20 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/31c2fe9d646e7d5e9a3658ce7d19ecc3.pdf fe6790592f74783a55e51ba82a8f3abf PDF Text Text Remote Survey of a Near-Coastal Archaeological Alignment at Kualoa, Hawai'i Using Worldview 2 Satellite, LiDAR and UAV Imagery Damion Sailors University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Department of Anthropology Saunders Hall 808-349-9426, USA Email: sailors@hawaii.edu Scott S. Honda University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Department of Geography, Saunders Hall 808-351-3096 USA Email: sshonda@hawaii.edu Abstract By using World View 2 multispectral satellite imagery, LiDAR, and unmanned aerial vehicles, a large submerged archaeological stone alignment, that is likely part of an ancient Hawaiian fishpond, was detected off the coast of Kualoa, Hawai’i during a remote survey of the area. Principal component analysis, ratio indices, and LiDAR interpretation were utilized in a GIS to help detect this archaeological stone feature that is located in shallow coastal waters. Because threats of modern development, sea-level fluctuations, and complications inherent to coastal-maritime environments have generally challenged the survey of cultural resources located within the coastal strand, this method holds promise for future spatial analyses and provides an accessible and cost efficient means of shoreline assessment. This paper aims to show how remote sensing methods can assist in the study of archaeological features that are located within difficult to access coastal and near-coastal areas. Key words: Remote Sensing, Coastal Survey, Fishponds, Archaeology, GIS Introduction On the windward side of the island of O'ahu, an archaeological alignment was detected utilizing remote sensing techniques in the near-shore coastal flats of the northwest section of Kane'ohe Bay near Kualoa Regional Park. Kualoa is a culturally significant ahupua'a (land division) with a rich, traditional prehistory associated with social elites of old Hawai'i and today it is maintained by the City and County of Honolulu. Kualoa is also a pu'uhonua (ceremonial center) that was governed by the kahuna nui (high priests) of Hawai'i who maintained close relationships with the neighboring watersheds of Hakipu'u on the west and Ka'a'awa on the north as seen in (Figs.1-2) (Sterling and Summers, 1962; Gunness, 1987). Traditionally, these land divisions possessed stone-walled 1 �fishponds that were typical of an intensified form of aquaculture practiced in early Hawai'i (Kikuchi, 1976). However, the spatial data that exists on this subject matter is limited. Accordingly, this paper provides an efficient means of surveying submerged, archaeological features located in shallow, coastal waters using satellite, LiDAR and digital camera imagery. Fig. 1 Area on O'ahu, Hawai'i Where Offshore Stone Alignment Was Detected. (Damion Sailors, 2013) The Site Location - Kualoa The first archaeological survey of Kualoa was performed by J. G. McAllister in 1933 and included the documentation of Mōli'i fishpond, 'Āpua Pond, Mokoli'i Pond, Koholālele Pond, and Niuola'a Heiau. McAllister learned through interviews and translations that Kualoa is a pu'uhonua (ceremonial center) where large ceremonies dedicated to Lono (the god of harvest) were performed and that the area was also well-known for its association with ancient Polynesian genealogies. Kualoa is also respected for its 2 �ancient burial caves reserved for social elites and its unique access to palaoa (sperm whale ivory) which, because of its wealth, afforded Kualoa political power in precontact Hawai'i (Gunness, 1987). McAllister also collected a reference from a local informant about an ancient fish pond named Pilihe'e that was destroyed by a tsunami sometime prior to the mid-19th century (Sterling and Summers, 1962). This fishpond was then located and mapped during a student pedestrian survey during the Kualoa Archaeological Research Project (1975-1985) using a rough “tape and compass” method but was not explored further. As a consequence, this fishpond is not well-known in either academic or local communities and management of this archaeological resource has not occurred (Gunness, 1987; Carson and Athens, 2007). Fig. 2 Aerial photograph of Kualoa Beach Park taken from an airplane showing Mōli'i Pond (large pond on left) and 'Āpua Pond (small pond on right), shoreline accretion at south end of Kualoa, and coral reef development in area. (John O’Connor, 2013) There have been other, more recent archaeological studies conducted at Kualoa Park, and to summarize the findings thus far, there have been 44 shoreline burials recovered to date and a large amount of material artifacts consisting of large proportions of basalt tools, kapa (bark cloth) making utensils, and gaming stones. The recovery of these artifacts support the inference that Kualoa was a ceremonial center associated with the Makahiki festivals honoring the god Lono. Interestingly, fishing gear was poorly represented (only 3.62% of total artifacts) as were household items (2.89%) (Barrera, 1974; Gunness, 1987). The survey of this offshore alignment at Kualoa is significant 3 �because of the wall’s probable antiquity and what it might add to the overall anthropological discussion regarding maritime coastal adaptation in an island environment (Kikuchi, 1976). The absolute age of this feature is unknown but because this stone alignment is of substantial size, it can be inferred that an organized social effort was invested in its construction and maintenance (Kirch, 2010). Oral traditions and geomorphological studies also support the idea that Kualoa was not only a sacred land-division with an extensive royal history, but that it was particularly vulnerable to damage from tsunamis that periodically strike the islands (Gunness, 1987; Carson and Athens, 2007). Considering that the coastal zone of this windward part of O'ahu is highly dynamic in terms of its coastal geomorphology, this stone wall may have also served as a type of break-water constructed in an effort to modify the coastline or it may have functioned as an aggregate for fishing (Kikiloi, 2003). Pacific Island Fishponds At the time of Captain Cook’s arrival to Hawai'i in 1778 there were an estimated total of 360 fishponds of varying size and function located throughout the archipelago. On average, these fishponds were each thought to have produced a total of 3000 kg of fish per year (Kikuchi, 1976; Kikiloi, 2003). At first, this may seem rather industrious, but if we consider that the population in old Hawai'i may have conservatively been around 300,000 people, there would have been very little fish to go around (Schmitt, 1971; Wyban and Wyban, 1989). It is estimated that fishpond technology in Hawai'i may be at least seven centuries old after results from analyses made of the Alekoko and Kekupua Ponds on Kaua'i revealed a radiocarbon range from 1140 - 1280 AD (Burney and Burney, 2003). This is the oldest radiometric evidence there is for fishpond use in Hawai'i but it is possible that the origin of this technology extends further back in time. Hawaiian fishpond types can be separated amongst those that are dependent upon freshwater, brackish water, and seawater. The primary fish harvested in Hawaiian fishponds were mullet and milkfish and at least 22 species of edible marine life also flourished in these ponds as secondary domesticates (Kikiloi, 2003). Based on the available evidence, it could be argued that in contrast to the rest of Oceania, the Hawaiian Islands claimed a more sophisticated aquacultural system (Kikuchi, 1976). This argument is bolstered by the apparent large numbers of fishponds in Hawai'i, their 4 �larger acreage, variation in the types of sites, and in the technological complexity of the system. However, there is evidence that other areas such as in the Society Islands, Micronesia, and Western Polynesia, fish pond technologies were just as elaborate and intensified as those found in Hawai'i (Dieudonne, 2002). Remote Sensing methods The advancements in both passive and active sensors used in remote sensing allow for the collection of data or imagery with greater spatial, temporal, spectral, and radiometric resolution. One example of advancements made with passive sensors is the multispectral sensors on board some of today’s satellites (World View 2, Landsat MSS, IKONOS). Multispectral sensors break up the electromagnetic spectrum into multiple bands allowing for a finer analysis of an object’s reflectance value than previous sensors. Hyper-spectral sensors allow for an even finer analysis, breaking up the electromagnetic spectrum into hundreds of spectral bands (Jensen, 2005). Also an active sensor technology that has seen increasing use is LiDAR (short for light and radar). LiDAR is useful in detecting changes in elevation of an area at a relatively high resolution. The Worldview 2 satellite is a commercial satellite that was launched in 2009 and is capable of collecting 8-band multispectral imagery at a high resolution with an average revisit time of 1.1 days. The spatial resolution of the images is 1.85 m for the 8band multispectral images and 0.46 m for the panchromatic image. There are 8-bands that the satellite groups into different parts of wavelengths (nm) within the electromagnetic spectrum. The 8-bands and sections are the coastal band (400 - 450 nm), blue band (450 - 510 nm), green band (510 - 580 nm), yellow band (585 - 625 nm), red band (630 - 690 nm), red edge (705 -745 nm), near-infrared 1 (770 - 895 nm), and near-Infrared (860 - 1040 nm) (Digital Globe, 2013). Since each band collects at different sections of the electromagnetic spectrum, each band can contain different information based on the material an object or feature is made of. Each band also interacts differently with water. The least amount of absorption and scattering takes place in the wavelengths between 400 - 500 nm. Thus the two lowest bands, the coastal band and blue band, are the most suitable bands to detect underwater features. In contrast, the wavelengths represented by the red and near-infrared bands are highly absorbed by water (Jensen, 2007). In passive remote sensing techniques, there are 5 �multiple operations that can be done to multispectral satellite imagery in order to produce analyzable results. Processing The first process tree began by pan-sharpening the satellite imagery. Pan-sharpening was done so the multispectral bands could have a higher resolution of the panchromatic band, which was 0.46 m (Padwick, 2010). The terrestrial areas were then masked out of the image. This was done to ensure that the full range of digital numbers in the imagery belonged to pixels of offshore areas which could then be analyzed with greater detail. An index ratio called the non-homogenous feature difference (NHFD) was then performed. The NHFD takes the red-edge and coastal bands into the following formula: (red-edge - coastal) / (red-edge + coastal) (Wolf, 2010). Index ratios, such as the NHFD, enhance the contrast between two bands (Zeinelabdeina and Albielyb, 2008). The reason why this formula works well in detecting offshore features is because the rededge and coastal bands interact with water very differently. The energy in the spectrum of the red-edge band is highly absorbed by water where the energy in the spectrum of the coastal band is not. When two bands have very different reactions to a phenomenon (e.g. water) the ratio of those two bands will usually have a substantial amount of information (Jensen, 2005). This creates an image that visualizes the contrast between objects closer or above the surface of the water to objects towards the bottom of the sea floor. The second process tree started with the pan-sharpening and masking out of the terrestrial areas of the satellite imagery followed by a principal component analysis (PCA). PCA is an image enhancement technique that transforms the multispectral imagery into principal components (PCs). Each principal component represents the spatially correlated brightness values of each band in the multispectral imagery, while being uncorrelated to other derived principal components. From the 8 multispectral bands, 8 PCs are derived. The first PC will have the most information and the last PC will usually have the least. The goal of PCA is to reduce the amount of spatially repeated data throughout the 8 bands of the multispectral imagery into principal components that are quite easy to interpret (Jensen, 2005). Once PCA was executed, PCs 1 and 2 were visualized in the GIS platform well-known as ArcMap. 6 �LiDAR has the ability to gather elevation data on land and the bathymetry of areas in shallow waters with relatively high accuracy (Jensen, 2007). LiDAR, that was made available through the 2013 National Science Foundation - Research Experience for Undergraduates, was also utilized to help detect the Kualoa fishpond wall. A LiDAR point cloud (0.25 m resolution) was used to create a continuous surface or bathymetric image using Inverse Distance Weighted and Natural Neighbor tools in ArcGIS (Bolstad, 2012). 3D geovisualization in ArcGIS of the LiDAR point cloud readily displayed the shape of the offshore feature. To visualize the point cloud in 3D, graduated colors based on the Z (elevation) value were first given to each point. Then the point cloud was exaggerated to 30 times of its Z value, to best show the variation in depth of the offshore area. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology was also utilized to collect imagery of the offshore feature. Although there are many UAV platforms available, a DJI Phantom Quad-Copter was used as it was made available via the National Science FoundationResearch Experiences for Undergraduates program mentioned previously. A Pentax Optio camera was attached to the Phantom to collect imagery. Due to the weight of the camera, the flying time of the UAV was limited to approximately two minutes. The UAV coupled with the camera allowed for up-to-date imagery within the visible light spectrum of the feature. However, there were some difficulties with the UAV/Pentax combo. The first difficulty was the manipulation of the UAV’s elevation and position to ensure that useful imagery over the correct feature was being acquired. Another difficulty was that the Pentax captures imagery only in the visible light spectrum, so in order for submerged features to be detected, a substantial amount of sunlight is needed (P. Nesbit, Personal Communication 2013). Unfortunately, because the weather was uncooperative, only a limited amount of useful images were acquired in the time allotted. Finally, an underwater pedestrian survey shown in (Fig. 3), using snorkel gear and underwater cameras, was also performed at a high tide in order to visually inspect, measure, and photograph this feature. The wall sections observed on this day were heavily encrusted with coral, algae, and other marine growth, but it was clear that this alignment was indeed a purposefully constructed stone wall of some sort. Its function though remains speculative. 7 �Fig. 3 (left) Underwater survey of offshore alignment at Kualoa Beach Park. Basalt stones used in the wall’s construction are heavily encrusted with marine growth but can be easily discerned as an articulated feature. (Chuck DeVaney, 2012) Fig. 4 (right) Imagery from the steps taken in two “process trees” used to discern the offshore alignment. A) Non-Homogenous Feature Difference (Red-Edge - Coastal) / (Red-Edge + Coastal), B) Principal Component Analysis (Symbolized as PC1: Green and Blue, PC2: Red), C) Inverse Distance Weighted interpolation of LiDAR point cloud, D) Natural Neighbor interpolation of LiDAR point cloud. (Scott Honda, 2013) Results Due to the combination of difficulties in maneuvering the UAV, the varying availability of sunlight, and the changing tides, the number of useful images captured by the UAV/Pentax was limited. Given more flying time, stable conditions, and additional equipment, like a field of view camera mounted to the UAV, more useful imagery could have been attained. However, a mosaic was attempted in PhotoScan and Microsoft ICE of the collected UAV/Pentax imagery. Although PhotoScan is capable of producing an accurate and georeferenced image, it could not produce a mosaic image from the collected UAV/Pentax imagery. Microsoft ICE was able to create a mosaic using some of the images taken via UAV, but the resulting mosaic had no ground control points available in the imagery that were usable for georeferencing. The software used for manipulating and visualizing the data for analysis was ERDAS Imagine and ArcGIS. ERDAS Imagine is image analysis software that has the ability to execute many remote sensing and image analysis techniques (Intergraph, 2013). Principal component analysis, ratio Indices, pan-sharpening, and masking of the satellite multispectral 8 �imagery were done in ERDAS Imagine. ArcGIS has a variety of tools and applications that can be used to analyze, extract, manipulate, and manage geospatial data but was primarily used for interpolating and visualizing the LiDAR point cloud data. The image analysis, as seen in (Fig. 4), of this offshore alignment revealed the remnant articulation of a discrete, walled structure that may be part of the aquacultural complex in this area that includes Mōli'i fishpond, 'Āpua Pond, Mokoli'i Pond, and Koholālele Pond. This alignment may be part of the Pilihe'e fishpond mentioned by local informants in McAllister’s early twentieth century survey. Alternatively, it may be part of some sort of antiquated breakwater or fish aggregation device placed there long ago. Further study is required in order to understand more about this feature’s origin and function. What we do know from this survey is that this alignment is purposefully constructed from basalt boulders, stones, and pebbles, is approximately 550 m in length, three meters wide, and is less than a meter tall on average being exposed at the lowest of tides when it appears to be part of the natural reef formation of the area. It is a large alignment that if proven to be a fishpond wall, would add many hectares to the traditional aquacultural area of Kualoa. Considering the dynamic nature of Kualoa’s shoreline, whether it is due to tsunami, tectonic processes and/or sea-level fluctuations, this feature must have been an important variable in the recent social and geomorphological history of this part of Kane'ohe Bay, O'ahu. Discussion Based on the non-homogenous feature difference, the principal component analysis imagery, and the LiDAR point cloud, the use of remote sensing techniques (both active and passive) to locate the offshore wall were useful in mapping this near-coastal alignment. Because only the contrast of the wall from the surrounding reef was being sought after, the NHFD was utilized here with the digital number values of the two bands (coastal and red-edge) to demonstrate this contrast. If one were attempting to derive the health or biomass of vegetation, the use of radiance would be more appropriate (Jensen, 2005). Although more sophisticated UAV systems are available, the hobbyist grade Phantom Quad-Copter was capable of imaging the offshore alignment. The post processing of the UAV imagery in photogrammetry based software like PhotoScan could be a useful method of finding and surveying coastal features. 9 �However, in this case study, not all images were usable in PhotoScan. This is probably due to distortions introduced by water. Perhaps if a multispectral camera, with bands that could penetrate water (i.e. coastal blue) were used, PhotoScan would be capable of creating an orthophoto and a digital surface model of underwater features. Kualoa is an area of chronic erosion and accretion, and has had frequent and intense coastal modifications occur over the course of human occupation in the area. How the ancient people of Kualoa adapted to, and perhaps influenced these changes can be seen archaeologically, and thus remote sensing and survey at a high resolution can assist anthropological endeavors in this region (Hunt and Lipo, 2008). Knowledge then gained may shed light on issues of sustainability and how limited resources, such as those found in the Pacific islands, are managed by complex societies (Ladefoged and Graves, 2000; Erlandson, 2010). In a contemporary context, threats of inundation causing the potential loss of cultural resources in coastal areas are immediate and severe. These cultural resources, in the form of archaeological features, can be identified within the coastal strand using the methods we have discussed here in this report. For future study, questions regarding the automation of extracting linear features from remote imagery as well as improvements on data management can be readily explored. Maritime adaptations may be more easily understood using these spatial methods and considering the accessibility and efficiency of this type of non-invasive technique, we propose further similar survey in coastal-maritime regions. Acknowledgments Special thanks go to Drs. Carl Lipo, Suzanne Wechsler, Chris Lee, Matt Becker, and teaching assistants of the 2013 NSF-REU G.R.A.M Field Program, at California State University at Long Beach. We would like to thank Dr. Terry Hunt, University of Oregon and Drs. Christian Peterson and Matt McGranahan, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa. Obligations are extended as well to John O’Connor and Chuck DeVaney for photo contributions. And a final mahalo or “thank you” is given to the National Science Foundation (Grant # DGE-1329626) and to those who assisted in reviewing the paper. References Barrera, W., 1974. Preliminary Archaeological Investigations at Kualoa, O'ahu. For Office of Human Resources in City and County of Honolulu: 1-39. 10 �Bolstad, P., 2012. GIS Fundamentals: A first text on geographic information systems. (4th edition), Eider Press, White Bear Lake, USA. Burney, L., and Burney, D., 2003. Charcoal Stratigraphies for Kaua‘i and the Timing of Human Arrival. Pacific Science, April: 211-225. Carson, M. T., and Athens, J. S., 2007. Integration of Coastal Geomorphology, Mythology and Archaeological Evidence at Kualoa Beach, Windward O'ahu, Hawaiian Islands. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Vol. 2 (1): 24 - 43. Dieudonne, F., 2002. The Pacific Islands and the Sea. Neptune House Publications, Honolulu. Digital Globe. Worldview 2. Web. 14 Dec. 2013. PDF file. <http://www.digitalglobe.com/ downloads/WorldView2-DS-WV2-Web.pdf> Erlandson, J. M., 2010. A Deep History for the Pacific: Where Past, Present, and Future Meet. Journal of Pacific Archaeology, Vol. 1 (2): 111-114. Gunness, J. L., 1987. Archaeological Investigations at Kualoa Regional Park. Masters Dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of Hawai’i, Hawaii. Hunt, T., and Lipo, C., 2008. Top-down archaeology: High resolution satellite images of Rapa Nui on Google Earth. Rapa Nui Journal, Vol. 22: 5-13. Intergraph Corporation. ERDAS IMAGINE. Web. 17 Dec. 2013. PDF file. <http://geospatial.intergraph.com/Libraries/Brochures/ERDAS_IMAGINE_2014_Brochur e.sflb.ashx> Jensen, J. R., 2005. Introductory digital image processing: a remote sensing perspective. (3rd edition), Pearson Education, Inc, Upper Saddle River, USA. Jensen, J. R., 2007. Remote sensing of the environment: an earth resource perspective. (2nd Edition), Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, USA. Kikiloi. K., 2003. A new synthesis in oceanic domestication: The Symbiotic Development of Loko I'a Aquaculture in Precontact Oceania. Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge, No.15: 3-10. Kikuchi, W., 1976. Prehistoric Hawaiian Fishponds. Science, Vol. 193 (4250): 295-299. Kirch, P. V., 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings. Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. 11 �Ladefoged, T., and Graves, M., 2000. Evolutionary Theory and the Historical Development of Dry-Land Agriculture in North Kohala, Hawai'i. American Antiquity, Vol. 65 (3): 423-448. Padwick, C., 2010. Worldview- 2 Pan-Sharpening. American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Web. 17 Dec. 2013. Schmitt, R. C., 1971. New Estimates of the Pre-censal Population of Hawai'i. The Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vol. 80 (2): 237-243. Sterling, E.P., and Summers, C. C., 1962. Sites of Oahu. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. Wolf, A., 2010. Using Worldview 2 Vis-NIR MSI Imagery to Support Land Mapping and Feature Extraction Using Normalized Difference Index Ratios. Digital Globe, <http://www.exelisvis.com/portals/0/pdfs/envi/8_bands_Antonio_Wolf.pdf> Wyban, J., and Wyban, A., 1989. Aquaculture in Hawai'i: Past, Present and Future. Advances in Tropical Aquaculture, Vol. 9: 37-43. Zeinelabdeina, K. E., and Albielyb, A. L., 2008. Ratio Image Processing Techniques: A Prospecting Tool for Mineral Deposits, Red Sea Hills, NE Sudan. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. 37 (B8): 1295-1298. Damion Sailors is a graduate student in the Anthropology Department at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa and is focused in archaeology within the Pacific island region. His interest is on the span cultural maritime adaptations in a prehistoric context. Scott Honda is an undergraduate student at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, focusing his studies on geospatial geography; and pursuing a Bachelor of Arts degree in Geography, with a Minor in Information and Computer Sciences. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Remote Survey of a Near-Coastal Archaeological Alignment at Kualoa, Hawai'i Using Worldview 2 Satellite, LiDAR and UAV Imagery Description An account of the resource By using World View 2 multispectral satellite imagery, LiDAR, and unmanned aerial vehicles, a large submerged archaeological stone alignment, that is likely part of an ancient Hawaiian fishpond, was detected off the coast of Kualoa, Hawai’i during a remote survey of the area. Principal component analysis, ratio indices, and LiDAR interpretation were utilized in a GIS to help detect this archaeological stone feature that is located in shallow coastal waters. Because threats of modern development, sea-level fluctuations, and complications inherent to coastal-maritime environments have generally challenged the survey of cultural resources located within the coastal strand, this method holds promise for future spatial analyses and provides an accessible and cost efficient means of shoreline assessment. This paper aims to show how remote sensing methods can assist in the study of archaeological features that are located within difficult to access coastal and near-coastal areas. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Damion Sailors, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Scott S. Honda Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f294dcc0ba93657da85daa853cc99eab.pdf ef2e1b13dc454fa2c151e26fd81a119d PDF Text Text Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan Daniele Petrella (IRIAE, daniele.petrella@iriae.com) Irene Ciulla (IRIAE, ciullairene@gmail.com) Diego M. Mezzapelle (IRIAE, halfskin@hotmail.it) Giuseppe Avola (IRIAE, peppeavola95@gmail.com) ABSTRACT Japanese neolithic, the so called Jōmon Period, represents a vast terrain in which to develop new and exciting research in the archaeological field. This is because there are still many questions that need to be answered to better clarify the evolutionary dynamics of the cultures that characterized it. The project Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan aims to study and understand the use of the sea and waterways during the Japanese Neolithic period, both in terms of movements within the archipelago and contacts with the surrounding territories. In its first phase, the project will focus on the analysis of the nature and dynamics behind the first relations with the Korean peninsula. For this reason, International Research Institute for Archaeology and Ethnology (IRIAE) has developed a new project of maritime archaeological investigation on land and underwater. The project identifys the island of Tsushima (Nagasaki Prefecture) as a crucial point. The activities will begin at the sites of Meotoishimae and Ongaura, both overlook the Korean coast and have geomorphological characteristics of possible landings and/or coastal settlements. Among these, those most under analysis are related to the origins of the Jōmon culture, a topic that cannot be separated from human environment interaction: the relationship with the Korean populations and that with the sea. What was the role of the sea in the life of the Jōmon People? How did they move and what boats did they use? What were kaizuka really and what did they mean? How did they adapt to the environmental changes at the advent of the Holocene? List of Figures Figure 1: Flowchart of the Adaptation Cycle Figure 2: Waniura Bay and Shishimi Bay Figure 3: Ongasaki / Ongaura Site Figure 4: ‘Meotoishimae’ Site INTRODUCTION The topic of this abstract fits best into the session ‘History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia’ because it aims to address the study of the relationships between Jōmon communities and the sea, its use and exploitation of resources, and the role it played in the relations between them and continental populations, not neglecting the importance of other waterways in internal movements and communications. All this through a new methodological proposal based on the simultaneous investigation of land and underwater sites with the aid of innovative technologies and computer systems. Our methodology is the study of coastal sites in relation to the adjacent seabed, in GIS, to bring together archaeological data from the various sites under investigation. This will open up new research perspectives in the complex field of movement and settlement choice during the Japanese Neolithic. As there are clear cultural differences in the archipelago during the Jōmon Period (14,000 BC and 9,500 BC and end around 1000 BC), we prefer to identify this period as the 'Japanese Neolithic’ and use the term jōmon to indicate the cultural faces that characterised it. The identification and 'development' of cultural faces is based on changes in the relationship between man and his environment and how he adapted to it. In the circular flowchart (Figure 1) the environment inevitably influences the lifestyle of human groups, which produces a 'material culture' that, in turn, favours and enables the adaptation necessary to survive climatic and environmental changes (Renfrew et al. 1991). 1 �Figure 1: Flowchart of the Adaptation Cycle The advent of the Holocene brought about great changes that conditioned and forced human groups in the area to modify their 'habits' (Barnes 2015). Climatic change characterised the Holocene. On the one hand, on land evergreens and deciduous broadleaf trees produced acorns and hard fruits (Teshigawa 2022; Williams et al. 1982) and the ecological process of insularisation led to an increase in the populations of smaller mammals such as wild boar and deer. This followed the extinction of larger animals that could not migrate to places with more suitable temperatures. All this allowed for a constant seasonal food supply for gathering and hunting (Habu 2022). On the other hand, in the water the sea level rise separated Japan from the continent. This led to the development of navigation, both for marine and terrestrial travel. On land the presence of the great mountains over the entire surface of the archipelago make overland travel extremely complex. Rivers represented the main inland communication routes, while lakes were an important source of supply for inland areas further from the coasts (Hornell 1946). Over the sea people performed cabotage and inter-island boating. Moreover, water products, such as molluscs, fish, and marine mammals, represented a new source of food supply that not only contributed to the general needs of the populations, but also compensated for seasonal food fluctuations (Habu et al. 2011; Koike 1980; Teshigawara 2021; Teshigawara 2022). Excavations conducted in various areas of Japan, related to the various phases of the Jōmon Period, have brought to light bones of large marine mammals and large fish, such as whales and tuna. Such animals require complex organisation, strategy, and technology of evolved societies (Hosoya et al. 2014). The waterways became the main communication routes for the 'flow of goods, people and information' (Mizoguchi 2013) not only within the archipelago itself, but also from outside. Japan, in fact, with the advent of the Holocene, became a territory with a temperate climate, rich in vegetation and raw materials and particularly suited to both fishing and hunting (Teshigawara 2016). This 'oasis' was a destination for migratory flows of foreign cultures that greatly influenced the development of local communities (Mizoguchi 2002). Namely, from the north populations of Siberia and the American territories; from the south-west populations of Korea; and from the south populations of the Southeast Asian Archipelago (Nakagome et al. 2020). The reconsideration of all these elements led to the project 'Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan' by the International Research Institute for Archaeology and Ethnology (IRIAE). The project is divided into three phases. Jōmon Sea 1 will focus on understanding the nature of early relations with Korea and how these influenced the evolution of Jōmon cultures. Jōmon Sea 2 will deal with relations with northern cultures. Jōmon Sea 3 will address the study of internal contacts within the country. 2 �The first phase will focus on relations with the Korean peninsula to investigate the island of Tsushima (Nagasaki Prefecture). The island is located in the centre of the Sea of Japan, on the route between Kyūshū and Korea, from whose coastline it is only 47 km away. It is likely that this island was intercepted by explorers from the peninsula in search of richer territories. Tsushima represents a veritable 'treasure chest' for archaeological research because since ancient times it has been the crossroads of all cultural dynamics between Japan and the surrounding cultures; just as Sicily, Italy is at the centre of the Mediterranean. Numerous investigations were conducted on the island in recent decades by Japanese scholars, which confirmed the strong Korean presence and exchanges with northern Kyūshū, but also the mutual influence between Korean and local populations (Shōbayashi 1995). The project is carried out in collaboration with Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology and the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA), which has been carrying out archaeological investigations on Tsushima Island for years. CASE STUDIES After analysing the reports of all the excavations and investigations conducted on the island, we chose to start with the north-western area, which faces Korea. Two extremely interesting sites can be found in this area (Figure 2). These are the Waniura Bay, located in the far north, and the Shishimi Bay area, slightly further south (Nagasaki 2019), which represent the case studies examined. Figure 2: Waniura Bay and Shishimi Bay The Ongasaki / Ongaura Site This is the first of the inlets, coming from the south, in Waniura Bay and facing the Korean coast. It is part of the Yabitsu area, which is being investigated by ARIUA; where the first, and so far, only, Jōmon landing site has been identified, as well as numerous Korean Neolithic evidence (Hayashida 2019). 3 �The investigations focused on the Ongasaki promontory that closes the inlet to the north (around 20 metres above sea level) and in the stretch of sea that bathes Ongaura (Figure 3). Figure 3: Ongasaki / Ongaura Site The surface survey of Ongasaki revealed the presence of three obsidian points and significant quantities of obsidian, quartz crystals and shell waste. Considering the particular purity of the obsidian found, the absence of quarrying pits on Tsushima Island and the morphological characteristics of the tips found, we assume that it came from the Koshidake quarry in northern Kyūshū. The shape and quality of these finds is absolutely superimposable to those found along the southern coast of Korea and, mainly, in the Busan area. The route of obsidian is likely: raw obsidian arrives on the island from northern Kyūshū reaching Ongasaki for processing, from there, the finished products are sent to the Korean coast. In addition, the presence of hundreds of quartz crystals, shell waste and numerous traces of charcoal make Ongasaki an important processing and sorting site for obsidian products and other valuable materials. We also found archaeological evidence related to later periods, such as fragments of iron swords (dated to the Late Yayoi and the Kofun Period), bronze-finished weapons and armour, a bronze coin from the Edo Period and some fragments of medieval pottery (including celadon) that testify to the long life of the Ongasaki site and the strategic importance of its location. The underwater survey carried out on the seabed of Ongaura Bay revealed the presence of fragments of amphorae, still to be chronologically framed, and three lithic anchors whose typology can be ascribed between the Jōmon and medieval periods. The 'Meotoishimae' Site The geomorphology of Meotoishimae and the documented importance of the bay were the elements that prompted us to investigate this inlet. This site is located opposite the important site of Meotoishi in Shishimi Bay (Figure 4), which has always been known to Koreans and mentioned in the text Haedong Jegukgi (Adachi 1999). It was excavated between the end of the 1970s and 1993 and brought to light a very large number of Neolithic Korean pottery of the Sugari type and only a few fragments of Ataka-style pottery dated to the Middle Jōmon (Kiyoura 1992). 4 �Figure 4: ‘Meotoishimae’ Site Our investigations on the Meotoishimae site revealed an interesting similarity with the structures in Koshitaka, which is located on the same side of the island only three kilometers to the north and currently being investigated by the Tsushima Museum team. If this structure similarity is confirmed by subsequent investigations, one could hypothesise their repeated pattern during the Neolithic period, as well as location choice of the island's bays overlooking the stretch of sea facing Korea. The archaeological excavations at the Koshitaka site uncovered 2461 fragments of Neolithic Korean pottery and only seven fragments of Maebira-style Jōmon pottery (Shōbayashi 1995), as well as a Korean-style kiln. This discrepancy between the amount of Korean and indigenous evidence leaves little doubt these were Korean settlements. We hypothesize groups from Korea sailed in search of richer territories and then settled in Tsushima. Over time, they influenced and merged with the small local populations, and, from this fusion developed a hybrid culture. During the Early/Middle Jōmon this hybrid culture looked further east, towards the Kyūshū coast, which they reached by cultural exchanges. RESOURCES The resources that will be deployed to implement the project will come, in addition to the specific skills and expertise present in IRIAE, from the collaboration with Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. They supply the technological approach to underwater investigations, and the ARIUA. Moreover, the project already enjoys the patronage of UNESCO Underwater Heritage and the financial support of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation. FRAMEWORK The project aims to answer a series of interconnected questions. These questions are based on the use and exploitation of the sea, waterways and coastal settlements in bays. First, in Jōmon Sea the aim is to understand the structure and location-choice of coastal settlements in bays. We aim to contextualize this with the seasonal cycle of food supply and storage methods. Second, we aim to collect data on the 5 �types and level of nautical knowledge of the Neolithic communities that exploited the bays, along with their transportation of raw materials, related trade and cultural exchange. The methodological approach is simultaneous archaeological investigation and comparison of data from land and underwater. Further, we will use both sonar equipment for scanning the seabed and high-resolution satellite reading software. The latter will be used to obtain a clearer visualisation of the geomorphology of the areas and the identification of anthropic evidence that might otherwise be difficult to identify. Of extreme importance, moreover, is the creation of a GIS platform that collects data from the sites we have investigated and from those investigated by other research groups. The GIS facilitates site comparison to obtain a more complete reading of the historical dynamics that characterised the area starting from the Neolithic period. The GIS platform georeferences elements necessary for the management and analysis of the survey results (reconnaissance, excavation, protection, etc.). The GIS can be used for the planning and design of subsequent excavation work. Within GIS, we plan to carry out distributional-typological analyses of finds and fragments characterised with different symbology on the basis of the type of material (stone, metal, wood, etc.) and the type of artefact (e.g., scrap, arrowhead, blade, etc.). In this way it is possible to visualise and interpret the dynamics of distribution, concentration, isolation and thinning of specific typological groups and compare them simultaneously. RESULTS The results obtained during the spring 2023 survey campaign were the identification that the Ongasaki site is a processing and sorting site for valuable materials, and what routes these raw materials took to reach Ongasaki and from there to Korea. The existence of the Ongasaki processing site suggests a settlement or logistical support site in its vicinity. Therefore, future investigations and excavations will aim to find and understand site organisation. Another important outcome the research team is aiming for is the identification of repeated patterns in bay structure and their location, so that these may serve as a proto-type for future identifications of other anthropized bays. Finally, it is our intention that the GIS platform created can be constantly implemented with data from other research in order to achieve a comparison of data that facilitates a broad and syncretic reading of the periods under analysis. The GIS would become a baseline tool available to the scientific community and all researchers. Acknowledgements We would like to thank our Japanese colleagues at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology and the ARIUA, whose input was essential to access Japan's difficult administrative mechanisms. As well as the Tsushima Board of Education and the Nagasaki Prefecture for granting us the necessary authorisations. In addition, we would like to thank the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation of the Italian Republic, which has supported all IRIAE projects with great enthusiasm for years. Finally, we would like to thank all the IRIAE team members without whose professionalism and dedication the project would not have been possible. 6 �Bibliography Adachi, H. Nihon no Fune. Tokyo: Fune no Kagakukan, 1999. Barnes, L. G. Vulnerable Japan: The Tectonic Life Setting of Life in the Archipelago. In P. C. Brown and B. L. 2015 Habu, J. “Jōmon Collectors and Foragers: Regional Interaction and Long-Term Changes in Settlement System among Prehistoric Hunter-gatherers in Japan.” In J. Habu and B. Fitzhugh (Eds.), Beyond Foraging and Collecting: Evolutionary Change in Hunter-gatherer Settlement Systems, New York: Kluwer-Plenum Publishing Corporation, (2002): 53-72. Habu, J., Matsui, A., Yamamoto, N. and Kanno, T. “Shell Midden Archaeology in Japan: Aquatic Food Acquisition and Long-term Change in the Jōmon Culture.” Quaternary International 239 (2011): 19-27. Hayashida, K. “2018 Nendo Yabitsu B Chiten Chōsa no Gaiyō.” ARIUA Newsletter 8 (2019): 27-33. Hornell, J. Water Transport, Origins and Early Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1946. Hosoya, L. A., Nakamura, O., Seguchi, S. and Shibutani, A. “What Did Jōmon People Eat in Fact? Jōmon Subsistence and Society Chronological Shifts in Japanese Jōmon Subsistence Strategies on the Basis of Local Characteristics of North Tohoku Area.” Proceeding of the 6th Worldwide Conference of the Society for East Asian Archaeology (2014): 6-10. Kiyoura, G. “Meotoishi Iseki.” Nagasaki-ken Maizō Bunkazai Chōsashūhō 15 (1992): 1-38. Koike, H. Seasonal Dating by Growth-line Counting of the Clam, Meretrix Lusoria: Toward a Reconstruction of Prehistoric Shell Collecting Activities in Japan. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. 1980 Mizoguchi, K. An Archaeological History of Japan, 30000 B.C. to A.D. 700. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002. Mizoguchi, K. The Archaeology of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013 Nagasaki, A.”Tsushima Hokubu no Iseki no Yōsō.” ARIUA Newsletter 8 (2019): 2-10. Nakagome, S., Gakuhari, T. and Rasmussen, S. “Ancient Jomon Genome Sequence Analysis Sheds Light on Migration Patterns of Early East Asian Populations.” Common Biol 3 (2020): 437-456. Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice. London: Thames and Hudson. 1991 Shōbayashi, M. Kōdai Kikō, Vol.1: Tsushima. Nagasaki: Town News-sha, 1995 Teshigawara, A. Jōmon Jidai-shi. Tokyo: Shinsenn sha, 2016 Teshigawara, A. Jōmon Jidai o Shiru Tame no 110 Mondai. Tokyo: Shinsen-sha, 2021 Teshigawara, A. Jōmon Jidai Gaido Bukku. Tokyo: Shinsen-sha, 2022 Williams, M. N. and Hunn, S. E. Resource Managers: North American and Australian Hunter-gatherers. Boulder: Westview Press. 1982 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 1: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Conference presentation Date Available Date (often a range) that the resource became or will become available. November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan Description An account of the resource Japanese neolithic, the so called Jōmon Period, represents a vast terrain in which to develop new and exciting research in the archaeological field. This is because there are still many questions that need to be answered to better clarify the evolutionary dynamics of the cultures that characterized it. The project Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan aims to study and understand the use of the sea and waterways during the Japanese Neolithic period, both in terms of movements within the archipelago and contacts with the surrounding territories. In its first phase, the project will focus on the analysis of the nature and dynamics behind the first relations with the Korean peninsula. For this reason, International Research Institute for Archaeology and Ethnology (IRIAE) has developed a new project of maritime archaeological investigation on land and underwater. The project identifys the island of Tsushima (Nagasaki Prefecture) as a crucial point. The activities will begin at the sites of Meotoishimae and Ongaura, both overlook the Korean coast and have geomorphological characteristics of possible landings and/or coastal settlements. Among these, those most under analysis are related to the origins of the Jōmon culture, a topic that cannot be separated from human environment interaction: the relationship with the Korean populations and that with the sea. What was the role of the sea in the life of the Jōmon People? How did they move and what boats did they use? What were kaizuka really and what did they mean? How did they adapt to the environmental changes at the advent of the Holocene? Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Daniele Petrella Irene Ciulla Diego M. Mezzapelle Giuseppe Avola Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Petrella, Daniele. 2023. “Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Akifumi Iwabuchi, and Kotaro Yamafune. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1891 Asia-Pac Session 1 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/01e7978df9e3d025cb858b49dd30f844.pdf 9012c0d1b0959d5963c828843b806770 PDF Text Text Geophysical techniques for non-intrusive documentation of UCH: Comparative analysis of the methodology developed in three study areas in Spain. Soledad Solana Rubio,1 Felipe Cerezo Andreo2, Sebastián Federico Ramallo,3 Dario Bernal Casasola,4 Miguel Ángel Cau Ontiveros,5 Francisco López-Castejón6 1 (University of Cádiz, Researcher) 0000-0001-5571-7453 (University of Cádiz, Associate Professor) 0000-0003-0025-1726 3 Asensio (University of Murcia, Professor) 0000-0003-1828-3996 4 (University of Cádiz, Professor) 0000-0003-1107-5318 5 (ICREA, and IAUB, University of Barcelona, Professor) 0000-0002-1138-157X 6 (Cartagena Oceanographic Research Institute and Polytechnic University of Cartagena, Researcher) 0000-00024196-4100 2 ABSTRACT Generally, the combined use of different geophysical instruments and archaeological fieldwork provides enough information for the classification and preliminary study of sites. However, the application of these techniques in detailed analysis of specific archaeological sites is still in its early stages. In this paper, we present the results of the geophysical survey work carried out in three different underwater contexts, as part of three research projects, in three areas of Spain: Algeciras (Cádiz), Cartagena (Murcia) and Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands). Geophysical survey allows for the application of non-intrusive techniques to achieve the documentation of UCH, as recommended by the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Heritage, without altering the archaeological material in any way. Therefore, we have used the Sub Bottom Profiler in several archaeological works, with varying depths and conservation conditions, to address our research questions of how much information can we obtain non-intrusively on the UCH and how can we best use the equipment to innovate in the development of non-intrusive methodology. Based on the results obtained in each area, we can draw several methodological conclusions that lay the groundwork for a method that can be applied to other case studies. Keywords: non-intrusive techniques, geophysical survey, Sub Bottom Profiler, monitoring UCH. List of figures Figure 1 – Location of the case studies and surveyed areas. Figure 2 – Equipment used on board the vessel for fieldwork. Figure 3 – Signal processing example using ISE 2.9 INNOMAR software. Figure 4 – Types of anomalies recorded. 1. INTRODUCTION We present an innovative and non-intrusive method of monitoring and documenting Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH), in which we have taken advantage of the opportunities offered by the development of new technologies. We analyse the methodology implemented in three case studies, in which we have surveyed the UCH in different areas using a Sub Bottom Profiler (SBP). This is an equipment that emits acoustic pulses that penetrate the sediment, resulting in the image of a stratigraphic profile of the seabed and the artefacts or anomalies that may be buried beneath it. In this way, without disturbing the seabed, we can see what is buried, what is anomalous and how deep it is. This research has been the result of a collaborative effort of the University of Cádiz (Spain), through three different projects, with the universities of Murcia, Cartagena, Barcelona, Balearic Islands and the Consell de Mallorca. 1 �2. CASE STUDIES This methodological study took into consideration three case studies (see figure 1), each with different characteristics related to the archaeological heritage to be studied and the geological conditions of the environment in which it is located. Furthermore, although the research goals of each project were distinct, they all shared the methodological questions that we aim to address in this paper. 2.1. HERAKLES Project (Algeciras, Cádiz) As a pioneering project for this research, the HERAKLES Project (FEDER-UCA18-107327)7 was the first scenario to test the SBP techniques. We undertook the geophysical survey in a specific zone of the Bay of Algeciras: the harbour area (see figure 1.1). As the main objectives of the HERAKLES project were to document the UCH of Algeciras Bay and to assess the impact of port and industrial constructions on it, the goals of this survey were two: 1. To determine the existence of anomalies buried under the sediment. 2. To understand the stratigraphy of the area and how successive dredging and harbour works have modified the natural sedimentation processes. 2.2. ALADROQUE Project (Cartagena, Murcia) The second scenario was the harbour area of Cartagena, which differed significantly from the previous case study. The zone of intervention covers the mouth of the Benipila Rambla (stream) and the Algameca Chica, up to a depth of approximately -50 m, an area of detrital and rocky seabed with plenty of archaeological materials (see figure 1.2). The ALADROQUE project8 arises after the high impact weather event known as coold drop (Depresión aislada en niveles altos – DANA) that affected the Region of Murcia in September 2019. One of the most serious consequences of this episode was the overflowing of the streams, such as the Benipila, causing a large amount of sediment and rubbish to be dragged into the sea. Thus, the ALADROQUE project aimed to assess the impact of this event on the seabed and on the UCH. The objectives of the geophysical survey were therefore two: 1. To identify possible anomalies that might correspond either to UCH or to objects dragged by the floods. 2. To evaluate the rate of sedimentation caused by floods and sea currents by monitoring the burial process in two known archaeological sites. 2.3. ARQUEOMALLORNAUTA Project (Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands) The third case study involved the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck (Munar et al., 2022; Soler et al. 2021), located in shallow waters, with sandy seabed, offering ideal conditions for studying its state of preservation and the probable dispersion of its materials. The ARQUEOMALLORNAUTA project9 aimed to document and excavate this unique Late Roman shipwreck, and a geophysical survey was conducted as a preliminary activity before archaeological fieldwork (see figure 1.3). Therefore, our objectives were threefold: 1. To obtain a three-dimensional visualization of the shipwreck that would allow the evaluation of its state of preservation. “Entre las Columnas de Hércules, Arqueología Subacuática de un espacio privilegiado. La bahía de Algeciras” (FEDERUCA18-107327 HERAKLES) 8 “ALADROQUE: El impacto de los eventos climáticos tipo DANA en la conservación de los entornos subacuáticos de los accesos al puerto de Cartagena (España)”, an initiative of the Cartagena Oceanographic Research Institute (CORI), in collaboration with the University of Murcia (UM), the University of Cadiz (UCA) and the Navy Diving Centre (CBA), 9 Joint project of the Consell de Mallorca and the universities of Barcelona, the Balearic Islands and Cádiz. 7 2 �2. To provide stratigraphic details especially about the characteristics of marine sedimentary levels. 3. To detect the existence of anomalies that can be analysed in the interpretation phase of the results of the archaeological fieldwork. Figure 1 – Location of the case studies and surveyed areas: 1. Bay of Algeciras; 2. Harbour of Cartagena; 3. Palma de Mallorca. 3. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include the equipment used (see figure 2), property of the Laboratory of Archaeology and Prehistory (LABAP) of the University of Cádiz (UCA), consists of: - Sub Bottom Profiler (SBP) model SES-2000 standard, manufactured by the German company INNOMAR. It is parametric in nature, which allows a high resolution in the detection of strata and layers of sediments. The signal penetrates, on average, twice the depth at which it probes. - Motion correction sensor (MRU) to correct and improve precision of the spatial location of the signal. - Mobile RTK GNSS Leica GS18 Antenna, which ensures the positioning of the data readings with a millimetre error margin. Besides, different boats were used in each case study. For the survey in Algeciras, we used the Tarpán, a fiberglass rigid boat with inboard motor, and a draft of 0.5 m. Secondly, in Cartagena we had two fiberglass vessels from the University of Murcia, the Betsaida, with 0.3 m draught, and the Universitas, with 0.6 m draught. In the third case study, a semi-rigid inflatable boat with an outboard motor was used, with a draft of 0.4 m, named Mustelus. A very important variable for the reliability of the results in geophysical surveying with SBP is the expertise of the boat captain. In the three case studies, they 3 �were very skilled, showing great ability, not only in handling each boat, but also in understanding what the team needed. Regarding the human team, the works were performed by two archaeologists from the University of Cádiz, trained in the use of geophysical techniques thanks to the activities coordinated by the Nautical and Underwater Archaeology Line. Figure 2 – Equipment used on board the vessel for fieldwork. 4. FRAMEWORK Given the three case studies presented, the methodological inquiries of this research aim to determine the limitations of the SBP technique. Furthermore, we have identified various types of anomalies in all three geophysical surveys, which have been subsequently cross-checked with other techniques such as historical information, magnetic anomalies, test pits, and visual surveys. This has allowed us to create a comprehensive catalogue of anomalies that can be utilized in future SBP surveys (Cerezo Andreo et all, 2022; Higueras-Milena and Cerezo Andreo, 2021). Following the principles established by UNESCO in the 2001 Convention (Maarleveld, Guérin and Egger, 2013; VVAA., 2010), surveying with SBP allows prioritising in situ conservation of UCH, exploration over recovery and non-destructive techniques. The precision of the transects over the area to be studied is fundamental for the interpretation of the data, so once the working areas have been defined, the density level of each survey grid must be planned, considering the objectives proposed for each survey. In the framework of the HERAKLES project, given the large extension of the Bay of Algeciras, we have focused on understanding the general stratigraphy and the degree of preservation of original sediments in “El Saladillo”, one of the ancient harbour spaces. 4 �Before conducting the survey in the port of Cartagena, we had access to valuable information that aided in our planning process. Specifically, we were aware of certain anomalies that had been detected during a previous survey conducted in 2008 by the National Museum of Underwater Archaeology (ARQVA). During our SBP surveys, undertaken in 2021 and 2022, we detected new anomalies and checked the levels of burying or unearthing in sites. Some of the anomalies were documented by diving or using a ROV. We also verified their archaeological potential and established a protocol for the periodic monitoring of their state of preservation. For the ARQUEOMALLORNAUTA project, two work areas were surveyed: the one where the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck is preserved and a larger one to document its general sedimentation dynamics and to detect anomalies that could be related to the site. The seabed in the study area is generally sandy but with a strong muddy matrix that allowed the signal to penetrate several metres below, reaching - 5.5 m in some profiles. The Ses Fontanelles shipwreck was protected by sandbags, resulting in a 2.5 m deep tumulus. That makes the water column between the transducer and the shipwreck very small. After the data analysis and processing (see figure 3), we obtained a series of anomalies that we classified according to their archaeological interest and their accessibility. Subsequently, a fieldwork season to check the most significant anomalies was planned. Figure 3 – Signal processing example using ISE 2.9 INNOMAR software. 5. RESULTS 5.1. HERAKLES Project (Algeciras, Cádiz) On the El Saladillo research area we have successfully identified the paleochannel from the Last Glacial Maximum period (see figure 4.A). This unknown geological feature was not easily silted by sediments, so it kept its depth for a long time, which explains why this area was used as an anchorage throughout history. Our surveys led to notable discoveries, including the identification of the basement levels of Isla Verde Island. This now-destroyed island was once one of the main landmarks on the maritime landscape in the ancient Bay and provided a reliable source of fresh water. 5 �5.2. ALADROQUE Project (Cartagena, Murcia) The intensive use of the SBP in the port of Cartagena has yielded high-resolution stratigraphic profiles, enabling the documentation of the impact of the flooding caused by the 2019 DANA. The resulting data about the impact of the flood on the UCH holds potential for advancing monitoring and conservation efforts. In addition, we have assessed the burial or erosion factor that some archaeological sites are suffering, especially the Cartagena 1 shipwreck, located at 63 m depth, one of the best-preserved shipwrecks from the 2nd century BC in the Iberian Mediterranean. Cross-checking data between 20082021-2022, we have been able to verify that the shipwreck has been unearthed between 70 and 80 cm. The cargo is now scattered over a space twice the size it was in 2008, which means that the tumulus is falling apart (see figure 4.B). On the contrary, there are areas that have been significantly buried, hiding known elements since the 2008 surveys. This process is partly positive because burial offers good guarantees for the conservation of the heritage, but also it makes access to it impossible. Finally, dives to verify the selected anomalies have revealed the presence of rubbish and other debris which are altering the structural integrity of some objects. Figure 4 – Types of anomalies recorded. A) Paleochannel with continental sedimentation; B) Shipwreck C) Pipeline D) Buried object (in this case an amphora) E) Natural anomaly corresponding to the bottom of a paleochannel. 5.3. ARQUEOMALLORNAUTA Project (Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands) The results have been very positive, as we have achieved a stratigraphic visualisation of both the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck and its surroundings. Among the 31 significant anomalies detected, those of special archaeological or stratigraphic interest were selected. Thus, we configured three categories of priority for intervention according to their accessibility: size, morphology, and depth below the seabed. After the second processing of the signals and the comparative analysis of the anomalies, three of them were identified with paleochannels, one with the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck, five provided relevant information on the stratigraphy and six were considered to be a pipeline (see figure 4.C). Therefore, we made eight archaeological test pits to verify this interpretation. Only one test pit was positive as far as the presence of archaeological material was concerned, finding a fragment of ancient pottery. The artefact was found under a layer of shells and coarse gravel, covered by another layer of dead seagrass. 6 �The hyperboles shown by the acoustic signal corresponded to points where the archaeological material was buried (see figure 4.D). The anomalies of natural origin correspond to a layer of rubble, coarse gravel, and pebble rocks that we consider to be the seabed of a paleochannel, with continental sedimentation phases (see figure 4.E). This provides interesting information about the palaeolandscape in the pre-Holocene period. With respect to the anomaly identified as the Ses Fontanelles shipwreck, collected in 53 stratigraphic profiles, we could document the different levels that comprised the shipwreck's protective tumulus. 5.4. Conclusions The results achieved in the three case studies demonstrate that the use of the SBP has been proven effective for UCH surveying, providing high-resolution stratigraphic profiles and detailed information on the morphology of the seafloor and any anomalies present. Overall, the use of the SBP is a useful tool in the field of UCH research, allowing for non-intrusive and precise surveying of underwater archaeological sites. To conclude, here are some generalities regarding the use of the SBP for the UCH surveying, although each site and its characteristics, the equipment used and the objectives of each research will determine the configuration and final results. - - - - - - Regarding the type of seabed, the signal penetrates better in mud than in sand, where there is usually more noise. The boat used for the survey should be small, to ensure manoeuvrability, but stable and with rigid gunwale, as vertical as possible to the water surface. The most important thing is to prevent engine vibrations from being transmitted to the SBP. The recommended speed for conducting SBP surveys is typically less than 4 knots. We have achieved optimal results at speeds between 2 and 2.5 knots. It should be noted that slower survey speeds can result in longer survey durations and increased vulnerability to wave interference, ship vibration, and reduced ability to correct heading. It is important to note that obtaining accurate and reliable results with the SBP is highly dependent on the sea state. It has been observed that waves exceeding 30-40 cm significantly impact the quality of the data collected, rendering them unreliable. In theory, the penetration distance of the SBP signal is twice the water column below the transducer. Nevertheless, at greater depths, the number of pulses emitted must be increased due to the prolonged time it takes for the signal to return. From our experience, optimal results are obtained at depths ranging between 10 to 20 meters. Regarding frequency, increasing it will yield higher resolution, but at the expense of losing penetration depth. Conversely, lowering the frequency will increase penetration depth, but reduce resolution. Finding the optimal frequency setting requires thorough testing and experimentation on a case-by-case basis. As for the research objectives, this technique is highly recommended for anomaly detection or for monitoring known sites. It is very useful for surveying UCH at different times and for analysing, by comparing the signals, the rate of sedimentation. It is also very useful for the study of the paleolandscape or to check the impact of dredging on the seabed, but for stratigraphic studies it must be combined with geotechnical cores (Torres et al, 2022). In the future we have planned more surveys to test this methodology in new and different case studies, therefore we will add more conclusions to this research. A methodology based on the results obtained here will undoubtedly contribute not only to a better knowledge of the UCH, but also to a greater awareness and impact of the research at the international level. 7 �ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The work in the Bay of Algeciras has been co-financed by the 2014-2020 ERDF Operational Programme and by the Department of Economy, Knowledge, Business and University of the Regional Government of Andalusia. Project reference: FEDERUCA18-107327. The Cartagena case study has been co-financed by CORI and the ARQUEOTOPOS III Project, Grant HAR201785726-C2-1-P (Carthago Nova desde su entorno litoral: Paleotopografía y evolución medioambiental del Sector central del Sureste Ibérico. Dinámica poblacional y productiva) funded by MCIN. The case of Ses Fontanelles is part of the activities of the research group ERAAUB of the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Barcelona (IAUB), Consolidated Group (2021 SGR 00696), thanks to the support of the Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca del DIUE de la Generalitat de Catalunya. Some of the activities have been possible thanks to the synergies created with the projects “Arqueología y Arqueometría aplicadas al estudio de la cerámica y el poblamiento de la ciudad romana de Pollentia y su hinterland (Mallorca, islas Baleares)” (ARQCERPOL) (PID2021-123223NB-I00) (ARQCERPOL) (PID2021-123223NB-I00), funded by MCIN/AEI/ 10.13039/501100011033 and by “ERDF A way of making Europe”, GARVM III (PID2019-108948RB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033), Gobierno de España/FEDEAR; ARQUEOSTRA (FEDER-UCA18-104415) Programa Operativo FEDER 2014-2020 and Consejería de Transformación Económica, Industria, Conocimiento y Universidades, Junta de Andalucía; and ARQUEOFISH (P18-FR-1483) Programa de Ayudas a la I+D+I, Plan Andaluz de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación (PAIDI 2020). We thank this conference for accepting us and for providing a methodological session, which is important for the whole scientific community. Thanks to the three projects, the four universities and the LABAP, which provided us with the equipment. To the owners and captains of the boats. To all the researchers who seek knowledge underwater. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cerezo Andreo, Felipe, Solana Rubio, Soledad, López-Castejón, Francisco and Ramallo Asensio, Sebastián Federico. “El impacto de los eventos climáticos tipo Dana en la conservación de los entornos subacuáticos de los accesos al puerto de Cartagena (España). Primeros datos del proyecto Aladroque.”, NANS: Noticiario de Arqueología Naútica y Subacuática, ISSNe 2952-1149, Nº. 0 (7), (2022): 4-18. Available in: <https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=8758191>. Higueras-Milena Castellano, Aurora and Cerezo Andreo, Felipe. “Investigaciones arqueológicas mediante métodos geofísicos marinos en el entorno de La Caleta Antecedentes y novedades de la campaña de 2019”. In La Caleta (Cádiz): Entre la Tierra y el Mar. Un estudio diacrónico de uso, edited by en Alberto Gullón Abao, Lilyan Padrón Reyes and Carlota Pérez-Reverte Mañas, 19-34. Sevilla: Aconcagua, 2021. Maarleveld, Thijs, Guérin, Ulrike and Egger, Barbara. Manual para actividades dirigidas al patrimonio cultural subacuático: directrices para el Anexo de la Convención de la UNESCO de 2001. Paris: UNESCO, 2013. Available in: <https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000220716>. Munar Llabrés, Sebastià, Cardell Perelló, Jaume, de Juan, Carlos, Cau Ontiveros, Miguel Ángel, Bernal-Casasola, Darío, Picornell, Llorenç and García Riaza, Enrique. “Ses Fontanelles Shipwreck (Mallorca, Balearic Islands): An Exceptional Late Roman Vessel and Its Cargo”, Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 17 (2022): 487–505. Available in: <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-022-09331-6>. Soler i Nicolau, Antònia, Font Jaume, Alexandre, Berni Millet, Piero, García Riaza, Enrique, Bernal-Casasola, Darío, Cau Ontiveros, Miguel Ángel, Cardell Perelló, Jaume and Munar Llabrés, Sebastià. “El singular conjunto de tituli picti del pecio de Ses Fontanelles (Mallorca, islas Baleares) y su contribución a la epigrafía anfórica tardorromana hispánica”, Cuadernos de Arqueología y Prehistoria de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CUPAUAM) 47(1), (2021): 287-317. Available in: <https://doi.org/10.15366/cupauam2021.47.1.010>. Torres, Trinidad, Ortiz, José E., Ramallo, Sebastián, Ros, Milagros, Sánchez Palencia, Yolanda, Blázquez, Ana, Cerezo, Felipe, López-Cilla, Ignacio, Galán, Luis, A., Borrego, Ángeles G., Ruiz Zapata, Blanca, Gil, María José, Manteca Ignacio and Rodríguez-Estrella, Tomás. “Development of the marine Holocene environment in a drowned paleovalley with final anthropic influence in the Cartagena Bay (Murcia, SE Spain)”, The Holocene, 32 (6), (2022): 554–568. Available in: <https://doi.org/10.1177/09596836221080759>. VVAA. Libro Verde del Plan Nacional de Protección del Patrimonio Cultural Subacuático Español. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 2010. Available in: < https://www.calameo.com/read/000075335b012b37e3d4b>. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Geophysical techniques for non-intrusive documentation of UCH: Comparative analysis of the methodology developed in three study areas in Spain. Description An account of the resource Generally, the combined use of different geophysical instruments and archaeological fieldwork provides enough information for the classification and preliminary study of sites. However, the application of these techniques in detailed analysis of specific archaeological sites is still in its early stages. In this paper, we present the results of the geophysical survey work carried out in three different underwater contexts, as part of three research projects, in three areas of Spain: Algeciras (Cádiz), Cartagena (Murcia) and Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands). Geophysical survey allows for the application of non-intrusive techniques to achieve the documentation of UCH, as recommended by the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Heritage, without altering the archaeological material in any way. Therefore, we have used the Sub Bottom Profiler in several archaeological works, with varying depths and conservation conditions, to address our research questions of how much information can we obtain non-intrusively on the UCH and how can we best use the equipment to innovate in the development of non-intrusive methodology. Based on the results obtained in each area, we can draw several methodological conclusions that lay the groundwork for a method that can be applied to other case studies. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Soledad Solana Rubio Felipe Cerezo Andreo Sebastián Federico Ramallo Dario Bernal Casasola Miguel Ángel Cau Ontiveros Francisco López-Castejón Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Solana Rubio, Soledad , Felipe Cerezo Andreo, Sebastián Federico Ramallo Asensio, Darío Bernal Casasola, Miguel Ángel Cau Ontiveros, Francisco López-Castejón. 2023. “Geophysical techniques for non-intrusive documentation of UCH: comparative analysis of the methodology developed in different study areas at various depths.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Carlota Perez-Reverte. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2000 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c523833a25bb03cde5fb458c778031d7.pdf 39f063505a1ab66bbff69c2fbc9a12a7 PDF Text Text Recent Efforts in Underwater Cultural Heritage Management on the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Dave Ball Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Region, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Camarillo, California 93010, USA Email: david.ball@boem.gov Abstract The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) is responsible for managing the nation’s energy and mineral resources on the federal Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). These resources include conventional energy (oil and gas), renewable energy (wind and hydrokinetic) and sand and gravel extraction for beach restoration. As with any federal action or undertaking, an assessment of potential impacts to the environment, including cultural resources, is required to make an informed decision. The BOEM Pacific OCS Region is taking a proactive approach to cultural resources management on the OCS by funding research efforts that provide baseline information on known and potential underwater cultural resources, and by identifying best practices for incorporating information from indigenous communities in the planning process. Key words: Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Cultural Landscape, Offshore Renewable Energy, Outer continental Shelf, Submerged Landform, Tribe Introduction The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) is responsible for managing over 1.76 billion acres of seafloor off the coast of the United States (U.S.) and is charged with regulatory oversight of offshore conventional energy (oil and gas), renewable energy (wind, wave and ocean currents) and marine minerals (primarily sand and gravel resources for coastal restoration). The Bureau’s jurisdiction begins 3 nautical miles offshore and extends approximately 200 nautical miles, to the extent of the Exclusive Economic Zone1. BOEM’s authority over conventional energy and marine minerals was established through the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) of 1953, which gave the Secretary of the Interior authority over mineral exploration and development on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). Through the Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of 2005 BOEM (then operating as the Minerals Management Service) also has authority over offshore renewable energy. The EPAct significantly expanded the bureau’s offshore energy responsibilities and renewed interest in energy development on the Atlantic and Pacific OCS. For any federal action or undertaking within the Bureau’s authority, BOEM 1 �must comply with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) and other legislative and regulatory environmental requirements. Included in those requirements is the obligation to consult with federally recognized tribal governments, as mandated through Executive Order 13175 and Secretarial Order 3317. Additionally, the NHPA requires consultation with federally recognized tribes and Native Hawaiian Organizations for cultural resources that are considered eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places. As BOEM’s offshore renewable energy program has developed, and applications for construction of offshore facilities are increasing, it is important that the Bureau properly engage with the nation’s coastal indigenous communities. To ensure that the Bureau is consulting properly, BOEM is funding several projects that seek to be more proactive in developing the best practices for identifying appropriate information gathering protocols and survey measures in order to avoid or mitigate adverse effects during development on the OCS. Each of these projects is rooted in the cultural landscape concept, which seeks to develop a more holistic understanding of areas that could be affected by a proposed action or undertaking by integrating environmental science with historical, archaeological and traditional knowledge. Cultural Landscape Approach The concept of cultural landscapes is not new. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “[I]n 1992, the World Heritage Convention became the first international legal instrument to recognize and protect cultural landscapes” (Mitchell et al., 2009: 19). UNESCO defines a cultural landscape as embracing… “…a diversity of manifestations of the interaction between humankind and its natural environment. Cultural landscapes often reflect specific techniques of sustainable land-use, considering the characteristics and limits of the natural environment they are established in, and a specific spiritual relation to nature…Cultural landscapes are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time” (Mitchell et al., 2009: 19-20). In recent years the cultural landscape approach has also gained traction and acceptance within the federal historic preservation program in the U.S. For example, the U.S. National Park Service’s Bulletin 36 defines a cultural landscape as, “a 2 �geographic area, including both cultural and natural resources and the wildlife or domestic animals therein, associated with a historic event, activity, or person or exhibiting other cultural or aesthetic values” (NPS, 1994). More recently, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Marine Protected Areas Federal Advisory Committee issued a white paper in 2011, which recommended incorporating a cultural landscape approach to “strengthen conservation of resources that cross the land/sea interface, promote sustainability of those resources and improve the socio-economic resilience of communities which depend upon them” (MPAFAC, 2011: 4). Additionally, in 2011 the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) released the Native American Traditional Cultural Landscapes Action Plan, which is designed to:  Promote the recognition and protection of Native American traditional cultural landscapes both within the federal government and the historic preservation community  Address the challenges of the consideration of Native American traditional cultural landscapes in the Section 106 review process as well as in NEPA reviews (ACHP, 2012). This plan was adopted by the ACHP in November 2011 and announced by the White House on June 28, 2012 (Donaldson, 2012). BOEM Environmental Studies Established in 1973 under the former Minerals Management Service, the Environmental Studies Program (ESP) is an applied science program that was created to develop, conduct and oversee scientific research specifically to inform policy decisions regarding offshore energy and marine minerals activities on the OCS. Research conducted through the BOEM ESP covers physical oceanography, atmospheric sciences, biology, protected species, social sciences and economics, submerged cultural resources and environmental fates and effects. The primary goal of the ESP is to provide information needed for the assessment and management of environmental impacts on the human, marine and coastal environments of the OCS and the potentially affected coastal areas. As a result, BOEM is a leading contributor to the growing body of scientific knowledge about the nation’s marine and coastal environment. Through BOEM’s ESP, baseline 3 �analysis of underwater cultural heritage resources has been updated off the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico and Pacific coasts (Pearson et al., 2003; TRC, 2012; ICF International et al., 2014, respectively). Each of these studies includes a database of identified and reported historic shipwrecks and a predictive model of high probability areas that could be associated with submerged prehistoric landforms, areas that would have been exposed thousands of years ago during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Additionally, in support of potential offshore renewable energy development, initial baseline assessments have been completed along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of historic properties that could be affected by alteration of the seascape from construction of offshore facilities (TRC, 2012; ICF International et al., 2014, respectively). BOEM held the first commercial offshore renewable energy lease sale for an area off of Rhode Island in July 2013, and a second sale was held off Virginia in September. Interest for developing offshore renewable energy has also been expressed elsewhere on the Atlantic OCS, as well as off the coasts of Hawaii and Oregon within the BOEM Pacific OCS Region. Offshore renewable energy siting could have an affect on submerged prehistoric sites and coastal sites that are important to indigenous groups. Expected impacts to the seafloor will occur from the installation of individual wind, wave or ocean current generators and associated transmission cable corridors. Additionally, wind turbines, which can stand 300-500 feet above the ocean surface, will have a definite visual signature. Depending on how far offshore wind turbines are constructed, many of these facilities will be visible to some extent from the coast, and therefore will have some level of affect to the offshore view. Therefore, as BOEM reviews applications for offshore renewable energy projects, it is critical that the Bureau not only develop protocols that honor the unique relationship between the federal government, sovereign tribal nations and indigenous communities, but also incorporates traditional knowledge and oral tradition into the decision-making process. To meet these challenges, BOEM has awarded several research studies that seek to develop best-practices protocols for working with federally recognized tribes and Native Hawaiian communities, as well as incorporating information from these groups into the analysis of offshore geophysical survey data. Some of these projects are briefly 4 �highlighted below and two of these efforts will be detailed further in this session by Valerie Grussing and Hans Van Tilburg. Submerged Paleocultural Landscapes Project Off the Atlantic coast of the U.S., where interest in offshore wind energy has been more prominent, BOEM has entered into a cooperative agreement with the University of Rhode Island, in partnership with the Narragansett Indian Tribal Historic Preservation Office, to develop a science-based, standardized best practices methodology for incorporating tribal knowledge into a predictive model for identifying submerged landforms. Developing Protocols for Reconstructing Submerged Paleocultural Landscapes and Identifying Ancient Native American Archaeological Sites in Submerged Environments seeks to enhance and refine the Bureau’s understanding of submerged paleocultural landscape distribution on the Atlantic OCS and to better understand and identify paleocultural landscapes of importance to regional tribes through collaborative research. Specifically, the project is designed to incorporate Narragansett Indian Tribal oral history and traditional knowledge with remote sensing surveys off the coast of Rhode Island in order to develop a geospatial predictive model that will identify offshore environments with varying archaeological sensitivity for containing ancient Native American archaeological resources. The first phase of the project was completed in the spring of 2013, which consisted of a 2-day workshop between invited tribal representatives and archaeologists from Europe and the U.S. The workshop reviewed current theories on submerged landform identification and discussed how to respectfully engage Native American tribes. The second phase of the project will synthesize the information obtained at the workshop, along with published sources, to develop a methodology aimed at incorporating tribal knowledge into best practices protocols for developing a model to identify submerged landforms. Once a working model is developed, researchers will conduct field investigations and data acquisition, combined with tribal traditional knowledge in order to validate the model and create a more complete understanding of the paleocultural landscape off Rhode Island. The project also includes an outreach component with the Narragansett Tribe and will develop training materials and a documentary film. This project was awarded as a cooperative agreement through the North Atlantic Coast 5 �Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit in July 2012 and should be completed in September, 2016. Characterization of Tribal Cultural Landscapes At the time of this writing, the BOEM Pacific OCS office has received two applications for offshore renewable energy projects off the Oregon coast. These proposed projects include a commercial floating wind lease off of Coos Bay and a marine hydrokinetic (MHK) research lease off of Newport. Prior to receiving these lease requests, the BOEM Pacific OCS office entered into an interagency agreement with NOAA’s Marine Protected Areas Center and the Maritime Heritage Program to develop best practices protocols for working with west coast tribes to incorporate information on tribal cultural landscapes into the Bureau’s decision-making process. The goal of this project, Characterizing Tribal Cultural Landscapes, is to develop a proactive approach to working with Native American communities in order to identify areas of tribal significance that need to be considered in the planning process. A more detailed discussion of this project is provided elsewhere in this session by Dr. Valerie Grussing in her paper, Characterizing Tribal Cultural Landscapes for Resource Preservation and Protection. Hawaii Maritime Heritage The BOEM Pacific OCS Region office has not yet received any completed applications for renewable energy projects offshore Hawaii, however, interest has been expressed for offshore wind development. In May 2012, the BOEM Pacific OCS Region signed an inter-agency agreement with NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries to provide baseline information on underwater cultural heritage resources off the eight main Hawaiian Islands. The project, Assessing Historic Properties and Cultural Resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands, will develop a database of underwater and land-based cultural resources that could be affected by construction of offshore renewable energy facilities. The project also seeks to develop a best practices methodology for engaging Native Hawaiian communities, similar to the Tribal Cultural Landscapes project, so that information important to Native Hawaiians is included in the planning and review process for any future offshore renewable energy applications. This is the first cultural resources-related project that BOEM has undertaken for Hawaii and the information 6 �collected through this effort will provide critical information for taking into consideration the effects of offshore renewable energy development on cultural resources near the eight main Hawaiian Islands. Further information on this effort is discussed elsewhere in this session by Dr. Hans Van Tilburg in his paper, Assessing Historic Properties and Cultural Resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands. Submerged Landforms on the Pacific OCS With the completion of the updated baseline study on underwater cultural heritage for the BOEM Pacific OCS Region, BOEM developed this follow-up study to further investigate submerged landforms off the U.S. west coast and to refine the predictive model for where these landforms might be expected. Archaeological and Biological Assessment of Submerged Landforms off the Pacific Coast is a multi-disciplinary effort that will examine existing data sets from areas off the southern California and central Oregon coastlines that have been identified as having a high potential to be associated with previously exposed landforms. The project will develop and field test a geospatial model that will aid in the identification and classification of potential submerged cultural landforms from existing remote sensing data and seafloor maps in areas along the Pacific coast. Similar to the Narragansett project on the Atlantic OCS, this project will evaluate existing remote sensing data and review current theories on sea level rise during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) on the Pacific OCS in order to identify high probability areas for further testing. Biological indicators, such as hard-bottom features, will also be assessed to see if these features correlate with possible submerged landforms. The project will also conduct fine-scale survey and ground-truthing of identified features and analyze new data for possible indicators of prehistoric human activity. This project should be completed in 2017. Pacific Region Ocean Uses Atlas The last project that the BOEM Pacific Region office is currently undertaking, which has the potential to incorporate cultural use information from indigenous communities, is the Pacific Region Ocean Use Atlas (PROUA). The PROUA project was developed through an inter-agency agreement with NOAA’s National Ocean Service and is designed to document where coastal communities use the ocean across a full range of typical human activities and sectors. The primary objective of the project is to enhance ocean 7 �planning for offshore renewable energy development and inform other ocean planning strategies that require insight on how and where ocean areas are used for recreational, commercial and industrial types of activity. One component of this project is to conduct interactive participatory mapping workshops in order to capture the knowledge of community experts about the patterns of ocean uses occurring off the coasts of Hawaii, Oregon and Washington. Though the previously discussed efforts have not yet been completed to fully develop protocols for engagement with coastal indigenous communities, efforts have been made to invite these groups into the process appropriately. Conclusion With the passage of the 2005 Energy Policy Act, BOEM’s mandate over offshore energy and marine minerals expanded to include offshore renewable energy. In an attempt to improve BOEM’s environmental review process and better fulfill the Bureau’s obligation to consult with federally recognized tribes and Native Hawaiian Organizations, BOEM is developing a more proactive approach to engage indigenous communities in the decision-making process in support of offshore renewable energy. Information on each of the studies described in this paper, as well as other research funded by the Bureau, can be found on our website at: www.boem.gov\studies\. Acknowledgement Funding for the research projects identified above has been provided through the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. The author would like to thank the Tribal Historic Preservation Offices of the Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde, the Makah Tribe, and the Yurok Tribe for their efforts on the Tribal Cultural Landscapes project, as well as the Narragansett Indian Tribal Historic Preservation Office for their efforts on the Submerged Paleocultural Landscapes project. Endnote 1 OCSLA and the Submerged Lands Act define the OCS as all submerged lands lying seaward of state coastal waters. For most coastal states federal waters begin 3 nautical miles past the mean low tide line, the exception to this rule includes offshore Texas and the west coast of Florida, whose state waters extend 9 nautical miles offshore. 8 �References ACHP (Advisory Council on Historic Preservation), 2012. The ACHP’s Native American Traditional Cultural Landscapes Action Plan. http://www.achp.gov/traditional-culturallandscape.pdf, accessed 05 December 2013. Donaldson, M. W., 2012.Native American Traditional Cultural Landscapes Action Plan – Better Decisions for Historic Properties. http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2012/06/28/native-american-traditional-culturallandscapes-action-plan-better-decisions-histo-0, accessed 05 December 2013. ICF International Davis Geoarchaeological Research and Southeastern Archaeological Research, 2013. Inventory and Analysis of Coastal and Submerged Archaeological Site Occurrence, Pacific OCS. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Pacific OCS, Camarillo, CA OCS Study BOEM 2013-0115, pp. 363. Mitchell, N., Mechtild Rössler, and Pierre-Marie Tricaud., (Eds.), 2009. World Heritage Cultural Landscapes: A Handbook for Conservation and Management http://whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_wh_papers_26_en.pdf, accessed 04 December 2013. NPS (National Park Service), 1994. Bulletin 36 Protecting Cultural Landscapes: Planning, Treatment and Management of Historic Landscapes. http://www.nps.gov/tps/how-to-preserve/preservedocs/preservation-briefs/36PreserveBrief-Landscapes.pdf, accessed 04 December 2013. MPAFAC (Marine Protected Areas Federal Advisory Committee), 2011. White Paper and Recommendations of Managing Marine Resources across the Land/Sea Interface. http://marineprotectedareas.noaa.gov/pdf/helpfulresources/mpafac_rec_protected_landsea_12_11.pdf, accessed 04 December 2013. Pearson, C. E., James, Jr., S. R., Krivor, M. C., El Darragi, S. D., and Cunningham, L., 2003. Refining and Revising the Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf Region HighProbability Model for Historic Shipwrecks: Final Report. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2003-060, 2003-061, 2003-062, 3 Volumes. TRC Environmental Corporation, 2012. Inventory and Analysis of Archaeological Site Occurrence on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of 9 �Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study BOEM 2012-008, pp. 324. Dave Ball is the Pacific Region Historic Preservation Officer and Diving Safety Officer for the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM). Before joining BOEM he worked for several archaeological firms in the Pacific Northwest. He received a BA in anthropology from Sonoma State University in 1992 and an MA in anthropology from Florida State University in 1998. Dave has over 20 years’ experience in archaeology and has directed field research on both terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites across the country, including inundated prehistoric sites, World War II shipwrecks, and deepwater shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico. He is currently serving on the Board of Directors for the Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 2: New Approaches in UCH Management in the US Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 2 chair Dr. Hans Van Tilburg and links to the papers included in the session. Description An account of the resource In 2009, responding to the effort to protect the significant natural and cultural resources within the marine environment for the benefit of present and future generations, the U.S. National Marine Protected Areas Center formed a Cultural Heritage Resources Working Group to provide expert advice on improving the conservation and management of maritime heritage resources. The resulting White Paper provided a series of recommendations to both the U.S. Department of Commerce and the Department of the Interior, including new definitions for cultural heritage, marine cultural resources, tribes, indigenous peoples, and cultural landscapes. Central to these recommendations was a strong endorsement for the Cultural Landscape Approach in the understanding and management of maritime heritage resources (or UCH). Subsequently, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Maritime Heritage Program has adopted the recommendations of this paper and is implementing a “maritime cultural landscape” approach to the management of cultural resources within the National Marine Sanctuary System. Also as a part of this initiative, NOAA and the Bureau of Ocean Energy and Management (BOEM) have teamed up to support maritime cultural landscape studies of heritage resources by Native American Tribes and Native Hawaiian communities in the Pacific region. These projects on the U.S. West Coast and in the Hawaiian Islands demonstrate the necessity of adapting a broader range of recognized cultural resources and a more inclusive and participatory management and preservation process. Charismatic resources like historic shipwrecks will always provide unique information for archaeologists and historians, but we do ourselves a disservice if we focus solely on these types of properties, and neglect other perspectives and the broader nature of all types and traces of human existence that lie underwater. Participants in this session will focus on the status of these ongoing ground-breaking projects, the advantages of a broader and more inclusive approach compared to the previous cultural heritage management paradigm in the U.S., and the challenges that this creates. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Hans Van Tilburg Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Recent Efforts in Underwater Cultural Heritage Management on the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Description An account of the resource The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) is responsible for managing the nation’s energy and mineral resources on the federal Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). These resources include conventional energy (oil and gas), renewable energy (wind and hydrokinetic) and sand and gravel extraction for beach restoration. As with any federal action or undertaking, an assessment of potential impacts to the environment, including cultural resources, is required to make an informed decision. The BOEM Pacific OCS Region is taking a proactive approach to cultural resources management on the OCS by funding research efforts that provide baseline information on known and potential underwater cultural resources, and by identifying best practices for incorporating information from indigenous communities in the planning process. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dave Ball, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 2 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/07843485506efdec710f94224328dbf0.pdf 7f77047d55c5e4031d17e7cf125c08dd PDF Text Text Assessing Historic Properties and Cultural Resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Hans Van Tilburg NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Honolulu, Hawaii 96825, USA Email: hans.vantilburg@noaa.gov Dave Ball BOEM Environmental Assessment Section, Camarillo, California 93010, USA Email: david.ball@boem.gov Abstract Understanding the types and locations of significant archaeological and cultural resources is essential to their protection. NOAA and the Bureau of Ocean Energy and Management (BOEM) have teamed up to support an assessment of historic properties and cultural resources in the main Hawaiian Islands. Objectives for this project include: 1) a database of verified, reported, and potential submerged cultural resources in the Hawai`i Outer Continental Shelf; 2) a database of historic properties that could be adversely impacted by alteration of the ocean viewshed; and 3) a management tool for engaging Native Hawaiian communities in identifying significant marine areas for offshore energy development planning purposes. Key words: Resource Management, Hawaiian Islands, Indigenous community, Mitigation, Viewshed Origin of the Project The remote main eight Hawaiian Islands are approximately 3,900 km from the North American continent, 6,000 km from Japan, and 7,000 km from Papua New Guinea. Their coasts and near shore waters represent, for the most part, a high-energy marine environment subject to the prevailing northeasterly Trade Winds, open ocean swells, Pacific storms, quake-generated tsunami, and passing hurricanes. There are few natural harbors or safe anchorages, though fringing and barrier reefs provide some protection. The warm clear waters are home to the Teredonavalis shipworm, and currents and surge contribute to sand scouring and marine weathering of all artifacts. However, compared to continents, the waters around the Hawaiian Islands drop off very quickly. For instance, 300-600 m are typical depths for the three-mile limit around the 1 �island of O‘ahu. At these depths, historic wreck sites are little affected by the recurring storms and tsunami events that impact the upper ocean levels. Initiating a comprehensive and systematic documentation of cultural resources for the marine environment of the main Hawaiian Islands (survey does not include the remote Northwestern atolls) is a challenging and daunting task. No such comprehensive survey has yet been completed, though some progress has been made in gathering specific information regarding historic properties such as shipwrecks and submerged aircraft. Hawai‘i’s high-energy marine environment has long been hazardous for mariners, and hundreds of ships have been reported lost. But one of the most interesting challenges for understanding underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the islands is the fact that, until recent years, the overall definition of cultural resources in Hawai‘i generally did not included historic properties like shipwrecks, so commonly recognized as UCH in other locations. In general, the main focus of cultural resource efforts in Hawai‘i has been the maintenance and preservation of indigenous cultural access, traditional practices, and active human connections and relationships to marine species and culturally significant natural resources. These are issues of immediate importance to local communities, dynamic issues that bear directly on maintaining cultural practices and cultural identity. The fact that shipwreck archaeology is relatively new to the islands is not due to a lack of attention to cultural resources; just the opposite, it is due to the fact that cultural resources and resource preservation, in the broadest sense, have been and are overwhelmingly important in Hawai‘i. Historic properties like shipwrecks represent the new element or “player” brought into an existing and much older discussion. Historic wreck sites are obviously important to archaeologists and historians as unique and non-renewable sources of information. They have also been important to Hawai‘i’s recreational diving industry and even to fishermen as productive fishing sites. Yethistoric wreck sites have not been part of the cultural resource discussion at a program or agency level until more recent years. For instance, while cultural resources are a large part of the 2012 Hawaii Ocean Resources Public Management Plan (Anon, 2012), shipwrecks or submerged historic properties are not mentioned within the 2 �document. Sensitivity to Hawai‘i’s unique history and a special sense of place is required for understanding cultural resource governance in the islands. This presentation focuses on a new and innovative resource management three-year inventory project, the Maritime Cultural Resource Site Assessment in the Main Hawaiian Islands, funded by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), through an Interagency Agreement with the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Ocean Service. This project proposes new ways of conducting cultural resource inventory work, methods that are better suited to recording information in a manner that recognizes Hawai‘i’s investment in cultural resource management, and better suited to engaging Native Hawaiian Organizations and communities, as well as accounting for the existing values that archaeologists and historians bring to the mix. The origin of this project is actually the State of Hawai‘i’s effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and develop local energy independence. The State supports a mandate to achieve 70% “green” energy independence by the year 2040. Offshore renewable energy development will be a part of the effort to meet this goal. Understanding the types and locations of significant archaeological and cultural resources will be essential to their protection in the context of this coming development. Therefore, NOAA and the Bureau of Ocean Energy and Management (BOEM) have teamed up to support the site assessment project, producing the tools of the desk-based assessment for the entire main eight Hawaiian Islands, prior to the specific proposal of any single specific development project. There are three main objectives for this project: 1) create a database of verified, reported, and potential submerged cultural resources in the Hawai`i Outer Continental Shelf; 2) create a database of historic properties on shore that could be adversely impacted by alteration of the ocean viewshed; and 3) create a management tool for engaging Native Hawaiian communities in identifying significant marine areas for offshore energy development planning purposes. There are a number of important benefits stemming from the overall goal of resource protection from potential impacts. For NOAA the project will help meet the agency’s mandate to inventory historic properties, and most importantly build on two decades of growing social awareness of 3 �maritime heritage properties in Hawai‘i. For BOEM the project will obviously facilitate decision-making for offshore renewable energy development by providing the groundwork for cultural resources review, helping make siting decisions more efficiently. Finally, for Native Hawaiian stakeholders the project will (hopefully) better engage communities with agencies prior to the proposal of activities that may impact resources. Objective 1: Database of Verified and Potential Submerged Cultural Resources on the Outer Continental Shelf (Note: the volcanic islands of Hawai‘i originate in a denser oceanic tectonic plate, not a lighter continental plate; hence, they have no actual continental shelf. Here the term OCS is used to designate the main study zone from 3-200 miles offshore). Objective 1, the inventory of verified, reported, and potential submerged cultural resources on the Hawai`i outer continental shelf, will be the most familiar to maritime archaeologists as it replicates, in part, the standard desk-based assessment tool highlighted in UNESCO’s UCH Foundation courses, and published in the Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific (UNESCO, 2012). NOAA sanctuary staff are currently examining primary and secondary archival sources and developing a Microsoft Access database of confirmed, reported, and potential submerged archaeological resources within the survey area. The project specifies the 3200 mile offshore Federal waters zone, but existing data for the near shore 0-3 mile zone may be included as well, in order to make a more usable inventory. The targeted archival sources include: the Hawai‘i State Historic Preservation Division records; State and Federal shipwreck databases; the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum; internet sources; maritime insurance companies records; the National Archives (e.g., customs house records, wreck reports, Federal Admiralty court records, etc.); public, private, and academic libraries; public and private maritime museums; historic newspapers (including currently available translations of Hawaiian language newspapers), private papers and collections; historic maps and navigation charts; archaeological site reports; and federal, state, and private hangs and obstructions databases. Though the shipwreck topics relatively new here in Hawai‘i, there is existing field information in a variety of forms: numerous shallow water maritime archaeology site 4 �plans and surveys (SCUBA depths) by NOAA and University of Hawai‘i divers as part of the Maritime Archaeology Survey Techniques courses; discoveries, images, and informal reports by sport and technical divers; and multiple deep water site discoveries, including high-definition video surveys, by the Hawai‘i Undersea Research Lab (HURL). HURL was established in 1980 as a joint NOAA/University of Hawai‘i center with the primary responsibility of advancing knowledge of the nation’s deepwater resources and marine processes which are crucial for effective ecosystem-based management. HURL has two three-person research submersibles; Pisces IV and Pisces V (Fig. 1).These are battery-powered, one-atmosphere submersibles with a maximum operating depth of 2000 m (6,280 ft). They offer scientists direct observation through three view ports, high-definition video cameras, instrument placement, sample collecting, and environmental monitoring. Though maritime archaeology and cultural resource management has usually not been a priority for fully-funded missions, HURL has investigated numerous maritime heritage properties during their pre-season training dives, preparing both submersibles and pilots prior to the dive season (Fig. 2). Maritime archaeologists have been able to take advantage of the excellent working relationship between NOAA and the University of Hawai‘i, and the generosity and professionalism of HURL Operations Director Terry Kerby and his staff, to gain unique data on deep water discoveries. Fig. 1 HURL 3-man research submersible PISCES V launching from the submerged LRT.(C. Wollerman, HURL) 5 �Fig. 2 Deep water discoveries of naval aircraft circa 1938, one of many types of resources found by the HURL team. (H. Van Tilburg, NOAA ONMS) Several important documents and collections provide critical background information for the UCH inventory, though some include only near shore (0-3mi) information. The 19891990 Hawaiian Fishpond Study including the islands of O‘ahu, Moloka‘i, Maui, Lāna‘i, Kaua‘i, and Hawai‘i is the largest state-wide statistical survey of coastal fishpond field data, supported by the Bishop Museum (DHM: 1989; 1990). Mifflin Thomas’s Hawaiian Registered Vessels lists statistical and service data for selected ships of both the historic Kingdom period 1800-1893 and subsequent Territory of Hawai‘i period 18931959 (Thomas, 1982). Thrum’s Hawaiian Annual 1842-1932, Honolulu features an annual summary of marine casualties. Specific shipwreck losses can also be traced through newspaper issues of the Pacific Commercial Advertiser (1856-1912) (later the Honolulu Advertiser), as well as the local Star Bulletin (1912-2001). Finally, naval shipwreck and aircraft losses have been detailed in U.S. Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: an Inventory of Submerged Naval Properties (Van Tilburg, 2002) produced by a grant from the Naval Historical Center in Washington DC (now known as the Naval History and Heritage Command). Inventory work is continuing to build upon this foundation. 6 �The existing and somewhat scattered field and archival inventory data is focused on 0-3 mile near shore resources and suggestive of three broad categories of cultural heritage resources: 1) pre-western contact Native Hawaiian archaeological sites such as coastal fishponds and fish traps; 2) 19th and early 20th century commercial transportation, including whaling and sealing ships, Pacific cargo vessels, and inter island steamships servicing the (former) Hawaiian plantations; and 3) military vessels, including surface ships, submarines, and submerged naval aircraft. The offshore 3-200 mile OCS inventory brings a new focus and new dataset to the fore. Objective 2: Database of Historic Properties that could be adversely impacted by Alteration of the Ocean View Shed For Objective 2, NOAA sanctuary staff will conduct research in the office of the Hawai‘i State Historic Preservation Division and develop a database of terrestrial properties that could be visually affected from offshore renewable energy siting. The data to be collected includes historic and archaeological information related to properties that are nominated to, or are eligible for, listing on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. This may seem like an odd task for maritime archaeologists. For preservationists and cultural practitioners, however, the connection is clear. The National Register establishes criteria for measuring historical significance, an important step in valuing and preservation heritage resources. Traditional Cultural Properties, or locations associated with traditional beliefs or religious ceremonies, or economic or artistic practices central in maintaining a community’s identity, may meet National Register criteria and be protected (Shrimpton, 1990). Recently, the viewshed or view plane of the ocean itself was interpreted as a type of historical “property” (Fig. 3). Precedence was set in the review of the proposed Cape Wind (offshore turbine wind farm) energy project in Nantucket Sound, Massachusetts (MMS, 2010). The Aquinnah and Mashpee Wampanoag Native Tribes claimed that the proposed wind turbines had the potential to degrade their essential view of the sunrise for religious ceremonies and also the view of the ocean central in other rituals. In an island state like Hawai‘i, with an active and engaged host culture, it is only natural that federal agencies begin to address the issue of viewsheds of the ocean as they pertain to the cultural significance of specific areas of the marine environment. 7 �Fig. 3 The raised Hawaiian temple at Pu`ukoholāHeiau National Historic Site on the Island of Hawai`i, a place where cultural practices continue. (H. Van Tilburg, NOAA ONMS) Objective 3: Management Tool for Engaging Native Hawaiian Communities in Identifying Significant Marine Areas For objective 3, NOAA sanctuary staff will work with a Native Hawaiian Project Facilitator to develop a consultative working group. The group will include members of NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program, the Facilitator, the BOEM contracting office representative, and representatives from each of the main Hawaiian Islands (including island districts and/or counties). The working group will coordinate and facilitate the development of an analysis guide through a series of workshops, meetings, trainings, and consultations, as necessary, held during the project. This analysis guide or management tool will identify community heritage resource leaders, define common terminology, establish protocols for handling sensitive issues, establish reciprocal datasharing for information validation, develop a list of topics that should be consistently asked for by project proponents, and create a template for Hawaiian communities to collect and hold information that can be queried internally with the ability to provide summary results to external parties. That is a major paradigm shift. The project proposes to grant communities greater ability to manage and control their own sensitive 8 �cultural resource information rather than automatically require them to reveal sensitive information to government agencies. Information obtained from this project will provide baseline information for Native Hawaiian communities, helping to recognize and document marine areas of cultural importance. In short, the working group will develop a guidance tool that will help local communities navigate through cultural management discussions, particularly where those discussions involve sensitive resources and critical marine areas. The working group will then test the analysis document tool by conducting independent case studies, identifying indigenous cultural landscapes within a pre-defined study area. At its most basic, cultural landscapes are specific places where combinations of human activity and natural forces have left a discernable mark or footprint on the environment (Jensen et al., 2011). The landscape studies will begin with a Traditional Cultural Property (TCP) and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) analysis of Native Hawaiian sites and resources within the selected areas (Fig. 4). These case studies will focus on areas that include coastal land-based, as well as offshore, areas of Native Hawaiian significance. Each case study will incorporate an area of one or more traditional Hawaiian ahupua`a, a land division developed by ruling chiefs of the islands in the 15th century which typically runs from the mountain ridge to the fringing reef, usually encompassing an entire watershed. The types of cultural resource information to be identified include traditional cultural properties in a maritime context, information related to traditional gathering, hunting, fishing and other subsistence and commerce activities, as well as those related to spiritual and ceremonial sites and activities. The working group, workshops, and case studies provide an analysis guidance tool that (hopefully) will assist local communities in conducting their own maritime cultural landscape assessments. Familiar heritage resources like shipwrecks do not automatically rise to the fore here, unless those types of resources are valued by the community itself. Significance, in this instance, is not defined by government mandates and enforced from above, but rather is more reflective of local values and generated at the grass-roots community level. 9 �Fig. 4 The emergent walls of the Hawaiian stone fish traps and fish pond at Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historic Park. (H. Van Tilburg, NOAA ONMS) Project Challenges and Questions The ambitious and innovative approach represented by this maritime resource assessment project raises interesting challenges for Hawai‘i’s cultural preservation efforts. The project will not be easy to complete. Discussions regarding cultural resources are always lengthy and highly charged in Hawai‘i, and this is a complicated project inclusive of a large amount of public input in a process that has no precedent among the islands. The fact that local communities, in Hawai‘i and elsewhere, often feel disenfranchised by development interests and may perceive that their access to cultural resources deteriorates over time, engenders an understandable amount of wariness among the public. Those who are familiar with Hawai‘i’s history also know that the United States was clearly implicated in the illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian Islands in 1893, for which the presidential executive office issued a formal apology 100 years after the fact. They also know that the diseases that flourished in the wake of the Western discovery of Hawai‘i in 1778, followed by subsequent social and economic upheaval, devastated the Hawaiian population, cultural practices and traditions, and very fabric of Hawaiian society. Cultural practices, identity, and cultural resources are therefore inseparable, and managing cultural resources is a complex and critical challenge in the islands. 10 �For exactly these reasons, this project attempts what may be an improvement on the way that cultural resources have been assessed, managed, and ultimately protected in the United States thus far. If successful, local communities may be more empowered in resource management decisions that affect their islands. Because the underwater cultural heritage falls under the larger definition of cultural resources, and UCH does include a wide variety of historic and prehistoric properties, BOEM has therefore included project support for the Asia Pacific Conference on UCH 2014 and is one of the main APCONF conference sponsors. The project obviously has a contribution to make in understanding the underwater cultural heritage of Hawai‘i, and just as obviously, parts of the project go way beyond the definition of “underwater cultural heritage”. Or do they? Considering the intense level of cultural resource engagement locally in Hawai‘i, and also considering the passage of the international UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, one might ask “where is the intersection between these two efforts? Is there any? How much of what is considered “cultural resources” in Hawai‘i is really included in the definition of UCH: “…all traces of human existence that lie or were lying underwater and have a cultural or historical character”? Clearly, shipwrecks are part of the UCH, whether or not they are popularly regarded as cultural resources in Hawai‘i. And clearly, pre-Western contact lithic remains of stone fishponds and traps, along with canoe anchors, artifacts associated with coastal villages, and specific accumulations of ancient fishing tools, are part of the UCH resource base, under “objects of prehistoric character.”But humans have been intentionally and inadvertently shaping their environment, both terrestrial and marine, for a very long time...much, much longer than the existence of any written definition of “traditional cultural properties” or criteria from the National Register of Historic Places (Fig. 5). This has led to the cultural landscape approach being used as the interpretive tool to understand cumulative impacts to the environment in a more holistic fashion. Canall these landscapes be UCH as well? 11 �Fig. 5 The plantation-era ruins of the industrial harbor at Mahukona, once the entry port for the Kingdom of Hawai`i. The submerged steamship wreck from 1913 lies to the left. The whole environment, harbor, and wreck, make up the cultural landscape here.(H. Van Tilburg, NOAA ONMS) One could pursue the merit of including or excluding a given resource as cultural heritage for a long time. That is something of a theoretical exercise. Perhaps it would be better, for our efforts in Hawai‘i, to approach the question from the local perspective of the intended results. Definitions of landscapes and underwater cultural heritage and cultural resources all serve a similar purpose: they are intended to promote the understanding and preservation of resources that are valued for a number of reasons, including maintaining cultural identity. Is it worthwhile to understand the cultural resources and long-term impacts associated with traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering activities in the context of potential UCH? Is it worthwhile to think broadly about the definition of UCH, beyond the familiar shipwreck sites? The local answer is a pragmatic “yes,” if by doing so, those “traces of human existence” that are valued by communities as significant may have a better chance at being understood and protected. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Bureau of Ocean Energy and Management for making the project possible, and the dedicated staff of the National Marine Protected Area Center for providing the impetus for the development of the cultural landscape approach as it pertains to maritime heritage resources. 12 �References Anon., 2012. Hawaii Ocean Resources Management Plan, Public Review Draft. Hawaii CZM Program State Office of Planning, Honolulu. DHM Planners Inc., 1989. Hawaiian fishpond study: islands of Oahu, Molokai, and Hawaii / prepared by DHM Planners, Inc. and Public Archaeology Section, Applied Research Group, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu. DHM Planners Inc., 1990. Hawaiian fishpond study: islands of Hawaii, Maui, Lanai and Kauai / prepared by DHM Inc., Public Archaeology Section, Applied Research Group, Bishop Museum and Moon, O'Connor, Tam & Yuen, Honolulu. Honolulu Star Bulletin 1912-2001, Honolulu, Hawaii daily newspaper. Jensen, J. O., Mather, R. and Gray, J., 2011. Viewing the Future through the Lens of the Maritime Cultural Landscape. Sanctuary Watch, Fall: 2-3. MMS (U.S. Minerals Management Service), 2010.Record of Decision: Cape Wind Energy Project, Horseshoe Shoal, Nantucket Sound. U.S. Department of Interior, Washington DC. Pacific Commercial Advertiser 1856-1921, (becomes Honolulu Advertiser), Honolulu Hawaii daily newspaper. Shrimpton, R. H., (Ed.), 1990. National Register Bulletin: How to Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Washington DC. Thomas, M., 1982. Hawaiian Interisland Vessels and Hawaiian Registered Vessels. Seacoast Press, Santa Barbara. Thrum’s Hawaiian Annual 1842-1932. Star-Bulletin Press, Honolulu. UNESCO, 2012. Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific. UNESCO Bangkok Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok. Van Tilburg, H., 2002. U.S. Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: an Inventory of Submerged Naval Properties. Naval Historical Center, Washington DC. Hans Van Tilburg holds a BA in geography from University of California Berkeley, an MA in maritime archaeology/history from East Carolina University and a PhD in history from the University of Hawai‘i, where he ran the graduate program in maritime archaeology and history. Hans has taught courses in world maritime history and 13 �published over 30 articles and book reviews, as well as several books. He has served as a consultant for UNESCO’s cultural heritage program and instructor for UNESCO’s UCH Foundation courses. He is currently the maritime heritage coordinator and unit diving supervisor for NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries in the Pacific. Dave Ball is the Pacific Region Historic Preservation Officer and Diving Safety Officer for the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM). Before joining BOEM he worked for several archaeological firms in the Pacific Northwest. He received a BA in anthropology from Sonoma State University in 1992 and an MA in anthropology from Florida State University in 1998. Dave has over 20 years’ experience in archaeology and has directed field research on both terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites across the country, including inundated prehistoric sites, World War II shipwrecks, and deepwater shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico. He is currently serving on the Board of Directors for the Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 2: New Approaches in UCH Management in the US Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 2 chair Dr. Hans Van Tilburg and links to the papers included in the session. Description An account of the resource In 2009, responding to the effort to protect the significant natural and cultural resources within the marine environment for the benefit of present and future generations, the U.S. National Marine Protected Areas Center formed a Cultural Heritage Resources Working Group to provide expert advice on improving the conservation and management of maritime heritage resources. The resulting White Paper provided a series of recommendations to both the U.S. Department of Commerce and the Department of the Interior, including new definitions for cultural heritage, marine cultural resources, tribes, indigenous peoples, and cultural landscapes. Central to these recommendations was a strong endorsement for the Cultural Landscape Approach in the understanding and management of maritime heritage resources (or UCH). Subsequently, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Maritime Heritage Program has adopted the recommendations of this paper and is implementing a “maritime cultural landscape” approach to the management of cultural resources within the National Marine Sanctuary System. Also as a part of this initiative, NOAA and the Bureau of Ocean Energy and Management (BOEM) have teamed up to support maritime cultural landscape studies of heritage resources by Native American Tribes and Native Hawaiian communities in the Pacific region. These projects on the U.S. West Coast and in the Hawaiian Islands demonstrate the necessity of adapting a broader range of recognized cultural resources and a more inclusive and participatory management and preservation process. Charismatic resources like historic shipwrecks will always provide unique information for archaeologists and historians, but we do ourselves a disservice if we focus solely on these types of properties, and neglect other perspectives and the broader nature of all types and traces of human existence that lie underwater. Participants in this session will focus on the status of these ongoing ground-breaking projects, the advantages of a broader and more inclusive approach compared to the previous cultural heritage management paradigm in the U.S., and the challenges that this creates. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Hans Van Tilburg Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Assessing Historic Properties and Cultural Resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Description An account of the resource Understanding the types and locations of significant archaeological and cultural resources is essential to their protection. NOAA and the Bureau of Ocean Energy and Management (BOEM) have teamed up to support an assessment of historic properties and cultural resources in the main Hawaiian Islands. Objectives for this project include: 1) a database of verified, reported, and potential submerged cultural resources in the Hawai`i Outer Continental Shelf; 2) a database of historic properties that could be adversely impacted by alteration of the ocean viewshed; and 3) a management tool for engaging Native Hawaiian communities in identifying significant marine areas for offshore energy development planning purposes. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg Dave Ball, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 2 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 / Peattie, Mark R.,; 1930- Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource David C Evans Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1997 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author David C Evans Item Type Book ISBN 0870211927 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1997 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 661 Place Annapolis, Md. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Short Title Kaigun Title A name given to the resource Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 / Peattie, Mark R.,; 1930- Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 / Peattie, Mark R.,; 1930- Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource David C Evans Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1997 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author David C Evans Item Type Book ISBN 0870211927 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1997 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 661 Place Annapolis, Md. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Short Title Kaigun Title A name given to the resource Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 / Peattie, Mark R.,; 1930- Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource David Graff Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Routledge Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001-12-14 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author David Graff Item Type Book ISBN 0415239559 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001-12-14 Edition 1 Library Catalog Amazon.com Num Pages 304 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Routledge Title A name given to the resource Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d1a993f1a9d217b7bd84a7bd2f8399e7.pdf 05fc9bd8889d490439762f0d24267221 PDF Text Text DISCOVERY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE WRECK OF USS ALBACORE (SS-218) 1 Ivor Mollema (Naval History and Heritage Command, Archaeologist) Tamaki Ura, PhD (University of Tokyo, Professor Emeritus) 3 David Johnston (Naval History and Heritage Command, Naval Photographic Interpreter) 4 Stephen Katona (Naval History and Heritage Command, Independent Researcher) 2 ABSTRACT The wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218) was discovered on 25 May 2022 and resurveyed in October by Dr Tamaki Ura’s team of researchers at La Plongée Deep Sea Engineering Society. Following the initial discovery, volunteer researchers for the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) examined recorded footage of the wreckage to identify the wrecked boat. Key features identified the wreckage as belonging to an American submarine from the Second World War. Further investigation and archival research identified the submarine as the American Albacore, a Gato class submarine lost in action in Japanese waters on 7 November 1944. The U.S. Navy formally confirmed the identity of the wrecksite as the Albacore in February 2023. After an overview of the vessel’s history, this paper covers the initial search and discovery of Albacore during 2022. In particular, the use of a Remotely Operated Vehicle demonstrates the viability of this approach for initial identification assessments of deep wrecks. An outline of the identification process is provided that covers key features of Albacore observed on both the underwater footage and archival imagery. The identity confirmation process and media outreach efforts surrounding the discovery are covered, followed by a discussion on the continuing management and treatment of Albacore. Key Words: Submarine, Second World War, Japan, US Navy LIST OF IMAGES Figure 1. Albacore at the final stages of its final refit at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, completed in May, 1944 (USN Photograph 19-N-65354). Figure 2. The vent holes that allowed researchers to identify the wreck as Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, October 2022). Figure 3. The SJ Radar Mast that helped confirm the identity of Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, Oct. 2022). INTRODUCTION The USS Albacore (SS-218) is one of 52 American submarines lost during WWII. She served on ten war patrols and sank at least 10 enemy vessels, with a potential for three more unconfirmed sinkings. This includes six enemy combatant ships and ties Albacore for the most sinkings of enemy combatant ships by any American submarine during WWII. Reported lost at the end of 1944, Albacore was discovered by a team of researchers from the University of Tokyo in May 2022 (Johnston, Katona, and Iwasaki 2022). A team of researchers associated with the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) reviewed the collected footage and compared it with archival imagery and records to determine the identity of wreckage as belonging to Albacore. NHHC archaeologists verified the identity of the wrecksite and corroborated the initial assessment of the wreck’s identity. The discovery, investigation, and announcement (NHHC 2023) laid out a template for approaching wreck sites in the future, with particular relevance to contemporary submarines. HISTORY OF USS ALBACORE (SS-218) Albacore was laid down on 21 April 1941 at Groton, Connecticut by the Electric Boat Company (“Albacore II (SS-218)”). It was launched on 17 February 1942 and commissioned on 1 June of the same year. Following the submarine’s shakedown cruise, it crossed the Panama Canal and arrived in Pearl Harbor in mid-1942. She departed for her first of 11 war patrols on 28 August 1942 in the waters surrounding Truk. This patrol ended on 20 October 1942 with Albacore’s return to Midway for a refit. During her inaugural war patrol, Albacore experienced her first 1 combat actions when she �engaged two enemy cargo vessels on 13 September 1942 with damage to the leading vessel, but missed the second. She then proceeded to make a night surface attack on an enemy tanker on 1 October 1942, and heavily damaged it. On 9 October, three Japanese warships, including one Zuikaku class carrier, pursued Albacore for most of the day. The next day, Albacore crew sank an enemy freighter after shaking off pursuers. Two Japanese submarine chasers, supported from the air, encountered Albacore on 11 October but broke off the chase after seven hours of silent running by Albacore. She departed the area the next day and headed to Midway Atoll for the first refit. Departing Midway for her second war patrol on 11 November 1942, Albacore set out for the waters off New Britain and New Guinea. Rebuffed from her first assigned patrol area by Japanese destroyers, she started patrolling the area around Madang harbour in New Guinea. Two enemy vessels were spotted: one destroyer and one suspected transport. Releasing a salvo of torpedoes, the Albacore crew sank the transport on 18 December 1942. On her arrival in Brisbane on 30 December 1942 her crew learned they had sunk the Japanese light cruiser Tenyru of 3300 tons. This was only the second Japanese cruiser sunk by an American submarine during WWII, and succeeded in weakening the enemy hold on New Guinea. This engagement was certainly one of Albacore’s most significant. After receiving an overhaul on her main engines, Albacore departed for her third patrol on 20 January 1943. During this patrol, the crew sank one destroyer and one frigate, with suspected damage to another vessel. Her fourth patrol achieved no confirmed enemy sinkings, although she reportedly engaged several enemy convoys. The next war patrol, this time under the command of Lt. CmDr Oscar Hagberg, achieved similar results. Albacore’s crew sank the ship Heijo Maru on 4 September 1943. Her seventh patrol would see Albacore come close to destruction. She pursued a Japanese convoy, but was accidentally bombed by a plane from the US 5th Air Force on 6 November. Although she received no damage during this attack, Albacore did lose contact with her quarries. On 10 November 1943, she was once again the victim of friendly fire when she was bombed by an American aircraft and suffered significant damage. All auxiliary power was knocked out, and the main induction valve was broken. For two and a half hours, she continued to move between 30 and 400 feet before restoring her trim and returning to the surface. She completed her patrol and returned to Brisbane on 5 December 1943, where she also received a new commander in Lt. Cmdr. James Blanchard. She completed one more patrol, before setting sail for Pearl Harbor on 22 February 1944. Three days later, she sailed for Mare Island Navy Yard for her final overhaul. She arrived back in Pearl Harbor on 13 May and departed for her ninth war patrol on 29 May in waters west of the Marianas Islands. She engaged no enemy ships during this patrol. Albacore shifted her position to the south on 18 June to support the American landings on Saipan. Admiral Nimitz planned to get the submarine, along with several others, to intercept a Japanese relief force. Albacore encountered a large concentration of Japanese Navy ships, and torpedoed near the aviation gasoline tanks of the aircraft carrier Taiho. The loss of one of Japan’s largest and newest aircraft carriers, along with a second sunk by USS Cavalla that same morning, caused the rest of the Japanese fleet to retreat to the relative safety of Okinawa, facilitating the subsequent landing of the U.S. forces in Guam, Tinian, and Saipan. Albacore would go on to sink two more ships after this action. Albacore departed Midway Atoll for her final war patrol on 28 October 1944. This was the last time anyone received any communications from the submarine. A Japanese report, issued by the Japanese Ominato District Guard Unit, references an underwater explosion off of Hokkaido, Japan. Forces at Ezan Lighthouse and aboard Fukuei Maru #7, both reported an explosion a few miles off the coast on 7 November 1944. NHHC volunteer researchers Yutaka Iwasaki and Stephen Katona triangulated these two sightings to develop a predicted location for the wreckage. The same records reported details of surface debris found at the explosion site. One winter jacket or jumper was found with the marking “ALB-5” on the back. This is presumed to be an abbreviated form of Albacore and used to identify the clothing as belonging to the submarine. A pair of white shorts, labelled with “ASK,” was also found. These initials match those of Arthur Star Kruger, a Seaman 2 nd Class who was listed as a member of the crew of Albacore at the time of her demise. Associated with the clothing items were also large amounts of heavy oil, cork, bedding, and American food supplies. This evidence, coupled 2 �with later video evidence collected by Dr Ura and reviewed by David Johnston and Steve Katona, later confirmed the identity of this wreck as belonging to Albacore. With no outgoing communications received from Albacore, she was ultimately declared lost on 21 December 1944 and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 30 March 1945. Over her relatively short career, Albacore conducted 11 war patrols and is credited with 10 sinkings against enemy vessels, with another three not yet confirmed. She earned nine battle stars and four Presidential Unit Citations (PUC). The submarine received the PUC for her second, third, eighth, and ninth patrols. Six of her 10 sinkings were against enemy combatant ships, ranking her as one of the most successful submarines against enemy combatants during WWII. DISCOVERY OF SITE USS ALBACORE Following archival research and location data in Japanese records, Dr Tamaki Ura and his team developed a survey pattern covering the suspected area of Albacore’s sinking. They completed surveys in the Shiriyaski Sea between Honshu and Hokkaido, Japan (Johnston, Katona, and Iwasaki 2022). On 25 May 2022 two multibeam systems were used to develop a bathymetric map of the area, while a towed system equipped with side scan sonar was used to develop a clearer image of the seafloor and any wreckage still located there. Dr Ura’s team found a wreck, about 50 metres in length. After identifying a shipwreck site, Dr Ura’s team conducted underwater surveys using ROVs on 26 May and 2 October 2022 (Johnston, Katona, and Iwasaki 2022). All survey activity was broadcasted live via internet (Nico Nico News, May and October 2022). The initial survey attempts in May encountered difficulties brought on by the harsh underwater surroundings and poor visibility. The depth, over 200 metres, also complicated matters. Despite difficulties, several images suggested the discovery of an American submarine. The confirmed location of the shipwreck was within one nautical mile of the location of the underwater explosion reported by Japanese forces off Hokkaido on 7 November 1944. Dr Ura’s team returned with volunteer researchers and archaeologists from NHHC, in October 2022 with a larger and more powerful ROV to confirm the identity of the wreck as Albacore. The data collected on these two trips showed a shipwreck split, as the fore part was lost and the aft end was buried in the sand. The break occurred forward of the conning tower fairwater. The centre section, including the conning tower and its aft part, was surveyed by the ROV. The shipwreck is heeled over to starboard about 5 degrees. The bridge has been smashed down to the port side of the submarine. Many fishing nets and marine concretions cover the wreck. ANALYSIS OF ALBACORE FOOTAGE Unlike surface vessels, there are a number of challenges facing those attempting the identification of American submarine wrecks. WWII submarines typically had little to no markings to distinguish themselves. Surface vessels usually have their name and assigned numbers marked in several locations. In this case, only the visual modifications, outlined below, and some deductive reasoning guided NHHC researchers who relied heavily on historic photographs from the Mare Island Navy Shipyard. Volunteer researcher David Johnston reviewed the footage collected by Dr Ura’s team with location data derived from Japanese historical reports. As mentioned above, the official ship history provided by the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (DANFS) alongside archival material confirmed that Albacore underwent its last major refit at the Mare Island Navy Yard in California starting on 25 February 1944. She departed Mare Island Navy Yard on 5 May 1944. A collection of U.S. Navy photographs shows Albacore during its final overhaul at Mare Island Navy Yard. Figure 1 shows several modifications made to the submarine and highlights three as they relate to the video analysis 3 �Figure 1. Albacore at the final stages of its final refit at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, completed in May, 1944 (USN Photograph 19-N-65354). Figure 2. The vent holes that allowed researchers to identify the wreck as Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, October 2022). 4 �Figure 3. The SJ Radar Mast that helped confirm the identity of Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, Oct. 2022). (Katona and Johnston 2022). A watertight gun ammunition locker, containing rounds for the deck gun. This can be seen on the aft port side of the conning tower fairwater, shown as feature four in the accompanying photograph. It is likely that an identical locker existed on the starboard side as well. Second, NHHC researchers noticed the removal of steel plates on the upper edge of the fairwater. The removal revealed the structural I-beam ribs shown as feature six in the photograph. Finally, one of the most important aspects is labelled as feature seven in the image. A line of vent holes drilled along the upper corner of the superstructure on both sides of the submarine allowed air to escape the superstructure faster, speeding diving times (Figure 2). Another key identifying feature is the SJ Radar antenna mounted on Gato class submarines like Albacore. Based on the Mare Island overhaul photographs, the SJ radar mast was mounted forward of the periscope shears, and this is where it was found on the wreck (Figure 3). SJ Radar systems were installed on most USN submarines between 1942 and 1944. This system was key to differentiating Albacore from any submarines of different nationalities in the area. The SJ Radar dish was unique to American submarines in the Pacific theatre, and clearly differentiated it from British, Dutch, and Soviet submarines that could also have operated in the same area as Albacore. All of the aforementioned features were identified by co-author Johnston during his review of the footage collected by Dr Ura’s team. The most informative features included the SJ Radar system and the vent holes along the upper edge of the superstructure. Researchers also identified one of Albacore’s 20 mm anti-aircraft gun mounts, affixed during a previous refit, and the exposed ribs 5 �revealed in the conning tower during her final refit. Some additional features, including possible hatches and ladders, were also documented. These observed features, many which clearly differentiated Albacore from any other contemporary submarine lost in the area, provided sufficient evidence for archaeologists at NHHC to confirm the identity of Albacore’s remains. The SJ radar system established the remains as those of an American submarine, while features installed/opened during its final refit in early 1944 set it apart from any other American submarines lost in the area. The combination of archaeological documentation, historical records, and location data provided the necessary confidence for NHHC to assert the submarine wreck’s identity. ANNOUNCEMENT AND OUTREACH Coupled with the first press release (NHHC 2023) were announcements on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn. The total number of views in the first four days reached 269,657 across all NHHC platforms. The largest number of responses was on Twitter, followed by Facebook and Instagram. The press’ response to the NHHC announcement was also encouraging. Several domestic and international outlets, including NPR, CNN, Fox News, Popular Mechanics, and Science, ran features. Outside the United States, the story was picked up by Spanish, Hungarian, Polish, Italian, French, Japanese, and Vietnamese publications. NHHC’s volunteer researchers also coordinated with a number of organisations focused on research and preservation of the history of lost WWII submarines and their crewmen. In particular, those involved in the organisation On Eternal Patrol (OEP), website that records lost servicemen of American submarines, worked to find next of kin of Albacore’s crew members (OEP 2023). NHHC supported these efforts by issuing a letter on the discovery signed by the Command’s Director that could be forwarded to any next of kin on the website. Efforts are underway to organise a memorial event involving next of kin in the near future. MOVING FORWARD: WHAT’S NEXT? The NHHC’s experience with Albacore has illustrated the effectiveness of collaboration when addressing future submarine discoveries. Research partners, such as Dr Ura, spearheaded research efforts that led to the discovery of a wreck of interest, while he gained experience with submarine wreck investigations. NHHC volunteer researchers, lending their time and analytical skills, also gained valuable experience and insight into the methods used to identify submarines. Finally, NHHC archaeologists, historians and archivists lead to the wreck identity confirmation. In tandem with partners, NHHC then coordinated the associated public announcement. This collaborative approach allowed for a pooling of knowledge, expertise, time and resources that increased confidence in and accelerated the official confirmation of the identity of the wreck. Both of these facets are crucial, allowing for the public to be informed in a timely manner of the site’s importance, while at the same time ensuring protective measures can be applied, which now constitutes a sunken military craft under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Navy. Further disturbance must be sanctioned by NHHC. At present, NHHC has no plans to recover Albacore, or any part of it. The sea is considered a fit and final resting place for U.S. Navy sailors. The focus now shifts to the continued preservation of this war grave. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Naval History and Heritage Command. “Albacore II (SS-218).” Accessed https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/a/albacore-ss-218-ii.html. April 28, 2023. The Society La Plongee for Deep Sea Engineering. “Find US Submarine ‘Albacore’ Sunk off Hokkaido.” Academist. Accessed April 29, 2023. https://academist-cf.com/projects/187?lang=en. Johnston, David, and Steve Katona. 2022. “Addendum to the Report ‘Evaluation of the Wreckage of USS Albacore (SS218)’ Dated October 2022.” Washington DC. Johnston, David, Steve Katona, and Yutaka Iwasaki. 2022. “Evaluation of the Wreckage of the USS Albacore (SS-218).” Washington DC. Katona, Stephen J., and David L. Johnston. 2022. “Critical Features for Identification of USS Albacore (SS-218).” Washington DC. Nico Nico News. “Niconico Live: Finding the Lost Submarine “ALBACORE.” May 25-26, 2022. Accessed April 28, 2023. https://live.nicovideo.jp/watch/lv326919568. Nico Nico News. Niconico Live: Finding the Lost Submarine “ALBACORE.” October 2, 2022. Accessed April 28, 2023. https://live.nicovideo.jp/watch/lv336612796. OEP On Eternal Patrol. “On Eternal Patrol.” Accessed April 29, 2023. https://www.oneternalpatrol.com/. NHHC Naval History and Heritage Command. “Wreck Site Identified as WWII Submarine USS Albacore (SS 218).” Accessed April 28, 2023. https://www.history.navy.mil/news-and-events/news/2023/nhhc-identifies-albacore-wrecksite.html. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Discovery and Management of the Wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218) Description An account of the resource The wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218) was discovered on 25 May 2022 and resurveyed in October by Dr Tamaki Ura’s team of researchers at La Plongée Deep Sea Engineering Society. Following the initial discovery, volunteer researchers for the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) examined recorded footage of the wreckage to identify the wrecked boat. Key features identified the wreckage as belonging to an American submarine from the Second World War. Further investigation and archival research identified the submarine as the American Albacore, a Gato class submarine lost in action in Japanese waters on 7 November 1944. The U.S. Navy formally confirmed the identity of the wrecksite as the Albacore in February 2023. After an overview of the vessel’s history, this paper covers the initial search and discovery of Albacore during 2022. In particular, the use of a Remotely Operated Vehicle demonstrates the viability of this approach for initial identification assessments of deep wrecks. An outline of the identification process is provided that covers key features of Albacore observed on both the underwater footage and archival imagery. The identity confirmation process and media outreach efforts surrounding the discovery are covered, followed by a discussion on the continuing management and treatment of Albacore. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ivor Mollema Tamaki Ura David Johnston Stephen Katona Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Mollema, Ivor, Stephen Katona, David Johnston, and Tamaki Ura. 2023. “Discovery and Management of the wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1893 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Four months on a Jap whaler Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource David R McCracken Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available R.M. McBride Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1948 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author David R McCracken Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1948 Edition 1st Library Catalog Amazon.com Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available R.M. McBride Title A name given to the resource Four months on a Jap whaler Japan