bandar-a Kong is located in its local context and has the capability of providing close interaction for visitors with the living carrier of intangible maritime heritage - the knowledge-keepers of traditional sailors and ship-builders. This project is an attempt to conserve the traditional maritime knowledge and contribute to the body of maritime oral histories. Acknowledgement This project was funded by the municipality of Kong which we are grateful for. We especially thank our interviewees, Mohammad Hasanzade and Ali Baḥri for being very patient and helpful as well as other mariners of Bandar-e Kong that were present at our group-discussions. We also acknowledge the support of Ayoub Zarei, former mayor of Kong who is an admirer of maritime cultural heritage. Bibliography: Agius, Dionisius. Classic Ships of Islam From Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean. Leiden. Boston: Brill, 2008. Al-Salimi, Abdulrahim and Jansen, Michael (eds.). Portugal in The Sea of Oman Religion and Politics. Vol. 5. Hildesheim. Zurich. New York, 2015. Eghtedari, Ahmad “‫ محمد علی سدید السلطنه کبابی بندر عباسی‬:‫ ”اصطالحات کشتی در جنوب ایران و رساله اوزان چو تألیف‬In ‫نشریه فرهنگ ایران‬ ‫زمین‬. Vol. 11 (1963): 135-154 Floor, Willem. The Persian Gulf: a political and economic history of five port cities. Washington DC: Mage, 2006. Habibi, Hasan and Vosuqi, Mohamman B. The Historical, Political and Social Study of Bandar Abbas Documents. Tehran: Iranshenasi, 2008. Hassannia, Mohammad and Bahri, Yaqub. ‫دریانوردی و لنج سازی بندر کنگ با تاکید بر بوم مسی‬. Tehran: Jonub Publications, 2018. Hassannia, Mohammad and Zarei, Ayub. Lasting Heritage of Sailors and Lanj Builders. Tehran: Jobub Publications, 2020. Kaplan, Marion. So Old a Ship Twilight of the Arab Dhow. London: Harriman House, 2015. L’Estrang, R.O (ed.). Travels of Monfieur Thevenot into The Levants. London: Printed by H. Clarck, 1686. Lorimer, J.G. Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia. Vol. 1. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1915. Lorimer, J.G. Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia. Vol. 2. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1908. Mohammadkhani, Kurosh. “Magnetic survey in the Portuguese castle of Kong” In Human and the Sea: a Review of Thousands of Years of Relationship between Humans and the Sea in Iran edited by Fereidoun Biglari, Jebrael Nokandehm, Abdolmajid Naderi Beni and Ali Hozhabri, 95-99. Tehran: National Museum of Iran and Ports and Maritime Organization of Iran, 2020. 8 �Mohebbi, “Parvis. A Persian Nautical Glossary from ca. 1900” In Iran. Vol. 34 (1996): 129-133 Noorbakhsh, Hossein. Koung Port: the city of navigators and shipbuilders in the Persian Gulf. Second edition. Tehran: Tabatabai, 1996. Parsa, Ali, ‫بادبانهای جنوب‬. Tehran: Nashre No, 2013. Pelevin, Mikhail. “Materials on the Bandari Dialect” In Iran & the Caucasus. Vol. 14 (2010): 57-78 Stiffe, A.W. “Former Trading Centres of the Persian Gulf: Kung” In The Geographical Journal, No. 13 (1899): 294-297 Tabibnezhad Motlaq, Abdolmajid. ‫ فرهنگ لغلت و اصطالحات صیادی و دریانوردی بوشهر و خلیج فارس‬:‫خیران‬. Bushehr: Bushehr Publications, 2011. Tavernier, John Baptista. Voyages. London,1678. Vosuqi, Mohammad B. and Khayrandish, Abd al-Rasul. Jarūn Name. Tehran: Miras-I Maktub, 2005. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong: a Collection of Living Maritime Cultural Heritage and Oral History Description An account of the resource Bandar-e Kong is a port-town located in the Iranian coasts of the Persian Gulf, which flourished in the 17th century CE with the presence of the Portuguese. Since then, Bandar-e Kong has been a departure point for Iranian ships sailing the triangle trade to India, Africa, and the Persian Gulf. The topic of this paper fits best within the Session: Collections-Based Research because this paper aims to introduce Bandar-e Kong’s living maritime heritage through the Ethnological Museum’s collections. The Ethnological Museum collections were donated by the town residents. It was founded in 2011 by retired captains and mariners of Bandar-e Kong, sailors themselves to Africa and India. These sailors turned curators preserve the UNESCO’s intangible heritage of Traditional Skills of Building and Sailing Iranian Lenj Boats in the Persian Gulf. In 2020 the authors were funded by the Municipality of Kong to document the objects curated at this museum. Our holistic approach recorded all vessels and related tools. All objects underwent morphological analysis, and each sailor-curator was interviewed to amass oral histories on the construction and use of the objects. These details together ultimately produced an oral history of the port-town of Bandar-e Kong during August and September of 2020. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Shadi Kalantar Zeinab Hadi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Kalantar, Shadi and Zeinab Hadi. 2023. “Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong: a collection of living maritime cultural heritage and oral history.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Michelle Damian. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1920 Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/53ed4f22acb6422c267ded3703dc2d46.pdf 1142b40d7609cb0908dba9fe361dcb50 PDF Text Text European Ships of Discovery Filipe Castro Texas A&M University fvcastro@tamu.edu Abstract The ships and boats of the 15th and early 16th century European voyages were the space shuttles of their time, and yet we don’t know much about them because most have been destroyed by looters and treasure hunters. This paper will focus on a particular type, the caravel, and presents an overview of the early European watercraft that crossed the Atlantic and sailed along the American coasts during the first decades of the 16th century. Key words: caravel, 16th Century, Europe, ships, looting Introduction The earliest Iberian voyages into the Atlantic were carried out in the existing ships. Soon however the need to adapt the existing watercraft to the sailing conditions of the open sea triggered a process of evolution that is poorly understood, but that reflects the existing cultural, scientific and economic conditions in the Iberian kingdoms. This is an interesting process of technological evolution that is in its earliest states of investigation. The main ships of the European expansion were sailing ships, mainly caravels, naus, and galleons. Rowing ships were also used in the European factories abroad, sometimes shipped in the holds of sailing ships, and sometimes built in Africa and Asia, in the beginning according to European standards, but very soon incorporating local features as they �were understood as advantageous. This paper deals with caravels, a versatile and small ship type that is still poorly understood. Caravels Caravels are among the least understood of all historical vessels. Mentioned in hundreds, perhaps thousands of books, these ships are associated with the Iberian exploration of the Atlantic in the 15th century, and are considered the space shuttles of their time, allowing the Portuguese and Spanish explorers to sail down the African coast, and open the maritime routes to the Caribbean, the west coast of Africa, and the Indian and Pacific Oceans. A few authors have dedicated lengthy works to this ship type, such as Quirino da Fonseca (1934 and 1935), Pimentel Barata (1972), Tengarrinha Pires (1980, 1985, 1986, 1988 and 1990), Malcolm Elbl (1985), Francisco Contente Domingues (1989), or George Schwarz (2008). Their agility is legendary, and more than 150 years after the first mid-15th century references to the new exploration caravels, they are mentioned in an account of a 1597 expedition to the Azores under the Earl of Essex as fast and highly maneuverable: Whilest we thus stayed about the Rocke, ye carvalls of Lyshbourne and of the parts thereabouts would daylie come swarminge about us like butterflies soe neare us as that we might cast a stone into some of them, and yet could we never catch any one of them, soe warie and nimble they are (Gorges, 1604, transcribed by Richard Barker, 2007). These vessels probably originated in the Mediterranean. The Portuguese and the Spanish probably changed and adapted this type of vessels to the navigation along the coast of Africa. Venetian merchant and chronicler �Alvise da Ca’ da Mosto wrote in the late 15th century: ‘...essendo le caravelle di Portogallo i migliori navilii che vadino sopra il mare di vele, ed essendo quelli bene in punto d'ogni cosa che gli fa di bisogno...’ (Ramusio, 1600). Ca’ da Mosto mentions eyes painted on the bow of these caravels, something characteristic in the Mediterranean since long. He says, about the inhabitants of the African coast: ‘...e pensavano che gli occhi che si fanno a prova alli navilii fussero veramente occhi, che 'l navilio per quelli vedesse dove gli andava per mare ‘(Ramusio, 1600). This technology spread to northern Europe and the expression ‘carvelbuilt’ still refers to watercraft built with flush laid planks, nailed to preerected frames, a structural improvement that originated in the Mediterranean and spread along the Atlantic coast of Europe and into the Baltic, during the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Although much has been said and written about caravels, these vessels have never been thoroughly described in historical sources, their representations are few and impressionistic, and no ship identified as a caravel has been archaeologically excavated. Replicas have been built with mixed results, never based on solid supporting information. This paper is a tentative summary of what is known about these ships, both from documental sources, written and iconographic, and from the archaeological record. Pictures of caravels labelled as such are rare but clear enough to allow historians, already in the 19th century, to have a fair picture of what they may have looked like. Portuguese historians Quirino da Fonseca (1934) and Tengarrinha Pires (1980) inventoried representations of caravels in existence. the most important Pimentel Barata (1989) published an interesting drawing of a caravel, depicted as the signature of a caravel master from the 15th century named João de Lião, dated to �1488 according to the author. This drawing was first published by Avelino Teixeira da Mota (1971, Fig. 4) who noticed that this is the earliest drawing of a caravel, designated as such, and one of the earliest dated representations of a stern panel, which is clearly defined (Fig. 1). Fig. 1: Signature of a certain João de Lião, master of caravels, dated to 1488, on a document pertaining to the supply of hardtack to a caravel departing to Africa. (Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo, CC II-I-781, in Mota 1971) Documental Evidence Before 1500 we can only guess what the word ‘caravel’ means. All we have to work with are a few textual references: medieval boats named carávos, two 12th century Italian references to a type of boat called Caravellum, one 13th century reference to caravelas in the chart of the Portuguese village of Gaia, one 14th century reference in Spain, and the 15th century caravels of the Discoveries. Auguste Jal and Corominas explored the origins of the words cáravo and qârib, both referring to small boats, sometimes coracles. As to the word caravellum, there is no way to tell what kind of boat the 1159 Genoese caravellum coopertum was. These boat type appears in two Genoese 12th century documents, the first mentioned is decked (coopertum) �serving a navis (1159), and the second (1190) is small, belonging to a caravelator, presumably working as a harbor tender (Ciciliot, 2005). Furio Ciciliot points out the fact that in the 12th century the word caravelum, referring to a small boat, is masculine, and does not become feminine until it is assimilated to a larger vessel: navis sive caravellae (Ciciliot, 2005). Historian Malcolm Elbl mentions a 1226 reference to a Portuguese caravel taken by English ships on a return trip from Gascogne (Elbl, 1985). He cites the French translation Francisque Michel’s Histoire du commerce et de la navigacion à de Bordeaux (Michel, 186). Michel mentions only ‘un navire portugais, appelé le Cardinal’ and indicates the Rotuli Litterarum Patentium (Rot. Litt. Pat., 10 Hen. III, m. 5) and the Rotuli Litterarum Clausarum (Rot. Litt. Claus., 10 Hen. III, m. 27 et 14; t. II p. 89, col. 2; et p. 119, col. 1) as her sources. The Rot. Litt. Pat., mention a ‘navem que vocatur la cardinale’ (1971, p. 36), and the Rot. Litt. Claus. Membrane 14, mentions an unrelated incident pertaining to wine trade with Bayonne (1916, 5). I could not access Membrane 27 of Henry’s 10th year, and I am not sure that all of Henry’s rolls are published. The caravels referred to in the Chart of Gaia (1255) seem to be fishing vessels, of which we know nothing. Square rigged vessels were rare in the Mediterranean between the early 6th century and the mid-13th century, and most references to caravels mention lateen sails (Bellabarba, 1999). Some authors have proposed that caravels were mentioned in Alfonso X’s Libro de las Leyes or Siete Partidas, as it is better known, written between 1254 and 1265. Most authors, however, agree that the passage in question – Partida Segunda, Titulo XXIV, Ley VII – mentions haloques, and not caravelas. �It seems that caravels are not mentioned in Portuguese documents during the 14th century. There is a reference to caravels in 1307. Malcom Elbl (1985) places it in Biscay, Spain, and cites Quirino da Fonseca. Quirino cites Auguste Jal, and places the caravels in northern Europe (1978), and Jal (1848) is silent about the place and cites Pierre Carpentier (1766), who does not place these caravels anywhere, and gives a source for it I could not find: Charta an. circ. 1307. From the mid-15th century onwards chroniclers mention caravels engaged in the exploration of the Atlantic, and later carrying Columbus into the New World. There are some documents describing caravels, the best known pertaining to the caravels Niña and India, used by Columbus in his fourth trip (Smith, 1993), or the caravelões de Arguim published by Alexandre Monteiro (Monteiro at al., 2011). Carlos Etayo transcribed a 1450 contract for the construction of a caravel for a Catalonian mariner named Gracia Amat with one central and two side rudders, and a length to beam ratio around 4/1 (Etayo, 1971). Jacques Paviot and Erich Rieth published a paper relating the construction by Portuguese shipwrights of two caravels in Brussels, in 1438 and 1439, for the Duke of Burgundy, Philippe le Bon (Paviot and Rieth, 1989). Bibliographic research in Italy, where caravels probably originated, is scarce. Lucien Bash refers to 24 caravels sent by the Republic of Venice in 1490, with 24 men each, and 30 caravels in 1499 with capacities between 100 and 400 botte (Bash, 2000). A botta was close to half a Portuguese tonel, if we are to trust a 1519 document mentioned by Lane (1964): ‘Per lettere di Sibilia delli 9 ditto erano avvisi, come a di 6 era venuta una caravella di portata de 60 tonelle, videlicet 120 botte, a qual era stata a discoprire le Indie (Mexico)…’(Fulin, 1881). �Although Portuguese and Spanish historians combed the most important European archives more than one century ago (Domingues, 2004), almost nothing is known about caravels. Around 1600 we have the first lists of timbers for the construction of a caravel in the Lisbon National Library manuscript known as Livro náutico (Anonymous, c.1590), dated to the 1590s, and two cryptic regimentos by Manoel Fernandez, dated to 1616 and illustrated, but difficult to understand because the drawings are not always represented in the same vertical and horizontal scales (Fernandez, 1616). Iconography is scarce and doesn’t shed light on the most important questions. For instance, they do not tell us whether the early Portuguese 15th century caravels had a stern panel and a central rudder. Around 1500, when we have the first images and descriptions, caravels seem to be small ships of 15 to 50 tons, built with flush-laid planking, rigged with one, two, or three masts, all mounting lateen sails. Sometimes they appear with a foremast rigged with a square sail (Fig. 2). Generally, the mainmast is placed on the center of the keel, and the second and third masts are stepped abaft it, with a small stern castle and no forecastle, a stern panel and a central rudder. �Fig. 2: Presumed representations of caravels in the Livro da fortalezas of Duarte d’Armas, circa 1509. (Armas 1509/1997) Central rudders first appear in Denmark, in the 12th century (Hocker and Dokkedal, 2001). The earliest explicit reference to a central rudder is probably Gracia Amat’s contract, in the middle of the 15th century. Stern panels appear in the iconographical record after 1475, and at least in the in 15th century iconographical record, central rudders seem to be characteristic of square-rigged ships. As it often happens, the word caravel designated a wide range of watercraft, even in the 16th century: caravelas latinas, caravelas de Alfama, caravelas redondas, caravelas de armada, and caravelões. In some cases, we have a fair idea about the main differences between them, and in other cases circumstantial evidence allows some provisory hypothesis. Below are presented short description of what each type may have looked like. �Caravelas latinas As already mentioned, during the 14th century they are not mentioned in Portuguese documents. In the mid-15th century caravels appear as lateeners with a capacity around 50 tonéis and crews between 20 and 25 men. It looks like small caravels with 2 or 3 masts with lateen sails endured for over one century without much change. But we don’t know what characteristics defined a caravel, or what separated a caravel from the other lateeners of their time. Fig. 3: Representation of a caravel in the Retábulo de Santa Auta, dated to c. 1517. (Photo: author) Quirino da Fonseca mentions Braancamp Freire describing 54 caravelas leaving Lisbon in 1488 and 1489, with capacities varying between 15 and 50 tonéis (Fonseca, 1935). This range of capacities is compatible with other accounts, some written much later. In 1571, in A vida e feitos de el-rei D. Manuel, D. Jerónimo Osório, describes caravels as rather small vessels. These caravels don’t have tops (cestos de gávea), nor their yards make right angles with their masts, but hang, inclined, secured under the masthead, and the base of the sail is triangular and almost touches the bulwarks. The yards, which �are fastened to the ship’s bulwarks, are as thick as topmasts in their lower part and have smaller sections upwards (Fonseca 1935). Sometimes these small two- and three-masted lateeners are referred as typically Portuguese, but José Luis Casado Soto found references to 125 caravels in the Registro General del Sello in the Archivo General de Simancas between 1476 and 1496, and they seem to come from all over the Iberian Peninsula. His figures show that 45% of the caravels registered were from Andalusia, 21% from the Cantabric region; 19% from Portugal, 12% from the Mediterranean, and 3% from France, England and the North Sea (Soto, 1991). There is no mention of any possible difference between them. Were Cantabrian and Andalusian caravels much different from each other? How different were they from the Portuguese ones? Or how did the Portuguese ones differed from each other? We have a long way to go before we can say that we understand this ship type. Iconography can provide some clues if we are to trust the illustrations in the Atlas of Georg Braun (1541-1622), published between 1572 and 1617 (Fig. 4). The quality of the illustrations in Braun’s Atlas is known, including the figures in local dresses. It is not uncommon for painters and illustrators to register in the mapmaker’s guilds and work on map illustrations when they and an opportunity (Binding, 2003 and Unger, 2010). The ship illustrations in Braun’s Atlas seem to be reliable as well, and vary from city to city. Although no systematic study of the Atlas’ ships has been done yet, the caravels represented in several Portuguese and Spanish cities, in Iberia or around the world, seem plausible and accurate, and consistent with the descriptions below. �Fig. 4: Caravels: presumably Portuguese at São Jorge da Mina (leaf) and presumably Spanish at Santander (right). (After the 1572 edition of Braun and Hogengberg’s atlas) Caravelas de Alfama Paulo Monteiro found this reference in a Spanish late 16th century document: ‘(…) Tambien se quedan despalmando dos caravelas pequenas destas que aqui llaman de Alfama que las pide el Almirante para llevar consigo…’ (Monteiro pers. comm. 2009). Were at least some of the Spanish caravels larger than the Portuguese ones? José Luis Casado Soto mentions a witness account of Columbus’ second voyage, Pedro Mártir de Anglería, who claims that Columbus took 17 vessels: 3 large cargo ships with tops, 12 caravels, and 2 large caravels, with masts large enough to support tops. Nothing is said about their rigging arrangements. Were these typically different from those of the Portuguese caravels? Caravelas redondas Navarrete calls caravelas redondas ‘castellanas’. They have three masts, the foremast mounting a square sail and the main and mizzen masts mounting lateen sails. Quirino da Fonseca cites him: “caravels were divided into Portuguese and Castilian, the first exclusively lateen-rigged, could sail cinco ou seis quartas (56˚ to 67˚) into the wind, facilitating the Portuguese routes to the African gold mines. Castilian caravels used in their seas with square sails, or better, with a square sail on the foremast.” �Quirino also refers to a 1512 letter from D. Fernando to Pedrarias Davilla in Panama: ‘Yo vos mando que … se hagan luego tres o cuatro carabelas, al modo de Andalucía, las dos, e las otras dos, pequeñas, latinas, como las de Portugal...’ (Fonseca 1935). In Columbus’ Diario de a bordo, transcribed by friar Bartolomé de las Casas, the entry for August 9, 1492, famously mentions the explorer decision to change the rigging of his caravel Pinta: ‘y adobaran muy bien la Pinta con mucho trabajo e diligencias del Almirante, de Martin Alonso y de los demás; (…) Hicieran la Pinta redonda, porque era latina;’(Colón, 1991). In the 14th century Mediterranean it was common to rig two-masted cargo vessels with a square sail on the foremast and a lateen sail on the mizzen. Sergio Bellabarba called this rigging arrangement quadra-latina and proposed two possible roots for the development of three-masted, shiprigged vessels, one from the two-masted lateeners and one from the onemasted square-rigged cogs, both common merchant ships in the mid-14th century Mediterranean (Bellabarba, 1999). According to Bellabarba’s plausible theory, both ship types at some point may have adopted a quadra-latina rigging arrangement, the two-masted lateeners by changing to a square mainsail, the cogs by adding a lateen-rigged mizzen mast. The earliest representation of a ship-rigged three-masted vessel dates to 1409 and appears in a Catalonian document. It shows a cocca with a quadra-latina rigging arrangement to which a foremast was added, mounting a square sail (Mott, 1997). Caravelas redondas seem to have evolved in a similar way. It looks like they were two-masted lateeners – which show the mainmast always stepped on the middle of the keel – with a third mast, a foremast stepped far forward. This type of vessel is �represented in Braun and Hogenberg’s Civitates orbis terrarium, especially in Spanish harbors. (Fig. 5) Fig. 5. Lateeners in Lisbon, c. 1530 (detail from the Leiden view of Lisbon, COLLBN J.29-15-7831-110-30) Two documents dated to 1498 (before Columbus’ fourth voyage) contain the inventories of the rigging of two caravels, Santa Clara, or Niña (60 toneles – probably not the Niña of the first voyage – and Santa Cruz, or India, built in Hispaniola during the second voyage with the remains of the ships lost in the hurricane that swept La Isabela in 1495. Both these caravels had four masts, and both had square sails on the fore and main masts, and lateen sails on the mizzen and bonaventure. Additionally Santa Cruz had a bowsprit and a spritsail; and Santa Clara has ‘dos botalos vno del trinquete y otro de la cont[ra]’ (Smith, 1993). Gaspar Correia states that Vasco da Gama sailed to India in 1502 with ‘cinco caravelas latinas, que mandou muito bem concertar’ and ‘iam com velas redondas armadas, para com elas navegarem quando cumprisse’. He does not mention how many masts these ships had, and the representations we have date to around 1565, more than half a century later. �Large cargo ships – naus or naos, caracche, or hulks, as they were known in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Baltic – tend to have three masts and square sails on the bowsprit, fore, and main masts, and a lateen sail on the mizzen mast. When a fourth mast appears, in the late 15th century, square sails are always present, either on the fore and main masts, or only on the foremast. The first type of rigging is common on larger vessels, such as galleons, developed around 1500, or on the Spanish caravelas redondas, such as the Santa Clara and the Santa Cruz. The second type, with square sails only on the foremast, is typical of the Portuguese caravelas de armada. Caravelas de armada It is curious to notice that in the 1550s Fernando Oliveira is skeptical about the qualities of the caravelas de armada. In his Arte da guerra no mar he states: ‘A mim me pareceu sempre, que caravelas de armada, não eram tão boas como são gabadas, por serem um género de navios misturado e neutro, e as partes que tomam de cada um dos outros géneros serem as piores’ (Oliveira, 1555). Later, in his Livro da fábrica das naus, Oliveira states: ‘Aqui me lembra e quero o dizer, antes que me esqueça, que nunca me pareceu bem, fazer da caravela navio redondo, diga cada um o que quiser, que tudo será afeiçoado’ and ‘porque, mudando-se a forma da vela, cumpre mudar-se a fábrica do fundo, a qual já não pode ser mudada’ (Oliveira, c. 1580). In the middle of the 16th century these caravels were purposely built with a forecastle and four masts, rigged with square sails on the foremast and lateen on the remaining three, and later would be as large as 180 tonéis. �As mentioned above, there are two regimentos for the construction of these caravels in Manoel Fernandez treatise (1616), and they both have two decks. We have their main dimensions:  Folios 16 and 107: The caravel with 11 rumos (17m) of keel has 23.2m of length overall, a max beam of 6.42m, a depth of hold of 4.1 m, and a flat amidships of 2.05m.  Folio 24 (and 108?): The caravel with 12 rumos (18.5m) of keel, has 25.5m of length overall, a max beam of 7.19m, a depth oh hold 4.40m, and a flat amidships of 2.31m. These caravelas de armada have length to beam ratios of 3.61 and 3.55 respectively, values that are compatible with the extensive iconography, often with reliable, albeit impressionistic, characteristics. Caravelões It seems that the smaller caravels were sometimes referred to as caravelões (Pico, 1955). Alexandre Monteiro transcribed two early 16th century documents relating to caravelões de Arguim that describe 3masted vessels with bowsprits, square sails on the fore and main masts, and a lateen sail on the mizzen (Monteiro et al., 2011). Both caravelões have hatch covers, so there is no doubt about the fact that they were decked, as it should be expected in ships that are engaged in oceanic trips. One of these caravelões had a crew (companha) of nine: pilot, six sailors, and two apprentices. This information gives us a hint of the ship’s dimension, if we are to believe Fernando Oliveira, who one generation later, in the mid-16th century, states that crews should be calculated as follows:  Up to 10 tonéis: 2 sailors, 1 apprentice;  10 to 20 tonéis: 3 sailors, 1 apprentice;  20 to 30 tonéis: 4 sailors, 2 apprentices; � Above 30 tonéis: add 1 sailor / 4 tonéis and 1 apprentice / 3 sailors. According to Oliveira, both the master and the pilot must be counted as sailors, thus suggesting a ship with a capacity around 42 tonéis (Oliveira, 1555). One of these documents (1508) is particularly interesting because it refers a bowsprit, fore and mainmasts, and a bonaventure mast with its yard. Although there is no mention of a mizzen mast and yard, there is one mizzen sail, and one mizzen halyard (ostaga). It is not clear whether this is a mistake, or there were caravelões with 4 masts (Fig. 2). Conclusion The sample of shipwrecks of probable Iberian origin is small and the preservation is often poor. Moreover, it is impossible to say for sure that these archaeological remains are even remotely related to caravels. The size, shape, structure, construction sequence, and rigging of the Iberian caravels of the 15th and 16th centuries are far from well-understood. In spite of the many excellent historical publications available for almost one century in certain cases, we have more doubts than certainties when it comes to reconstruct these mysterious ships. Most data on caravels and other small vessels dates to the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries, more than a century after the first voyages into the Atlantic. A small sample of measurements from contracts and technical texts suggests that all caravels, even the Portuguese caravelas de armada, were small vessels, that they all relied primarily on lateen rigs, and that by the 16th century they all had stern panels and central rudders, no forecastle, one to four masts with a minimum of two lateen rigged masts, a low sterncastle, and no topmasts. For the Iberian Peninsula all caravels had length to beam ratios between 3 and 4, tonnages between 50 and 150 toneles, corresponding to lengths overall between 15m and 25m. �The archaeological record suggests that vessels of this size had similar basic construction features and scantlings. In other words, that there was an ‘Iberian way’ of designing and building small ocean-going vessels, of which some were possibly caravels. However, only the full publication of a much larger sample of shipwrecks will help shed light on this subject. References Anonymous, c. 1590. O Livro Náutico (codex 2257). Secção de Reservados of the Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. Armas, Duarte de, 1507/1997. Livro das fortalezas (Facsimile w/ Introduction by Manuel Castelo Branco). Inapa, Lisbon. Barata, João da Gama Pimentel, 1972/1989. Estudos de Arqueologia Naval, 2 Vols. Imprensa Nacional Casa da Moeda, Lisbon. Basch, Lucien, 2000. Les navires et bateaux de la Vue de Venise de Jacopo Barbari (1500). Author’s Edition, Brussels. Bellabarba, Sergio, 1999. Note sull'origine della Nave a Tre Alberi. Archeologia delle Acque, Vol.1(2): 81-93. Binding, Paul, 2003. Imagined Corners. Headline Book Publishers, London. Carpentier, Pierre, 1766. Glossarium novum ad scriptores medii ævi, cum latinos tum gallicos, seu Supplementum ad auctiorem glossarii Cangiani editionem. Paris. Ciciliot, Furio, 2005. Le Superbe Navi: Cantieri e Tipologie Navali Liguri Medievali. Società Savonese di Storia Patria, Savona. Colón, Cristóbal, 1991. Los cuatro viajes del almirante y su testamento, 10th edn. Espasa-Calpe, Madrid. Domingues, Francisco Contente, 2004. Os navios do mar oceano. Centro de História dos Descobrimentos, Lisbon. Domingues, Francisco Contente, 1989. A Caravela Quatrocentista nas Fontes da Arqueologia Naval Portuguesa. In Comiss NCDP (Ed.), Actas do Congresso Internacional Bartolomeu Dias e a sua Época, Vol.2, Universidade do Porto, Porto: 515-538. �Elbl, Martin Malcolm, 1985. The Portuguese caravel and European shipbuilding: phases of development and diversity. Revista da Universidade de Coimbra, Vol. 33: 543-572. Etayo, Carlos, 1971. Naos y carabelas de los Descubrimientos y las naves de Colón. Libros con Historia, Urroz-Villa. Fernandez, Manoel, 1616/1995. Livro de Traças de Carpintaria (Facsimile). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Fernandez, Manoel ,1989. Livro de Traças de Carpintaria, Transcription and Translation into English. Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Fonseca, Henrique Quirino da, 1978. A Caravela Portuguesa e a Prioridade Técnica das Navegações Henriquinas, 2 Vols. Ministério da Marinha (1934, Imprensa da Universidade, Coimbra). Fonseca, Henrique Quirino da, 1935. Memórias e conferências sobre história e arqueologia. Serviços Industriais da C.M.L., Lisboa. Fulin, Rinaldo, 1888. Diarii e diaristi veneziani, Venice. Gorges, Sir Arthur, 1604. An Account of an Expedition under the Earl of Essex against the Western Islands. Conway Papers, Vol. 36. Hocker, Fred, and Dokkedal, Line, 2001. News from the Kolding cog. Maritime Archaeology Newsletter from Roskilde, Vol. 16: 16-17. Jal, Auguste, 1848. Glossaire nautique, répertoire polyglotte de termes de marine anciens et modernes. Firmin-Didot frères, Paris. Lane, Frederic C., 1964. Tonnages, medieval and modern. The Economic History Review, 2nd ser., Vol. 17(2): 213-233. Michel, Francisque, 1867-70. Histoire du commerce et de la navigation à de Bordeaux, 2 Vols. J. Delmas, Bordeaux. Monteiro, A., Castro, F. and Génio, M., 2011. Vida e morte do caravelão ‘que andava no Castelo e trato de Arguim’: autópsia de um navio dos Descobrimentos. In A. T. Matos and J. P. O. Costa (Eds.), A Herança do Infante, Câmara Municipal de Lagos/Centro de Estudos dos Povos e Culturas de Expressão Portuguesa, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Centro de História de Além Mar, UNL/UAç, Lisboa: 209-224. �Mota, A. Teixeira da Mota, 1971. D. João Bemoim e a expedição portuguesa ao Senegal em 1489. Junta de Investigações do Ultramar, Lisboa. Mott, Lawrence V., 1997. The Development of the Rudder: A Technological Tale. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. Paviot, Jacques, Rieth, Eric, 1988-1989. Un compte de construction de caravelles portugaises à Bruxelles en 1438-1439. O Arqueólogo Português, Vol. 4(6/7) : 307-331. Oliveira, Fernando, 1580/1991. O Liuro da Fabrica das Naos c (Facsimile, transcription and translation into English). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Oliveira, Fernando, 1555/1969. A Arte da Guerra no Mar. Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pico, Maria A. T. Carbonell, 1955. A terminologia naval portuguesa anterior a 1460. Sociedade de Lingua Portuguesa, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1980. Caravelas dos Descobrimentos. Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1985. As caravelas dos descobrimentos – II (A – Mareação de bolina). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1986. As caravelas dos descobrimentos – II (B – Uso da bolina). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1988. As caravelas dos descobrimentos – II (C – Bolina na costa portuguesa). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1990. As caravelas dos descobrimentos – II (D – Caravela de meados do séc. XV). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Ramusio, G. B., 1600. Navigatione et Viaggi, Vo. 1. Heredi di Lucantonio Giunti, Venice. Rotuli Litterarum Clausarum, 1916. Calendar of the Liberate Rolls Preserved in the Public record Office. Henry III, AD 1226-1240, Vol. 1. The Hereford Times Limited, London. Rotuli Litterarum Patentium, 1971, Patent Rolls of the Reign of Henry III (AD 1225-1232). Kraus Reprint, Nendeln. �Schwarz, G., 2008. The History and Development of Caravels. M.A. Thesis, Texas A&M University. Smith, Roger C., 1993. Vanguard of Empire. Oxford University Press, New York. Soto, José Luis Casado, 1991. Los barcos del Atlantico Iberico en el siglo de los descubrimientos. Aproximacion a la definición de su perfil tipológico, In B. T. Ramírez (Ed.), Andalucia, America y el mar: Actas de lsa IX Jornadas de Andalucia y America, Diputación de Huelva, Sevilla. Unger, Richard, 2010. Ships on Maps. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Biography Filipe Vieira de Castro is Professor of Anthropology, holds the Frederick R. Mayer II Fellowship of Nautical Archaeology, and is the Director of the Ship Reconstruction Laboratory at Texas A&M University. He has a degree in civil engineering from Lisbon’s Instituto Superior Técnico, a Master of Business Administration from the Catholic University of Lisbon, and a PhD in Anthropology from Texas A&M University. He has conducted field work in Portugal, Panama, Puerto Rico, Brazil, Italy, and Croatia, and his main interests are the history of wooden shipbuilding technology and European seafaring in the late medieval and early modern periods. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource European Ships of Discovery Description An account of the resource The ships and boats of the 15th and early 16th century European voyages were the space shuttles of their time, and yet we don’t know much about them because most have been destroyed by looters and treasure hunters. This paper will focus on a particular type, the caravel, and presents an overview of the early European watercraft that crossed the Atlantic and sailed along the American coasts during the first decades of the 16th century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Filipe Castro Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Filipe Castro Asia-Pac Session 1 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ac5b4fd48c9fca87015af730ac8d455f.pdf 75db4c90879bddfac25acef444421d28 PDF Text Text Evaluation of the Manufacturing Processability of Exploration Vessels Applied with Carbon fibre reinforced plastic Jae-Yang Kim (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, researcher) Jong-Rok Ha (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) Jun Seok (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) Jae-Hyung Jo(Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) ABSTRACT Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) is a high-strength, lightweight material that is widely used in the aerospace and automobile industries, and recently is also used in the shipbuilding field. However, the fibre volume fraction of the shipbuilding composite material process is less than 35% due to the hand lay-up process and the low-vacuum liquid resin transfer moulding process technology. The autoclave process and vacuum oven curing process are difficult to apply to the shipbuilding industry due to high equipment and processing costs. A vacuum liquid forming process must be used to increase the fibre volume fraction. In the project under study, the Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) must be equipped with various equipment, so it must be light and strong. Accordingly, ASV is being studied using CFRP among composite materials for shipbuilding. In this study, a vacuum liquid moulding process capable of manufacturing high-quality carbon composites is applied to the hull of an unmanned probe. In order to evaluate the manufacturing process of the unmanned probe carbon composite hull, the viscosity of the resin and the permeability of the fibre mat were measured. The permeability coefficient of the preform was determined as the in-plane time flow rate using the radial flow method. The fibre volume fraction was measured at 48, 50, and 52 per cent, and a study was conducted after process simulation based on the measurement results and basic data such as pressure gradient, inlet and outlet design, and process optimization. RTMWORX was used as a simulation program. Keywords: Autonomous surface vehicle, Carbon fibre reinforced plastic, Permeability, Fibre Volume Fraction List of Table Table 1. Result of permeability 1. INTRODUCTION The topic of this abstract fits best within Session 19 because the technology under study is the construction of technologies and systems for underwater cultural heritage surveys. In the case of carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP), they are mainly used in the aerospace field due to their high specific strength and specific stiffness. Recently, interest in eco-friendly ships has increased and research for application to the shipbuilding field to improve fuel efficiency is being actively conducted. The composite manufacturing process currently used in the shipbuilding field is a hand lay-up process, which is mainly used for manufacturing low-quality composites. Recently, a high-quality composite manufacturing process has become required, with a fibre volume ratio of 45 per cent or more (Um et al. year). In this study, the vacuum liquid forming process, which can manufacture high-quality carbon composites, will be applied to the hull of an unmanned probe. The vacuum liquid moulding process is a method in which resin is impregnated by fluidizing it by a difference in air pressure in a vacuum state and is mainly used in the production of large composite materials. In order to evaluate the manufacturing suitability of the carbon composite hull of the unmanned probe, a process simulation was performed based on basic data such as viscosity measurement of resin, permeability coefficient of fibre mat, and pressure gradient, and then inlet and outlet design and process optimization research were conducted. 1 �2. CASE STUDIES The case study under consideration is the development of an Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) for underwater cultural heritage investigation using autonomous navigation technology, and includes reference to a field demonstration. The outline of this research and development is to create a platform system that can operate autonomously in shallow waters and simultaneously utilise equipment used for underwater surface surveys. This research study aims to develop a twin-hull ASV platform that reduces errors by using autonomous navigation and ICT technology through machine learning. The ASV platform can automatically return in case of an emergency, has a navigation error of ±1m, and aims to develop a Dynamic Position (DP) system for apex three dimensional (3D) exploration. An autonomous driving system was introduced for cost-effective data acquisition. This study aims to develop unmanned technology that incorporates the core technologies of the fourth industrial revolution (artificial intelligence, internet of things, etc.). As for the use and application areas of the developed product, all survey activities listed in the buried cultural heritage work guidelines (topographic survey, high-frequency strata survey, seabed survey, geomagnetic survey, diving survey, etc.) be performed. 3. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include resin, fibre utilisation knowledge, understanding of underwater environment and hull design, and manufacturing technology. Regarding the resin, all resin systems used in composite materials require properties such as excellent mechanical properties, excellent adhesive performance, excellent toughness, and excellent resistance against environmental degradation. Resins used in marine composites are thermosetting resins, and polyester or epoxy resins are mostly used. Thermosetting resins such as polyester and epoxy are more convenient to use in the process because they are cured without generating volatile by-products (ref. CMH). The mechanical properties of the resin should have high maximum strength and stiffness and exhibit high strain until fracture, which means that it is hard but not weak against brittle fracture at the same time. When the composite is subjected to tensile forces, the resin must deform at least as much as the fibres. The adhesive performance of resin is important because excellent adhesive performance between resin and fibre is required in the manufacture of composite materials, so to effectively transfer the load when a load is received, and to prevent cracks or separation between fibres and resin. Fibres used in manufacturing composites can be largely divided into carbon fibres, glass fibres, and natural fibres, and most of the fibres used in hull manufacturing are glass fibres. Carbon fibre has the highest mechanical properties, but its utilisation rate is low in hull manufacturing in terms of price. In order to increase the stability of the hull, the fibres are arranged in a fibre stacking pattern according to the direction of the load received by the hull. Since ASVs used in shallow waters are always exposed to marine environments such as salt water, ultraviolet rays, sea wind, and wave power, they have a high risk of corrosion and have a problem in that their lifespan is shortened by repeated loads from waves. As a solution to this, we want to manufacture an ASV hull using composite materials. 4. FRAMEWORK The research approach uses the hull concept of unmanned self-driving vehicles/unmanned probes and uses high-frequency geological exploration technology to investigate underwater cultural assets, the national heritage and heritage of human civilization. Underwater surface survey is conducted using underwater survey equipment, but there is no standard for systematic exploration research, exploration equipment, or methods for underwater cultural heritage exploration. The majority of underwater artefacts currently being excavated come from shallow coastal areas. When it is necessary to investigate these shallow seabed and intertidal areas, such as coastal areas and coastal estuary 2 �wetlands, which are inaccessible to general ships, shallow draft vessels are used, such as rubber boats. Although underwater surface surveys are being conducted using a micro-vessel, there are cases in which these surveys cannot be conducted due to problems in the operation of the vessel and or the safety of the investigators. The possibility of autonomous underwater surface survey for shallow water can be expected to increase the possibility of finding underwater artefacts several times. Recently, as the 4th industrial revolution is emerging, it is a national project in Korea for the development of unmanned free-running ships (autonomous USVs) that combine ICT and convergence industries to revitalise coastal surveys and observations, logistics transportation, and the stagnant shipbuilding industry. Research and development for self-driving ships is in progress, and miniaturised self-driving ships for marine surveys are developing rapidly. If an unmanned ASV for underwater cultural heritage research is developed, it will be possible to conduct a large-area underwater surface survey very efficiently, compared to the current underwater surface survey method. In addition, as economic and industrial activities in coastal waters increasingly occur, such as offshore plant construction, it is clear that data is important for preserving and managing underwater cultural heritage properties. It is therefore important to acquire high-quality marine information to determine the exact location of underwater cultural assets existing in sedimentary layers or on the seabed, and based on this, precise underwater surface survey (secondary survey) and excavation work must be conducted. In addition to the survey and exploration equipment currently used for underwater surface survey, there is 3D exploration to obtain more precise and accurate survey results, and based on the information obtained through this, accurate and precise result data suitable for the purpose of underwater surface survey. If a small self-driving marine survey vessel suitable for underwater cultural heritage exploration is developed and fitted out with equipment capable of precise investigation, the possibility of discovering underwater cultural heritage increases, even if the investigation is carried out in shallow water areas. Competing organisations that have technology related to unmanned autonomous ships in Korea are national research institutes such as Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Korea Ocean Research Institute, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Research Institute, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering ENR, and university industry-university cooperation foundations. In the case of ships, some small and medium-sized enterprises conducted research related to detection of hazardous materials through remote control and collection of wastes on the water, but it was confirmed that there was no research related to complex unmanned autonomous marine survey vessels (boats). As for technologies related to autonomous ships overseas, China and the West (USA and Europe) are leading the research and development of technologies and commercialised ships (boats) in marine-related companies. Representative companies include ASV Global, Unmanned Marine Systems, Maritime Robotics, and Oceanalpha (China), but the development of commercialised boats related to complex unmanned autonomous marine research vessels (boats) was developed by marine research related companies. In commercialised boats, marine survey equipment (baywater surveying equipment, etc.) is individually installed and operated on autonomous unmanned ships. 5. RESULTS The results are establishment of basic design conditions through identification of resin characteristics and inlet and outlet design and process optimization research were conducted. To evaluate the manufacturing processability of the carbon composite material, the permeability coefficient of the fibre mat was measured. To measure the permeability coefficient, a radial flow type permeability coefficient measurement equipment was fabricated. The permeability coefficient of the radial flow method can determine the fluidity of the in-plane (in-plane) direction resin. Silicone oil was used for stable flow of the liquid phase, and the permeability coefficient was measured using Darcy's equation by measuring the advancing distance of the resin over time. 3 �Ū= − 𝐾 µ 𝑃 [Darcy`s equation(Ū : Resin speed, K : Permeability, μ : Viscosity, P : pressure)] The rheological properties of the resin were analysed using a rheometer. The equipment used for rheological property analysis was HR-20 from TA Instruments, and the optimum temperature and pot life of the process were identified through dynamic and static analysis. Using the permeability coefficient and resin viscosity measured above, process design was performed using the RTMWORX program of POLYWORX in the Netherlands. The results of Table 1 below were obtained through the measurement of the permeability coefficient of the fibre mat. Based on the permeability coefficient measurement results, it will be applied to process simulation. In the process design of this study, the injection viscosity of the resin was determined to be 1 Pa.s, and at this time, the fluidity of the resin (1 Pa.s and pot life (about 70 min) were judged to be appropriate, and the optimal process design was performed through simulation in the future (Ha et al. 2022). Table 1. Result of permeability coefficient Vf 48 50 52 Test 1 2 3 Avg. 1 2 3 Avg. 1 2 3 Avg. K1 1.10E-09 1.28E-09 1.26E-09 1.18E-09 6.19E-10 6.03E-10 6.67E-10 6.30E-10 2.98E-10 2.89E-10 2.16E-10 2.68E-10 K2 6.88E-10 6.89E-10 6.99E-10 6.92E-10 4.59E-10 4.65E-10 4.44E-10 4.56E-10 2.76E-10 2.84E-10 1.94E-10 2.51E-10 K1/K2 6.85E-.01 5.37E-01 5.56E-01 5.93E-01 7.42E-01 7.70E-01 6.65E-01 7.26E-01 9.26E-01 9.83E-01 8.98E-01 9.36E-01 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported 2023 Cultural Heritage Smart Preservation & Utilization R&D Program by Cultural Heritage Administration, National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (Project Name: Development of ASV for underwater cultural heritage investigation using autonomous navigation technology and field demonstration, Project Number: 2022A01D10-002, Contribution Rate: 100 Per cent) BIBLIOGRAPHY CMH, “Resin system”, Composites Materials Handbook Ha, J.R Kim, J.YSeok, J. Cho, J. H. Evaluation of manufacturing fairness of hulls applied with CFRP for unmanned probes”, KSMTE Annual Spring Conference 2022, 158 Um, M.-K, Lee, S.-K., Kim, T.-W., Kim, J.-H and Kim, S.-W. A Study on the Determination of In - Plane Permeability of Fiber Preforms, Composites research 75-83. 4 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of the Manufacturing Processability of Exploration Vessels Applied with Carbon fibre reinforced plastic Description An account of the resource Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) is a high-strength, lightweight material that is widely used in the aerospace and automobile industries, and recently is also used in the shipbuilding field. However, the fibre volume fraction of the shipbuilding composite material process is less than 35% due to the hand lay-up process and the low-vacuum liquid resin transfer moulding process technology. The autoclave process and vacuum oven curing process are difficult to apply to the shipbuilding industry due to high equipment and processing costs. A vacuum liquid forming process must be used to increase the fibre volume fraction. In the project under study, the Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) must be equipped with various equipment, so it must be light and strong. Accordingly, ASV is being studied using CFRP among composite materials for shipbuilding. In this study, a vacuum liquid moulding process capable of manufacturing high-quality carbon composites is applied to the hull of an unmanned probe. In order to evaluate the manufacturing process of the unmanned probe carbon composite hull, the viscosity of the resin and the permeability of the fibre mat were measured. The permeability coefficient of the preform was determined as the in-plane time flow rate using the radial flow method. The fibre volume fraction was measured at 48, 50, and 52 per cent, and a study was conducted after process simulation based on the measurement results and basic data such as pressure gradient, inlet and outlet design, and process optimization. RTMWORX was used as a simulation program. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jae-Yang Kim Jong-Rok Ha Jun Seok Jae-Hyung Jo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Kim, Jae Yang. 2023. “Evaluation of the Manufacturing Processability of Exploration Vessels Applied with CFRP.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2017 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Event and Process in the Founding of Japan: The Horserider Theory in Archeological Perspective Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Walter Edwards Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Summer, 1983 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Walter Edwards Item Type Journal Article DOI 10.2307/132294 ISSN 00956848 Access Date 2009-02-08 07:19:31 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Summer, 1983 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Full publication date: Summer, 1983 / Copyright © 1983 The Society for Japanese Studies Issue 2 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 265-295 Publication Title Journal of Japanese Studies Short Title Event and Process in the Founding of Japan Title A name given to the resource Event and Process in the Founding of Japan: The Horserider Theory in Archeological Perspective URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/132294 Volume 9 China Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3a56ec375721c034b2f9ad7c1004906e.pdf 8600b4d8264937914de2fe128bdea2ce PDF Text Text Examining Coastal Shipping Processes around Shodo Island during the Tokugawa Period Kotaro Mogi Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, 610-0394 Email: moooosha@gmail.com Hiroomi Tsumura Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, 610-0394 Email: Tsumura_Mobile@htsumura.msoutlookonline.net Abstract Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. The processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians have studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical document exits. In order to throw light upon seaborne stone transportation from Shodo Island to Osaka, therefore, underwater surveys around this island were carried out on seabed As a result, many submerged wall stones, as well as a submerged stone called “Kamome Ishi”, on which an old stone post was stood, succeeded in being found on the bottom of the sea; this mooring post is said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle, and these waters could serve the most important mooring port of Shodo Island for wall stone transportation. To prove this historic event, a tide simulation on the basis of survey data was analyzed and a reconstructed model for mooring and loading wall stones around the mooring post was hypothesized, which was verified by current fieldworks. Although millions of mariners have been working in the Seto inland sea since the ancient times, a new maritime and navigational technique seems to be emerged from Shodo Island and its surroundings early in the 17th century. Key words: Shodo Island, Tokugawa Period, Kamome Ishi, Seto inland sea, Yaana Introduction This paper will examine the shipping processes of stone used to build Osaka Castle's wall in the Tokugawa period. Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. This entrepôt has been recognized coastal areas of the Seto inland including Settu Ashiya or Mikage other than Shodo Island. It is discussed from historical and archaeological viewpoints through analysis of castle history about the actual conditions of "job site" as processing stone and the "daimyos" who managed it. It 1 �may be said that the east Seto Inland sea where Shodo Island is located is a "field of action", having various cultural landscapes since ancient times. Above all, in this field, cultural behavior mainly on "the stone" has been carried out. For instance, the fabrication methods of chipped stone tools called "Setouchi blade" in antiquity, was the stone used for Osaka castle's wall in the medieval period, and contemporary stones used for modern building. It goes without saying that "the stone" used as tools to support local life continue supporting our culture now. "The stone" is the remarkable keyword if we intend to establish a cultural landscape in the eastern Seto inland sea. Based on the above, in this study, "the stone" that is constructing Osaka castle's wall as the target, we want to reevaluate the technical examination. Thus far, the processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians has studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical documents exit. Therefore, the focus of this study is evaluating and examining the shipping process by carrying out an underwater investigation which has not been done in a conventional study. The research area is the Tenguiwaiso job site located at Iwagatani, on east coast in Shodo Island. We attempt a construction of the data from the basis of an environmental view point by cyclopedically analyzing the whole area between the shore and the sea. There are few similar examples of the practice of using of the underwater archaeology in such a manner. Particularly, the direction through such practices can bring up new questions, and it becomes a methodological approach to propose the clarifying facts between the relations of human and technology on maritime culture. The important point in this study is how to take the sea into account. In a conventional stone wall study, it relies mostly on the political description about each daimyos who managed job site and a technical description about how to break stones or to construct the castle, however, it is necessary to interpret this as "how they shipped the stones" to assume that the people who carried and engaged it. Technical invention can overcome this special environment like a sea is a major premise used to know this environment. We estimate the technique ("the knowledge") from investigation of environment and archaeological structure. 2 �Research in Tenguiwaiso Job Site There are Minamidani, Tenguiwa, Tenguiwaiso, Tofu, Kamesaki, and Hachininishi Job sites in Iwagatani on the east coast of Shodo Island, and scattered wall stones on each sites. These sites were designated as national historical sites in 1972. The study was of a number of stones, classified with processing marks called "Yaana" in Japanese, and arranged with the carved seal of the daimyos was researched as that time. The Tenguiwaiso job site is a curved site Fig. 1 Research area division comprising of a whole shoreline of white sand (the seaside). of the project. (K. Mogi). The area is lined with ship setting stones faced with the “Yanna” seal on this beach. The Tenguiwa job site is located in the western mountains from the Tenguiwaiso job site; hence it appears that it is the geographical location where a quarry was established. Stone from the area was removed and taken to the Tenguiwaiso job site. A torrential downpour by typhoon No. 8 in 1974 caused a landslide which flowed down onto the shore. Reports that some stones fell down with this landslide has been documented. Therefore, we must take the geographical change of the site into account both before and after the disaster. Grasping the present state of it is the first priority, and the construction of such a site will be an important model to be analyzed later. Investigation Method The basic purpose of this investigation is to obtain data that is topographical and understanding the stone distribution in the whole range of the shore area (both above and below water). The number of stones and the drawings has been recorded by the administrative report, yet the information of which stones are left and in which position and environment was not documented. In this investigation, we acquired data that considered the position of stones, their location on the site and in which kind of environment they were found. In addition to all the stone distribution, it is necessary to obtain the topographical and environmental information. Acquisition Data of Topographical and Distribution of Stones on the Shore To grasp more objectively the shape and distribution of the stones, we conducted 3 �photography from a high elevation of where the stones appeared by using a 5 m, expandable surveying staff with a camera clamp attached to the upper part of the staff. We contrived a system of linking positional information (coordinates) and the photograph, to determine the scale and a direction of the photograph. Photos were taken mainly of wall stones, big stones, and granite blocks. Given the large area and multitude of objects on the site, the methodology that was used would have a more quantitative sample. By using such a scientific example, the site would be easy to reproduce. In getting a topographical data, a total station (TS) is used at every surveying site today. It calculated the distance and the height to collimation point (prism) from the machine point (TS), by collimating at a change point of topography and other points in a random order. Each position and elevation was then derived from calculated coordinate data, which made a basic contour map from the data. In addition, we acquired data which was used for the position, scale, and directional information for the photographical surveying mentioned above. To understand the geographical feature, it could help verify the distribution of stones under each kind of environment, and allowed us to determine where the natural and artificial topographies lied on the site. Acquisition data of topographical and distribution of stones underwater Based on the results of the investigation in 2012, we determined the rough distribution of stones in all underwater areas by viewing via snorkeling. By this confirmation, we divided the area where stones were distributed conspicuously, Fig. 2 "Kamome Ishi". (K. Mogi) and subsequently investigated these areas (Fig. 1). Between each area was a sandy area where stones had not been observed. There is a submerged rock of approximately 3 m in height named "Kamome Ishi" (Fig. 2), on which an old stone post stood at research area II in the open circle of Fig. 1. In local transition, it may be a mooring post that was said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle. "Kamome Ishi" was examined mainly in 2012. It was hypothesized as a mooring post and modeled as such, however, it was not conclusive, 4 �thus a reevaluation of the area was deemed necessary. Each section was then divided up via measuring tape into 50×50 m blocks. We then checked the distribution of the stones by scanning the bottom of the sea using animation photography (HERO3 of GoPro). A mark was made at every 1m interval, and at each interval, a photo was taken (Fig. 3). A gap in the image when it was composed was the blurring of the camera position, and the bob weight on the camera was taken in the angle of view. It blurred at the time of photography by setting up an angle to deserve gaps of image, and we compensated for this (Fig. 4). The process provided direction, scale and position of the image by yielding a coordinate on the initial point, middle point, and terminal point on each 1 m measurement line. Based on such a procedure, we acquired consistent underwater data sets to collate with the topographical data gathered from the shoreline. The acquisition method of the underwater topographical data was used as well as the surveying method at the shore area stated earlier. We measured the topography at random to the spot about 300 m ahead from the shore. Collimation (prism) attached top of the measurement staff, Fig. 3 Underwater Photographing Method. (K. Mogi) calculated distance and height of the collimation point from the machine point (TS). We stabilized the collimation and the staff by two scuba divers and one snorkeler manning each at bottom of the sea position, middle position, and surface of the water position. The diver at the sea bed selected a change point of the topography at approximately 5-10 m and at random, and the diver at the surface determined the direction of movement. In addition, a research member on the ship acted as contact to the operator on the shore. Each position and elevation of collimation are derived from calculated coordinate data, it matched data of the shore area, and made a basic contour model. The measurements between the ship using sonar or multi-beam is common for an ocean study and the method of making a counter 5 �map at the bottom of the sea, is necessary completion with the land since this area is the full coastal zone in this study. For that reason, we think that bringing a land method into practice underwater brings yields valuable information, since we are able to obtain data with a more detailed approach using such a method. Reduction and Analysis of Acquisition Data Topographical Data in the Shore and the Underwater To coordinate topographical data at the shore and the underwater area using the practice mentioned above and extract latitude and longitude, we made a topographical map (contour) of the whole research area by Kriging method used in Fig. 4 Method of Control and Revision of the geology (Fig. 5). Reproduction of the Camera Position. (K. Mogi) shore and the seafloor topography was compiled to match and supplement both data sets of these environments. In consideration of Fig. 5, the shore topography makes curves like a bow and in perspective we know that it formed a gentle topography to measure points at the off side at approximately 300 m. In addition, the shore area represents a beach with a sandwiched concavity in both the north and the south of the site. The port and the breakwater have shore protection at present. From a narrower perspective, it is confirmed that the large shallow area in the north coastal zone, and the irregular sequences on the contour line which in the center of coastal zone are consistent with the location of "Kamome Ishi". Please note that the two dales in the northeast side (the shore side) from its area. This has been confirmed on site; the erosion traces by the wave could be seen on the lower part it. These two dales formed a geographical placement that suggests relation with the Tenguiwa job site as a quarry located in the mountains place of the northeast side. Additionally, the dale topography is around a 10 m deep on the southeast side. This 6 �may be a part of the site influenced by the disaster in 1974; it could show which area was affected my observing mudflow sediment. Depending upon the size of the disaster, the landslide sediments left traces we can observe. Yet the sediment is not present. It is possible that the landslide sediment disappeared via the erosion of water from the disaster. Undoubtedly, an area along the shore that is predominantly affected by waves, tidal flow, and topography, it is obvious that the natural and physical phenomenon such as the erosion forms chaotic natural molding for the beach topography and the landscape. However, it does not lead to the generalization of the natural phenomenon in the shore area when compared with a study of hydrology or engineering science in the region these days, so it is suggested that a "Critical transition" occurred (Marten Scheffer, 2009) which represents dramatic chaos on the site which change some parameters. To consider such a background, while taking a wave and a flow of the sea into account, it must push forward by discussing this as an interpretation of the shipping process based on the analysis of the data. Distribution of Stones in the Shore and Underwater Area To coordinate the distribution of stones from both on the shore and underwater, we digitized the shape of Fig. 5 Topographical Map in Shore and under Water. each stone via enforced geometry (K. Mogi) correction, stored in a GIS (Geographic Information System). It distinguished the stones from the sand, and other objects (e.g. noise) by checking color tone and image, and subsequently made a distribution map of the stones (Fig. 6). We are analyzing it now, making a distribution map of stones in the whole investigation area. Stones left on the job site without being carried to Osaka castle were labelled as "Unfortunate Stones". Nevertheless, it is strange that many of the stones were recorded underwater. It has our assumption that the stones underwater were stones which fell into the sea, and were left without being recovered. This practice could have propelled the myth of "the fall of the castle" used in local folklore. To understand it better, see Fig. 7 �5, where stones are concentrated, appearing that they have a consistent arrangement. As mentioned before, the sandy area is devoid of stones. The distribution of stones would be scattered everywhere in a more random pattern if they were not picked up because it would mean "the fall of the castle". Therefore, in this study, we doubt the claim of these stones being called" Unfortunate Stones", and put forward the theory that the distribution of stones underwater as "intentional". Suggestion of the Shipping Process First, as the examination of "Kamome Ishi" (Fig. 2) mentioned above, authors have tried modeling the shipping process completely dependent on high and low tides. In particular, because it made a hole in the top surface of "Kamome Ishi" and a stone pillar was embedded in it, it was assumed as a mooring post. The "Moyai" in the Sea of Japan is a similar example, and it could be said that the “Kamome Ishi” has a similar structure to the mooring post. However, including an example of the Sea of Japan, the mooring post for ships docking at old ports was typically made in most of the sea cliffs or the wave cut bench which have an enclosed cape or a cliff facing the sea. In contrast, the "Kamome Ishi" is located in the sea at approximately 2 m depth on the average. It is unique that the post is placed directly ahead of the shore. Authors have measured and investigated the "Kamome Ishi" from 2012, and examined and evaluated its function. Assuming the "Kamome Ishi" serves the function of mooring a ship, it becomes necessary that the post is always higher than the height of the water surface. Tidal analysis was conducted on the region between the years 1619 CE (the year the Osaka castle began construction) to 1630 CE (the year the Osaka castle was completed). The data allowed us to deduce that waves never surpassed more than upper parts on "Kamome Ishi" of approximately 320 cm height. Therefore the stone pillar was always higher than water surface. From this, it could be said to some degree of certainty that the "Kamome Ishi" did indeed function as a mooring post. One interpretation in this is, viz. A ship, such as a flatboat arrived between the land and the "Kamome Ishi" at high tide. It then it moored the ship using its anchor and the stone pillar of "Kamome Ishi". The ship ran aground at low tide and used a board as a gangplank between the land and the ship. After loading the stones it waited until high tide (when the ship refloated), and started sailing. This process is an assumed hypothesis. Since historical documents and records are poor 8 �pertaining to shipping or transporting this material, we can only hypothesize a scenario such as this one. Secondary, the authors paid close attention to the near shore current system in the area. The shore topography forms the curves like a large bow over the area. Generally, the near shore current system forms a circulatory system where the shore is nearer than the sea area as has the relatively same flow as the shore ward currents flowing onto shore, Long shore currents flow along the shore, while Rip currents flow seaward from the shoreline. Rip currents have a particularly strong flow in the near shore current system and forms a regular circulating flow style. Depending on this system, the cusp topography which formed the arch-formed shoreline was affected rhythmically occur and has been confirmed in the Tenguiwaiso job site where the team investigated. It was often chosen as a place ("current") to begin rowing unconsciously, so that a big wave is hard to flow at the place that Rip currents are being produced. Therefore, we can consider that a ship laden with the Osaka castle wall stones starting to sail through the mechanism of the Rip currents. . The conditions that Rip current occur and concentrates are a sandy coast, a shoreline bended into an arc form, a surface wave flow on top of sandy coast, and a near structure such as breakwaters which stuck out from shore. Based on the above information and the checked topography in Tenguiwaiso (Fig. 5), these are very present in this environment. There are two dales on the northeast side of the shore area. These two dales play a big role in the Rip currents' formation. Looking at the topography data, the sandy coast topography formed a fold, not a straight line. On the other hand, while the wave characteristically diffracts to Fig. 6 Distribution Map of Stones. (K. Mogi) the shallow direction, it is concentrated on a pointed part topographically. Hence, we can understand this two dales have topographical characteristics to form Rip current. Where the "Kamome Ishi" is located, it 9 �forms a line at right angles to the shore. An Irregular sequence is observed near this rock and "Kamome Ishi" by topographical data (Fig. 5). In particular, Rip currents are particularly faster near the structure, so it is our opinion that a ship moored at the "Kamome Ishi" can benefit from these extra rapid Rip currents. In light of these Rip currents and topography data, it was suggested that the ships landing here exploit this process when sailing from I and II in Fig. 1 in particular. Conclusion This paper examined coastal shipping process of wall stones by evaluating environment around the area and investigating underwater structure and stones. And we gave a new suggestion against it was inarticulate manner. Although it may not wish that is over a level of "the interpretation", it is necessary more procedural analysis that mainly investigation or field work and method to the interpretation in case of treating such several ways and estimations are accomplished. There are still a lot of challenges for the future; however we think that can give a new suggestion for the wall stones study mainly political and technical. It is necessary to let method of investigation and environmental evaluation more deepen hereafter. Acknowledgements My heartfelt appreciation goes to Prof. Tsumura whose comments and suggestions were of inestimable value for my study. I am also indebt to Prof. Iwabuchi, Prof. Nakada and anonymous reviewers whose comments made contribution to my thesis. References Board of Education in Utsumi town., 1979. Conservation Management of A Historical Site Osaka Castle's Wall Stones Job Site, Kagawa: 4-7, 17-19, (in Japanese). Hiroomi, T., 2013. "Cultural Landscape" of Maritime People Understanding from Investigated Underwater Archaeological Feature in Tenguiwaiso. Symposium of Stones Attraction Creating in Shodo Island, in Ministry of Strategy and Finance Shodo island Kagawa: 61-67, (in Japanese). Kotaro, M., and Yuichi, T., 2013. Tide Simulation and Inquiring of Shipping Process in Coastal Zone, Shodoshima. The 30th Annual Meeting of the Japan Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Abstracts, in Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Hirosaki: 118-119, (in Japanese). 10 �Kyoji, Y., 2002. About Mooring port remaining Moroyose Fishing port. Board of Education in Hamasaka town Press, Hyogo: 5-11, (in Japanese). Marten, S., 2009. Critical Transition in Nature and Society. Princeton University Press, New Jersey: 11-15. Yuichi, T., Tappei, M., Keisuke, F., and Kotaro, M. 2013. Application of Scanning Surveying Technique for Archaeological Features Using Phtogrammetry. The 30th Annual Meeting of the Japan Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Abstracts, in Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Hirosaki: 146-147, (in Japanese). Biography Kotaro Mogi is perusing his Masters in the Graduate School of Culture and Information Science at Doshisha University in Japan. He is interested in Spatiotemporal Informatics, Cultural Anthropology, Maritime Archaeology, and Information Science. Especially, study is that interaction water environment including sea and human in principal objective, and human behavior in the space. It is intended to evaluate the human behavior from the information to be provided the investigation in underwater cultural heritage and analysis environment around it. Main research areas are the Seto inland Sea, Egypt, Motosu Lake, and Maldives. Hioomi Tsumura is the Associate Professor in Faculty of Culture and Information Science, and Director of the Research Center for Knowledge Science in cultural heritage, Doshisha University in Japan. He is specialized in are Spatiotemporal Informatics and Human ecology. His past work includes: The E-way into the four Dimensions of Cultural Heritage (Archeopress, 2004), Site-Catchment Analysis of Prehistoric Settlements by Reconstructing Paleoenvironments with GIS; "GIS-Based Studies in the Humanities and Social Science" (Taylor and Francis, 2005), and "Geography Information Science Dictionary" (Asakura Press, 2004). 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Examining Coastal Shipping Processes around Shodo Island during the Tokugawa Period Description An account of the resource Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. The processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians have studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical document exits. In order to throw light upon seaborne stone transportation from Shodo Island to Osaka, therefore, underwater surveys around this island were carried out on seabed As a result, many submerged wall stones, as well as a submerged stone called “Kamome Ishi”, on which an old stone post was stood, succeeded in being found on the bottom of the sea; this mooring post is said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle, and these waters could serve the most important mooring port of Shodo Island for wall stone transportation. To prove this historic event, a tide simulation on the basis of survey data was analyzed and a reconstructed model for mooring and loading wall stones around the mooring post was hypothesized, which was verified by current fieldworks. Although millions of mariners have been working in the Seto inland sea since the ancient times, a new maritime and navigational technique seems to be emerged from Shodo Island and its surroundings early in the 17th century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotaro Mogi Hiroomi Tsumura, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e06e4fd464a4d509057fd6063039e4dd.pdf bbc38260110fc2b9dfcc0e1db533970a PDF Text Text Examining the World War II Underwater Cultural Heritage of Maui and Lānaʻi through 3D Photogrammetric Modeling 1 Dominic Bush (East Carolina University, PhD Candidate) Jason Raupp (East Carolina University, Assistant Professor) 2 3Justin Dunnavant (University of California at Los Angeles, Assistant Professor) ABSTRACT In October 2022, archaeologists from East Carolina University and the University of California at Los Angeles investigated underwater cultural heritage associated with World War II around the islands of Maui and Lānaʻi in Hawaiʻi. Working in partnership with the National Geographic Society and the Ocean Exploration Trust, the team surveyed the remains of lost or abandoned aircraft, amphibious assault vehicles, ships, and moorings associated with WWII training and staging exercises. In keeping with Session Four’s (Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region) focus on “discoveries, opportunities and challenges”, the maritime heritage research centered on assessing the physical state of these WWII wreck sites to evaluate preservation threats, while also contributing to the creation of educational resources and outreach tools. A total of eight WWII-era sites were surveyed using photogrammetric recording methods; these include the wrecks of two US Navy aircraft, five amphibious landing craft, a mooring station, and a semi-submerged gasoline tanker. Project members used the collected imagery to produce 3-dimensional photo models. The models proved not only to be effective visual aids for showcasing some of Hawaiʻi’s rich submerged maritime heritage, but also provided archaeologists with detailed site maps made in a fraction of the time generally required. This paper examines the indelible impact left by the war on Maui and Lānaʻi through the investigation of tangible remains of the island’s’ wartime cultural landscape. KEY WORDS: World War II, Photogrammetry, Hawaii, LVT, Aircraft LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Map of Maui survey area with site locations Figure 2. A 2011 photograph of the site (above) juxtaposed over 3D model of Makena LVT-4 (below); damage to pontoon and cab plating indicated in red (Top image courtesy of NOAA ONMS/UH MOP; bottom image courtesy of ECU/UCLA). Figure 3. 3D model of previously unrecorded LVT-2 wrecks in Māʻalaea Bay. Identifiable components are labeled (courtesy ECU/UCLA). Figure 4. 3D model of Helldiver site (right) compared with 2D site plan (left) (courtesy NOAA ONMS/UH MOP) Figure 5. 3D model of “3 Anchors”, a WWII era USN mooring (courtesy ECU/UCLA) Figure 6. Earlier photo of YOGN-42 (above) compared with 3D model of YOGN-42 (below) (Top image courtesy of R. and K. Brooke, n.d.; bottom image courtesy of ECU/UCLA). INTRODUCTION In October 2022, the Ocean Exploration Trust (OET), with funding from the National Geographic Society, launched the third of its three “Shore to the Abyss” expeditions focused on the Hawaiian marine environment (OET 2022). Bringing together researchers, educators, and story-tellers with diverse backgrounds, this third expedition targeted the islands’ World War II (WWII) maritime heritage, specifically around the southern coast of Maui and along Lānaʻi’s Shipwreck Beach. Rather than emphasizing discovery, the research plan called for condition assessments of previously-recorded underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites, many of which were subjected to prior archaeological investigation by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the University of Hawaiʻi, Mānoa (UH). The present study, however, diverges from previous efforts through its methodological focus on threedimensional (3D) photogrammetric site recording. Instead of relying on standard recording techniques to generate two-dimensional site maps, the research team conducted video surveys of each site. The thousands of still images extracted from videos were used to construct 3D digital models, which 1 �simultaneously serve as visual site assessments and powerful outreach tools. Photogrammetry is no longer a new concept in underwater archaeology and has been executed on a far more sophisticated level than presented here. That said, this study is intended to serve as an example of making this seemingly complex and expensive method of site documentation more accessible to management agencies and aspiring citizen scientists. In addition to providing site descriptions and analyses of notable changes, this paper highlights the maximization of time and budgetary resources in the creation of the ‘digital mosaic’ presented below. METHODOLOGY The initial Shore to the Abyss expedition plan called for the photogrammetric survey of three landing vehicles, tracked (LVT; two LVT(A)-4 and one LVT-4) and two aircraft (Grumman F6F-3 Hellcat and Curtiss SB2C-1C Helldiver) found in Māʻalaea Bay (Figure 1). After consultation with the diver operator, however, it was decided that survey efforts would also include a WWII naval mooring and two previously unrecorded LVTs, also located within the bay. At each site, one-meter (m) scales were placed on the surrounding seafloor prior to the video survey to assist with later archaeological analysis. Using a GoPro Hero 9 Black action camera ($299) situated within an underwater housing equipped with a fisheye-lens (Telesin Dome Port $68), divers followed predetermined swim patterns over the site of interest. This involved first swimming overlapping east-west transects, followed by a series of intersecting north-south transects. The vertical site profile was filmed by swimming ascending circles around the object. The 4k videos were then imported into Adobe Photoshop for the extraction of still images (2 frames per second) and color correction. The color corrected images were processed using Agisoft Metashape Professional v1.8 (Professional Edition, Educational License, $549) for the purpose of developing a 3D model. 2 �Figure 1. Map of Maui survey area with site locations Proximity to the island of Lānaʻi permitted the research team to conduct an aerial videographic survey of USS YOGN-42, a decommissioned gasoline barge scuttled off Shipwreck Beach. For the exposed portion of YOGN-42, a 5-minute test survey was carried out using a DJI Mavic Air drone (starting at 3 �$799) with video capabilities flown from the deck of the research vessel. The same process was followed for extracting still images from the video, which were also imported into Metashape for processing. Hazardous surf conditions hampered attempts to video survey the submerged section of the wreck. RESULTS The four-person team completed 36 dives and logged roughly 28 hours of time underwater between the sites. Video surveys resulted in the collection of nearly 300 minutes of footage and over 34,000 extracted images. The project results and 3D models were shared directly from the research vessel during numerous virtual events for the public. Summaries of the project have since been presented as a documentary short via YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iB0m-qu7bJU) and as a segment for Hawaii News Now. After the expedition, models were uploaded to the interactive 3D modelling website Sketchfab, and textured versions can be viewed on YouTube. Results were shared with the State of Hawaiʻi’s Historic Preservation Division and NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS). Previously, most of the following sites were archaeologically recorded through collaborations between ONMS and UH’s Maritime Option Program (MOP) (see NOAA Maritime Heritage Program 2017; ONMS 2011; Van Tilburg 2014). These earlier surveys and 2D site maps served as an invaluable baseline for assessing change at each of the known sites. Landing Vehicles An LVT-4 located off Makena Landing was the first site surveyed (Figure 2). It lies upright on the seafloor at a depth of 18 m, surrounded by a small debris field made up of structural elements and wiring. As was the case for all the LVTs surveyed, much of the vehicle is heavily encrusted in marine growth with pockets of coral concentrations, especially on engine parts. The driver’s compartment (cab) has collapsed, exposing the front-mounted engine. The floor of the rear compartment is mostly worn away, apart from a segment on the port side that is noticeably more deteriorated than it was in 2011. A section of the cab plating has also shifted and broken apart. The most significant change in site condition is the complete collapse of the starboard pontoon. Snapped along the bottom front corner, the bulk of this pontoon now lies within the rear compartment. 4 �Figure 2. A 2011 photograph of the site (above) juxtaposed over 3D model of Makena LVT-4 (below); damage to pontoon and cab plating indicated in red (Top image courtesy of NOAA ONMS/UH MOP; bottom image courtesy of ECU/UCLA). According to a local informant (P. Fiene pers. comm. 2022), the pontoon collapsed after the magnitude 6.9 earthquake, which impacted Hawaiʻi in 2018. This tectonic event and over a decade of storm events have affected the site by increasing debris strewn around it. The second site, an LVT(A)-4, is also located near Makena Landing. Unlike the previous site, the debris field is more expansive and diverse in its composition. Batteries, driving sprockets, hoses, and sections of track and grouser are amongst the scattered remains. The driver’s cab cowling can be 5 �clearly identified 4 m forward of the wreck. The only portions of the vehicle that remain upright and marginally intact are the diagnostic 75-milimeter (mm) howitzer barrel, turret, rear-mounted engine, and a rear starboard section of the hull. Beyond the shifting of smaller debris pieces, no appreciable changes were observed. The highly disarticulated nature of this site is attributed to the postwar detonation of the vehicle’s unexploded ordinance (ONMS 2011). In ʻAhihi Bay, lies a second LVT(A)-4 at a depth of 24 m. Though not as fragmented as the LVT(A)-4 at Makena Landing, this site is also characterized by significant deterioration and scattered debris. The rear deck plating has disappeared, exposing both the engine and two fuel tanks. Both driving sockets are resting on the seafloor, forward of the collapsed driver’s compartment. Hull support for the turret has weakened, causing it to collapse onto the wreck and slump towards the more deteriorated starboard side. In 2011, the portside hull and track are noted as “almost complete” (ONMS 2011). This is no longer the case, as the portside track has disintegrated and can now be found in segments both in and around the wreck. Given the less diffused debris field, this LVT(A)-4 likely represents natural deterioration brought on by corrosion and swell energy. It is possible the destruction of the portside track is a result of the same earthquake activity that collapsed the Makena Landing LVT(A)-4 pontoon. Project team members were alerted by a local consultant of the remains of an unrecorded site located within Māʻalaea Bay. As this site is not currently included in the state database, information related to its position is withheld until it can be properly assessed for management purposes. The site consists of two, abutting LVTs (Figure 3). Based on the rear engine configuration, dimensions, and presence of a small glass window (55 centimeter (cm) -x-40 cm), both vehicles are tentatively identified as being LVT-2 types (Mesko 1993; US War Department 1944). The first LVT-2 has its bow pointing west and sits upright. Its starboard pontoon has collapsed and lies on the seafloor, with some pieces of track still attached. The port pontoon remains intact and standing, though most of the track has broken off and is scattered around the wreck. The bottom third of this pontoon appears dug into the sediment. The coral encrusted rear-mounted engine is clearly visible and is connected to the front transmission via a propellor shaft. The midpoint of the shaft is connected to a power takeoff that leads to a buried bilge pump. The hull floor cannot be discerned as it is covered by sediment overlaid with debris. Near the engine, identifiable components, including both oil coolers, the portside battery, and fire extinguishers are evident. Toward the bow, in the vicinity of the transmission, appears to be the vehicle’s radio, side window, and possibly one of its guns. Forward of this area are the driving sockets, which have collapsed and remain partially buried. 6 �Figure 3. 3D model of previously unrecorded LVT-2 wrecks in Māʻalaea Bay. Identifiable components are labeled (courtesy ECU/UCLA). The other LVT-2, with its bow pointing east, is situated upside down. Listing towards its port side, the bow (driving socket and front hull plating) is propped up by the adjacent vehicle on its starboard side. The starboard pontoon has collapsed inwards, following the direction of the list. The track and grousers on both pontoons are in relatively good condition. Much of the floor hull plating, extending from the engine compartment, up to the driving sprockets has deteriorated. This has exposed the bottom of the engine compartment, though the top half of the engine itself remains buried. From the engine, various pipes and tubing, some of which are related to the bilge pump at the hull’s floor, run along the vehicle’s centerline and terminate just aft of the driving sockets. The debris fields for the Māʻalaea Bay LVT-2 wrecks are rather limited, suggesting that this site has been protected from natural and cultural transformations. Furthermore, the presence of removable gauges, knobs, and other salvageable parts is a clear indicator of the site’s lack of recreational visitation. The coincidence of two LVTs in such close alignment may represent an intentional dumping effort as opposed to an accidental loss. Aircraft The first aircraft survey of the Shore to the Abyss project centered on the partial remains of a Grumman F6F-3 Hellcat situated in 11 m of water near Māʻalaea Bay’s southeastern shore. The site is 7 �divided into two main components, with the first consisting of the plane’s midsection. Here, portions of both wings are still attached to the fuselage. This part of the aircraft is upside down, making visible the retracted landing gears. Some of the wing’s aluminum skin, especially on the portside, have deteriorated away, exposing frames. As the aircraft is upside down, it is not possible to discern if the cockpit is buried, or if it sheared off in the wrecking event. Around 23 m away, the radial engine (cowling missing), propellor, and nose ring are intact and standing upright. Just below the propellor hub, sediment covers two of the propellor blades and the bottom third of the engine. The third propellor blade is broken in half and extends vertically into the water column. Like most ferrous components in this environment, the engine is heavily encrusted in coral. During the photogrammetric survey, divers recognized what appears to be either the distal end of one of the wings or a portion of the tail stabilizer buried 5 m away. The only two observable changes to the site, when compared to the results of the 2011 survey, are a missing piece of the portside wing flap and increased sediment cover of the starboard wing. While the landing gear configuration, engine, and exhaust flaps all led to the identification of the site as an F6F-3 Hellcat (ONMS 2011), the specific identity of the plane is unknown. In the middle of Māʻalaea Bay lies an almost fully-intact Curtiss SB2C-1C Helldiver (Figure 4). The aircraft’s structural completeness made its identification fairly easy (ONMS 2011). Its engine has slightly broken off from the airframe and the cowling rests on the seafloor to the starboard side. The vertical tail stabilizer is also detached and partially buried aft of the wreck. Since 2011, the Helldiver has remained in relatively good condition. The most notable changes include the collapse of the port wing aileron, and the dislodgment of an aluminum panel on the starboard side of the nose, exposing the engine bearing struts. Minor damage has occurred to the plane’s tail, where part of the elevator’s portside framing is now missing. After its discovery in 2010 by a local dive operator, the Helldiver’s Bureau Number (184000) was identified on the detached vertical stabilizer. The ONMS (2011) website provides a description of the crash incident, which along with the subsequent rescue of the pilot and radioman, explain the missing rescue raft and the open position of both canopies. The aircraft’s story is now memorialized on an interpretive plaque that was recently placed at the site. Figure 4. 3D model of Helldiver site (right) compared with 2D site plan (left) (courtesy NOAA ONMS/UH MOP) 8 �The aluminum planes appear to have undergone less deterioration than the steel LVT sites, which is likely owed to the anti-corrosive properties of aluminum and the LVTs’ lack of cathodic protection due to their increased fragmentation (i.e. less components electronically connected) (e.g. Richards and Carpenter 2017). Naval Mooring Known locally as “Three Anchors”, a naval mooring is found 1 kilometer (km) off Lāʻie Beach, near the Māʻalaea Bay Hellcat site (Figure 5). This location has become a recreational diving destination, due to an abundance of marine life attracted to it. The site consists of two large admiralty anchors and one US Navy (USN) stockless anchor that are all chained to a central cement block. The block is chained to an octagonal, hollow concrete mooring buoy, which is thought to have supported a naval degaussing station (Settle-Chesser n.d.). The station itself was located 2 km to the northeast, currently the site of the ONMS Visitor Center in Kīhei (ONMS 2009). This site was not surveyed in 2011 or 2013, though it has been recorded by others and is featured prominently on dive operator websites. Figure 5. 3D model of “3 Anchors”, a WWII era USN mooring (courtesy ECU/UCLA) 9 �Shipwreck Beach Shipwreck Beach takes its name from the presence of YOGN-42 (Van Tilburg 2003), which lies stranded on the reef, 350 m from the shoreline. Launched in March 1943, this ferrocement (reinforced concrete) vessel served in the Pacific Theatre until the war’s end (NavSource 2015). Stricken from the USN Register in 1949, the ship was intentionally scuttled at Lānaʻi in 1950 (Van Tilburg 2003). YOGN-42 lies parallel to the coast, with its bow pointed east, causing the ship’s portside to absorb the waves. Most of its hull is above the waterline, making the 114 m vessel easily visible from the beach. While the ship’s ferrocement composition has helped maintain hull integrity, it is not free of deterioration as evidenced by the chunks of concrete and rebar that litter the surrounding seafloor. Corrosion of the ferrous structural elements, combined with over 70 years of exposure to the prevailing winds, rain, and swell energy, has slowly chipped away at the WWII vestige. Due to its size and fragility, traditional archaeological surveys are extremely difficult. To circumvent this problem, the research team worked with an aerial drone pilot to capture 4K video of the barge. The team obtained approximately 5-minutes of footage, which included several passes over the ship’s deck and around the sides of the hull. The resulting photogrammetric model was then compared with publicly-available photos of the ship (Figure 6). Figure 6. Earlier photo of YOGN-42 (above) compared with 3D model of YOGN-42 (below) (Top image courtesy of R. and K. Brooke n.d.; bottom image courtesy of ECU/UCLA). Immediately, it was apparent that the ship’s decks were becoming increasingly compromised. Deck plating on the starboard quarter of the main deck has disappeared, exposing underlying deck beams. A similar observation was made for the starboard side of the forecastle deck. More concerning is the near-total collapse of the ship’s quarterdeck. Deck plating in this area, beside the footprint of the former pilothouse, is almost non-existent. A large mechanical piece (perhaps a towing winch) once supported by the quarterdeck, has fallen through to the underlying hold and much of the deck’s concrete sides have broken off, exposing rooms and bulkheads. A large section of the forecastle deck on the portside has also weathered away, exposing support stanchions. This area is likely to further undergo collapse, as the ship’s windlass and anchor chain sit precariously on the crumbing deck. 10 �Changes such as these are important to monitor for safety reasons, as snorkelers and divers are drawn to both the wreck and the marine biota it supports. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The archaeological sites of the 2022 Shore to the Abyss expedition survey represent a snapshot of the islands’ WWII underwater heritage. The global conflict had a profound impact on Maui, in particular, where almost 200,000 servicemembers were hosted during the war’s duration (Maui Historical Society 1992). Training accidents were an inherent risk, and today the sunken remains of landing vehicles and aircraft wrecks attest to those hazards. Other physical manifestations of the US war effort, including moorings and intentionally scuttled vessels, speak to strategic and logistical considerations. Aside from the newly-documented LVT-2 wrecks, each of the sites possess both historical and socioeconomic significance given their status as dive and snorkel sites. Local and offisland stakeholders routinely visit these sites out of reverence, enthusiasm, and recreational motivations related to wreck diving and marine ecology. The Shore to the Abyss project results demonstrate the significant changes these sites experience within a relatively limited period of time (10-12 years). Environmental forces, such as corrosion, tectonic activity, and wave energy, are the most likely culprits, though the effects of improper site visitation (e.g. anchoring onsite) should not be discounted. To combat the former, rigorous scientific methods should be applied, including corrosion studies. Understanding the various corrosive pathways, as well as the way in which steel and aluminum react differently, will be key in formulating mitigation strategies. Climate change and its influence on corrosion poses another fruitful topic for further exploration. For direct human-induced threats, education remains an important resource. The hope is by presenting the physical layout and historical significance of these sites, they are seen as recognizable archaeological resources worthy of reverence and protection. Onsite interpretive plaques, such as the one installed at the Helldiver site, and the dissemination of dive guides generated from archaeological investigations are two immediate ways of spreading awareness to the diving community. Eventually, it may be desirable to establish a heritage dive trail, as done elsewhere in the Pacific (McKinnon 2013; Philippou and Staniforth 2003). At a broader level, projects that seek to bring the general public’s attention to Maui and Lānaʻi’s WWII heritage may help foster a new appreciation for a site category that remains ‘out-of-sight-out-of-mind’ for many. The photogrammetric surveys presented here were completed using small teams and inexpensive technology. The results helped identify significant alterations to several of the sites and aided in the interpretation of two unrecorded LVT-2 wrecks. Rather than spending days or weeks documenting a single wreck, 3D models for each site were produced within 24 hours. Additionally, the 3D models can provide detailed plan views and cross-sections of the sites with a greater degree of accuracy than traditional 2D methods. This form of rapid site evaluation is in no way intended to replace traditional archaeological recording methods, nor is this methodology a novel application of photogrammetry. Instead, this project represents a case study demonstrating the utility of periodic assessments that do not require significant resources in the form of time and money. The scalable 3D models are easily viewed from different combinations of distances and angles. Details not readily apparent to divers or easily captured in 2D photographs can now be identified when examining the 3D site representations. These photogrammetric surveys can be repeated (with higher quality photography equipment when possible) at scheduled intervals, to create a visual log of how a site is changing. Recognizing physical site alterations or areas of structural weakness could help site managers devise in situ preservation 11 �strategies. Furthermore, the visually stimulating digital 3D models produced have proven to be an effective and engaging way of presenting archeological sites to the public, especially amongst the youth. Online, these models can be compared with earlier iterations and site photos to illustrate the fact these are fragile, ‘living’ sites susceptible to further loss and destruction. By doing so, the preservation threats that site managers fret about are made real to current and future site stakeholders. BIBLIOGRAPHY Maui Historical Society. World War II's Impact on Maui County: A Social History. Maui: Lahaina Restoration Foundation, Hawaii Committee for the Humanities, Hāna Cultural Center, 1992. McKinnon, Jennifer. “Difficult Heritage: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites.” In Between the Devil and the Deep: Meeting Challenges in the Public Interpretation of Maritime Cultural Heritage, edited by Della Scott-Ireton, 173-187. New York: Springer, 2013. Mesko, Jim. AMTRACS in Action: Part One. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signals Publication, 1993. NavSource, “YOGN-42.” Online, http://www.navsource.org/archives/14/13042.htm, 2015. NOAA Maritime Heritage Program. The Unseen Landscape: Inventory and Assessment of Submerged Cultural Resources in Hawai`i. OCS Study BOEM 2017-021. Submitted to the US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Pacific OCS Region, Camarillo, CA, 2017. Ocean Exploration Trust. “From Shore To the Abyss: Exploration of Maritime Heritage and Microplastic Pollution in the Main Hawaiian Islands.” Online, https://nautiluslive.org/cruise/na146, 2022. Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. NOAA-ONMS Pacific Islands Region Facilities Master Plan. Honolulu: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2009. Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. “Maui’s World https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/maui/welcome.html, 2011. War II Legacy.” Online, Philippou, Cassandra, and Staniforth, Mark. “Maritime Heritage Trails in Australia: An Overview and Critique of the Interpretive Programs.” In Submerged Cultural Resource Management: Preserving and Interpreting Our Maritime Heritage, edited by James D. Spirek and Della A. Scott-Ireton, 135-149. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2003. Richards, Vicki, and Carpenter, Jon. Conservation Survey and Management Program: Saipan WWII Underwater Archaeological Wreck Sites. Corpus Christi, TX: Ships of Discovery and Exploration Research, 2017 Settle-Chesser, Scott. “Three Anchors.” scuba.com/wrecks/3anchors/3anchor.html, n.d. Online: Maui Scuba Diving, http://www.maui- United States War Department. TM 9-775: Landing Vehicle Tracked, LVT Mk.I and Mk. II Technical Manual. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1944. Van Tilburg, Hans. U.S. Navy Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: An Inventory of Submerged Naval Properties. Project No. 01121. Submitted to The Naval Historical Center Washington Navy Yard, Washington D.C., 2003. Van Tilburg, Hans. “The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime Heritage Resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands.” In Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference, edited by Hans Van Tilburg, Sila Tripati, Veronica Walker, Brian Fahy, and Jun Kimura, 1-14. Honolulu: 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Planning Committee, 2014. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Examining the World War II Underwater Cultural Heritage of Maui and Lānaʻi through 3D Photogrammetric Modeling Description An account of the resource In October 2022, archaeologists from East Carolina University and the University of California at Los Angeles investigated underwater cultural heritage associated with World War II around the islands of Maui and Lānaʻi in Hawaiʻi. Working in partnership with the National Geographic Society and the Ocean Exploration Trust, the team surveyed the remains of lost or abandoned aircraft, amphibious assault vehicles, ships, and moorings associated with WWII training and staging exercises. In keeping with Session Four’s (Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region) focus on “discoveries, opportunities and challenges”, the maritime heritage research centered on assessing the physical state of these WWII wreck sites to evaluate preservation threats, while also contributing to the creation of educational resources and outreach tools. A total of eight WWII-era sites were surveyed using photogrammetric recording methods; these include the wrecks of two US Navy aircraft, five amphibious landing craft, a mooring station, and a semi-submerged gasoline tanker. Project members used the collected imagery to produce 3-dimensional photo models. The models proved not only to be effective visual aids for showcasing some of Hawaiʻi’s rich submerged maritime heritage, but also provided archaeologists with detailed site maps made in a fraction of the time generally required. This paper examines the indelible impact left by the war on Maui and Lānaʻi through the investigation of tangible remains of the island’s’ wartime cultural landscape. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dominic Bush Jason Raupp Justin Dunnavant Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Bush, Dominic, Jason T. Raupp, and Justin Dunnavant. 2023. “Examining Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II around Maui and Lanai through Photogrammetric Modeling.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1895 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/42d3bb4331fdaee5225d43ffecac2fac.pdf c7539150aca2cedea33c1749fdf361c5 PDF Text Text Excavation Methods and Results of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea Whan Suk MOON (Visiting Professor, Korea National University of Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT The excavations of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Korea are conducted mainly after surveying the waters where they are found, which is only conducted by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH). Excavation of Sinan shipwreck (1976-1984) was the starting point of academic excavation on UCH. At that time there were no professional divers, technology and equipment, so it was entirely dependent on the support of the Navy (SSU), until the first season underwater excavation of Bianndo at Gunsan (2002). However, from the second season excavation of Biando, when support from the navy became difficult, an excavation team was formed within the NRIMCH to acquire underwater investigation techniques and establish a specialized investigation system. Now its expertise in underwater excavation is improving by operating an exclusive ship for underwater excavation, researching an investigation technique according to the sea environment, and establishing an underwater excavation, conservation, and exhibition system at Taean. Keywords: NRIMCH, underwater excavation, removing mud, Taean site. List of Tables and Figures: Table 1 Summary of method for representative underwater excavations Table 2 Excavation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea (Dec. 31. 2022) Figure 1 Excavation of underwater artifacts by the Navy Figure 2 Exposure status after removing mud INTRODUCTION Academic underwater excavation in Korea has been begun with the excavation of Sinan shipwreck (1976-1984). The discovery of six pieces of Chinese pottery caught in a fishing net served as an opportunity for investigation. No professional divers, technology and equipment existed, which made it entirely dependent on the support of the Navy (SSU), until the first season underwater excavation of Biando, Gunsan (2002). After the second season excavation of Biando, when support from the navy became difficult, an excavation team was organized within the NRIMCH in order to acquire underwater investigation techniques and establish a specialized investigation system. Recently, with operation of an exclusive ship for underwater excavations, research of exploration technique by targeted areas, and establishment of system of underwater excavation, conservation and display of Taean, expertise in underwater excavation has improved. In addition, it reveals new information not indicated in the historical records, which triggered great interest on the underwater excavation. This paper briefly introduces accomplishments of the NRIMCH and how it became the one and only institute specialized in underwater excavations in Korea. UNDERWATER ENVIRONMENT AND EQUIPMENT IN KOREA Underwater environment of Korea The sea of Korean Peninsular has been a place of life and a transportation route to the outside since prehistoric times, in particular, since the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), when the shipping system through the sea route was established, and grains and special products gathered in the provinces were transported by sea or river to Gaegyeong or Hanyang, the capital of the time, rather than land transportation. However, considering the sea conditions of the Korean peninsula, which is high in the east and low in the west, the southwest coast has many islands and reefs are scattered. The current is also fast, causing 1 �many difficulties in sailing. As a result, marine accidents of ships likely occurred frequently. Fortunately, mud flats have developed in the West Sea, which was the gateway to maritime traffic, and has an environment in which the history of our ancestors, the by-products of these marine accidents, can be preserved. However, in the West Sea, where most of the underwater excavations take place, the tidal difference is large, more than 4 meters (m). Underwater visibility is close to zero because the bottom of the seabed is tidal flat, and the current is fast. In addition, the water temperature drops in the winter season from November to April, making diving surveys difficult. Excluding Taean and Jeju, most of the sea areas excavated so far were in adverse sea conditions, where visibility was not secured and currents were fast, requiring investigation only during the platform tide. Excavation equipment and methods The governmental organization called the Underwater Archaeology Division was established in 2007, which made the frames of managing cultural heritage led by the government. Since then, for scientific and systematic underwater excavation, the NRIMCH has secured a Multibeam Echo Sounder and developed the vacuum soil removing system. This suits our underwater environment, it safely collect fine millets from underwater. Excavations are carried out using the Nurian Ship or barge. Table 1 indicates a brief summary of the equipment used for underwater excavation and method for major underwater excavation areas so far. Table 3. Summary of method of representative underwater excavations No. 1 2 3 4 Site Excavation Methods Underwater Conditions Sinan -Iron grid installation: area excavation -Underwater work: Ship Salvage Unit of Navy -Artifact classification: Qurator -Mud discharge method: air lift, etc. -Surrounding survey: Circular -Field of view: 0 m -Tide: 3.5 knots -Average water depth: 23 m Wando -Rope grid installation: area excavation -Underwater work: private divers (veterans participating in Sinan excavation) -Artifact classification: qurator -Mud discharge method: air lift, etc. -Surrounding survey: circular -Field of view: muddiness -Tide: 2-3 knots -Average water depth: 15 m Gunsan Biando -1st excavation: navy (underwater work) -2nd-5th: first self-excavation by the NRIMCH -Survey by area: recovering exposed artifacts (in abandoned waterways) -Field of view: muddiness(>1m) -Tide: 2-3 knots -Average water depth: 16 m Gunsan Sibidongpado -Rope grid installation: area excavation -Underwater work: qurator etc. -Mud discharge method: water jet, air lift -Underwater camera recording, drawing -Lifting a ship using a crane -Field of view:1-4 m -Tide: 1-2knots -Average water depth: 15 m 2 �5 Gunsan Yamido -Rope grid installation: area excavation -Mud discharge method: water jet, air lift, vacuum pump. etc. *Development of vacuum control system for mud Removing (low water depth) -Underwater camera recording, drawing *2006 year: recovering exposed artifacts *2007-09: excavation of re-buried artifacts *Large barge - diving facility, mud removing system, workroom etc. *Survey ship: on-site operation “Seamuse” -Field of view:1-4 m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: >10 m 6 -Rope grid installation: area excavation -Mud discharge method: water jet, air lift, Taean shipwreck -Underwater camera recording, after laboratory drawing *Small barge-diving facility, workroom etc. 7 Taean Mado no. 1-3 shipwrecks -Rope or iron installation: area excavation -Vacuum control system for mud removing -Underwater camera recording, after laboratory drawing *Large barge-diving facility, workroom etc. -Field of view: 2-3 m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: 5-19 m 8 Taean Mado no. 4 shipwreck -Underwater Excavation ship “Nurian (290ton)” *Diving facility, mud removing system, workroom etc. -Field of view: 2-3m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: 17 m 13 Jeju Shinchangri -Small boat-mud removing, diving -3D drawing -Nurian ship: resident support -Field of view: 10 m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: 3-5 m -Field of view: 2-3 m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: 12 m RESULTS OF UNDERWATER EXCAVATIONS The results of underwater excavation at each site are summarized in Table 2. [Table 4] Excavation of UCH in Korea (Dec. 31. 2022) No. Site Year Recovered Artifacts 1 Sinan shipwreck 1976-84 22,000 pieces of porcelain, one Chinese trading shipwreck, 28 tons of coins in the fourteenth century 2 Jeju Shinchangri 1980,1983, 1996, 2019-2021 Metal accessories, 1,294 pieces of Chinese porcelains in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries 3 Taean Peninsula 1981-87 About 40 pieces of Goryeo celadons, Joseon white porcelain, etc. 4 Wando shipwreck 1983-84 About 30,000 pieces of porcelains, crew supplies in the twelfth century 5 Jindo shipwreck 1991-92 One Chinese Log shipwreck in the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries 3 �6 Muan Doripo 1995-96 638 pieces of Goryeo celadons with gray inlay in the fourteenth century 7 Mokpo Dalido shipwreck 1995 One Goryeo shipwreck in the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries 8 Gunsan Biando 2002-03 2,939 pieces of Goryeo celadons in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries 9 Gunsan Sibidongpado 2003-04 8,122 pieces of Goryeo celadon, one Goryeo shipwreck in the twelfth century 10 Boryeong Wonsando 2004-05 Celadon incense burner, etc. in the thirteenth century 11 Sinan Anjoado shipwreck 2005 Four pieces of Goryeo celadons with gray inlay, one Goryeo shipwreck in the fourteenth century 12 Gunsan Yamido 2006-09 4,547 pieces of Goryeo celadons in the twelfth century 13 Ansan Daebudo shipwreck 2006 Pieces of shipwreck in the twelfth to thirteenth century 14 Taean Taean shipwreck 2007-08 25,043 pieces of Goryeo celadons, one shipwreck in the twelfth century 15 Taean Mado no. 1 shipwreck 2008-10 940 pieces of Goryeo celadons, one shipwreck in the thirteenth century 16 Taean Mado no. 2 shipwreck 2009-10 974 pieces of Goryeo celadons, one shipwreck in the thirteenth century 17 Taean Wonan Beach 2010 531 pieces of Goryeo celadons in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries 18 Taean Mado no. 3 shipwreck 2011 336 pieces of Goryeo celadons in the thirteenth century 19 Taean Mado 2012 2014 956 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc. 20 Incheon Yeongdeungdo shipwreck 2010, 2012∼13 723 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc., one shipwreck 21 Jindo Myeongryangdaecheop 2012-14 2016-17 2019-21 1101 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc., in the first to twentieth cneturies 22 Taean Mado no. 4 shipwreck 2015 400 pieces of inlaid porcelains, one shipwreck in the fifteenth century 23 Ansan Daebudo shipwreck 2015 76 pieces of Goryeo celadons, one Goryeo shipwreck 24 Taean Dangampo 2017-18 65 pieces of Goryeo celadons 25 Yeonggwang Nakwoldo 2018 30 pieces of Goryeo celadons 26 Taean Mado 2018 2019 159 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc. 27 Gunsan Seonyudo 2022 570 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc. no. 2 4 �Sinan Site Excavation of Sinan shipwreck took place from 1976 to 1984. This was the beginning of underwater excavation in Korea. The discovery and report of six pieces of Chinese porcelains caught in the fishing net triggered the excavation. At the time, because of the thought that such high-quality celadons could not be recovered from the sea, illegal robbery occurred before the excavation, and in the process of interrogating the robbers who were smuggling, it was recognized that more artifacts were buried, which lead to underwater archaeology excavation. Figure 1. Underwater excavation by the Navy The 11 seasons of excavation projects were conducted for nine years with the support of naval divers. As a result excavations uncovered about 20,000 pieces of porcelains from the Song and Yuan Dynasties of China, 28 tons of coins, and about 1,000 pieces of rosewoods (premium wood) including the ship hull. The weight engraved with Gyeongwonro (Ningbo, Zhejiang, China in today) became the critical resource that identified where the ship was departed. Also, a wooden tablet with the reign of the Yuan Dynasty (Jichisamnyeon 1323), Japanese names, and Japanese temple names were discovered, which was helpful to identify the year of sail and destination. Considering the characteristics of artifacts, the Sinan ship was wrecked near the coast of Korea in 1323 CE while sailing from Ningbo, China to the Port of Hakata in Kyushu, Japan. The excavation of Sinan Shipwreck clarified the shipbuilding technology and trading ships of the medieval times which had only been assumed based on historical records and told us the seaborne trades of East Asia. Taean site Major underwater excavation projects were conducted at the Taean. As a result of the excavations, five shipwrecks and 29,344 pieces of artifacts were discovered. In the waters of Mado, whenever divers went down to the water exposed artifacts are recovered, which helped to set excavation zones for annual excavation projects. In May 2007, after receiving the news of the discovery of Goryeo celadons by webfoot octopus (amphioctopus fangsiao) in Taean Sea, an urgent survey was conducted immediately. As a result, nine pieces of celadon were collected from underwater at a depth of about 12 m and scattered celadon sherds. In order to prevent robbery and damage from fishing activities, as the targeted area was known to the public, it was selected as a cultural heritage protection zone to prevent public diving. Celadons were excavated in 2007 and the shipwreck and relevant artifacts in 2008. In the excavation, Goryeo celadons, which occupied most of the artifacts, were packed with a wooden containers and buffer straw, and wooden tablets written in black ink were also found. We interpreted the records to find out that celadon were sent by someone who lived in Tamjin (today’s Gangjin) and the recipient lived in Gaegyeong. The wooden tablets showed us the production area of celadon, as well as the departure port, the trade relations, the transporter, and the loading units. 5 �In 2009, the excavation of Mado no. 1 shipwreck discovered the cargo tags that recorded the kinds of grains, wooden and bamboo tablets, bamboo products, salted seafood, dried seafood, shipping and departure dates, ports of departure, positions and names of senders and recipients, which indicates the features of the shipwreck and artifacts. The information told us that the Mado no. 1 shipwreck was a transporting ship of the Goryeo Dynasty that collected grains and salted seafood from Haenam, Naju, Jangheung, and Yeongam between the winter of 1207 CE and the beginning of 1208 CE and transported them to the government officials in Gaegyeong. Figure 2. Exposure status after removing mud In the excavation of Mado no. 2 shipwreck in 2010, various types of artifacts were found, including a transporting ship from the Goryeo Dynasty, a celadon prunus vase, grains, wooden products, and bamboo tags that recorded the type and recipient of the cargo. The neck of the vase had a bamboo tag that stated ‘Jung Bang Do Jang Gyo Oh Mun Bu / Taek Sang Jeong Mil Seong Jun Bong重房都將校吳文富/宅上精蜜盛樽封’, which means filled with honey and sealed for Oh Mun Bu, Dojanggyo (low-class government officer) of Jungbang. This told us that prunus vases were called Jun and used to store and transport valuable ingredients such as honey and sesame oil. As a result of excavating the Mado no. 3 shipwreck in 2011, the NRIMCH discovered various artifacts including 32 wooden tags, 28 pieces of porcelains, grains, deer antlers, Korean chess stones, salted seafood, dried seafood, and textiles. This is also a transport ship from Yeosu in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula to Ganghwadoseong (provisional capital during the war with Mongolia). The Mado no. 3 shipwreck is 12 m in length, 8 m in width, and 2.5 m in depth. It is the most well-preserved shipwreck hull including the bow and stern, the sail pole, and the structure that fixes the sail, which provides details of ship structure and the shipbuilding technology of Goryeo Dynasty. In 2015, we excavated another shipwreck at Mado, Taean. All four ships excavated at Taean belong to the Goryeo Dynasty, but 111 pieces of white porcelain of the eighteenth century were discovered right next to them and they were highly likely to belong to the Joseon Dynasty. As a result of excavating the Mado no. 4 shipwreck, it was found that the celadon with gray inlay and the wooden tags indicate the ship was wrecked in the fifteenth century (1417-1421 CE). This is 300 years earlier than white porcelain. We concluded the Mado no. 4 shipwreck was wrecked first and another ship transporting the white porcelain was wrecked later. The wooden cargo tags indicate the port of departure was Yeongsanchang, Naju and the ship transported grains to Gwangheungchang, Hanyang. All excavated shipwrecks of the Goryeo Dynasty had one mast at the center of the hull. The exception is the Mado no. 4 shipwreck, which had mast holes at the bow and center for two sails. Also, the ships of the Goryeo Dynasty had one level of Dangabbul (used to fix the sail), but the Mado no. 4 shipwreck had five levels of Dangabbul on each Garyong (reinforcement material for the outer plank). This shows the robust development of shipbuilding techniques to fix the mast. As a results of broad survey to Mado site, various artifacts such as pottery, anchor stones, and metals 6 �from different eras and countries such as Goryeo, Joseon, Song, Yuan, and Qing dynasties were recovered. What is noticeable is the anchor stones. We have excavated 153 pieces of anchor stones used to anchor the ships. Most stones were natural stones, but three pieces were artificially dressed stones. Dressed stones were anchor stones mostly used in China. Also, we found a large number of porcelains marked Jeong (鄭), Ju (朱), or Gang (綱), indicating the international merchants of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, to show that Goryeo traded with the Song and Yuan Dynasties and prove the historical fact that this sea route was critical for international trade. CONCLUSIONS It has been 46 years since the start of scientific underwater excavation in Korea. With the researcher's active challenging spirits and the full state-led excavation system, it produces great results. In the research, UCH is described as a time capsule that represents specific time and region and provides information not recorded in historical records. NRIMCH is the one and only UCH institute mandated to investigate the waters of the Korean Peninsula, doubling the size of or country, it is still insufficient to meet the demand for research. Deep-sea surveys are still inaccessible, but through training and securing rebreather diving equipment, a foundation is being laid to expand the research area from the coastal waters to the deep seabed. In order to accomplish the goals, it is seeking to acquire deep-sea survey technology through international exchange. In addition, as a four-year project from 2022, the design and field operation of unmanned ASV (Autonomous Surface Vehicles) that detects UCH is being promoted. All of these are expected to serve as a foundation for expanding UCH research efforts, such as the relationship with maritime culture and the investigation of the maritime silk road, beyond discovering the potential UCH of the sea. Bibliography Bowens, Amanda, Underwater Archaeology - The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice 2-10. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Babits, Lawrence and Tilburg, Hans Van, Maritime Archaeology 7-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Cultural Heritage Administration, Wando Underwater Relics, Seoul: Cultural Heritage Administration, 1984 (In Korean). Cultural Heritage Administration, Sinan Underwater Relics, Seoul: Cultural Heritage Administration, 1988 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Underwater Relics of Doripo, Muan, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2003 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Underwater Relics of Biando Island, Gunsan, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2004 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Underwater Relics of Sibidongpado Island, Gunsan, Daejeon: National Maritime Museum, Daejeon, 2005 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum and Sinan-gun, Anjoaseon Excavation Report, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2006 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum and Gunsan-si, Yamido Island, Gunsan Underwater Excavation Report, Gwanju: National Maritime Museum, 2007 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Wonsando Island, Boryeong Underwater Excavation Report, Gwanju: National Maritime Museum, 2007 (In Korean). 7 �National Maritime Museum, Daebudoseon, Ansan Underwater Excavation Report, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2008 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Yamido Island, Gunsan Underwater Excavation Report, II, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2008 (In Korean). NRIMCH and Korea Rural Community Corporation, Yamido Island, Gunsan Underwater Excavation･Maritime Cultural Excavation Report, III, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2009 (In Korean). NRIMCH, “Treasure Ship of Goryeo Celadon Ⅰ and Ⅱ” In Daeseom Island, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2009 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado no. 1, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2010 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado no. 2, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2011 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado Waters, Taean Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2011 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado no. 3, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo:, 2012 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Wonan Beach, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2012 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Chinese Porcelain from the Mado of Taean, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2013 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Yeongheungdoseon, Incheon Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2014 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Myeongryangdaecheopro Waters of Jindo, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2015 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado no. 4, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2016 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Daebudo no. 2, Ansan Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2016 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Korea’s Treasure Ship-Opening a Time Capsule, Mokpo: Gongmyeong Publishing Co., 2016 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Myeongryang daecheopro Waters of Jindo, II, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2018 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Nakwoldo Waters of Yeonggwang, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2019 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Dangampo Waters of Taean, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2019 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Myeongryang- daecheopro Waters of Jindo, III, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2021 (In Korean). 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Excavation Methods and Results of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea Description An account of the resource The excavations of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Korea are conducted mainly after surveying the waters where they are found, which is only conducted by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH). Excavation of Sinan shipwreck (1976-1984) was the starting point of academic excavation on UCH. At that time there were no professional divers, technology and equipment, so it was entirely dependent on the support of the Navy (SSU), until the first season underwater excavation of Bianndo at Gunsan (2002). However, from the second season excavation of Biando, when support from the navy became difficult, an excavation team was formed within the NRIMCH to acquire underwater investigation techniques and establish a specialized investigation system. Now its expertise in underwater excavation is improving by operating an exclusive ship for underwater excavation, researching an investigation technique according to the sea environment, and establishing an underwater excavation, conservation, and exhibition system at Taean. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Whan Suk Moon Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Suk Moon, Whan. 2023. “Excavation Methods and Results of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1928 Asia-Pac Session 2 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f3aad38b7722f3ead8359debc883f444.pdf 08fba8438cd399df3769458227b1c591 PDF Text Text Excavation, conservation, and preservation of the Mt Gambier underwater fossil deposits Julien Louys (Associate Professor, Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith University, Brisbane Australia) ABSTRACT This paper will examine the history of underwater fossil research in the Mt Gambier region, Australia, focusing on ongoing efforts to study, conserve, and protect underwater resources found in the freshwater sinkholes and limestone caves of the region; as such, the topic of this abstract fits best within the session The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters because it is concerned with cave sites that have become flooded. I will describe the considerable past efforts that were undertaken to extract fossils from Green Waterhole, as well as recently successful efforts to have this site registered as a South Australian Heritage Listed site, ensuring legislated protection for the cave and its deposits into the future. In addition, a new research program funded by the Australian Research Council and in collaboration with the Cave Divers Association of Australia and the South Australian Museum will be presented. The new work includes efforts to successfully recover fossils with as much contextual information as possible, especially geochronological and environmental data. Using these data, we expect to determine the geological age of the extinct megafauna recovered from the sites and the environments they inhabited; data critical for determining the degree to which humans or environmental change contributed to their demise. We will also evaluate the impact of such research on the preservation of the caves, ongoing efforts to conserve the geoheritage potential of the sites, and means of educating the public on the unique underwater resources they represent. Keywords: megafauna, Pleistocene, geoheritage, South Australia LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ARC – Australian Research Council CDAA – Cave Divers Association of Australia ka – thousand years INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within the Session Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters because the underwater caves of the Mt Gambier region are freshwater deposits in a young, terrestrial karstic landscape (Figure 1). The Mt Gambier caves are found in the latest Eocene to Miocene limestones of the Gambier Limestone within the Gambier Basin, although rarer younger caves are also formed in the Quaternary dune calcarenites (Grimes et al. 1999; Webb et al. 2010). The limestones are relatively soft and weakly consolidated, and both limestones and calcarenites show synergetic karst features such as development of solution pipes and calcreted caprocks (Grimes et al. 1999). Collapse dolines are frequently recorded in the Mt Gambier region, and those that fall below the waterline form cenotes. These are up to 125 m deep, and generally circular, sheer-walled, and floored by large rubble cones (Webb et al. 2010). Cave and cenote dissolution is thought to be the result of volcanogenic CO2 acidified groundwater resulting from Pleistocene–Holocene volcanic eruptions, in particular the 28 ka Mt Gambier eruption (Webb et al. 2010). The phreatic caverns formed by this dissolution collapsed possibly during the low sea levels of the Last Glacial Maximum (Webb et al. 2010), forming sites such as Hells Hole, Umpherstons, The Sisters, Little Blue Lake, One Tree, and Gouldens; The Shaft is a rare example of cave dissolution with a solution pipe entrance that has not yet collapsed (Grimes et al. 1999). Flooding of the cenotes is thought to have occurred approximately 8 ka based on radiocarbon dates associated with a stromatolite from Black Hole (Kelly 1998). There does not appear to be any hydrological or speleological connection between the cenotes and the phreatic caves of the region (Webb et al. 2010). 1 �Figure 1. Location of some of the major cave diving locations in the Mt Gambier region. Adapted after Lewis and Stace 1982. The phreatic caves of the Mt Gambier region are shallow, horizontal, joint and bedding-plane controlled systems (Grimes et al. 1999; Webb et al. 2010). Passages are primarily epiphreatic, fissure-style, and solution features associated with previous water table levels such as incuts and undercuts are frequently observed (Grimes et al. 1999; Webb et al. 2010). The bulk of the cave systems are underwater, and some have been heavily modified by breakdown, forming collapse domes and rubble filled passages (Grimes et al. 1999). These sometimes reach the surface, such as Green Waterhole (Fossil Cave). There are over 50 caves recorded around Mt Gambier (Webb et al. 2010), many of which have been mapped and/or discovered by the CDAA; the most extensive cave system in the region is Tank Cave with over 10 km of passages, one of which was recently (2018) connected to Green Waterhole. Fossils from the underwater caves in Mt Gambier were first reported to palaeontologists in the 1960s. The following history is recounted from Pledge (1980) and Horne (1988). In 1964 G. McKenzie passed some possum and sthenurine (extinct short-faced kangaroos) fossils he found from Green Waterhole to amateur palaeontologist and caver F.W. Aslin, who subsequently passed them on to B. 2 �Daily at the South Australian Museum. In 1965 Daily collected kangaroo and pig remains from near the entrance to the cave that probably represent more modern specimens. In 1968 divers B. Brawley and G. McKenzie recovered substantial sthenurine material including crania in ‘excellent condition’. A second extraction occurred later that same year, with a third expedition in 1969 yielding considerable postcranial material. Fossil material had also been recovered at some point from the Pines Cave, but this material was only discovered in the Australian Museum in 1968, and it is not clear in Pledge (1980) or Horne (1988)’s accounts when or by whom this was collected. The fossil collecting exploits of some divers, however, was sensationalised in the 15 February 1969 issue of Pix magazine. In 1974 a further extraction took place from Green Waterhole after reports of ‘unauthorised’ divers in this cave who were planning on returning; presumably these divers were interfering with the fossil deposits. Further dives in 1978 by cave divers from Flinders University recovered more bones, which were passed on to R. Wells, palaeontologist at Flinders. This resulted in the first systematic efforts to recover bones from Green Waterhole, as described by Horne (1988). At the end of 1978 a grid system was laid out across the southern exposures of fossils, and much material was again collected, this time however with more specific locality information preserved. In 1987 and 1988, through the South Australian Underwater Speleological Society (SAUSS) and Flinders University, further collection of fossil material in reference to the grid system was made. The results of these collections are described in Horne (1988) and Newton (1988). Fossils representing extinct and extant Quaternary vertebrate faunas have also been reported from numerous other cenotes and caves from the Mt Gambier region (Figure 1); however, unlike those from Green Waterhole (Fossil Cave), none have been subject to systematic or extensive excavations. Underwater sites yielding fossils include Ewen’s Ponds, Ten-Eighty Sinkhole, Goulden’s Hole, Tank Cave, Engelbrecht Cave, Blue Lake, Kilsby’s Sinkhole (Reed and Bourne 2000). Nevertheless, there has been little published in the scientific literature concerning the underwater fossils of Mt Gambier. Pledge (1980) provided descriptions of the initial finds from Green Waterhole, and the birds from the site were published by Baird (1985). Baird (1991) also discussed some aspects of the taphonomy of the site. Reed and Bourne (2000) summarised what was then known about the fossil taxa found in the Mt Gambier caves. Green Waterhole was listed as one of the most important Australian fossil sites in Australia’s Fossil Heritage (The Australian Heritage Council 2012). In late 2018, further megafauna fossils were discovered in pristine condition in the Bone Room chamber of Tank Cave (Green 2018). This represented one of the most significant finds of this kind in Mt Gambier since the excavations of Green Waterhole in the 1980s. Unfortunately, these finds coincided with reports of unauthorised fossil extractions in Green Waterhole. The history and potential of the fossil deposits in the Mt Gambier region, the dearth of published scientific studies, and the recent finds and incidences have highlighted the need to (1) conduct further scientific study of the underwater fossil deposits; and (2) ensure adequate protection and conservation of the cave systems and the fossils therein. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are the following: (1) An Australian Research Council Linkage Project between Griffith University, CDAA, South Australian Museum, the University of Adelaide, and the University of Queensland, aimed at undertaking new scientific analyses and excavations of the fossil underwater deposits of the Mt Gambier Region. (2) The South Australian Fossil Heritage Working Group and their efforts to add Green Waterhole and Tank Cave fossil deposits to the state heritage list. 3 �RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include funding from the ARC, the CDAA, Griffith University, as well as the expertise and time from these organisations and those from University of Adelaide, University of Queensland, Flinders University, South Australian Museum, South Australia Department for Environment and Water (DEW). Griffith University and partners were awarded $268,529 in March 2022 by the ARC for a project entitled Deep time extinctions and environments in Australian underwater caves. FRAMEWORK ARC Linkage Project Deep time extinctions and environments in Australian underwater caves The following summarises the goals of this project (from Australian Research Council, 2019): This project aims to investigate the unique submerged Mt Gambier fossil deposits to determine the role environmental change had on large Australian mammal extinctions. By using a combination of technical diving and scientific expertise to study untouched fossil deposits from underwater caves, this project expects to provide greater understanding of past ecosystems and animals, advancements in geochronological techniques, and data critical to prepare Australians for action in protecting our biological heritage. Expected outcomes include insights into cave conservation and protection of underwater cave systems, updated policies on cave management, and promotion of our understanding of Australian geo-heritage through education and displays. This project consists of a partnership between Griffith University, CDAA, South Australian Museum, the University of Adelaide, and the University of Queensland to undertake new studies on the underwater fossil deposits of the Mt Gambier region, with results feeding back directly to the CDAA, the South Australian Museum, and other interested parties for education and conservation purposes, in addition to the scientific contributions. The focus of this project is on four caves and cenotes: Gouldens, Engelbrect’s East, Green Waterhole, and Tank Cave. It will combine new excavations as well as novel (for the region and underwater setting) sampling, namely geochronological (uranium-series, optically stimulated luminescence, electron spin resonance dating) and palynological, alongside underwater palaeontological sampling and analyses. To prepare for this project, a thorough review of current underwater palaeontological techniques was published (Louys 2018), and pilot data were collected. Since the award of ARC funding, the project has grown to include photogrammetry analyses in collaboration with the CDAA and Flinders University. The production of 3D models of the underwater systems will not only be of enormous benefit to the taphonomic and speleological analyses planned, but can also be fed directly into current cave conservation efforts, such those of the Project Baseline team monitoring Tank Cave (https://projectbaseline.org/), and displays and educational resources for the South Australian Museum. The project has also embraced new methodologies, such as environmental DNA studies, with recent efforts successful in securing additional funding for these analyses. The South Australian Fossil Heritage Working Group This group was set up in recognition of the need to establish a collaborative group of palaeontologists, conservationists, speleologists, and government members to further the protection of natural sites with significant fossil deposits in South Australia. South Australia has a strong and proud tradition of fossil conservation at the world and state level, exemplified by the World Heritage Listing of the Naracoorte cave system (alongside Riversleigh, as the Australian Fossil Mammal Sites; Bourne and Reed 2009), as well as State Heritage nominations of individual caves and multi-site areas in the Naracoorte Caves 4 �National Park (Lewis 2019). Although the heritage importance of Green Waterhole had been recognised for some years (Australian Heritage Council 2012; Lewis 2019), the initiation of a new research program through the ARC Linkage Project and the new finds made in Tank Cave in 2018 provided the impetus for the formation of the group and the nomination of Green Waterhole – Tank Cave complex for State Heritage Listing. Members of the working group included representatives from Griffith University, CDAA, University of Adelaide, the South Australian Museum, Flinders University, and the South Australia Department for Environment and Water (see Acknowledgements for individuals involved). The South Australian State Heritage Register is a list of areas protected under the Heritage Places Act 1993 from alteration, damage, or removal without formal prior consultation and permission (South Australian State Heritage, https://www.environment.sa.gov.au/topics/heritage/sa-heritage-register). State Heritage listing provides legal protection to fossil sites that would otherwise not be provided even if such sites are designated Geological Heritage Sites by the Geological Society of Australia (Lewis 2019). Current federal or state laws in Australia do not provide adequate or consistent protection for fossils (Percival 2014). Significant education and awareness training for cave divers has been in place for decades (e.g., Louys 2019), however, recognition of the State Heritage Register of the importance of the caves will, it is hoped, add impetus and focus on their preservation. Like the nomination of the Naracoorte Caves National Parks to the State Heritage Register linked to the Natural (as opposed to Built) environment, the nomination of the Green Waterhole – Tank Cave Complex was orientated towards Geological, Archaeological, Palaeontological and Speleological heritage (GAPS heritage; Lewis 2019), and was a multi-site nomination. Specifically, it focused on the palaeontological, speleological, and geological significance of the caves and their deposits, as follows (South Australian Heritage Register 2022): The Green Waterhole - Tank Cave Fossil Complex contains the only known extensive underwater vertebrate fossil deposits in Australia. This unique freshwater depositional environment has ensured the preservation of extinct species not found anywhere else, with several additional species new to science recovered and awaiting description. The underwater deposits have also resulted in a completeness and preservation of fossil assemblies almost unique for Australia. This provides an important opportunity to investigate the evolution of South Australian mammals and birds. The impacts of this type of site on the age and nature of the fossil remains have yet to be fully studied. The complex represents unusual geological formations including the occurrence of a shallow fresh waterhole not usually found in sinkholes in the South East, and evidence of rare volcanogenic influences in the formation of the cave system. The cave complex also demonstrates rare speleological features, including length of cave passageways, clarity of water, underwater speleothems, and being a type locality for stygofauna. The complex also holds importance for the development of cave diving in the country and is closely associated with the Cave Divers Association of Australia. It is also acknowledged as a place of significance for the Boandik people. The nomination was assessed under the following criteria under Section 16 of the Heritage Places Act 1993: (b) it has rare, uncommon or endangered qualities that are of cultural significance; (c) it may yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the State’s history, including its natural history; and (g) it has a special association with the life or work of a person or organisation or an event of historical importance. These criteria recognise both the palaeontological (and associated geological and speleological) features of the caves, but also the history and connection with Indigenous groups as well as more recently, the cave divers. RESULTS The first field season from the project Deep time extinctions and environments in Australian underwater caves took place over 10 days in early April 2023. The season had three primary 5 �objectives. First, collect surface samples and associated geochronological samples from the megafaunal deposits in Engelbrecht’s East deposits. These are unique for the project in that they represent a fissure fill deposit actively eroding out in a dry section of the cave. It is included in this project because it requires diving through an underwater passage to access, but more importantly is actively eroding into a wet section of the cave. This provides significant contextual data for the taphonomic aspects of the project seeking to determine whether skeletal elements were deposited in wet settings pre or post fossilisation. Second, three sample cores, one optically stimulated luminescence, one pollen, and one eDNA, were collected from each of the three sites of interest, Gouldens, Green Waterhole, and Engelbrecht’s East from the underwater passage mentioned above; previous pilot data had suggested that sediments in this section could be as old as 95 ka (Arnold, pers comm., 2021). To preserve stratigraphic integrity within these cores, as well as any viable DNA, all cores collected during this season were frozen in the orientation in which they were taken. Sampling was made considerably more difficult in Green Waterhole and, to a lesser extent, Gouldens, due to the amount of fine particulates on the cave floor. Once disturbed, these sediments became suspended in the water column and reduced visibility to almost nothing, and most of the sampling and exit from the cave was done via tactile signalling. Figure 2: The author examining a cow femur, Green Waterhole, Mt Gambier (image courtesy of Steve Trewavas). Third, surface reference material, much of recent age (specifically, less than about 200 years old as represented by European domesticates) was collected from Gouldens and Green Waterhole (Figure 2). These were collected to provide modern baselines for faunal dating and taphonomic analyses. Species recovered thus far include sheep, cow, and murids. In addition to these objectives, the photogrammetry surveys were begun in all three caves. These will require numerous dives and trips to complete. With regards to the protection of the sites, the Green Waterhole - Tank Cave Fossil Complex was officially confirmed as a State Heritage Place in the SA Heritage Register on 23 June 2022. The South 6 �Australian Fossil Heritage Working Group continues their work listing other fossils sites on the registry; however, to date none of any additional sites relate to underwater fossil deposits. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Cave Divers Association of Australia have been integral to this project and their immense contribution is acknowledged here. In particular, many thanks Peter Wolf who was instrumental in setting up the Linkage Project, and Joseph Monks who has since been intimately involved with the planning and execution of the project and fieldwork. The CDAA National Directors are thanked for their ongoing support. Dive field support was graciously provided by Joseph Monks, Damian Bishop, Ellyse Klein, Hiro Yoshida, Tim Featonby, Steve Trewavas, and Kelvin Ball, with surface support provided by Meg Walker, Gilbert Price, and Jody Kreuger. Scientific support was provided by Lee Arnold, Martina Demuro, and Liz Reed. The members of the South Australian Fossil Heritage Working Group involved in the listing of Green Waterhole – Tank Cave complex (Julien Louys, Peter Wolf, Peter Horne, Liz Reed, Diego Garcia-Bellido, Mary-Anne Binnie, Neville Pledge, Trevor Worthy, Rod Wells, Gavin Prideaux, Ian D. Lewis, Steve Bourne, and Anna Pope) are warmly thanked for their tremendous efforts in having the site entered in the State Heritage Register. Funding for this project is provided by ARC Linkage LP210200704 and The Australia Pacific Science Hermon Slade Research Fund HSF23047. BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Heritage Council. Australia's Fossil Heritage: A Catalogue of Important Australian Fossil Sites. Canberra: CSIRO Publishing, 2012. Australian Research Council, 2019. LP210200704 — Griffith University (funded by Australian Research Council). https://dataportal.arc.gov.au/RGS/Web/Grants/LP210200704, accessed 28/4/2023. Baird, R.F. “Avian fossils from Quaternary deposits in ‘Green Waterhole Cave’, south-eastern South Australia.” Records of the Australian Museum 37, no. 6 (1985): 353-370. Baird, R.F. “Taphonomy of late Quaternary cave localities yielding vertebrate remains in Australia.” In Vertebrate Palaeontology of Australasia, edited by Patricia Vickers-Rich, J.M. Monaghan, R.F. Baird and T.H. Rich, 267–309. Melbourne: Pioneer Design Studio and the Monash University Publications Committee, 1991. Bourne, Steve, Reed, Liz. “Australian Fossil Mammal Sites (Riversleigh/Naracoorte).” World Heritage 52 (2009): 46-47. Green, Selina. 2018. “Cave diver finds prehistoric bones in 'new room' of underwater cave network.” ABC News 13th December 2018. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-12-13/cavediver-finds-large-fauna-bones-south-australia/10599218 Grimes, Ken, G., Mott, K. and White, S. “The Gambier karst province.” Proceedings of the 13th Australasian Conference on Cave and Karst Management (1999): 1-7. Kelly, M.D. Freshwater Stromatolites as Potential Environmental Indicators: A Case Study from Lower Southeast South Australia. B.Sc. Hons thesis, Department of Geography, University of Newcastle, 1998. Lewis, Ian, D. “South Australian geology and the State Heritage Register: an example of geoconservation of the Naracoorte Caves complex and karst environment.” Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 66, no. 6 (2019): 785-792. Lewis, Ian, Stace, Peter. Cave Diving in Australia, Revised Edition. Adelaide: Ian Lewis and Peter Stace, 1982. Louys, Julien. “Practice and prospects in underwater palaeontology.” Palaeontologia Electronica 21, no. 2 (2018): 1-14. Louys, Julien. “A cave diver’s guide to fossil discoveries – our obligations.” Guidelines 148 (2019): 12-15. Percival, I.G. “Protection and preservation of Australia’s palaeontological heritage.” Geoheritage 6, no. 3 (2014): 205-216. Pledge, Neville S. “Macropodid skeletons, including: Simosthenurus Tedford, from an unusual “drowned cave” deposit in the south east of South Australia.” Records of the South Australian Museum 18 (1980): 131-141. South Australian Heritage Register. Department for Environment and Water, Government of South Australia, 2022. https://maps.sa.gov.au/heritagesearch/HeritageItem.aspx?p_heritageno=28119 Reed, Elizabeth H. and Bourne, Steven J. “Pleistocene fossil vertebrate sites of the South East region of South Australia.” Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 124 (2000): 61-90. Webb, J.A., Grimes, K.G. and Lewis, I.D. “Volcanogenic origin of cenotes near Mt Gambier, southeastern Australia.” Geomorphology 119, nos. 1-2 (2010): 23-35. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 15: The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters Subject The topic of the resource Session 15 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 15 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Excavation, conservation, and preservation of the Mt Gambier underwater fossil deposits Description An account of the resource This paper will examine the history of underwater fossil research in the Mt Gambier region, Australia, focusing on ongoing efforts to study, conserve, and protect underwater resources found in the freshwater sinkholes and limestone caves of the region; as such, the topic of this abstract fits best within the session The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters because it is concerned with cave sites that have become flooded. I will describe the considerable past efforts that were undertaken to extract fossils from Green Waterhole, as well as recently successful efforts to have this site registered as a South Australian Heritage Listed site, ensuring legislated protection for the cave and its deposits into the future. In addition, a new research program funded by the Australian Research Council and in collaboration with the Cave Divers Association of Australia and the South Australian Museum will be presented. The new work includes efforts to successfully recover fossils with as much contextual information as possible, especially geochronological and environmental data. Using these data, we expect to determine the geological age of the extinct megafauna recovered from the sites and the environments they inhabited; data critical for determining the degree to which humans or environmental change contributed to their demise. We will also evaluate the impact of such research on the preservation of the caves, ongoing efforts to conserve the geoheritage potential of the sites, and means of educating the public on the unique underwater resources they represent. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Julien Louys Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Louys, Julien . 2023. “Excavation, conservation, and preservation of the Mt Gambier underwater fossil deposits.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Jennifer McKinnon. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1993 Asia-Pac Session 15 2023