2 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/484c87263fbc8f93eca799eaa7ce0a90.pdf 9db2f98fbb1eec7a73b8edf6be69b882 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 14: In the Mind of the Boatbuilder: Asia Pacific studies in Maritime Ethno-archaeology Subject The topic of the resource Session 14 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract The study of contemporary maritime cultures and their materials through first hand observation, maritime ethnography is a ‘relatively’ new tool available to maritime archaeologists. By using ethnographic analogies, archaeologists can propose hypothetical reconstructions of incomplete objects or structures, suggest the possible use of enigmatic structural elements, and describe in detail how the object or structure was made. Ethno-archaeology can provide clues or suggest ways of thinking about past cultures, and serve as a launch pad for retrospective enquiry. Analogous applications of ethnography to archaeology allow us to breach temporal and spatial gaps by using information derived from one context (the present) to help explain data found in another (the past). In keeping with the Conference theme and proposed sub-theme (8), ‘Nautical Technology in Asia-Pacific’, this session is intended to provide a forum for researchers from ethnography, archaeology, anthropology, digital humanities and related disciplines, to exchange ideas, present new research and explore challenges in the collection, investigation, interpretation and dissemination of maritime ethno-archaeological data. The focus of ‘In the Mind of the Boatbuilder: Asia Pacific Studies in Maritime Ethno-archaeology’ will be on water transport technology in Asia-Pacific, including regional studies and collaborative projects, which employ innovative and emerging technologies, observe boatbuilding traditions and explore archeological evidence for traditional boats, social practices, maritime rituals and associated traditions. We invite researchers from across the Asia Pacific region to submit papers on topics including, but not limited to: ancient seafaring in Asia-Pacific; boat ethnography in Asia-Pacific; ethno-archaeological studies of water transport systems and practices, new and emerging technologies for recording traditional boats; and ethnographic studies of maritime rituals and traditions in boat construction. We particularly welcome submissions that provide new information about regional seafaring that is changing our understanding of human history and creating opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration beyond national boundaries. Session Organizers: Sarah Ward and Ying Ying Yan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 3D Photogrammetry as an Aid to Traditional Canoe Building Description An account of the resource A renaissance in traditional boat building is occurring in Oceania but in some locations ancestral canoe designs are likely lost and so the body of knowledge supporting this renaissance is narrower than in its heyday. Traditional sailing and canoe building skills began to decline initially through colonialist pressure and accelerated in the 20th century with adoption of western values and the introduction of the outboard. This outside pressure has left a break in the chain of local knowledge surrounding canoe design and construction. It is possible that recent resurgence of traditional craft will provide a path to an accurate recreation of local purpose crafted canoes. A powerful and effective tool to ensure skills are passed on, and which can encourage comparative studies between builders, is the use of 3D photo scanning. As Oceania looks to alternatives to fossil fuels for transportation throughout the area traditional sailing techniques and design may have greater purpose for Oceania in development of sustainable transport. 3D photo scanning can help with sharing design ideas on sustainable transportation while aiding to track the connection with the past and future design constructions. With 3D scanning techniques, even if we can’t save all existing older craft, we can capture what they are now and preserve the history before it literally rots away outside somewhere. 3D scanning and photogrammetry can provide an educational platform for schools, the public, traditional boat builders and offers a venue for showcasing traditional craftsmanship as an educational tool. The availability of 3D scanning can offer a record of how boats are being tweaked in the resurgent craft of traditional canoe as it evolves. Through this discussion the author hopes to share 3D scans conducted in Micronesia, gain insight from other like-minded individuals and network for a larger project of capturing digital records of Oceania’s traditional canoes. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Austin Baird Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Baird, Austin. 2021. “3D Photogrammetry as an Aid to Traditional Canoe Building.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf- much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/698 Asia-Pac Session 14 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f71092b942841828e289d4a7c288b14c.pdf 991a1b4e7124d03dd1b8bb1e42a6be8c PDF Text Text 3D Recording Process of the Underwater Excavation Site in Waters of Sinchang-ri, Jeju Lee Jeonghee, (Curator, Buyeo National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT The paper fits in session 2, as focusing on the survey of underwater cultural heritage at Jeju-do in Korea. The underwater stie of Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do was reported by Haenyeo1 for golden artifacts in 1980s, and, further survey recovered Chinese celadon printed with ‘河濱遺范’, ‘金玉滿堂’ in 1990s. However, it was not until 2018 that consistent investigations were begun by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. Exploration is to search artifacts exposed on the bottom surface without any dredging, which is necessary for understanding distribution of artifacts under the surface. With targeting the area which could include as many artifacts as possible to be dredged, actual excavations were conducted for three seasons from 2019 to 2021. The objective of underwater investigation is to find the area of intensive distribution of artifacts and understand their contents. Then, how the environment of underwater sites can be documented by areas? Waters off Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do have relatively fine visibility, comparing to other sites in Korea. Thus, for the first time, attempts to document the targeted area in the 3D model with pictures, which is assumed to suggest more accurate timelines and coordinates than plans, were conducted. Recoding process is begun with taking pictures which is also the starting point of traditional investigation. Accuracy is the most emphasized. Methashape of Agisoft is used. Not only are topography of underwater but exact coordinates of hundreds of artifacts identified. Environment limitation for underwater excavation in Western coasts in Korea exists, such as strong currents and bad visibility. 3D documentation should be consistently tried, however, as one of the most important things in archaeological excavation is to locate the shipwrecks and artifacts and document them. Keywords: Jeju Island, Metashape, recording List of Figures Figure 1 Indication of the locations of the excavated artifacts after soil removal (3D mapping used) Figure 2 Grid photograph alignment (Metashape) Figure 3 Grid mesh generation (Metashape) Figure 4 Taking photographs ENVIRONMENT OF INVESTIGATION WATERS OF SINCHANG-RI AND OVERVIEW OF THE The underwater remains in Sinchang-ri, Jeju, are located in the western part of Jeju-si and are a coastal area near the beach. In March 1983, haenyeos collecting seaweed found a golden artifact in the form of a headpiece, and the remains were unveiled. Based on the discovery report, the Cultural Heritage Administration at the time conducted an underwater investigation for 10 days from April 13 to 22 and confirmed two additional golden artifacts. As the seabed in the Sinchang-ri is composed of sand and basaltic bedrock, the investigation could not have keep continuing. Later, in December 1996, in an underwater investigation conducted by Jeju Island and Jeju National University Museum to produce video materials related to marine trades in the Jeju area, Chinese celadons with imprinted phrases, ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’ were found. The National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH) explored waters of Sinchang-ri from August 29 to September 4, 2018. As a result of the exploration in 1997, about 500 pottery pieces were found, including celadons with the phrases ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’. It was judged that detailed excavations were required because of the large number of artifacts being discovered, and the underwater excavations were conducted from April to June 2019 (first) and from May to July 2020 (second). The artifacts excavated through the exploration and excavations include many potteries from the Southern Song Dynasty in China with the phrases ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’ which allow us to understand the era of the remains, celadon comb-patterned dish, celadon floralpatterned bowl, etc. Waves, etc., damaged most of the excavated potteries, and only the thick bases 1 Female divers -1- �remained. Only a few of them had complete shapes. Also, two seals, one seal box, one anchor stone, four coins, etc., were found. CONTENTS OF INVESTIAGION IN WATERS OF SINCHANG-RI The underwater investigation aims to find the points where artifacts scattered on the seabed are intensively buried and to understand the nature of the remains clearly. In the previous investigation of the Shinchang-ri and the exploration in 2018, only the artifacts exposed to the seabed were checked without removing the soil on the seabed. Therefore, the need to identify the distribution pattern of artifacts under the seabed through an investigation after removing soil was raised and the excavations were conducted three times from 2019 to 2021 by setting the area around the spot where relatively many artifacts were found during the exploration as the section of investigation with soil removal. The following introduces the exploration in 2018 and excavations from 2019 to 2021 conducted by the NRIMCH: Exploration in 2018: The offshore of Sinchang-ri has an underwater visibility of higher than 10 m and a depth of around 2-5m, therefore, it is significantly affected by surge caused by wave soil. Also, reefs are located everywhere, so Nurian (290 tons) and Sea Muse (18 tons), dedicated underwater excavation ships, cannot approach. Therefore, small boats were used to approach the point, which was conducted in parallel with the underwater exploration through diving and the metal detector investigation. Most artifacts exposed on the seabed were found as fragments of bases and some parts of bodies. An unmanned submersible was used to identify the area where it is estimated that an old ship was sunk (50 m deep), but nothing was found. The first excavation in 2019: The underwater excavation aimed to find where artifacts scattered on the seabed were intensively buried and identify the nature of the remains. The purpose of the investigation in 2019 was to re-explore the area where artifacts were discovered in the exploration in 2018, remove soil from the spots where exposed artifacts are concentrated, confirm the underwater topography, and find spots where artifacts were intensively buried and traces of the sinking of an old ship. The investigation area with soil removal was about 500 m west of Sinchang-ri Port and about 430 m northwest of Mariyeo Lighthouse. A grid was installed in the investigation area at a distance of 30 m from north to south and 10 m from east to west using a 5 mm thick rope. Inside the grid, relatively large stones and sand were mixed, and the artifacts exposed on the seabed were found to be stuck between rocks. The soil removal for the sand was about 10-30 cm, which was not so deep. Underneath, basaltic bedrock was found, along with many pottery pieces. As mentioned above, recovered artifacts were found in rock crevices and under the sand. Among them were about 400 pieces of celadons, accounting for the largest number. For the celadons, the celadon bowl inscribed with ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’ which were found in the exploration in 2018, were confirmed as identical, and potteries that appeared to have been produced at the same time with them were found. Also, two wooden seals and a piece of metal box were found during the soil removal. One wooden seal was square-shaped embossed with letters of the seal script, and the traces of the stamping ink remained. Another was also square-shaped seal embossed with letters that stand for happiness. Around the seals, pieces of seal boxes were found. Notably, in the first excavation, after taking several pictures inside the grid, the location of the artifacts and the underwater topography were recorded in drawings using a 3D program. The second excavation in 2020: In the second underwater excavation, the east of the area of the first investigation with soil removal was set as the investigation area. The investigation was based on soil -2- �removal and conducted by installing a 10 x 10 m grid in the north-south direction to the east of the area of the first investigation with soil removal. The average depth of soil removal was about 70-80 cm, and brownish basaltic bedrock was found under the sand. Recovered artifacts were 200 pieces, including Chinese celadons found in the previous exploration and excavation, coins, and an anchor stone split into two pieces. The total length of the anchor stone was 3.1 m. It had a shape of a trimmed Chinese-style anchor stone with a thick middle and thin both ends. The third excavation in 2021: The third investigation of the waters of Sinchang-ri in Jeju aimed to identify the nature of the Sinchang-ri underwater remains as an extension of the first and second excavations. The investigation was conducted six times for 60 days, each for ten days, and the investigation with soil removal was conducted by installing 10 x 10 m grids to the west and north of the point where the anchor stone was found in the second excavation in 2020. The seabed is composed of sand and basaltic bedrock, and in the last sixth investigation, a trench survey was also conducted on the sandy seabed around the sections of the previous first to third excavation investigations. Figure 1. Indication of the locations of the excavated artifacts after soil removal (3D mapping used) For the recording and handling of the artifacts, the investigation team attempted to clarify the location of the artifacts underwater using the 3D mapping introduced in the first investigation. At this time, a marker with a diameter of 3.5 cm was made, placed next to an artifact, and photographed so that the position of the artifact could be identified on the photograph. The result was printed on transparent tracing paper, carried underwater, and given an artifact number. In the third investigation, 600 artifacts were found, most of which were pottery. Among them, 500 pieces were celadons, which were the most. Celadon bowls with the phrases ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’ which were found in the previous investigations, were found again in this time, revealing that the artifacts include celadons from the Southern Song Dynasty in China. In addition, potteries that seemed to have been produced simultaneously, such as the Celadon Lily-patterned Bowl and the White Porcelain Box Lid Embossed with Phoenix Patterns, were found. 3D RECORDING OF INVESTIAGED AREA IN THE WATERS OF SINCHANG-RI Unlike other underwater remains, waters of Sinchang-ri in Jeju had clear underwater visibility. Therefore, the investigation area could be recorded in 3D model for the first time. The recording process will be introduced. The investigation was conducted in the following steps. First, a 10 x 10m grid was installed with a disc weight and a rope. Next, photographs were taken to record the underwater view before soil removal. The photography's most focused part was capturing the underwater topography and scattered artifacts as clearly as possible. As a result of trying various -3- �methods, Agisoft's Metashape was used. The program recommends using a standard lens with a focal length of about 50 mm with less distortion. In the waters of Shinchang-ri, a lens with a 16 mm focal length was used based on a full-frame-sized sensor. Photography was done by walking around, not swimming, to get close to the subject. In this case, the distance to the subject was approximately 0.5-1 m. In the waters of Shinchang-ri, the image had to be created considering the curves, so the photos were taken in a slightly inclined diagonal line. At a point where many rocks were piled up, about 900 photos were created. After taking photographs, the artifacts exposed on the seabed before the soil removal were handled, and then soil removal was started. As mentioned earlier in the investigation contents, most of the artifacts were found during the investigation process with soil removal. Thus, after the final soil removal, the sand was removed, the changed underwater topography and artifacts could be photographed, and the artifacts could be handled. To record in 3D in earnest, Metashape was used. It proceeds in the steps of Photograph Alignment → Dense Point Group Generation → Mesh Generation → Texture Expression. The step of photograph alignment starts from the ‘Key Point’ extraction. Check the same key point in multiple photos to create connection points. For the waters of Sinchang-ri, photos taken in 5 x 5 m units were each aligned. Dense point group generation extracts points based on the camera's location. The quality of the generated data can be chosen. If set to ‘High’, a memory shortage problem occurs, so the points were extracted by setting it to ‘Medium’. The next step, mesh generation, is a process of making 3D data based on the generation of a dense point group. This process is essential to obtain a 3D image. After that, the texture expression is a step to add texture to the data created in the previous step and make a photo-like effect. Figure 4. Grid photograph alignment (Metashape) Figure 2. Taking photographs Figure 3. Grid mesh generation (Metashape) -4- �Recording the locations of discovered artifacts clearly is very important in archaeological excavations. However, it is not easy to record the locations of many artifacts when there are no actual survey drawings. In Metashape, orthophotographs can be easily created. It plays the same role as a floor plan, which greatly helped to handle the artifacts. First, orthophotographs or 3D results were printed on transparent tracing papers, which do not get wet in water, and images that only indicate the artifact locations were also printed. Then, the artifacts were handled by referring to the printouts of orthophotographs or 3D results printouts underwater. At the same time, the artifact numbers were written on transparent tracing paper, which indicated the artifact locations. The precise locations of hundreds of artifacts could be recorded using this method. CONCLUSIONS The report will be concluded by briefly summarizing the meaning and achievements of the exploration and underwater excavation conducted at Sinchang-ri. In the exploration in 2018, the investigations using submergence and geophysical exploration equipment allowed us to see the underwater topography of the area and handle potteries from Southern Song Dynasty, which were stuck in rock crevices. Therefore, the time of the remains could be identified, and the core point and the distribution range of the scattered artifacts could be found. In the first to third excavation investigations conducted after that, 10 x 10 m grids were installed centering on the concentrated distribution point of the artifacts, and the investigations were conducted by expanding the range. By removing soil, a large amount of Chinese pottery pieces was found, as well as two wooden seals, a seal box, and coins. Excavated Chinese celadons are estimated to be produced in Longquanyao (龍泉窯) in China in the late twelfth century during the Southern Song Dynasty. The pottery artifacts discovered in Sinchang-ri remains were also discovered in Dazaifu in Fukuoka and Kurakizaki in Kagoshima in Japan. The same potteries from the Southern Song Dynasty found in Sinchang-ri remains, and Japan has examples that reveal the maritime trade in the past, along with the anchor mentioned above the stone. Especially the Chinese-style anchor stone, a ship accessory found in the second excavation investigation, allowed us to secure important data in estimating the nature of the Sinchang-ri underwater remains. A wide area of Sinchang-ri underwater remains is covered with sand, and the area where the soil removal investigations were done is only a small part of the remains. Therefore, continuous excavation investigations will be required in the future. Bibliography Heo, Munnyeong, “3D Recording of Underwater Remains in Sinchang-ri Sea Area in Jeju Using Photography”, The Fourth Underwater Cultural Heritage Research Institutes’ Research Case Conference, 2020 (In Korean) . NRIMCH, “Summary Report of the First Underwater Excavation Investigation of Sinchang-ri Sea Area in Jeju.”, 2019 (In Korean). NRIMCH, 2020, “Summary Report of the Second Underwater Excavation Investigation of Sinchang-ri Sea Area in Jeju,” 2020 (In Korean). NRIMCH, “Summary Report of the Third Underwater Excavation Investigation of Sinchang-ri Sea Area in Jeju”, 2021 (In Korean). -5- � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 3D Recording Process of the Underwater Excavation Site in Waters of Sinchang-ri, Jeju Description An account of the resource The paper fits in session 2, as focusing on the survey of underwater cultural heritage at Jeju-do in Korea. The underwater stie of Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do was reported by Haenyeo1 for golden artifacts in 1980s, and, further survey recovered Chinese celadon printed with ‘河濱遺范’, ‘金玉滿堂’ in 1990s. However, it was not until 2018 that consistent investigations were begun by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. Exploration is to search artifacts exposed on the bottom surface without any dredging, which is necessary for understanding distribution of artifacts under the surface. With targeting the area which could include as many artifacts as possible to be dredged, actual excavations were conducted for three seasons from 2019 to 2021. The objective of underwater investigation is to find the area of intensive distribution of artifacts and understand their contents. Then, how the environment of underwater sites can be documented by areas? Waters off Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do have relatively fine visibility, comparing to other sites in Korea. Thus, for the first time, attempts to document the targeted area in the 3D model with pictures, which is assumed to suggest more accurate timelines and coordinates than plans, were conducted. Recoding process is begun with taking pictures which is also the starting point of traditional investigation. Accuracy is the most emphasized. Methashape of Agisoft is used. Not only are topography of underwater but exact coordinates of hundreds of artifacts identified. Environment limitation for underwater excavation in Western coasts in Korea exists, such as strong currents and bad visibility. 3D documentation should be consistently tried, however, as one of the most important things in archaeological excavation is to locate the shipwrecks and artifacts and document them. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lee Jeonghee Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jeonghee, Lee. 2023. “3D Recording of Underwater Sites: The Case of Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1924 Asia-Pac Session 2 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/32782553356f901500377f6efd3ceb7f.pdf 56079b3eebab34e237fbde99723d9de6 PDF Text Text A Blueprint for the Conservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Taiwan Dr. Ying-Ying Tung (Kuo-King Tung) 董盈穎 Associate Researcher, Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture, Taiwan Istituto Centrale per la Patologia del Libro Istituto Italiano Arte Artigianato e Restauro Museology, Tainan National University of the Arts Art Administration Management, National Taiwan Normal University Email: ch0235@boch.gov.tw ; telephone: 866-912600718 Abstract Located on an important East Asian shipping route, the island of Taiwan is surrounded by waters containing a large number of underwater artefacts as a result of weather conditions, changes in the current, submerged reefs, war and other human factors. In 2006, the Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH) commissioned the Institute of History and Philology at Academia Sinica to carry out a survey of underwater cultural heritage. In the ten years since, and with the assistance of scholars from France’s DRASSM, Australia, the United States and Japan, Taiwan has made remarkable progress. Wherever underwater archaeological sites are found, underwater artefacts are also. In the last ten years, the BOCH has recovered 1,567 items, the vast majority of which are metal and pottery. In addition, parts of wooden boats and vessels of the two World Wars and freighted goods have also been found. Because there is a lack of professional facilities and conservators, half of the recovered objects are still being stored in water. Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, promulgated on 9 December 2015, ensures the protection of Taiwan’s underwater cultural heritage. Item 6 of Article 2 of UNESCO’s 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage states that “Recovered underwater cultural heritage shall be deposited, conserved and managed in a manner that ensures its long-term preservation.” In order to enhance the safety of artefacts once they are out of the water, and to provide comprehensive information about the restored artefacts, it is necessary to plan in advance and proceed carefully. In the next ten years, we need to �train more professional conservation and restoration personnel and to expand the necessary facilities into a complete system for the handling of underwater archaeology—including a series of tasks such as surveying, verification, monitoring, exploration, conservation and restoration, research, educational exhibition and promotional publication. Conserving recovered underwater artefacts is also an important task for underwater archaeology. A complete plan is needed before undertaking an underwater archaeological project, encompassing the conservation, registration and recording of submerged objects and the restoration, research and storage of recovered objects. We need to train conservation and restoration personnel, set up conservation and restoration facilities, equipment and laboratories for recovered artefacts, and all documentation regarding underwater cultural heritage must be centrally administered and kept in good condition at the data centre. A data system should also be set up for use by researchers and the general public. If recovered artefacts are to retain their full cultural and historical value, their conservation must be carried out by professional personnel in a way that retains all their historical information and “make the artefact talk”. Key words: Underwater Archaeology, Underwater Cultural Heritage, Conservation-Restoration, Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH) 1. The Importance of Recovering Underwater Artefacts 1.1 Underwater Cultural Heritage Provides Data Integral to Human History With progress in diving technology and equipment, underwater cultural heritage has become an important type of cultural heritage, providing evidence of historical processes relating to human maritime culture and trade, oceanic migration routes and other human maritime activities. Underwater heritage sites are like time capsules, providing supplementary historical data and enriching human history. Underwater cultural heritage �makes up for deficiencies in land-based cultural heritage; only together do the two types provide the full historical information on human activity. 1.2 Evidence from Historical Research Although recovered relics can supplement or corroborate much historical information, it is only in the last 50 to 60 years that the study of underwater cultural heritage has come to be an academic discipline. Thus, many mammalian fossils have been discovered in the Penghu submarine canyon in Taiwan, including skeletons of mammoths, water buffalo, deer and horses. According to palaeontologists, these fauna fossils (known as “Taiwan Land Bridge Fauna Fossils”) prove that in antiquity the Taiwan landmass was connected to the continental landmass. Many wrecked naval vessels from the Second World War were also discovered in the Penghu sea area (such as the Guangbing gunboat), which, together with historical records and nearby lighthouses built on islands, such as the Guangbing gunboat (from the Guangdong Fleet) and(including the Gupo (Koba) Island lighthouse), constitute a complete network of underwater cultural heritage and sites. According to Japanese historical records, the Yamafuji Maru cargo ship ran aground and sank, whereas United States records state it was sunk by torpedo. Perhaps damaged objects recovered from the area could set the record straight. 1.3 A Perfectly Preserved Time Capsule The artefacts most likely to have retained their original appearance from the time of sinking are those that lie buried under the seabed at depths greater than 60 metres, where they are relatively undisturbed by human passage and where the environment is especially oxygen-depleted. An artefact that has sunk into the sea and remained there for a thousand years may look exactly as it did at the moment it sank, while a land-based �thousand-year-old artefact may long ago have shattered and even been reduced to dust. The thousands of century-old artefacts allow us to turn back time and thus constitute an important asset for historical research. 2. Characteristics and Classification of Recovered Artefacts 2.1 Characteristics of Recovered Artefacts Recovered underwater artefacts are different from regular land-based artefacts because they have been immersed in cold, dark, low-oxygen, salt-saturated seawater for hundreds or thousands of years. Recovery brings them into a new environment, which makes their conservation and restoration even more difficult than for land-based artefacts. Without expert treatment, when they leave their original environment and are exposed to the atmosphere, the rate of decomposition will accelerate. In order to avoid degradation and corrosion, artefacts have to be adapted to suit the surface environment, ensuring that all physical and chemical changes are gradual. Thus, immediately upon being taken from the water they are given urgent first treatment, and once they have been documented (photographed, registered, labeling) they are sent to the laboratory or conservation studio to continue the conservation and protection work, such as desalination, cleaning(algae, molluscs, sand, chlorine), impregnation, reinforcement, drying, filling and retouching. The aim is to restore the object to its original form with minimal intervention, to preserve its integrity and make its historical value “speak” so that it can be used for research and exhibition. 2.2 Classification of Recovered Artefacts According to the definition in Article 1 of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, underwater cultural heritage consists of: �(a) “sites, structures, buildings, artefacts and human remains, together with their archaeological and natural context” (b) “vessels, aircraft, other vehicles or any part thereof, their cargo or other contents, together with their archaeological and natural context” (c) “objects of prehistoric character” Objects found in ruins and towns are mainly stone sculptures, parts of buildings, artefacts and everyday items. Recovered vessels, aircraft and other means of transportation are generally made of wood or metal, while the objects that they carry are mainly pottery, porcelain, coins, stone goods, daily items and food supplies, and cannons and munitions for warships. Organic matter such as rope, sailcloth, textiles, leather and human bones can also be found. In sum, underwater cultural heritage can be divided into three broad categories: (1) organic matter such as bones, textiles and wood (2) inorganic matter such as metal and pottery (3) Composite material The number of categories of underwater artefacts depends on the categorization of discovered underwater archaeological sites and their contents. 3. Recovered Underwater Artefacts in Taiwan 3.1 Quantities To date, the Bureau of Cultural Heritage has overseen the recovery of 1,567 items in total: 174 in 2009, 118 in 2010, 144 in 2011, 126 in 2012, 87 in 2013, 96 in 2014, 393 in 2015 and 429 in 2016 (as shown in Table 1). �Table 1. Total recovered artefacts by year. Total recovered artefacts by year 500 400 300 數量 200 100 0 98年 99年 100年 101年 102年 103年 104年 105年 The recovered items fall into the following categories: 946 metallic items, 15 wooden, 327 pottery, 58 seashell, 127 glass, 56 stone, 1 seed and 37 other. In addition to the artefacts recovered during the BOCH survey, the underwater artefacts were recovered by many places: (1) the Cultural Affairs Bureau of Yilan County government recovered 1,471,804 items at the Qiwulan site, including 946 metallic items, 15 wooden, 327 pottery, 58 seashell, 127 glass, 56 stone, 1 seed and 37 other.organic matter such as bones, textiles and wood (2) In Penghu the recovery of Jiangjun No. 1 shipwreck, under the direction of the National Museum of History, 284 items were recovered in 1995-1998. (3) The Sobraon shipwreck recovery off Matsu Island saw the discovery of X items. 3.2 Storage Sites �BOCH currently stores recovered artefacts at four locations: Taichung, Penghu, Keelung and Tainan. Many of those recovered by the Yilan County Cultural Affairs Bureau are stored in Yilan Cultural Centre. Artefacts from the Jiangjun No. 1 are stored at the National Museum of History and the Penghu County Bureau of Cultural Affairs. The Sobraon artefacts are stored on Matsu Island. (as shown in Table 2). Table 2. Total recovered storage place. Site Department in charge / Deposit Place Green Island BOCH No.1, Guangbing Penghu Underwater gunboat, S.S. Archaeology Work Bokhare, Station Masushimakan, The National Museum … of Marine Science & Technology, Keelung Cultural Heritage Research Center, Tainan Qiwulan Site Yilan County Bureau of Cultural Affairs Jiangjun No. 1 Penghu County Bureau of Cultural Affairs Sobraon Cultural Affairs department of Lienchiang County Government. Matsu Quantity notes 100 1,022 26 100 1,151,066 Before the setting up of the 284 Underwater Cultural Heritage 25 Section at BOCH In its earlier development in Taiwan, underwater archaeology was understaffed, with a relative lack of manpower and technical ability for the conservation and restoration of recovered artefacts. Thus, the first batch of artefacts salvaged from Jiangjun No. 1 did not go through each and every part of the conservation process: 794 items of the underwater artefacts recovered by BOCH are still being stored in water. approx. 51% �have yet to be processed. Of the 1,473,655 items recovered in Taiwan, most of them have yet to be processed. 3.3 Efforts to protect underwater cultural heritage On 10 December 2015, Taiwan passed the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, which laid the optimal groundwork to guarantee conservation of Taiwan’s underwater cultural heritage. To bolster the security of recovered artefacts, BOCH has set up an index to record their information and is organizing a storage/exhibition space and professional training in conservation workshops. This will preserve for posterity the historical data of these recovered remnants and fully realize their great historical value. 3.3.1 Staff Training and Workshops In August 2015, BOCH invited two scholars, Australia’s Mark Staniforth and Japan’s Jun Kimura, to come to Taiwan and share their expertise with the Taiwan Underwater Archaeology Team. From 2 to 12 October 2016, Australians Andrew Viduka and Jon Carpenter ran a study workshop on on-site processing of underwater artefacts (metal and wood). In collaboration with Academia Sinica’s underwater archaeology team, BOCH carried out the Taiwan Coastal Waters Underwater Cultural Heritage Survey Project and trained front-line staff at the site of the Green Island No. 1 shipwreck in the waters off Green Island to correctly handle recovered artefacts and follow the right workflow. The training gave personnel a good grasp of the knowledge and skills needed to carry out on-site conservation and protection of recovered artefacts and work management. It also helps improve the process of conserving and managing recovered underwater cultural heritage. 3.3.2 Taking Inventory and Building a Database �In 2015 and 2016, an inventory of recovered artefacts was carried out and a data registration form was drawn up in the hope of gathering the scattered information about recovered objects into one place, ultimately to be entered into a forthcoming database. 3.3.3 Setting Up the Penghu Work Station In 2014, BOCH signed a contract with Chunghwa Telecom to turn the historic Penghu Post Office and the telecommunications bureau dormitory on its east side into a national underwater archaeology work station, combining data resources and equipment for the use of the underwater archaeology workforce as a work and exhibition space. By May 2015, the renovation was complete, a reuse survey had been carried out and a plan had been drawn up to finish the work by February 2018. The historic post office building was chosen to act as an exhibition space, and the underwater archaeology work station would be moved to the former site of the telecommunications bureau dormitory. A research area, storage area, car park, preparation zone, cleaning zone and dormitory have been planned. 3.3.4 Setting Up a Collection Space for Recovered Artefacts BOCH will set up a collection space on the fourth floor of the Weishui Building at our Taichung office’s to be used as an initial repository for underwater artefacts recovered by the future underwater archaeology research centre. The space is approximately 90 m2 and able to house around 24,000,000 m3 of recovered artefacts. Detailed plans have already been drawn up, and construction is due to be complete before the end of the year. 4. Recommendations 4.1 Train conservation and restoration personnel �The lack of professional staff is why the majority of recovered underwater artefacts continue to be stored in water and also one reason why Taiwan is not doing its utmost to recover objects. Of course, if the necessary skills to treat recovered artefacts are lacking, recovery is the wrong course of action, but it is also poor policy not to salvage important underwater artefacts that are of historical value or that lie in an inhospitable environment simply because of a lack of professional restoration staff. In this way, the laborious work of surveying and identifying underwater cultural heritage has all been in vain, and the hard-won discovery of underwater archaeological sites will not lead to any further research. After surveying, checking, rechecking and confirming underwater archaeological sites, if they contain objects that fill in gaps in human history, recovery should be under consideration. But in order to resolve this problem, we must immediately start training conservation and restoration personnel, perhaps by inviting international scholars to Taiwan on a yearly basis to give courses on metal, pottery, wooden and other organic materials, so that staff can earn course credits or certificates on the treatment of recovered artefacts. Training of underwater cultural heritage conservation staff could start with those who have a Master’s degree or higher in cultural heritage, art culture, artefact conservation or other fields relating to conservation techniques. They should be encouraged to gain qualifications in underwater cultural heritage conservation, protection or management, either in Taiwan or abroad. 4.2 Expand the size of underwater archaeological work station The Penghu underwater archaeology work station is located opposite Makung Harbour. The Penghu site has a high number of wrecks, so it is the ideal location for the work station, but it currently measures only �633.54 m2. Discounting the Penghu Post Office exhibition space, the telecommunications bureau dormitory has to provide space for underwater archaeology personnel and diving-related facilities such as divers’ sleeping quarters and office space, diving tank recharge area, shower area, drying room for diving suits, storeroom, a room for various marine survey equipment, car park and corridors. If an emergency room for treating recovered underwater artefacts is to be set up, it will be rather cramped. In the event that a large volume of objects is recovered, a certain amount of space will be necessary for their treatment, so it will be necessary to find a bigger space in Penghu. Other underwater archaeological sites such as Green Island, should evaluate its quantities of underwater cultural heritage. 4.3 Integrate the data and management of all underwater artefacts in Taiwan Information regarding the underwater artefacts at Yilan’s Qiwulan site (more than 10,000) the Jiangjun No. 1 wreck in 1995 (over 200), and the Matsu Sobraon wreck (25), which were all recovered before the passing of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, should be integrated and managed centrally. 4.4 Set up first-rate restoration laboratories in work stations Recovered underwater artefacts are vastly different from regular landbased artefacts. The former requires immediate appropriate treatment, so the more underwater sites an area has, the more first-rate restoration and testing spaces are needed. A properly equipped facility can be used to give recovered artefacts the care they need. By restoring and preserving an artefact’s original shape and appearance, we can preserve its original historical data, to be studied by historians and exhibited for the public, and �everyone can get a closer look at precious underwater cultural artefacts that would otherwise be out of reach. The size of the conservation room determines the size of the artefact that can be treated. Because artefacts require desalination, impregnation, and chemical substitution, we must install large tanks for water or solvents or electrolysis tanks. These are extremely heavy and must be installed on the ground floor to make it easier to unload artefacts and avoid concerns about overloading the floor. 4.5 Set up an underwater archaeology data centre According to Rule 33 of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, “The project archives, including any underwater cultural heritage removed and a copy of all supporting documentation shall, as far as possible, be kept together and intact as a collection in a manner that is available for professional and public access as well as for the curation of the archives.” Since the promulgation of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act in Taiwan, BOCH, Ministry of Culture is the only government administrative body to have jurisdiction over underwater cultural heritage. Although Taiwan has only been undertaking underwater cultural heritage work for ten years, the annual surveys and related research data should be systematically collected and stored centrally as soon as possible. An underwater archaeology centre should also be set up with the goal of assembling all the data for the use of researchers and the general public. 4.6 Underwater excavation work only to be carried out by trained conservation and restoration personnel According to Article 35 of Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, when artefacts are excavated a plan must be drawn up �for their conservation and protection. Emergency treatment must be carried out by professionals of underwater archaeology, underwater work and conservation. During assessment of artefact recovery, professional restoration personnel must be brought in in order to understand the degree of risk artefacts face in their environment and situation and so better prepare for recovery. For example, should the artefact be recovered by hand, by wrapping it up, or using a bag or a hook? On the day of recovery, the professional conservation personnel should be on board the work boat to handle, labelling and clean the items or give urgent attention to more fragile items. Some excavation sites are remote, and excavation may take several days or weeks, in which case a temporary work station should be set up on shore. If the quantity of objects is very large, it will be necessary to consider setting up a formal work station, where personnel, apparatus and all the main facilities can be stationed. 5. Conclusions The waters around Taiwan are teeming with historical maritime culture. It is estimated that just over 99% of our underwater cultural heritage still lies on the seabed, waiting to be uncovered. Underwater archaeology has developed late in Taiwan and still faces serious challenges. It needs the support of government policy and an influx of fresh young talent. Recovered artefacts need to be dealt with carefully, with advance planning. Item 6, Article 2 of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage states that “Recovered underwater cultural heritage shall be deposited, conserved and managed in a manner that ensures its long-term preservation.” It is impossible to store recovered artefacts in water tanks forever—they will still decompose. But while we cannot allow over half of our recovered artefacts to continue to be stored �in water, nor can we leave them unrecovered simply because we lack storage locations or trained personnel, i.e. preserving the status quo by using “in-situ preservation”. Henceforth, the most important criterion for conservation and protection personnel is professional qualification, which means we need to start training people straightaway. We need to work closely with professional personnel when setting up laboratories and conservation facilities. Surveying, verification, exploration, conservation and restoration, research, educational exhibition and promotional publication are all tasks for underwater archaeology. We must not merely work on the initial stages and then ignore the subsequent conservation and restoration of recovered artefacts. Rather, we have to look at it as a whole process and take each task to completion. With the right restoration and testing space and the right equipment and tools, we can give recovered underwater artefacts the attention they require, restoring and preserving their original shape and appearance. In this way, we can preserve the entirety of these items’ historical data, so historians can study them, the public can see them in exhibition and everyone can get a closer look at precious underwater cultural artefacts that would otherwise remain out of reach. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 7: Underwater Cultural Heritage Politics, Laws, Ethics and Values Description An account of the resource All cultural materials are potentially cultural resources. However, because not all of them can be preserved or studied, choices must be made based on evaluation and re-evaluation. Values are learned and depend on cultural, intellectual, historical, and psychological frames of reference. Consequently, valuation is made individually, but is shared by communities. Valuation of underwater cultural heritage has, then, a broad range of determining value depending on the community to which it belongs. A clear example of this is the protection of human remains. The 2001 UNESCO Convention includes, in its definition of underwater cultural heritage, human remains which have been underwater for more than 100 years. However, the Christian philosophy on the treatment of human remains is different to that of Asian philosophy that teaches that human remains will never become underwater cultural heritage since, if they are seen by someone in an underwater site, it is imperative to rescue the human remains and bury them on land according to their beliefs. This session aims to create a forum for policymakers, managers, and archaeologists devoted to underwater cultural heritage where they can share their experiences of and research on the valuation of underwater cultural heritage. We aim to accept papers that help us to understand the definition of ‘underwater cultural heritage’ in the Asia-Pacific regions, comparing those definitions with the definition of the 2001 UNESCO Convention and trying to find a common interpretation. We will also be looking to examine the meaning of the underwater cultural heritage sites and objects for different communities. Finally, we will be expecting papers exploring the different possibilities of the use and/or conservation of this underwater cultural heritage according to the values and needs of the different communities. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd., UK Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Blueprint for the Conservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Taiwan Description An account of the resource Located on an important East Asian shipping route, the island of Taiwan is surrounded by waters containing a large number of underwater artefacts as a result of weather conditions, changes in the current, submerged reefs, war and other human factors. In 2006, the Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH) commissioned the Institute of History and Philology at Academia Sinica to carry out a survey of underwater cultural heritage. In the ten years since, and with the assistance of scholars from France’s DRASSM, Australia, the United States and Japan, Taiwan has made remarkable progress. Wherever underwater archaeological sites are found, underwater artefacts are also. In the last ten years, the BOCH has recovered 1,567 items, the vast majority of which are metal and pottery. In addition, parts of wooden boats and vessels of the two World Wars and freighted goods have also been found. Because there is a lack of professional facilities and conservators, half of the recovered objects are still being stored in water. Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, promulgated on 9 December 2015, ensures the protection of Taiwan’s underwater cultural heritage. Item 6 of Article 2 of UNESCO’s 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage states that “Recovered underwater cultural heritage shall be deposited, conserved and managed in a manner that ensures its long-term preservation.” In order to enhance the safety of artefacts once they are out of the water, and to provide comprehensive information about the restored artefacts, it is necessary to plan in advance and proceed carefully. In the next ten years, we need to train more professional conservation and restoration personnel and to expand the necessary facilities into a complete system for the handling of underwater archaeology—including a series of tasks such as surveying, verification, monitoring, exploration, conservation and restoration, research, educational exhibition and promotional publication. Conserving recovered underwater artefacts is also an important task for underwater archaeology. A complete plan is needed before undertaking an underwater archaeological project, encompassing the conservation, registration and recording of submerged objects and the restoration, research and storage of recovered objects. We need to train conservation and restoration personnel, set up conservation and restoration facilities, equipment and laboratories for recovered artefacts, and all documentation regarding underwater cultural heritage must be centrally administered and kept in good condition at the data center. A data system should also be set up for use by researchers and the general public. If recovered artefacts are to retain their full cultural and historical value, their conservation must be carried out by professional personnel in a way that retains all their historical information and “make the artefact talk”. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Ying-Ying Tung Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Dr. Ying-Ying Tung ( Language A language of the resource English https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f214cea47e96ed0cb72662b36c3994e2.pdf 65789552181ea20c5bcadfc3f2a19a80 PDF Text Text A Chinese Perspective on the International legal scheme for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage Liu Lina School of Law Xi’an Jiaotong University China Email: liulina223@gmail.com Abstract With 18,000 km of coastline and plentiful streams and rivers, China has an extensive underwater cultural heritage (UCH), which preserves Chinese history and maritime civilization under the ocean as a kind of “time capsule”. After 20-years of development of underwater archaeology and the protection of UCH, China has set up a brand-new national protection system. This contribution first discusses the new development of the Chinese UCH legal system in the 21th century in three aspects: legal subject, legal object and legal content. Further it discussed the tremendous challenges faced by the Chinese legal system. Meanwhile, since its entry into force in 2009, the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001 Convention) has been gradually approved by more and more influential States who hold various and abundant UCH items. Part two explains the UNESCO 2001 Convention as the International Cooperation Scheme for Protection of UCH. Part three examines, from the Chinese perspective, the advantages and obstacles for a State that ratifies the UNESCO 2001 Convention. There is a final conclusion that argues that through the UNESCO 2001 Convention diverse national legal protection systems of the UCH have converged into an international cooperation legal instrument. Key words: Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH); the Chinese UCH legal system; UNESCO 2001 Convention; International legal scheme; “Coordinating State” Introduction New developments and the challenges for the protection of UCH in China In 1986 an astonishing auction named “the Nanking cargo (Geldermalsen shipwrecks)” was held in the Netherlands. The auction contained more than 100 gold ingots and thousands of Chinese export porcelain from the "Geldermalsen" that had sunk in about 1752 in the South China Sea, and salvaged by Michael Hatcher. The auction raised more than £10 million (Jörg, 1986). The Chinese authorities were shocked to notice that there were no provisions in the Chinese legislation that addressed the salvage of UCH 1 �or to claim ownership of the UCH. In the same year, the Chinese Government decided to develop the capacity for underwater archaeology and it established the Underwater Archaeology Research Institute under the Chinese History Museum (now the Chinese National Museum). In 1989, the State Council passed legislation entitled the Regulations of the P. R. China on Protection and Administration of Underwater Cultural Relics (1989 Chinese UCH regulation). After more than 20 years of development Chinese authorities established a wholly new UCH administrative protection mechanism, aimed at providing professional protection for the entire UCH in China. The State Administration of Cultural Heritage (SACH) is responsible for managing and protecting all kinds of national cultural relics, including UCH. After that the National Conservation Center for Underwater Cultural Heritage (NCCUCH) got full confirmation from the SACH in order to fulfill its functions, especially in developing the national UCH excavations, conservation, research and cooperation with local governments and local underwater archeology institutes. There are mainly four regional UCH protective administration offices: the Ningbo Office in the Zhejiang province, the Fujian Office in the Fujian province, the Wuhan office in the Hubei province, and the Qingdao office in the Shandong province. The development of Chinese UCH legal system The appearance of local legislative subjects It is the local government that refines related local UCH regulations and formulates feasible operational guidelines after 2008. The Fujian province and the Guangdong Province contain most various UCH items in China, such as Nanhai I shipwreck, Nan’ao I shipwreck and Banyangjiao (Reef) I shipwreck. In 2009, the Fujian Provincial People's Congress revised the Fujian Province Protection and Administration of Cultural Relics Regulations by adding a new chapter on the protection of UCH, which was the first local regulation relative to UCH in China. In the same year, the Guangdong province enacted the Guangdong Provincial measure for the implementation of the P. R. China on Protection of Cultural Relic, which set up a new “underwater cultural relics reserves” in Art. 26 in order to protect scattered UCH objects along its continuous coastline. 2 �The particularity of the legal object In addition to wrecks, sites, artifacts and human remains, the “Chinese Maritime Silk Road Sites” and “Ming and Qing Dynasty Coast Defense Sites” are unique kinds of UCH in China. “The Chinese Maritime Silk Road” once provided unprecedented access by ancient China to the most distant destinations reached by maritime trade. And it can be seen as a promotion of friendly relations linking East and West. The "Maritime Silk Road" in China embraces four aspects: the ancient ports, oceanic routes, cargos, and wrecks, each of which has specific and abundant contents. These four aspects interrelate systemically in order to form the Chinese traces of marine exploitation ---- the said “Chinese Maritime Silk Road”. The “Ming and Qing Dynasties Coast Defense Sites” are the defense constructions and facilities erected by Chinese authorities in order to prevent invasion m of the Chinese territorial sea and coastal areas in Ming and Qing Dynasties (from 1368 to 1800AD). These coast defense sites are situated throughout 13 provinces, including Macao, Hong Kong and Taiwan, and are being actively considered by China for nomination as World Heritage sites. The extending of legal content in protection UCH The UCH protection began with the national UCH survey, which now extends from the coastline to internal waters, the territorial sea and the contiguous zone. The UCH survey from 2007-2011 covered the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, the East China Sea (including the Taiwan Strait), the South China Sea (including the Chinese jurisdiction area in the Paracel Islands and the Spratly Islands). They are all situated adjacent to China, and in the internal waters of China. It was a comprehensive and scientific national survey of UCH, named as the third national cultural relics investigation project. There are 108 supposed UCH sites. SACH and NCCUCH established the South China Sea UCH office and the Paracel Islands archaeological workstation in 2012. Excavation, preservation, protection and management are the main tasks of protection of UCH. With 20 years’ experience of UCH protection, the Chinese authorities are gradually forming different but more appropriate protecting approaches for each UCH site in China. Take Baiheliang UCH site for example, which is the world’s oldest hydrological inscription in the Yangtse River. After considering the Baiheliang UCH conditions, Chinese authorities decided to build a submerged museum for 3 �preservation of its UCH in situ, which is now the symbol of a submerged museum in the world (UNESCO Museums and Tourism, 2013). Another example of protection of UCH in China is the Shanhujiao (Reef) I shipwreck, located in the Paracel Islands. Chinese authorities had to scientifically excavate (from 2006 to 2008) and conserve these cultural relics on land for preserving its scientific and archeological value in a good condition. After the excavation of the Shanhujiao (Reef) I shipwreck, the NCCUCH and CACH started the preliminary experimental study on the conservation of ceramics, metal and wooden relics from Shanhujiao (Reef) I shipwreck. The Chinese National Museum and the CCUCH organized more than 10 training courses on diving skills, methodology of underwater archaeology, and the UCH conservation since the 1980s. Now, the CCUCH and archaeological team in the coastal cities in China have been able to fill the gaps left open over decades. Challenges in China’s UCH legal protection Firstly, from the 1980s, looting and illicit trafficking were rampant in the South China Sea. China’s underwater relics attract a growing number of Chinese fishermen who dived for these riches (Yanhong, 2011). With the development of underwater technology and human understanding of the deep ocean, different marine exploration companies from all over the world came to the South China Sea for salvaging and exporting relics along the Maritime Silk Road. “The Nanking Cargo” auction in Christie's in the Netherland’s was the main cause leading to the 1989 legislation. In April 2011 the Chinese authorities investigated UCH in the Paracel Islands and reported that 26 UCH sites (more than 50% of the UCH sites in the Paracel Islands) had been illegally destroyed and excavated. What is worse, there is a reasonable suspicion that some neighboring countries deliberately damaged Chinese UCH in the South China Sea. For instance, a Ming-dynasty shipwreck located near Huangyan (Scarborough Shoal) was commercially excavated and destroyed by two 2000 ton foreign vessels (Yanhong, 2011). Secondly, a huge number of Chinese UCH outside the Chinese territory was not preserved under the national legal UCH protection system. A frequent type of UCH were merchant ships of the British East India Company that once frequently carried Chinese goods, shipping out of South China Sea bypassing the Cape of Good Hope to Europe and even to Africa. In the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic oceans a variety of 4 �shipwrecks prove this fact, such as the Mauritius shipwreck in the Cape Lopez of the Gulf of Guinea, the Manila galleon casa in the Gulf of California of the USA, the Goteborg shipwreck in the Swedish bay, and the Prince de Conty (France) in Loscat, Mediterranean (Chumming, 2003). In addition to shipwrecks that contained Chinese goods, Chinese experts discovered more and more Chinese shipwrecks outside China’s territory, such as nine Chinese shipwrecks in Lamu Islands, Kenya (Underwater Archaeology Research Centre, 2012). Thirdly, the Chinese UCH items are traded, sold, bought or bartered as commercial goods in eminent auctions. The most famous auction was the said “Nanking Cargo” in Christie's, Amsterdam in 1986. Then there was “The Vung Tau Cargo” auction in Christie's (Amsterdam) in 1992, “The Diana Cargo” auction in Christie's in Amsterdam in 1995, the “Tek Sing” (the China’s Titanic) auction in Stuttgart, Germany in 2000, and the “Made in Imperial China” auction in Sotheby's (Amsterdam) in 2007(Christie's Auction Catalog , Amsterdam). China has carried out the conservation of UCH for over 20 years and accumulated certain experience in practice and in theoretical research. The content, object, subject and the methods of protection of the UCH in China has changed a lot, but the national legislation is not effective in preventing illegal salvage or illicit export of the UCH outside the Chinese territorial sea. This is the proper time to explore the view on UCH outside of China, and to research an international legal approach to the protection of the UCH. The UNESCO 2001 Convention: the International Cooperation Scheme for Protection of UCH The UNESCO 2001 Convention, at the present time the most complete legal instrument for the protection of UCH, is far from being a powerful and popular international Convention. However, as the offshoot of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS), it indeed provides an effective international cooperation scheme for protecting UCH in different maritime areas, which does not change the limits of maritime areas or of the maritime power and jurisdiction of coastal states. Although the two principles of the UNESCO 2001 Convention, the principle of in situ preservation as the first option and the principle of non-commercial exploitation are based on the recognition of significance of the interplay between the UCH, its history and its context, 5 �this article aim to focus on the cooperation scheme which established the valuable and effective international legal instrument for Member States. UCH International Database Each State Party to the UNESCO 2001 Convention has the obligation to share UCH information with other States Parties concerning UCH. According to Art.19, that includes: discovery of heritage, its location, UCH excavation or UCH recovery contrary to this Convention. Therefore, the Secretariat of the UNESCO 2001 Convention suggests that States Parties submit to it national authority information to establish a worldwide UCH database. States parties are also able to disseminate UCH information to other appropriate regional, international databases, such as MACHU (to make information about our common UCH accessible to researchers, policymakers and the general public, originated by the European Union’s Culture 2000 program,), NAVIS I, NAVIS II (an open database of ancient ship supported by the European Commission Directorate General X), Shipwreck Asia Database (a regional shipwreck database, classified by the geographical regions, supported by the Toyota Foundation). The UCH Reporting and Notification System States Parties have a different reporting and notifying obligation in different maritime areas. But in the territorial sea or the archipelagic waters, the coastal States have only a soft obligation (“should”) to inform the flag State or other States with an effective link with UCH, with a view to protecting State vessels and aircrafts (Art. 7). In the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), on the Continental Shelf (CS) or in the Area, each State Party have a definite obligation to report the UCH discoveries and activities to that other State Party accordingly, or to all other States Parties (in Art. 9 and Art. 11). UCH Coordination States scheme The UCH Coordination States scheme is regulated by Articles 9 to 12 of the UNESCO 2001 Convention. In the EEZ or on the CS, the “coordinating State” is the State Party in whose EEZ or on whose CS UCH is located “unless the State Party expressly declares that it does not wish to do so”. In that case the “coordinating State” is that which is based on a cultural, historical or archaeological link to the concerned UCH. By the same rule is to be decided a “Coordinating State” in the Area to issue all necessary 6 �authorizations for agreed measures on behalf of all interested States Parties. The right of a “Coordinating State” is to implement measures of protecting UCH, cooperation and consultation among States Parties and conduct their decisions. Assessment of the desirability and feasibility of UNESCO 2001 Convention in China Benefits for China to protect Chinese UCH The UNESCO 2001 Convention sets up reciprocal obligations between Member States and it designs at the same time UCH protective rights for its States Parties. Without this legal instrument States would be entitled only to a limited jurisdiction and sovereignty in their EEZ and on the CS according to international law. And in the Area, the doctrine of international law on freedom of the high seas provides that activities related to UCH found in the Area are to be governed by the flag State. First, UNESCO 2001 Convention entitles coastal States in Art.8 to protect UCH within their contiguous zone. In case that China becomes a State Party to this Convention, it would acquire a positive right in its favour to initiate activities on UCH in its contiguous zone, more than defensive activities to prevent removing UCH from contiguous zone in UNCLOS Art 303 (2). Secondly, the UNESCO 2001 Convention entitles States Parties to take all practicable measures to prevent immediate danger to UCH in the EEZ and on the CS. According to the UNCLOS, the coastal State and other States share different rights and jurisdiction, as governed by its Parts 5 and 6, while the UNESCO 2001 Convention can be seen to expand the traditional rights of coastal States. As a State Party to UNCLOS, China regulated the marine sovereign rights in the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf (China EEZ and CS Law) mainly “for exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing natural resources” and “for conserving and managing the trans-boundary population, highly migrating fishes, marine mammals (in Art. 3 and Art. 6) in its EEZ. And the 1989 Chinese UCH regulation does not provide for the UCH protective provisions based on different marine zones. However UCH cannot be defined as a natural resource or a fishery activity. Hence, the Chinese authorities are now not entitled to take measures for prevention of immediate danger of UCH according to current Chinese national laws or regulations. If China becomes a State Party to the UNESCO 2001 Convention, it will be able to take any 7 �practicable and necessary measures or request other States Parties to handle looting or trafficking activities that happen in the Chinese EEZ in South China Sea. What is more important, the Operational Guidelines (draft) also provides possibility of cooperation of States Parties with other intergovernmental organizations, for example with Interpol, in order to prevent UCH excavations or recovery contrary to this Convention. Last but not least, the UNESCO 2001 Convention provides the effective international cooperation mechanism for all States Parties in protection of UCH. China should take advantage of the information-sharing forum (Art. 19), such as MACHU, to collect information with other State Parties about any Chinese shipwrecks discovered outside Chinese territory. Otherwise, underwater archaeology and UCH management are still recent sciences, especially for training of underwater archaeologists. China should ask the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body for developing of Chinese UCH excavation, management and protection methods, even for academic training on underwater archaeology, such as the Unit win network. Conformity with the existing Chinese UCH laws and regulations After consideration of the domestic relevant legislation and regulations, it can be concluded that there will be no conflicting clauses in the context of the currently ratified international cultural heritage agreements upon China’s ratification of the UNESCO 2001 Convention (including the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, ratified in 1989, the 1972 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ratified in 1985, the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects ratified in in 1996, the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage ratified in 2004 and the 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions ratified in 2007. Only the purpose of the International Convention on Salvage (1989) is contrary to UNESCO 2001 Convention. But recognizing the nature of UCH, China made a reservation on its Art. 30(1)(d) upon its ratification in 1993: China reserves the right not to apply the provisions of this Convention, “when the property involved is maritime cultural property of prehistoric, archaeological or historic interest and is situated on the sea-bed”. 8 �China only needs to review the principle of non-commercial exploitation in its national regulations in the light of the UNESCO 2001 Convention. The main problem is in the 1989 Chinese UCH regulation. It sets up the rule of exploitation and excavation activities of UCH in Art.7 in the way that: “archaeological exploration and excavation activities with respect to underwater cultural relics shall have, as their objective, the protection of cultural relics and scientific research … with approval by SACH”. It seems a prefect provision for regulating the excavation of the UCH for protection of cultural relics and scientific research. But according to it the objective of exploitation should be for instance scientific research under commercial excavation, such as the early excavation of RMS Titanic (Zekala, 2012). Therefore, the 1989 Chinese UCH regulation should confirm and clarify that any activities directed at UCH shall not consist of commercial exploitation or excavation. Conclusion The UCH protection is a recent scientific as well as legal issue for every nation. After analyzing the new developments in China, it becomes obvious that isolated national UCH legal systems still face problems in the effective protection of UCH. Every State should realize the significance of the exchange of the UCH legal and technical information for national underwater cultural resources. The 2001UNESCO Convention provides for its States Parties an effective international cooperation scheme. Therefore, individual inadequate national legal protection systems for UCH are destined to result into a cooperating international legal protection system. After evaluating the desirability and feasibility of the UNESCO 2001 Convention in China, it is beneficial for a State, like China, to protect national UCH under the legal instrument of the UNESCO 2001 Convention. Acknowledgements The author first likes to express her appreciation to “The China National Social Science Fund” which supported her “Research on Jurisdiction and Ownership of Chinese UCH (Project No. 13CFX094)”. The author also gratefully acknowledges valuable comments from Prof. Vladimir Đuro Degan on a previous version. 9 �References Christie's Auction Catalog , Amsterdam, http://www.sunkentreasurebooks.com/catalogs.htm, accessed 30, Dec.,2013 Chunming, W., 2003. Shipwrecks around China marine zone----Ancient sailing boat, ship technology and cargo. Jiangxi University Press, China.Jörg, C. J. A., 1986. The Geldermalsen History and Porcelain. Kemper Publisher, Groningen. Matthew, E. Zekala.,2012. Liability and Salvage: Titanic Jurisprudence in United States Federal Court, p1103, http://law.lclark.edu/live/files/11855-lcb163art8zekala.pdf, accessed 20 Dec 2013. Regulations of the P. R. China on Protection and Administration of Underwater Cultural Relics promulgated by Decree No. 42 of the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Oct 20, 1989. UNESCO, ‘Museums and tourism’, <http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/museumsand-tourism/>, accessed on 20 Dec. 2013. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/researchand-training/unitwin-programme/#c492115, accessed 20 Dec. 2013. Underwater Archaeology Research Centre (China) et al., 2012. Major Discoveries of Sino-Kenyan Cooperative Underwater Archaeological Survey in Coastal Areas of Kenya in 2010. Journal of National Museum of China, Vol. 8: 88-99. Yanhong, Cai., 2011. Grouping and well-organizing is the new trend of illicitly excavating UCH in China, Legal Daily, Beijing, (15 Dec, 2011). Chunming,Wu., 2003. Shipwrecks around China marine zone----Ancient sailing boat, ship technology and cargo, Jiangxi University Press, China. Biography Liu Lina graduated with Master of Law from Aberdeen University, UK, and PhD in law and Governance from Xi’an Jiaotong University, China. Liu is a lecturer at Xi’an Jiaotong University. Liu is currently engaged in a national research project entitled “Research on Jurisdiction and Ownership of Chinese UCH” supported by The National Social Science Fund of China. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 15: Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 15 chair Dr. Craig Forrest. Description An account of the resource The legal framework for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage has gained momentum throughout the Asia-Pacific with a number of States turning their attention to this issue. For some this is due to concerns raised though specific incidents that have damaged or destroyed the underwater cultural heritage or the information that could be gleaned from its excavation, whilst for others, it follows from consideration being given to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This session considers the Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in a number of Asia-Pacific states. The objectives of session are to explore the various national approaches and to seek aspects of commonality and uniformity that provide frameworks for other state that have not yet addressed the issue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Craig Forrest Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Chinese Perspective on the International Legal Scheme for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource With 18,000 km of coastline and plentiful streams and rivers, China has an extensive underwater cultural heritage (UCH), which preserves Chinese history and maritime civilization under the ocean as a kind of “time capsule”. After 20-years of development of underwater archaeology and the protection of UCH, China has set up a brand-new national protection system. This contribution first discusses the new development of the Chinese UCH legal system in the 21th century in three aspects: legal subject, legal object and legal content. Further it discussed the tremendous challenges faced by the Chinese legal system. Meanwhile, since its entry into force in 2009, the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001 Convention) has been gradually approved by more and more influential States who hold various and abundant UCH items. Part two explains the UNESCO 2001 Convention as the International Cooperation Scheme for Protection of UCH. Part three examines, from the Chinese perspective, the advantages and obstacles for a State that ratifies the UNESCO 2001 Convention. There is a final conclusion that argues that through the UNESCO 2001 Convention diverse national legal protection systems of the UCH have converged into an international cooperation legal instrument. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Liu Lina, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 15 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Confucian’s View of the Taxation of Commerce: Ts’ui Jung’s Memorial of 703 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Denis Twitchett Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Denis Twitchett Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Issue 2 Pages 429-45 Publication Title Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Title A name given to the resource A Confucian’s View of the Taxation of Commerce: Ts’ui Jung’s Memorial of 703 Volume 36 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3473fce1842c72a7a0e3229be67b70b6.pdf 8225ae6da85ec5188b4d237607d987c3 PDF Text Text A Digital Multi-tool: Using Storymaps for Education and Public Outreach Thomas Kurt Knoerl Ph.D. R.P.A. (Georgia Southern University, Associate Professor of History) ABSTRACT In 2022, undergraduate students from Georgia Southern University in Savannah, Georgia, U.S.A. conducted one day visual surveys and mapping exercises on five sites related to African American maritime history. As part of their maritime archaeology class, the students conducted historical background research on site, worked with members of the local community and governments, and produced a digital storymap of an African American maritime cultural landscape. By creating the storymap, which shows the sites in relation to each other, students gained a better understanding of the concept of a cultural landscape. Projects like this one can raise public awareness not only on important individual sites but, through a digital storymap, teaches the public that sites such as these are all connected and together, can tell a deeper story. This paper discusses how the project was organized, software alternatives that are available for similar projects, and the educational and public outreach benefits that cultural resource managers from any area can use to both educate students and build community support. Keywords: Storymap, Education, Public Outreach, Digital INTRODUCTION The discovery of a previously unknown shipwreck site can grab headlines and stir the public’s imagination. “Was there any gold onboard? Were there any cannons? Was it a pirate ship?” are among the questions asked by the public. Rarely, if ever, does anyone ask, “is this site part of a larger maritime cultural landscape that can add to our understanding of past maritime communities?” Seeing shipwrecks or other maritime related archaeological sites as part of a larger narrative would demonstrate to the public that there is more to the story here than the potential monetary value of an individual site. This could, in turn, potentially generate public support for historic preservation which is a common goal for cultural resource managers. Shifting the focus from questions about one wreck to questions about an entire community’s past is a useful exercise but how does one do that? The short answer is, by looking at multiple sites at the same time. A MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE IN COASTAL GEORGIA During the spring 2022 semester at Georgia Southern University, I offered a course on maritime archaeology for undergraduate students. I had taught it once before as a non-diving class that visited five sights around the Savannah, Georgia area. I wanted the students to experience different types of maritime archaeological sites such as an abandoned wharf, a steam engine, a small boat, etc. While the students gained a lot from the different experiences, the most common critique I received was that the students felt the sites were unrelated to each other, which, apart from them all being maritime related, was true. For the 2022 semester, I decided it would be a stronger learning experience if the five sites were related. To do that I selected sites all connected to African American maritime history. They were still different types of sites requiring different recording techniques because I wanted to teach different fieldwork skills. They included a canal lock built with enslaved labor, a Gullah Geechee (African American communities with strong ties to coastal sea islands in the southeast United States) built oyster bateau, an African American owned marina, an island temporarily given to Freedmen in 1865, and a Gullah Geechee oystering community. The common thread of African American relationships to water added a layer of significance in the students’ eyes not just because of topical coherence, but because the students now saw all five of the sites as being part of a much larger story. This made explaining the concept of the maritime cultural landscape far easier than I had experienced in other classes I taught. I was used to dealing with the confusion that accompanied undergraduates after reading the classic, but somewhat complex, work on the topic, The 1 �Maritime Cultural Landscape, written by Christer Westerdahl.1 Seeing the concept laid out before them in the real world made it much clearer. The students viewed the topic of the African American maritime cultural landscape as a regional issue rather than as a collection of independent sites even though the five locations we visited were not connected in terms of their previous owners. They saw the sites as evidence of a wider culture. As a teacher, I was quite gratified by this and affirmed in my decision to use this approach to teaching the class. As a public historian, though, it made me wonder how we as a class could pass the same lesson on the general public. I could not, after all, transport everyone in the Savannah metro area to each individual site so that they could see them the way my students did, or could I? While I couldn’t physically transport members of the public to each of my sites, I could show them where they were located on a map of the region. This provided a sense of the scale of the landscape. The sites were spread out over approximately 1,300 square miles. The second part needed to appreciate the relationship between the locations meant telling the stories behind each site. Finally, I needed a way to do this on demand. A digital storymap accomplishes all of these goals and more. By placing an interactive map online that contains information about each archaeological location, visitors could both “see” the spatial relationship between each site and read the stories that connected them as well. An additional benefit that comes with using a digital platform is the ability to attach different types of media including text, images, videos, timelines, photographic overlays, three dimensional models, etc. I explained to my students that as responsible archaeologists, we had an ethical duty to provide site reports on our work to the stakeholders involved for each site. Without meaning to, I had selected a federal, state, and municipal site along with two owned by private individuals. The students prepared reports for each of these groups but I also taught them that we had an additional responsibility to include public outreach in our project. I informed them that we would create a digital storymap for this project as one of the ways we would share our findings with a wider audience. As a class we discussed why this was important, how it created a shared sense of community and thus an interest in historic preservation. We talked about how writing for the general public, as opposed to an academic audience, meant using less professional jargon, using concise prose, and having teaching as our main objective. The students kept these goals in mind as they recorded our work in photographs and videos. I asked them to consider what images would help explain the stories related to each location. Unfortunately, as the semester came to a close, there was not enough time for the students to work directly on constructing the digital storymap but their text and images were included in the site that I eventually launched on their behalf: http://www.themua.org/aamcl .2 Visitors to the site will find an introduction section that explains the project and its goals. After that, there are two content sections. The first is the storymap based on my students’ work while the second includes data gathered by my colleague, Dr. Julie de Chantal, who conducted research on United States census data related to African Americans working in the maritime industries for six counties in coastal Georgia. The two sections together were funded in part by small grants.3 The maritime archaeology portion of the storymap steps through each of the five sites while simultaneously showing a map of the region with all five locations indicated. This is a constant reminder of the geographic ties between the project locations. The text that accompanies each site provides its background history. Each location contains up to five images or videos which illustrate both the history and the work conducted by the students. A variety of historic newspaper clippings, videos, and photographs provide deeper context for the visitor. Taken all together: the map, site descriptions, and census data are more than just the sum of their individual parts. 1 Christer Westerdahl, “The Maritime Cultural Landscape,” The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21, no. 1 (1992): 5–14. 2 T. Kurt Knoerl et al. “The African American Maritime Cultural Landscape: Field Work in Coastal Georgia,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, September 27, 2022. http://www.themua.org/aamcl 3 Funding for this project was provided in part by generous donations from Georgia Sea Grant, Americana Corner, and the Museum of Underwater Archaeology. 2 �For example, while the historic African American marina on Wilmington Island is of interest in its own right, as they all are, together, the five locations, each with their own story, illustrate the broad diversity of African American maritime communities across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, thus painting a more complete picture. The five individual sites become one community spread over the Georgia coast. CIVIL RIGHTS EDUCATION In previous classes, I have used storymaps for different purposes although always in an effort to educate not only the students but the public as well. The first example, the spring 2022 storymap, displayed the spatial relationships between archaeological sites. A second use for storymaps is illustrated by a project created in 2020 in which my digital history class recreated a historic African American walking trail of Savannah, Georgia created and led by the late Civil Rights leader W. W. Law.4 The tour was extensive, highlighting sites of famous African Americans as well as those who were representative of the working classes. Law’s tour helped teach the public that while the individuals may be gone, much of their physical world is still with us. He transformed what might otherwise be just another antique home, into evidence of Black entrepreneurship and of a community’s perseverance in the face of persistent discrimination. As one walks the tour, it becomes apparent just how widespread and vibrant the African American community was in Savannah. This was the end goal I wanted my students to recreate digitally. Students worked with the city archives to review Law’s tour notes. They relocated and photographed the tour stops and conducted additional background historical research to supplement Law’s comments. The storymap currently contains twenty-seven sites and includes photos and videos. Unlike the African American maritime cultural landscape storymap, the W. W. Law storymap’s main focus is on a map of Savannah. Viewers are more likely to actually visit several of the sites. Having the map emphasized makes it easier to select specific sites to see and to plan a walking route. A QR code was used on a flyer that was distributed to numerous places around Savannah to encourage the public to take advantage of the free tour. In 2023, the storymap was updated by a new group of students who recorded an audio version of the tour so that visitors can listen to both Law’s comments and the students’ research. COLLABORATIVE EXHIBITS A third use for digital storymaps includes uniting independent organizations across a far broader scale. Students in my Native American history course were tasked with discovering which museums in North America contained birch-bark canoes in their collections. This Native American technological invention was broadly produced in northern North America from the pre-contact period up to the present day. At first glance there may not seem to be much variation between canoes but a closer examination of the canoes in museum collections shows the incredible diversity that is largely a product of the individual Native cultural groups spread across the continent. The stem and stern of an Algonquin built birch-bark canoe in Musée Huron-Wendat museum outside of Quebec, Canada, is very distinct from one created by the Dena’ina Athabascan culture on display in the Alaska State Museum in Juneau.5 The birch-bark canoe storymap contains, at the time of this writing, sixty-three canoes in thirty-six museums. The storymap allows all of the independent organizations to bring their canoe collections together digitally in a way that would be impossible physically. National boarders do not hinder this sharing. 4 T. Kurt Knoerl et al. “The W. W. Law African American Heritage Trail,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, March 6, 2023. http://www.themua.org/wwlawtrail . 5 See tour stops 13 and 36 in Bark Canoes: A Digital Canoe Collection. T. Kurt Knoerl et al., “Bark Canoes: A Digital Canoe Collection,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, May 10, 2023. http://www.themua.org/barkcanoes 3 �Numerous Native communities can view the canoe style variations attributed to their cultures which is especially important for those groups who no longer possess any examples of canoes built by members of their culture. Researchers can view the canoes to see similarities and differences in not only design, but in builders and across time. The large map interface also lets viewers see the broad geographic range of museum owned canoes as well as highlighting those areas that are under-represented. This may encourage organizations to volunteer to participate in the project and to gain recognition for their collections. Participation in the bark-canoe storymap is free of charge to the participating institutions. Although far broader in scale than the African American maritime cultural landscape of Georgia storymap, the two sites are similar in that by placing each location, be it an archaeological site or an individual museum, into the context of the larger cultural landscape, the sites do not diminish in their importance but in fact gain from it because of the additional context attributed to them. In some respects, this mirrors the Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. As numerous cultural resource managers from across the Asia Pacific region gather at their triannual conference, each participant can see that they are not alone, but rather, a part of a much larger movement. They learn about and from each other noting similarities and also new viewpoints. Examining disparate birch-bark canoes can demonstrate how Native cultures were both similar to, and independent of, each other. The transnational and transcontinental example of the birch-bark canoes storymap could be a model for Asia Pacific cultural resource managers to bring their sites and collections together digitally, thereby raising awareness and appreciation of their work. The mention of digital technology may be intimidating to some, however, all three examples discussed were created with the assistance of undergraduate students using ArcGIS software. While this may seem like an expensive option, it can be quite affordable if not free. The nonprofit educational organization The Museum of Underwater Archaeology applied for and received a significantly discounted priced account from ESRI, the maker of ArcGIS storymap software. ESRI also provides free accounts to qualified applicants that may be a good alternative for underfunded organizations. Options, such as StoryMapJS by Knight Lab, allow for free accounts and can provide an affordable option. Many storymap software options operate in a similar manner. Users select a geographic location and upload text and images about the site. How best to tell the story is what requires the most thought, especially as the number of storymap software options increases. As mentioned earlier in this paper, my original maritime archaeology class visited five unrelated sites which, when viewed together, lacked a cohesive story. There was little to draw the viewer from one site to the next. The key is to understand why a collection of sites have been grouped together. One must be able to answer the spatial version of the “so what” or “why do we care” questions. When considering creating a storymap one should give serious consideration to whether or not examining a data set’s spatial relationship has any significance. Does it matter if one archaeological site, for instance, is located in Perth, Australia, while a second is located in Buffalo, New York, if there is nothing else tying them together? In this instance, the spatial relationship between the two sites is insignificant or goes no further than mere curiosity. The best area to assess for significance is, unsurprisingly for those working in the humanities, the human story. Because most storymaps allow a viewer to follow a preset path from one location to another, it is very similar to laying out a narrative in a written story. The author should guide the viewer so that each site builds upon the next or at least offers a suggested direction of physical travel should the viewer be interested in visiting some or all of your sites. For those visitors who wish to resist the constraints of a traditional linear path, they can ignore the storymap’s creator and click on the map where they will. These rebels can rest easy knowing that even if they throw caution to the wind and select site number five before visiting site four, they will always have the overall map to guide them back to the suggested order.6 6 As you might have guessed, the author is not a fan of non-linear storytelling. To each their own. 4 �Another suggestion for the beginning storymap maker is to consider, depending on the software platform, taking full advantage of the various media at the researcher’s disposal. Concise, informative text is an absolute necessity but images and video can provide an opportunity to explore the site in greater depth, to draw attention to the relationship between sites, or to describe the threats to their preservation. The stories within the storymap can explore numerous facets of the collection. It all comes down to the overall purpose behind the storymap and, as discussed earlier, there are numerous options. CONCLUSIONS? The African American maritime cultural landscape based on my spring 2022 maritime archaeology class sought to teach both my students and the general public about the variety of maritime experiences of African Americans in coastal Georgia over the past two hundred years. The W. W. Law storymap resurrected a physical tour that was, in its own way, an analog version of a storymap. Law led his guests through the historic spaces in Savannah based on his own experiences and following paper maps. The bark-canoe storymap used the digital realm to shrink the physical space that separates museums and their canoes, thereby allowing visitors to view Native American maritime material culture in the context of their shared North American experience. Regardless of the model one might choose, it is important that cultural resource managers, wherever they are, view storymaps as a way to overcome obstacles to teaching, research, and education that high cost and distance can impose. When interviewed about their experience in creating storymaps for both classes and personal projects, students acknowledged the challenges and opportunities this type of project presents. One student wrote, “I believe, the earlier historians… get into this expanding field, the better. It allows us to expand our range of influences beyond the university or the museum grounds onto a truly international stage.”7 Another student noted the benefit they received from working on a publicly viewable storymap, “Having something other than words on paper to prove your academic abilities solidifies your goals and makes you think of other projects and applications that await you in the future.”8 If it is true that water unites humanity, and the global distribution of shipwrecks around the world can attest to that (there is even a shipwreck in Lake Erie that was built in Asian waters), then cultural resource managers, working jointly, can use storymaps to show the ties that bind their underwater cultural heritage. With each node added to the storymap the story becomes richer in meaning and more effective in what it can teach us about our shared past. What lays at the heart of storymaps, is to put it plainly, the story. The map shows us not that we are disconnected by space, but in truth, connected by it. In the end, it’s just a matter of scale. 7 8 Dalton Blackmon, email message to author, August 18, 2020. Alyssa Saldivar, email message to author, August 18, 2020. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Knoerl, T. Kurt, Robert Carpenter, Bertram Cedola, Abby Anderson, Mary Anne Gojdics, Donna Sanders, Kaz Green, et al., “Bark Canoes: A Digital Canoe Collection,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, May 10, 2023. http://www.themua.org/barkcanoes Knoerl, T. Kurt, Julie de Chantal, Sarah Fulford, Ozalynn Davis, Ann Grace Bazemore, Marchello Graddy, Zach Graham, et al., “The African American Maritime Cultural Landscape: Field Work in Coastal Georgia,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, September 27, 2022. http://www.themua.org/aamcl Knoerl, T. Kurt, Julie de Chantal, Luciana Spracher, Harlie Bagley, Ana Beasley, Doug Carol, William White, et al., “The W. W. Law African American Heritage Trail,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, March 6, 2023. http://www.themua.org/wwlawtrail Saldivar, Alyssa. “Story Map Article.” Received by T. Kurt Knoerl, August 18, 2020. Blackmon, Dalton. “Story Map Article.” Received by T. Kurt Knoerl, August 18, 2020. Westerdahl, Christer. “The Maritime Cultural Landscape.” The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21, no. 1 (1992): 5– 14. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 20: Effective Ways to Deliver Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 20 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 20 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Digital Multi-tool: Using Storymaps for Education and Public Outreach Description An account of the resource In 2022, undergraduate students from Georgia Southern University in Savannah, Georgia, U.S.A. conducted one day visual surveys and mapping exercises on five sites related to African American maritime history. As part of their maritime archaeology class, the students conducted historical background research on site, worked with members of the local community and governments, and produced a digital storymap of an African American maritime cultural landscape. By creating the storymap, which shows the sites in relation to each other, students gained a better understanding of the concept of a cultural landscape. Projects like this one can raise public awareness not only on important individual sites but, through a digital storymap, teaches the public that sites such as these are all connected and together, can tell a deeper story. This paper discusses how the project was organized, software alternatives that are available for similar projects, and the educational and public outreach benefits that cultural resource managers from any area can use to both educate students and build community support. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource T. Kurt Knoerl Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Knoerl, T. Kurt . 2023. “A Digital Multi-tool: Using Storymaps for Education and Public Outreach.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Bill Jeffery. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1966 Asia-Pac Session 20 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Display of Two Forraigne Sects in the East Indies: Vizt: The Sect of the Banians the Ancient Natiues of India and the Sect of the Persees the Ancient Inhabitants Of Persia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Henry Lord Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Francis Constable Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1630 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Henry Lord Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1630 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Francis Constable Title A name given to the resource A Display of Two Forraigne Sects in the East Indies: Vizt: The Sect of the Banians the Ancient Natiues of India and the Sect of the Persees the Ancient Inhabitants Of Persia India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/66d8200bc2f3091ec079fa026710224a.pdf c8127be33aae14cf801b44353b7a1d1c PDF Text Text A Geographic Analysis of Traders and Trade Goods in Japan’s Late Medieval Seto Inland Sea Michelle Damian University of Southern California, Department of History, Social Sciences Building (SOS) 153, 3502 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0034 USA Email: mdamian@usc.edu Abstract This paper will discuss ongoing research into the flow of both goods and people in medieval (14th - 16th centuries) Japan’s Seto Inland Sea area. Prior to colonialism and contact with the West, there was already a complex, well developed maritime network in place within Japan that has received little attention. Understanding the extent of the domestic trade network reveals the thriving trade between communities within the Inland Sea, in conjunction with the better known courtcentric tribute and tax system. Examining archaeological and written records concerning trade goods and collaboration among ships’ captains provides a clearer understanding of the networks and developments in this region. Although the foundation for much of this research comes from the documentary record, incorporating the archaeological evidence into a GIS (Geographic Information Systems) database paints a fuller picture of the networks within the Inland Sea before contact with the West. Key words: Medieval Japan, Maritime shipping, GIS (geographic information systems), Trade routes, Bizen pottery Introduction Japan has traditionally been considered a “closed country,” seen as almost entirely removed from any interactions with the rest of the world until contact with the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. Scholars therefore tend to omit discussion of Japan’s role in Asian trade and ignore the established trade networks within the archipelago itself. Janet Abu-Lughod’s Before European Hegemony, though generally an excellent introduction to medieval trade routes beyond Europe, completely excludes Japan even though she devotes an entire chapter to Asia. Official documents clearly show trade connections with China and Southeast Asia throughout the premodern era, and mainland pottery and other goods are regularly 1 �excavated throughout archaeological sites in Japan1. Much of the medieval documentation of the domestic trade, though, shows goods coming from the periphery to the central court in the Kyoto region. While these connections are important to note, it ignores the role played by trade hubs in the provinces on the cusp of contact with the West. Understanding those domestic trade routes will eventually help clarify the role that smaller ports en route to the capital region would have played in transporting foreign goods. Through a geography-based analysis of the domestic trade routes in late medieval Japan, it becomes apparent that the connections and collaborations between different local ports and ship captains facilitated a thriving local trade. Sources and Methodology Though few trade-related documents from the medieval period have survived the centuries, one set of port records provides much information about Inland Sea shipping. The Records of Incoming Ships at the Hyōgo Northern Checkpoint (Hyōgo Kitaseki Irifune Nōchō, below, Records) record data for over 1900 vessels that passed through the checkpoint at Hyōgo, today part of Kobe City, in 1445 and the first two months of 1446 (Hayashiya, 1981). Each dated entry notes the port of registry of the ship, the type and volume of cargoes carried, the taxes levied on the items and dates collected, the name of the ship’s captain and the name of the warehouse manager that handled the incoming items2. As the records show the flow of goods from the provinces to Hyōgo, gateway to the central court region of Kyoto, this collection has been very useful in learning about center-periphery trade relations. By analyzing the imports through a geographical lens, though, the focus becomes on the roles of the provincial ports. From there it is possible to learn more about the connections between those provincial ports and understand more about regional trade networks. Sets of maritime regulations (Kaisen shikimoku or kaisen taihō) also reveal additional information about seafaring practices in the medieval period 3. The dates of these regulations are disputed, as the language used and the age of the extant 2 �copies suggest a late 16th century author but the dates on the documents themselves are from 1223. Even if they were written in the later era and predated to suggest an established precedent, however, their widespread recopying implies that though the written codification came later, the practices themselves were likely already widely followed. Other information about medieval trade comes from the archaeological record. Unfortunately in many cases there is little archaeological signature for the items noted in the Records, particularly for consumables such as rice, salt, and marine life. Site reports from locations along the Inland Sea help paint a richer picture of the flow of other items such as pottery or iron. Incorporating both the documentary information from the Records with the archaeological evidence into a GIS (Geographic Information Systems) database helps highlight the patterns of trade throughout the Inland Sea, suggesting new relationships between the locales and revealing some previously lesser-known trade hubs. Trade Routes: Commodities The Records note nearly ninety different cargoes being shipped throughout the Inland Sea in 1445. As it is impossible to discuss all of them in depth, this paper will focus on trade patterns for salt, the most traded commodity in the Records, and pottery, best representative of the archaeological signature. Since salt was recorded usually noting its production point (“Aga salt,” “Mihara Salt,” “Bingo Salt,” etc.), it is relatively easy to identify the different shipping routes. Even though (Fig. 1) reflects a large amount of data, the overall color distribution indicates that the salt often was shipped directly to Hyōgo from a port close to its point of production. Mihara salt came from the ports on Awaji Island near the port of Mihara, Katamoto salt from Sanuki province ports near Katamoto, and so on. Looking only at ports that shipped more than five hundred koku (1 koku = approximately 330 lbs) of salt to Hyōgo over the year, however, reveals further information about transshipment trends (Fig. 2). 3 �Fig. 1 All salt shipments in the Records (Michelle Damian) Fig. 2 Ports shipping more than 500 koku of salt in the Records. (Michelle Damian) 4 �One of best examples of an unexpected transshipment hub is Takasaki. Particularly in comparison to its neighbor ports of Onomichi and Setoda, Takasaki was not a major port. It shipped to Hyōgo only about one-third to onequarter of the total amount of goods sent by either Setoda or Onomichi. Yet even Takasaki shipped a smaller quantity of items, it served as a transshipment point for Suō salt, produced in Suō province west of Takasaki. The ports of Fig. 3 Shipments of cloth in the Records. (Michelle Damian) Tomita, Yanai, and Kaminoseki, actually located in Suō, sent less Suō salt to Hyōgo than the six hundred koku shipped from Takasaki in Aki province. The absence of Suō salt in other ports east of Takasaki strongly suggests that Takasaki was the primary destination for ships carrying that cargo. After those ships offloaded their cargo there, it was then in turn sent to Hyōgo. Takasaki’s role becomes even more interesting when other goods and locations are also considered. Cloth often was brought to Japan from the mainland via Kyushu. When mapping the shipments of cloth to Hyōgo in the records, Takasaki and the adjacent Kamagari are apparent as the major suppliers, with Sakihama a distant third (Fig. 3). In considering rice shipments as well, the only port shipping Kyushu rice to Hyōgo is Kamagari. A fourth product named nikomi in the Records is shipped to Hyōgo only from Moji and Kamagari4. Other ports noted in the Records that are closer to Kyushu, including the adjacent ports of Shimonoseki and Moji as well as all of the other Suō province ports, were bypassed by the Kyushu products in favor of the further Takasaki and Kamagari, but did not go as far as the much heavier trafficked Onomichi and Setoda. One possible reason for Takasaki and Kamagari’s favored role may have been an attempt to protect cargo shipments. The seas around the islands immediately to the west of Takasaki are home to strong currents and treacherous waters. Moreover, slightly southwest of Takasaki but east of 5 �Setoda were islands inhabited by pirate clans as early as the mid-1300s (Shapinsky, 2005: 147). In the Records, ships coming from the western ports were generally larger but less frequent than their counterparts from the eastern ports. Their captains would therefore have had to maneuver their large ships through dangerous shoals with which they were less familiar, and needed to defend against piracy to boot. Transshipping at Takasaki or Kamagari would have allowed them to transfer their goods to captains in smaller ships that were more familiar with the waters, without crossing over the more treacherous areas to Onomichi and Setoda. Items that allow the incorporation of the archaeological record into the analysis provide much more information about the spread of trade goods throughout the Inland Sea. The most obvious of these is in the analysis of pottery. The Records alone note that small jugs (tsubo), were shipped to Hyōgo from Sakai, Katakami, and Inbe (Fig. 4). Suribachi, a shallow bowl used in cooking, were shipped only from Jige, and only once throughout the entire year of records. There is a notation in one shipment from Ushimado that records six suribachi as part of the taxes levied on a shipment of sesame seeds, but as this was not recorded as part of the official taxable cargo it is an unusual case, and cannot necessarily be factored into the analysis of the typical cargo shipments. While the type of pottery unspecified Records, volume of in the is the total shipping from the Bizen area (including the Katakami and Inbe kilns) and the kiln ruins from the Inbe Fig. 4 Bizen pottery in the Records and in archaeological evidence. (Michelle Damian) 6 �area strongly suggest that the majority if not all of the pottery was Bizen ware (San’yo, 1978: 62)5. The pottery coming from Sakai is more questionable, but the pottery was brought in on the same boat that contained Kojima salt, also on the Bizen peninsula. This suggests that that vessel also visited or was shipping items from Bizen, and could therefore have been transporting Bizen ware to Hyōgo as well. While the Records provide information about the flow of Bizen pottery from its production point to Hyōgo, it is only a small part of the entire picture. In looking at archaeological site reports along the Inland Sea, the presence of Bizen ware is ubiquitous. Excavations in terrestrial settlements in Bingo province (Onomichi, Kusado Sengen), Sanuki (Nohara, Michi-shita site), Harima (Aboshi, MurotsuHyōgo)6, and even far inland in Aki (Yoshikawa Genshun site) reveal significant amounts of Bizen ware, ranging from suribachi cooking dishes, to tsubo jars, to larger vats and other implements. Underwater recoveries, which were not systematic excavations but simply pottery discovered through serendipity such as being caught up in fishing nets, also dot the Inland Sea. These are mostly located in the central inland sea area at sites near Naoshima, Aji, and Kugui-no-oki, and likely are the remnants of either shipwrecks or jettisoned cargo. The final type of site is represented only by Mizunoko-iwa, which was a shipwreck site that yielded nearly two hundred pieces of Bizen pottery (San’yo, 1978: 80-81). Looking at the sites alone certainly suggests a wider variety of usage for Bizen ware throughout the inland sea. Not only flowing from the production point east to Hyōgo and the central court, Bizen ware was also shipped out to destinations far west of the kilns. More Kamakura and Muromachi-era Bizen ware has been discovered on Honshu than on the western areas of Shikoku, possibly suggesting more direct interaction with the former area. Two sites are of particular interest. The first is Aboshi in Harima, a destination in between the kilns near Inbe and the checkpoint at Hyōgo. A number of pieces of Bizen pottery from the 15th century were found here, especially larger vats (kame) (Nakagawa, 2008: 119). They show 7 �evidence of use, and as such were likely imported to Aboshi as a final destination (Nakagawa, 2008: 124). Large numbers of pottery found in one area with no signs of usage would have been more likely to indicate a transshipment location. The information from the Records shows Aboshi as a small-to-medium sized port, sending sixty two ships to Hyōgo over the course of the year, most of which carried less than 100 koku of goods. It does not appear to have been a major source of transshipping based on traceable goods, but the evidence of Bizen ware used in Aboshi still suggests that there was direct trade happening with other estates along the Inland Sea. Instead of being a commercial center for incoming and outgoing goods, though, Aboshi was mainly an import destination. The second significant archaeological site is the shipwreck at Mizunoko-iwa. Located approximately six kilometers offshore of Shōdoshima, it is one of the only underwater discoveries of a Muromachi-era shipwreck site to date. Though the ship itself has been lost to the elements, the pottery cache recovered yielded 35 large jars (kame), 71 large jugs (tsubo), 14 small jugs (tsubo) and 66 cooking bowls (suribachi), totaling 189 objects. This provides at least a minimum representation of the number and types of items that would have been shipped longer distances. The ship’s intended final destination is unknown, though it may have been the Kumano area on the Kii peninsula. Bizen ware has often been discovered along the coast of Wakayama prefecture, and the wreck site places a ship leaving the kilns at Katakami and Inbe squarely along that route (San’yo, 1978: 65). The first archaeological evidence of ballast stones used on ships also comes from the Mizunoko site. Although the origin of the ballast stones has not yet been identified, studies have shown that they were not from the region near the kilns, which suggests that the vessel had loaded them at yet another port possibly from the Kishū or Shikoku area (San’yo, 1978: 87-88). The likely route of the voyage from Bizen directly to Kishū, as well as the combination of Bizen ware and ballast from a different location, suggests the direct interaction between two 8 �removed locales, further demonstrating the wide range of domestic ties and trade routes. Trade routes: People The maritime regulations suggest that voyaging together was a common occurrence. Several articles refer to the responsibility of one boat to lend aid to another in trouble, or to rescue individuals in the case of a shipwreck. As the regulations also suggest disputes in the case of allocating profits when cargo was lost or ships were damaged, it is possible that sailors traveling together also acted as witnesses to provide evidence to settle those disputes (Shinjō, 1994: 777). The Records note 171 vessels as edabune (“branch ships”), a term used in the maritime regulations as referring to an accompanying ship on a voyage 7. Understanding that this was a common practice further suggests stronger ties between individual captains. With common Japanese names such as Tarō Jirō or Shirō Gorō – roughly equivalent to trying to research the backgrounds of captains named “Bob” or “Joe” in the English world – and no other corroborating records, scholars have assumed that the captains in the Records were generally untraceable. Captaining a ship is a particular skill, though, particularly in the sometimes treacherous waters of the Inland Sea. In a finite geographical area, it is highly unlikely that there were multiple men with the same names plying the waters simultaneously. Examining the captain’s names through a geographic lens reveals that these individuals were indeed traceable and furthermore highlights collaboration between captains in their voyages. The voyages of Hyōe Tarō are an excellent example of one such ship captain’s network in play. His name appears associated with nine ships registered in Matsue, eight in Mihara, and three in Ushimado (once as primary and twice as secondary captain) (Fig. 5). The ships often arrive within one or two days of each other, and in one case a Hyōe Tarōcaptained vessel from Matsue and Mihara arrive on the same day. Since the same 9 �individual could not be physically captaining both vessels, at first glance it seems impossible that this was the same individual in every case. Fig. 5 Ports affiliated with Hyōe Tarō and his extended network. Considering the names of the captains of other ships that arrived in Hyōgo on the same days, though, the question becomes more complex. The same names appeared regularly, hailing from nearby ports – Yura, Murotsu, Hibi, and the same Matsue, Mihara, and Ushimado, though the majority were registered to Mihara. The table below details the names of the accompanying captains and the ports they were registered to, along with the type (Matsue, Mihara, or Ushimado) of Hyōe Tarō-captained vessel that they arrived in Hyōgo alongside (Table 1). Regardless of whether Hyōe Tarō’s ships were from Matsue or Mihara, the names of the accompanying captains were often the same: Emon Gorō, Mata Gorō, Gorō Tarō and others, mostly from Mihara, accompanied Hyōe Tarō’s boats regularly. 10 �Hyōe Tarō Vessels Port # of Boats* Registry Matsue 9 Accompanying Vessels Accompanying Port Affiliation (s) # of Boats* Captain Emon Tarō Mihara 1 Hibi 1 Gorō Tarō Mihara 3 Mata Gorō Mihara 2 Kanimori Tarō Mihara 3 Taifu Jirō Mihara 1 Mihara 8 Emon Tarō Mihara 6 Gorō Tarō Mihara 3 Mata Gorō Mihara 2 Kanimori Tarō Mihara 1 Yura 1 Taifu Jirō Mihara 1 Emon Jirō Murotsu 3 Hyōe Jirō Matsue 2 Ushimado 3 Gorō Tarō Mihara 1 Emon Jirō Murotsu 1 Hyōe Jirō Matsue 2 * “# of Boats” denotes the total number of vessels captained by the same person from the same port of registry. For example, Hyōe Tarō captained nine total boats from Matsue in 1445. The captains of the accompanying vessels listed to the right may have sailed with Hyōe Tarō’s Matsue boats from one to three times, and sometimes the same individual captained boats registered in different locations (e.g., Emon Tarō who accompanied Hyōe Tarō’s Matsue boats once on a Mihara and once on a Hibi boat). Table 1. Hyōe Tarō boats and networks In looking at cargo carried, all of the cargo from Hyōe Tarō Mihara and Matsue vessels as well as their accompanying ships consisted of Mihara salt, with Hyōe Tarō’s ships often carrying the largest cargo. The Ushimado vessels were exceptions; when Hyōe Tarō was primary captain it carried rice and in both secondary captaincies the cargo was Shima salt. With the common cargos combined with the connections between the individual captains, it seems likely that this was indeed the same Hyōe Tarō affiliated with all of the ships. The maritime regulations suggest that the shipowner and ship’s captain could be the same or could be two different individuals. Hyōe Tarō may have based himself in Mihara where he was accepted into that network of other ships’ captains, and also owned 11 �boats (or in the Ushimado cases where he is listed as secondary captain, perhaps shares in vessels) registered in other ports. If Hyōe Tarō were the shipowner but had someone else piloting his vessel, his name may have been written in the Records as the person primarily responsible for the ship and its cargo. The fact that he was an established member of the extant Mihara-based network allowed his boats from Matsue to join the voyages to Hyōgo, all carrying salt from Mihara. There are many such examples of captains’ networks that are revealed through a geographic analysis of individual names in the Records. The implications of this on the study of medieval Japanese labor practices are worth noting. Skilled workers, such as the ships’ captains, could be affiliated with ships registered to different ports in entirely different provinces. Most studies of medieval laborers focus on the agrarian sector, which were by their nature tied to the land they cultivated. Examining maritime practices shows that labor mobility may have been more possible than had been previously thought. In cases such as Hyōe Tarō’s, if he was indeed the ship owner for the Matsue vessels, it also implies the ability of individuals to own property in diverse regions – a privilege generally thought to have been reserved for members of the upper classes. Examining the geographic ties between the ship’s captains simultaneously suggests the potential for their mobility and their property owning. Conclusion Though this paper focuses on domestic trade routes in medieval Japan before direct interactions with the Western world began, the principles outlined here are still relevant to later maritime connections. This analysis demonstrates the established domestic maritime networks for both people and commodities and suggests transshipment hubs. Particularly in cases such as Takasaki and Kamagari, the geographic tracking of the flow of goods shows the role that relatively smaller ports might have played in transshipping goods from the southern regions. As Western trade was funneled through the offices in Kyushu, additional research will show whether those ports continued in their middleman role in 12 �shipping goods to eastern Japan, or whether their importance faded as infrastructure improved and the threat of piracy was squelched. The captains’ networks may have been useful in facilitating Western trade as well. Peter Shapinsky’s analysis of portolans (nautical charts) from early modern Japan shows their hybrid nature, using a mixture of Western and Asian scripts and iconographies (Shapinsky, 2006: 5). Further, he suggests that the ships’ crews in the 16th century were largely a mixture of nationalities and that the captains were the arbiters of knowledge on board, responsible for the safety of the ship and its crew and therefore for keeping accurate charts and records (Shapinsky, 2006: 15). The maritime networks of the inland sea show that collaboration between captains was already common practice, and could have easily extended their reach in cooperating with foreign captains in later years. The connections shown through this geographic analysis, while focused on domestic trade, are representative of the importance of the Inland Sea region as a shipping center. Privileging the geography and incorporating both documentary and archaeological evidence into the analysis further deepens our understanding of shipping and common maritime practices within medieval Japan. Acknowledgements I am grateful for the opportunity to be a part of the panel that Dr. María Cruz Berrocal and Dr. Mark Staniforth have coordinated. I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Joan Piggott, for her support at the University of Southern California. Financial support from the USC Provost’s Fellowship and the Fulbright Doctoral Fellowship for research both in the USA and Japan was critical. The Tokyo University Historiographical Institution and Meiji University both generously opened their archives to me. I am indebted to many people for their feedback during this process, but most especially from Dr. Kurt Knoerl and Sachiko Kawai. Endnote 1 For the purposes of this paper, the premodern era is defined as pre-Tokugawa era (i.e., prior to 1603) and the medieval period refers to the Kamakura through Muromachi/Sengoku periods (1185– 1603). The focus of this paper is largely the late medieval as represented by the Muromachi era (1337– 1573). 13 �2 The port of registry was not necessarily the beginning point of each boat’s voyage to Hyōgo, though in many cases it is likely that they were indeed the same. 3 The word “kaisen” literally translates to “ship going from place to place,” and usually refers specifically to a coastal trade ship. Since some of the articles in the regulations refer to riverboats, port regulations, and personnel issues, I have chosen to translate this as “maritime” rules or regulations. 4 The actual meaning of nikomi is unclear. It is thought to have been some kind of fish or marine good. 5 One kiln in the Furōzan area of Inbe was nearly forty meters long, which based on other contemporary kilns suggests that it was producing pottery from at least the early Muromachi era (15th c). 6 Murotsu-Hyōgo is different from the port of Murotsu in the Records. The latter is in Awaji province. 7 Flagships are referred to as honsen/motobune in the maritime regulations. The Records do not denote any boats as honsen, but do have several “nagabune” (longboat) notations which may have been another term for flagship. References Hayashiya, T., (Ed.), 1981. Hyōgo Kitaseki Irifune Nōchō. Chūo Kōron Bijutsu Shuppan, Tokyo. Nakagawa, T., 2008. Ceramics Unearthed at the Furuaboshi Site in Hyogo Prefecture. Trade Ceramics Studies, Vol. 28: 118–125. San’yō, S., (Ed.), 1978. Kaitei No Kobizen: Mizunoko Iwa Gakushutsu Chōsa Kiroku. San’yō Shinbunsha, Okayama-shi, Japan. Shapinsky, P. D., 2006. Polyvocal Portolans: Nautical Charts and Hybrid Maritime Cultures in Early Modern East Asia. Early Modern Japan, Vol. 14: 4-26. Shapinsky, P. D., 2005. Lords of the Sea: Pirates, Violence, and Exchange in Medieval Japan. PhD Dissertation. University of Michigan, Michigan, USA. Shinjō, T., 1994. Chūsei suiunshi no kenkyū. Hanawa Shobo, Tokyo. Michelle Damian has an MA in Maritime Archaeology from East Carolina University and is currently a PhD candidate at the University of Southern California. She has volunteered as Exhibits Editor with the online Museum of Underwater Archaeology (http://www.themua.org) since 2004. Her dissertation focuses on the maritime cultural landscape of Japan’s Seto Inland Sea, combining both written and archaeological evidence to explore maritime practices in the late medieval period (15th - 16th centuries). 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Introduction interview with session chair María Cruz Berrocal and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Research on early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region makes a fundamental contribution to the study of Global History. In the last decades, historians are highlighting the region's relevance in the transformation of global economy through its role in far-reaching trade networks. The early beginnings of colonialism in the region, as well as the role of non-Angloamerican colonial agents in the shaping of modern world have been also highlighted. Although these debates have been driven largely from history, archaeology must become more prominent for the study of early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region through the study of consumption patterns, environmental effects, demographic impacts, transformation of gender systems brought about by contact, the role of material culture in these first colonial endeavours, and specifically, the important evidence that maritime archaeology can bring to the fore. It is argued in this session that new lines of evidence and argumentation will be found through a history- archaeology joint collaboration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. María Cruz Berrocal Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Geographic Analysis of Traders and Trade Goods in Japan's Late Medieval Seto Inland Sea Description An account of the resource This paper will discuss ongoing research into the flow of both goods and people in medieval (14th - 16th centuries) Japan’s Seto Inland Sea area. Prior to colonialism and contact with the West, there was already a complex, well developed maritime network in place within Japan that has received little attention. Understanding the extent of the domestic trade network reveals the thriving trade between communities within the Inland Sea, in conjunction with the better known court-centric tribute and tax system. Examining archaeological and written records concerning trade goods and collaboration among ships’ captains provides a clearer understanding of the networks and developments in this region. Although the foundation for much of this research comes from the documentary record, incorporating the archaeological evidence into a GIS (Geographic Information Systems) database paints a fuller picture of the networks within the Inland Sea before contact with the West. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michelle Damian, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 5 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/02fc270ac7df70e3420f564268028922.pdf f045a845fe19e43e97f0d2b4a9e3cd19 PDF Text Text A Global Shipwreck: Using the Internet for Research, Public Outreach, and Catching up with the Past T. Kurt Knoerl Abstract Over the past few decades historians and archaeologists have moved away from examining their topics from nationalist perspectives but instead have looked for regional connections, such as the Atlantic world. This approach seeks to understand the relationships and influences between people in geographically distant locations. Even this regional approach, however, can be limiting as researchers now trace out global connections which occurred early on in human history. A global perspective reminds us that if we look deep enough we will see that the past, no matter where it occurred, relates to everyone. Chinese porcelains excavated in the Great Lakes region of North America from the eighteenth century, for instance, show us that shipwrecks in Asian waters can be relevant to First Nations people on the other side of the globe in Canada. It has always been so; we just didn’t always know it. The Internet, however, can not only help us teach this fact but can help us find those connections. Online tools have helped bring underwater cultural heritage into the homes of viewers from around the world. Public outreach websites like the Museum of Underwater Archaeology, for example, attract viewers from over 90 countries. This paper will examine how researchers can not only share their findings with a global audience via the Internet but will also highlight the online tools available to conduct research to tease out those global connections and tap into the collaborative nature of social computing. As we utilize the web to forge new cultural connections around the world, we are reminded that those sailing vessels that crossed the seas transporting their cargos in centuries past were doing the very same thing. The more we utilize the Internet to conduct research and share data about underwater cultural heritage the more we will see that each shipwreck we share with the world is truly a global shipwreck. Introduction As a graduate student in underwater archaeology in 1989 I excavated the cove area of a colonial fort located on the Great Lakes in the middle of North America. Thousands of vessels, large and small, had utilized the cove during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to unload their cargos of men and materials traveling either west, deeper into the continent, or east, toward ships that would bear them across oceans. During the 1989 field season we discovered the remains of an eighteenth-century shoreline that contained thousands of artifacts dating primarily from the British occupation period of 1759 to 1796 (Knoerl 1994:123). One of the artifacts we discovered that intrigued me the most was a piece of Chinese porcelain (Figure 1). I wondered who had made it. Could that Chinese artisan, as he removed it from the kiln and prepared it for shipping, have imagined the distance it would travel or picture the cultures through which it would pass and eventually be used? It became evident to me that even here, in a relative backwater of the North American colonies in the mid to late eighteenth-century, there were ties between people half a world apart. Shipping made that possible as it connected hinterlands to port facilities such as wharves, shipyards, merchants, shippers, and sailors. At the end of the voyage the vessels landed at similar maritime landscapes and their goods made their way to the consumer. In this way even segments of society that never even saw �a vessel and were separated by great distances were connected by water. The maritime activities of one region, no matter how seemingly localized, became, through global trade networks, a part of the maritime history of another. Shipwrecks are an important part of world history and as unintended time capsules they illustrate not only the global connections of the past, but through the Internet, they actively participate in today’s networks as well. This paper will argue that by using a modern electronic global network (i.e. the Internet), with its ocean of data and streams of connectivity, we can aid in their preservation through collaborative research and public education. Such an interconnected approach shows that every vessel that ended up on the bottom of the sea is indeed a global shipwreck. Figure 1. Eighteenth century Chinese porcelain excavated at British colonial Fort Niagara, Youngstown, New York USA in 1989 (Photo by author). Imagine a shipwreck. Consider its surroundings, its condition, and its location. What do you see? For many there is a sense of darkness and isolation and that despite being surrounded by water it is no longer in its natural environment on the surface. It would seem that the vessel’s story has come to an end. I would argue, however, that this is a temporary phase and that its story and its travels are not over. There are parallels between a ship’s past working life prior to the wrecking event and its role in the modern world after being rediscovered. After the wrecking event and subsequent discovery the same vessel can, in a sense, travel throughout the world again via the Internet. Its mission has changed, however, from one that was commercial or naval in nature to an educational one. Archaeologists that have recovered information about the web of commercial relationships ships once participated in can use the electronic “ocean” - one comprised of data, routers, high speed bandwidth, and Internet protocols to transport a vessel’s new cargo of information around the world. The �shipwreck no longer seeks safe anchorages in coastal ports but instead searches for access to computers ports. Using the Internet Although underwater archaeologists were not among the early adopters of the Internet some did recognize its potential in the late 1990s (Hall, et al. 1997). The time required to construct websites, the costs incurred, or the expertise needed may have prevented many from moving on to the web. A more fundamental issue was the poor track record underwater archaeology as a field had with regard to setting a high priority on public outreach. Treasure hunting companies were not as reticent and publicized stories about finding gold and riches with a public ensnared by such tales. By 2004 underwater archaeologists began to post their research online through websites like the online Museum of Underwater Archaeology (MUA). Within the last seven years the development of free websites such as Wordpress and the development of social media sites like Facebook have made it much easier to post content online.1 The range of options now available for utilizing the Internet continues to grow as does the number of individuals who can access it. As of August 2011 industry experts estimate that there are over 1 billion websites on the Internet (Netcraft 2011). Many of these websites contain multiple pages further increasing the number of pages of content available A Google search on the term “underwater archaeology” returns over 600,000 websites. The term maritime history returned nearly 4.5 million pages and the term “shipwreck” returned 12.9 million results. There is a veritable ocean of information available online. How then can we as archaeologists and maritime historians best use the Internet to participate and assist in continuing a vessel’s story beyond coming to rest at the bottom of the sea. The answer depends to some extent on what our goals are. Whether it is publishing or conducting research, one has to consider who the intended audience is. This, to a great degree determines what methods should be used. Some digital humanities researchers like David Staley argue for the increased use of visualizations of data and history as a more appropriate means to convey information over the Internet (Staley 2002:3). Utilizing maps, diagrams, and other images may indeed be a better digital publishing strategy for underwater archaeologists considering the visual and spatial nature of the material culture so central to their work. Conversely, digital history pioneers like Daniel Cohen and the late Roy Rosenzweig have called for adhering to prose and suggest that screens will eventually catch up to the human eye (Cohen and Rosenzweig 2005). Indeed since their prediction six years ago several companies have marketed hand held devices touted to be as comfortable to read as printed text. 1 Wordpress is a website that provides free web pages where individuals can post articles or comments on a web log, otherwise known as a blog (http://wordpress.org/). Facebook is a social website where users can post personal information about themselves for view by other selected Facebook members (http://www.facebook.com). �One thing that remains clear, regardless of the presentation style chosen, is the overriding need for researchers to publish something rather than nothing. This inaugural Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, encompassing as it does countries of the Indian and Pacific oceans, covers a large and diverse set of cultures. Yet some commonalities exist including that which impacts all nations regardless of location, namely the scarcity of resources and funding available to dedicate to educational outreach and research. In harkening back to the trade networks and connections that existed prior to the advent of steam navigation in the nineteenth century, we can see a model that can aid not only underwater archaeologists working in the AsiaPacific Region but across the globe. Ships did not operate in a vacuum but rather through cooperative agreements and collaborative projects with other members of the merchant community. Those arrangements allowed vessels to influence the lives of people across the planet. Marine insurance companies, for instance, allowed ship owners to pool their risk and make the most of their resources. While collaborative agreements might sound like an obvious solution to the high costs of online presentations, it is not an option that necessarily comes to mind for some archaeologists. Indeed a small survey conducted by the MUA in 2006 showed that when asked what the best use of the Internet might be, only thirteen percent of underwater archaeologists cited "collaboration" as opposed to the general public who mentioned it forty percent of the time. Also, somewhat surprisingly, the general public was almost twice as likely as professional archaeologists to suggest research as a good use of the Internet. Both groups cited "publishing" most frequently (Knoerl and Watts 2007). I would suggest that these potential uses of publishing, collaboration, and research are not mutually exclusive but that through combining them we can span the distances and differences throughout the Asia-Pacific Region to the mutual benefit of all. While any publishing of research online is desirable and to be commended a collaborative model is particularly useful for making the most of limited resources. Collaborative Models When I speak of collaboration there are numerous groups and means by which to accomplish such projects. First off, by collaboration I mean the sharing of data, resources, and ideas not just with the immediate partners involved but the general public as well. Two organizations may work together but through joint online projects they open their work at nearly all stages to public view and comment so that taken together there can be an almost emergent quality to the outcome. Unintended and unlooked for outcomes can take projects in new directions or result in new research projects previously unimagined. Indeed, although the MUA was conceived of as a collaborative project from the outset its development has been driven to a great degree by the suggestions and happenstance that has come from the three part collaboration of the museum staff, the participant underwater archaeologists, and the viewers. This occurs sometimes by brainstorming ideas directly with the MUA staff but also from an offhand comment, a cited example of some other work, or the unintended end �result of a particular experiment. While not all projects succeed, each effort that does encourages other groups to either participate directly with the MUA or to engage in their own online publishing activity - either way, the amount of ethical underwater archaeological project information that potentially reaches the publiceye increases and counters the romanticized and destructive message of treasure hunters. What follows are a few examples of collaborative projects that sought not only to accomplish that goal but to simultaneously forward underwater archaeology as a field. Perhaps the MUA’s simplest form of collaboration is its publication research by numerous underwater archaeologists. Although this is described in more detail by Michelle Damian’s paper, I will cite one example of the potential benefit of one group working with another.2 In August 2011 the MUA invited Peruvian underwater archaeologist Carlos E. Ausejo to write a guest blog on the website in order to introduce Mr. Ausejo and the present state of Peruvian underwater archaeology to the MUA’s audience (Ausejo 2011). Shortly thereafter a member of the Government Maritime Managers Forum, who had read Mr. Ausejo’s post invited him to join their group.3 Indeed upon learning of the AsiaPacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage through the guest blog I was requested to extend a similar invitation to other government managers in attendance at this conference (Mastone pers. comm. 2011). From one publication intended to educate the public and professional underwater archaeologists about Peru, it’s possible that archaeologists from the Indian and Pacific Oceans may, more frequently, share ideas with their colleagues in North America. In most cases collaborative projects hosted by the MUA are directed primarily at bringing together outside parties with the MUA acting primarily as facilitator. A recent example is the Gray Literature Bibliography Database (The MUA 2011). This project seeks to encourage underwater archaeologists working in local government to share bibliographic information about the numerous site reports that have been generated over the years in response to mitigation and research work required by state or federal laws. Site reports like this contain sensitive location information that is not routinely distributed to the public in order to protect sites from looting yet can be made available to researchers with legitimate research projects. By not making the reports easily available online they become difficult to find, often requiring researchers to travel to the various state libraries to review offline catalogs for each state they are interested in. The Gray Literature Bibliography Database contains the titles, dates, and authors of site reports for several states in one repository along with information on how researchers can gain access to specific documents they wish to read (The MUA 2011). The site contains hundreds of report titles, is searchable across all participating states included in the database, and brings to light the vast resources previously unknown to the public. It will reduce the cost of future work 2 See “Bringing Asia to the World: Public Outreach via the Museum of Underwater Archaeology” by Michelle Damian this volume. 3 The Government Maritime Managers Forum is a network of government managers of underwater cultural heritage at the national, provincial and local levels based in the USA. �by eliminating lost time spent trying to track down what work has already been conducted in the past. This project in particular highlights the power of joining data sets previously kept separate. By allowing for queries across several groups at the same time previously unknown relationships may come to light. Each query then is an act of creation as it generates new information (Manovich 2002:227). Joint online projects between institutions such as museums can also make the most of scarce resources. Birchbark Canoes: A Collaborative Gallery combines images and information about a specific type of indigenous small craft housed in different museums and institutions around the Great Lakes.4 The project apprises both canoe enthusiasts and professional researchers of the number and variety of craft that can be compared for regional variations in construction techniques and design. While the project was not instigated by the various museums involved it has proved to be a cost effective way for them to publicize an aspect of their collection that might otherwise have remained in obscurity. Collaborative projects such as this allow institutions to participate in a larger exhibit of canoes brought together on the Internet that might otherwise be too costly to gather together in one place. In doing so, they increase awareness of their institutions and collections at a fraction of the price. One of the MUA’s most promising collaborative projects involves not only underwater archaeologists but the very general public we wish to engage. In a role reversal of sorts underwater archaeologists can use crowd sourcing to gather data from the general public. Crowd sourcing occurs when large groups of people participate in quickly accomplishing a task that would take individuals or small groups a far longer period. Google used a similar concept developed by computer scientist Dr. Luis von Ahn which used the enormous number of hours people spend online playing games to help accomplish tasks such as labeling images for online searches. The MUA’s Shipwrecks Over Time Project is an experiment in this area by hosting an image gallery of a particular shipwreck and posting a few images online for the public to view.5 The public is then invited to contribute their diving photos of that wreck to the collection. Each participant is credited for their contribution. Images are sorted by the date they are photographed. In this way as the collection grows it becomes a tool for researchers to use to evaluate how shipwrecks change over time. The project taps into a potentially huge volume of images that might otherwise remain hidden. Should the project prove successful it can be used to gather images for other wrecks around the world. Perhaps one of the most unusual collaborative projects facilitated by the MUA involves coordinating the efforts of researchers from different disciplines. In 2009 members of the research team, Bateaux Below, approached the MUA about an art – science initiative that combined the efforts of a cellular biologist, an underwater archaeologist, and a scientific artist. Researchers from the three 4 The Birchbark Canoes: A Collaborative Gallery is under construction as of this writing. Upon completion viewers may reach the site via a link on the MUA homepage: http://www.themua.org. 5 The Shipwrecks Over Time project is under construction as of this writing. Upon completion viewers may reach the site via a link on the MUA homepage http://www.themua.org. �disciplines worked together to study single celled organisms called testate ameba and eighteenth century bateaux both of which can be found at the bottom of Lake George in New York State in the United States6. The artist then recorded her impressions and produced works of art that were displayed in a showing held simultaneously at the Lake George Arts Project gallery in the town of Lake George and on easels at the bottom of the lake from August 25th through September 10th 2009. A permanent digital version of the exhibit was posted online on the MUA. The online launch was one of the most heavily visited exhibits ever posted on the website. Many of the viewers went on to examine other projects on the website as well. In response to the project’s success the MUA recently invited two professional artists to review the hundreds of images posted on the MUA over the last seven years. They evaluated the images in artistic terms to see which ones went beyond pure academic value. They selected three images each, of which they identified ad having artistic merit and published their comments along with their selections. Their comments helped the public see underwater archaeologist’s work in a new light that would not have been available without this cross disciplinary project. Conclusion The projects described above all benefit from the fact they all create and expand networks of support for their participants. Often there are unexpected results that branch-out into additional opportunities for learning, which in turn inspire even more projects. The Internet is an especially powerful tool for doing this because of its exponential growth and deep penetration into nearly every corner of the world. As researchers share the stories they recover from shipwreck data it makes projects seem far less remote. Frequent updates to project journals, public participation through data contributions, and increased ease of access to previously unobtainable data have brought sites closer to millions of viewers. These projects teach the public that the sea connects us all today just as it connected manufacturers and artisans from one continent with consumers on another. As we continue to show the public that all maritime history is connected and is part of the story of human life on this watery planet, hopefully we will nurture a preservation ethic that recognizes that each shipwreck is not strictly part of one nation’s story but of all nations. In being of value to people across cultures and professions they are in fact everyone’s responsibility to protect, study, and share. If each underwater archaeological site is viewed in this way we have the potential to encourage research and assist each other whenever we can regardless of where we live on the planet. The MUA was founded to promote that idea (Knoerl 2006). The reason behind our success over the past seven years can best be summed up by a quote from the late nineteenth and early twentieth century writer on human achievement: Napoleon Hill wrote, “It is literally true that you can succeed best and quickest by helping others to succeed” (Hill 2003:65). I hope that everyone who has come together for this 6 The testate amebas live in the lake’s bottom sediments surrounding the bateaux. The bateaux were purposefully sunk by the British Army during the French and Indian War to avoid capture by the French. �historic inaugural conference will take that idea with them as they return to their home waters to continue their work on the global shipwreck. Bibliography ., Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage in Peru. The Underwater Blogger. Available at: http://muablog.wordpress.com/2011/08/16/maritime-andunderwater-cultural-heritage-in-peru-by-carlos-e-ausejo/ [Accessed September 13, 2011]. Digital History: A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, And Cohen, D.J. and Presenting the Past on the Web, University of Pennsylvania Rosenzweig, R., 2005 Press, Philadelphia. Hall, A., Hall, R., Presenting Archaeology on the Web: The LaSalle Shipwreck Project. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 26, 3, and Arnold, J.B. III, 1997 pp. 247-251. The Law of Success, Vol. 3: The Principles of Self-Creation. Hill, N., 2003 Revised and Updated. High Roads Media. About the MUA. Available at: Knoerl, T.K., 2006 http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/about.html [Accessed September 13, 2011]. Beneath Niagara: A Methodological Approach to an Inundated Knoerl, T.K., Eighteenth-Century Site, MA Thesis, East Carolina University, 1994 Greenville, N.C. Knoerl, T.K. and Swimming in the Cyber Oceans: Underwater Archaeology and the Internet. The 40th Annual Conference on Historical and Watts, G.P. Jr., Underwater Archaeology, Williamsburg, VA. 2007 The Language of New Media. Reprint. The MIT Press, Manovich L., 2002 Cambridge, MA. Gray Literature Bibliography Database. Available at: The Museum of Underwater http://www.themua.org/collections/ [Accessed September 5, Archaeology 2011]. 2011 Web Server Survey .Available at: Netcraft 2011 http://news.netcraft.com/archives/category/web-server-survey/ [Accessed September 5, 2011]. Computers, Visualization, and History: How New Technology Staley, D.J., Will Transform Our Understanding of the Past. M.E. Sharpe. 2002 Ausejo, Carlos E. 2011 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Global Shipwreck: Using the Internet for Research, Public Outreach, and Catching up with the Past Subject The topic of the resource Session 10: Technology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Over the past few decades historians and archaeologists have moved away from examining their topics from nationalist perspectives but instead have looked for regional connections, such as the Atlantic world. This approach seeks to understand the relationships and influences between people in geographically distant locations. Even this regional approach, however, can be limiting as researchers now trace out global connections which occurred early on in human history. A global perspective reminds us that if we look deep enough we will see that the past, no matter where it occurred, relates to everyone. Chinese porcelains excavated in the Great Lakes region of North America from the eighteenth century, for instance, show us that shipwrecks in Asian waters can be relevant to First Nations people on the other side of the globe in Canada. It has always been so; we just didn’t always know it. The Internet, however, can not only help us teach this fact but can help us find those connections. Online tools have helped bring underwater cultural heritage into the homes of viewers from around the world. Public outreach websites like the Museum of Underwater Archaeology, for example, attract viewers from over 90 countries. This paper will examine how researchers can not only share their findings with a global audience via the Internet but will also highlight the online tools available to conduct research to tease out those global connections and tap into the collaborative nature of social computing. As we utilize the web to forge new cultural connections around the world, we are reminded that those sailing vessels that crossed the seas transporting their cargos in centuries past were doing the very same thing. The more we utilize the Internet to conduct research and share data about underwater cultural heritage the more we will see that each shipwreck we share with the world is truly a global shipwreck Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource T. Kurt Knoerl Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 10 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/fd8eb683ee8649f7b735e530bbf99194.pdf b7e2fe268a55548ea311db4d90801a78 PDF Text Text A history and archaeology of fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia Bill Jeffery, PhD (Associate Professor Anthropology, College of Liberal Arts and Social Science, University of Guam) ABSTRACT Tuna fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is currently a sustainable and profitable fishing industry and part of the leading world tuna fishing industry in the western Pacific. This paper will outline how the FSM got to this position and what related tangible and intangible heritage exists today. It begins with how indigenous people from the region implemented their fishing practices, using techniques that were implemented in balance and harmony with their marine environment. When Japan colonised the region, they were aware of the rich marine resources, proclaiming Micronesia had about ‘one-tenth of the total known fish in the world’. In 1918 they enthusiastically began to develop a fishing industry, which included exploiting shellfish, beche de mer, mackerel, different species of tuna, and skipjack tuna that became the dominant species exploited, for the benefit of Japanese people and the Japanese economy. However, local people in Micronesia were not actively encouraged to be part of this industry. The Japanese established a research station and imposed several regulations in how the industry should be developed and implemented. This activity occurred pre-World War II, and during the war many of the fishing vessels were converted to assist in the war effort, then lost during the war. Following World War II, the U.S. attempted to revive the tuna fishing industry in association with local people, having limited success, but today tuna is the FSM’s top export, and part of a sustainable billion-dollar industry that provides benefits to local people. Coupled with the extensive tangible and intangible heritage of indigenous fishing before Japanese times, a holistic picture of the cultural landscape and seascape associated with fishing will be provided in this paper. Keywords: Tuna fishing, Micronesia, Japan, World War II List of Figures Figure 1: Locality map of various places mentioned in this paper. Chuuk Lagoon is shown as ‘Chuuk Islands’. Figure 2: Two aech (fish weirs) on the reef flat in Yap at low tide. Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2018. Figure 3: Memorial on Tonoas dedicated to the fishermen from Okinawa who died in Chuuk (Truk). Figure 4: Photograph of the bowsprit of the Tonoas dock boat looking back along the vessel. INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is relevant to this session that focuses on the sea-people of Oceania, and their cultural identity that is reflected in their maritime cultural landscapes and seascapes. These landscapes and seascapes encompass not just the tangible cultural heritage, being the ‘things’, such as sites and objects, but also the living heritage, the intangible cultural heritage including cultural practices, customs, and folklore associated with their marine environment. Central in the lives of islanders has been the exploitation of the coast and sea for their food—predominantly the vertebrate and invertebrate fish. Fish for islanders has been the major source of protein for thousands of years. Many practices and living heritage in acquiring fish developed, including pelagic offshore fishing, and fish weirs and traps for inshore fishing. The paper commences with a discussion on the traditional Indigenous cultural heritage associated with fish and fishing practices. When foreigners came into Oceania in 1521, they impacted many lifestyles, cultural practices, and their fishing practices through not allowing indigenous people to use their canoes such as in the Caroline and Mariana Islands. When Japan took control of greater Micronesia in 1914, they enthusiastically established an industry exploiting the region’s fish for their benefit, and Indigenous people’s fishing practices were greatly marginalised. Local people were not supported in the Japanese 1 �fishing industry, which soon became a viable and profitable industry for Japan, and in conjunction with other industries focusing on sugar, phosphate, and copra, this made Micronesia self-sufficient. A large influx of people from Japan, including those from Okinawa assisted in the development of the fishing industry through their involvement in pole-and-line fishing for mainly bonito (skipjack tuna, Katsuwonis pelamis), and employment in the canneries. Through the use of oral sources, primary historical documents (from the pre, during, and post-World War II periods) and secondary historical literature, together with examples of several sites and living heritage, the extent of the cultural landscape and seascape associated with fish and fishing practices in the FSM and in Micronesia is highlighted in this paper. The aim in highlighting this significant sea heritage is to raise awareness of its many attributes including the cultural, historical, and archaeological values being as valuable to land-based heritage. Many sacred and spiritual connections with the coast and sea, as well as with fish have developed for many millions of people across Oceania. They should be as important to land-based heritage given the planet is 70% covered with water. This ‘human’ connection and significance needs to be recognized especially in the United Nations Decade 2021-2030 of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. MICRONESIA AND THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA The Federated States of Micronesia is made up of four states (from west to east), Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae, with Pohnpei containing the capital of the FSM, Palikir. It comprises 607 volcanic, and predominantly coralline islands that stretch 2,736 km west to east, and Chuuk Lagoon, which is approximately at the centre is located at 7° 25’ North and 151° 50’ East. Micronesia is the broader region of the north-west Pacific that includes FSM as well as the independent nations, Palau, Marshall Islands, Nauru, and the Gilbert Islands in Kiribati, and the U.S. territories of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and Wake Island (Figure 1). The Micronesia term (meaning small islands), was used to distinguish between other regions of Oceania, being Melanesia (islands of black people) and Polynesia (many islands), all 19th century colonial terms for the more than 10,000 islands located in what is now called Remote Oceania (Kirch 2010, 133). It was through the expansion of Austronesian speaking people, originally from Taiwan, through Island Sea East Asia (ISEA), primarily the Sulu and Sulawesi Seas (Wallacea) that people came into Oceania (Bellwood 2006, 113). The oldest inhabited islands are those in the Mariana Islands (c. 3,500 BP), Palau, and the Bismarck Archipelago (3,350 BP) (Carson 2014, 1; Spriggs 2013, 1). The Gilbert Islands, Marshall Islands, Pohnpei, and Chuuk were settled later (from 2,800 to 2,000 BP), through a northward migration via the Solomon Islands into the Gilbert Islands, Marshall Islands, Kosrae, then westward to Chuuk (Blust 1976, 29). A stimuli Bellwood (2006, 110) promotes as to why people moved from Taiwan into ISEA, then into Oceania, was because of their: ‘predilection for rapid coastal movement and exploration, probably to find the most favorable environments for cultivation and sheltered inshore fishing.’ 2 �Figure 1: Locality map of various places mentioned in this paper. Chuuk Lagoon is shown as ‘Chuuk Islands’. Source USDA-NRCS National Cartography & Geospatial Center, Pacific Basin Area, 1:20,000,000, Fort Worth Texas, 1999. TRADITIONAL INDIGENOUS FISHING It is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a comprehensive perspective of the significance of fish and fishing practices to indigenous Micronesians. Throughout Micronesia, fish are valued as part of the living heritage for many Indigenous communities, and they connect people: ‘Fish and other marine animals are not only aspects of many Ocean mythologies, they are also objects of exchange between clans from the sea and the land for ceremonial purposes’ (Hilmi et al. 2016, 178). The authors found that Pacific Islanders in exchanging goods, including fish, were doing so primarily for their social, cultural, and political interactions, and the economic values were of secondary importance (Hilmi et al. 2016, 176). Many traditional Indigenous conservation and management systems are carried out throughout the FSM, such as in the pwaaw in Chuuk, where a reef section would be closed off following the death of the reef owner (Rauchholz 2016, 57); traditional bans such as ‘harvesting at specific times the resources needed for feasts and customary exchanges’ (David 2016, 239); and how certain fish collected from a Yapese aech are only to be eaten by certain individuals ((Jeffery In Prep; Jeffery & Pitmag 2010, 5). Micronesians also developed extraordinary skills in catching fish, such as in CNMI, where Driver (1983, 15) related a story from a Micronesian man named Suñama told to a Spanish Priest Fray Juan Pobre in the early 17th century about catching a marlin (Amesbury 2013, 44): …a very large blue marlin took the hook. His line was very thin and, as he did not want to break it, he hesitated to pull it in. Yet he was very anxious to land the fish; therefore he very cautiously began playing and tiring it. Meanwhile, a large shark appeared and attacked the marlin in the midsection of its back. In order not to let go of his line, the fisherman allowed his boat to capsize. Then he tied the end of the line to the capsized boat, followed the line through the water to the shark and diverted him from his catch. He then brought the marlin back to his boat, righted the craft, and sailed home, flying a woven mat as a banner from the masthead. 3 �Amesbury (2013, 40) has documented the range of fish bones found in various archaeological sites on Guam, testifying to the importance of pelagic fish in the diet, although reef fish remains are dominant. What she discovered was that this quantity of pelagic fish remains were unique when compared to a database of 75 Pacific Islands archaeological sites. Flying fish were also a very popular fish to catch throughout Micronesia, either as a source of food, or as bait during pelagic fishing. In discussing fishing practices using canoe in Yap, I learnt that the Yapese outer islanders would fish without a canoe by floating in the water dangling a line and hook to catch shark, and there are many other stories related to the extraordinary fishing skills of Micronesians (W. Pitmag, personal communication, 2008). Other fishing practices can include using spears, nets, fishing poles, poisons, and traps, activities implemented by both men and women (Merlin 2002, 27-31). Fish traps and fish weirs were extensively used throughout Micronesia for catching reef fish on the reef flats (inshore fishing). Several styles made of different materials such as wood, bamboo and rocks have been used, and it is the fish weirs made of basalt or coral rocks, called aech in Yap that is extensive today and indicative of their value in FSM. The first seven aech in Yap were built by spirits, guiding the Yapese in how to build and catch fish in a sustainable manner, and there are about 800 around the volcanic islands of Yap. They reflect a Yapese cultural identity, highlighting Yapese ingenuity and the harmonious, spiritual, and sustainable relationship they have with the marine environment, through building and utilising the Traditional Ecological Knowledge they built up (Figure 2) (Jeffery 2013). Figure 2: Two aech (fish weirs) on the reef flat in Yap at low tide. Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2018. JAPANESE COLONIAL PERIOD The FSM had Spanish, German, Japanese and the U.S., colonial rulers, which all greatly impacted the lives of Indigenous people. During the Japanese period (1914-1945) a fishing industry, as compared to Indigenous subsistence fishing, was first developed. 4 �The Japanese commercial fishing industry was administered by a Marine Industry Section of Nan’yō-chō, which established licences, regulations, and penalties for all commercial fishing, including Indigenous people although their licensing was simplified if using traditional techniques (USFEA) 1944, 20). They declared closed seasons for certain types of fishing, provided subsidies for the construction of fishing vessels, the manufacture or purchase of new and improved fishing implements, and the construction of processing plants, amongst other things. In addition, they provided several subsidies to assist Japanese fishers, including the provision of boats to groups of 30-40 men who would implement bonito fishing (USFEA 1944, 21). The commercial fishery was a Japanese industry developed for the benefit of the Japanese government and people (USFEA 1944, vii). Subsidies for Indigenous fishers amounted to just 0.02% from 1922-1937 (Purcell 1976, 207). A Marine Products Experiment Station was established in Palau in 1931 and was equipped to implement fisheries research, with surveys of tuna implemented across Micronesia with two vessels Suiho Maru (180 tons), and Haku Maru (10 tons) (Gillet 2007, 4; USFEA 1944, 20). Chuuk and Palau were the centres for this fishing industry with over 640 fishing vessels between them, and 4,750 predominantly Japanese, and Micronesians engaged in the industry in 1937. The pole-and-line bonito fishing vessels employed in the industry had distinctive features, with ‘angling racks extending around the entire outside of the bulwark, and in most cases they are detachable. Live-bait tanks are placed fore in some boats, aft in others’ (USFEA 1944, 8). Okinawan fishermen migrating to Chuuk commenced the fishing industry, and together with Palau and Saipan, the export value of bonito climbed substantially (Hezel 1995, 188; Kawashima 2008, 52) (Figure 3). A total of 23 factories implemented the drying and manufacturing process for export to Japan: eight in Chuuk, and seven in Palau, all operated by Nan’yō Kōhatsu Kaisha in 1933 (USFEA 1944, 15). In addition, two canneries were operating in 1937, one in Chuuk run by Nankō, and one in Palau, but only 50 of the 6,305 tonnes were processed into cans. Figure 3: ‘Memorial on Tonoas (formerly Dublon, and Natsushima) dedicated to the fishermen from Okinawa who died in Chuuk (Truk).’ Inscription reads ‘Tamashiro Shoei (玉城松榮) [and] Shoutokuhi (頌徳碑) [memorial]’. Photograph taken during U.S. General Robert Blake’s inspection on the island on October 4, 1945. Source: Okinawa Prefectural Archives. http://www2.archives.pref.okinawa.jp/opa/SearchPicsDetail2.aspx?pid=63260&kword=Truk 5 �Remains of land-based fishing-related activities, such as the docks, the drying factories and canneries, as well as the fishing vessels can be found throughout Micronesia. In Chuuk, the well-preserved remains of a pole-and-line fishing vessel, and several documented by Holly (1999, 2000, 2006) in the Marshall Islands are a legacy of this type of tuna fishing and a significant link to the present day profitable and sustainable tuna fishing industry (Figure 4). During World War II, both traditional Indigenous fishing and the profitable Japanese fishing industry essentially based on tuna greatly declined. Many fishing boats were adapted to serve in the Japanese military, with some being destroyed during the war together with the land-based facilities. Immediately following the war, the USA attempted to revive the tuna fishing industry, but resources were so badly damaged, and local people had such a minor role in the industry that it was not possible. A United Nations mission report to the Pacific Islands in the 1950s, partly blamed in a neocolonial tone, the characteristics of local people for the poor post-war economic advancement, in addition to ‘extensive transport requirements and a dearth of economic resources’ (United Nations Trusteeship Council 1950, 3). In the early 1950s, restrictions on Japanese vessels fishing in Micronesia were lifted and they resumed commercial fishing. In the 1960s both Japan and the U.S. established tuna bases throughout the Pacific Islands (Gillett 2007, vii). Since then, tuna fishing based on skipjack tuna, has now developed into a profitable and sustainable industry for the FSM, Palau, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Tuvalu. They have come together ‘to coordinate and harmonise the management of fisheries with regard to common stocks within the Fisheries Zones, for the benefit of their peoples…in the world’s largest sustainable tuna purse seine fishery’ as provided in the ‘Nauru Agreement’ (PNA (Parties of the Nauru Agreement) 2021). Figure 4: Photograph of the bowsprit of the Tonoas dock boat shipwreck, looking back along the vessel. Photograph by Bill Jeffery, 2006. 6 �CONCLUSIONS The most important value of the legacy of the Japanese in developing the tuna fishing industry is the well-regulated approach to research and management of the fishery. However, the Japanese commenced and pursued the industry for Japanese personnel and as a Japanese commercial endeavour with minimal support for Indigenous Micronesians. Fortunately, this has now changed with good local employment in the industry, and good revenue for Micronesians, although the Japanese still have the largest fleet of fishing vessels. From the time the commercial fishing industry in Micronesia commenced in 1922, when 16 tonnes of tuna were caught across greater Micronesia, the industry has developed where in 2020 a total of 174,476 tonnes of tuna (skipjack, yellowfin, bigeye and albacore) were caught in the FSM Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ) alone (Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) 2020). The highest catch of tuna in the FSM EEZ was in 2017, with 272,580 tonnes. In 1937, there was a total of 644 vessels employed across greater Micronesia, and in 2020, it was 312 vessels (142 purse seiners; 149 long-liners; and 21 pole-and-line), of which 69 were FSM fishing vessels, and 243 foreign vessels (NORMA (National Oceanic Resource Management Authority) 2019). Modern day fishing vessels have got much larger, with the purse seiners ranging from a few hundred tonnes up to 1500+ tonnes; and the long-liners from 50-500+ tonnes. The World Wildlife Fund (2021) regard skipjack stocks as healthy, and ‘resilient, [but] could easily slip into a vulnerable state due to overfishing if improperly managed,’ a situation the fisheries managers are aware of through lowering the maximum catches and limiting the number of long-liners and purse seiners. This paper has briefly revealed a holistic maritime cultural landscape and seascape related to fishing over many centuries in the FSM. Traditional Indigenous fishing and the pre-World War II tuna fishing industry, all of which incorporate tangible cultural heritage, and intangible cultural heritage (living heritage), is a sea heritage reflecting a cultural identity of indigenous people. It is an important focus for maritime heritage/archaeological studies in Micronesia, and throughout Oceania. BIBLIOGRAPHY Amesbury, J.R. “Pelagic Fishing in the Mariana Archipelago: From the Prehistoric Period to the Present.” In Terra Australis 39 Prehistoric Marine Resource Use in the Indo-Pacific Regions, edited by R. Ono, R, A. Morrison, and D. Addison, (2013): 33-58. Bellwood P. “Austronesian Prehistory in Southeast Asia: Homeland, Expansion and Transformation.” In The Austronesians, Historical and Comparative Perspectives, edited by P. Bellwood, J. Fox, and D. Tyron D., 103-118. Canberra: The Australian National University Press, 2006. Blust R. “Austronesian culture history: some linguistic inferences and their relations to the archaeological record.” World Archaeology 8, no.1 (1976): 19-43. Carson M. “Conclusions and Implications of Earliest Marianas Sites.” In: First Settlement of Remote Oceania, edited by M. Carson, 135-147. Springer Briefs in Archaeology, 2014 David, G. “The challenge of sustainability for Pacific Island village fisheries, a historical perspective.” In Fishers in the Pacific: the challenges of government and sustainability, edited by S. Pauwels, and E. Fache, 221-253. Marseille: Pacific-credo Publications, 2016. Driver, M.G. “Fray Juan Pobre de Zamora and his account of the Mariana Islands.” Journal of Pacific History 18, no. 3 (1983): 198-216. Gillett R A short history of industrial fishing in the Pacific Islands. RAP Publication 2007/22. Bangkok: Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 2007. Hezel F.X. Strangers in Their Own Land: A Century of Colonial Rule in the Caroline and Marshall Islands. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995. Hilmi N., Bambridge T., Safa A., Quinquis B., and P. D’Arcy “Socioeconomic significance of fisheries in the Small Island Developing States: natural heritage or commodity?” In Fisheries of the Pacific: The challenges of governance and sustainability, edited by E. Fache E, and S. Pauwels, 175-197. Marseille: Pacific-credo Publications, 2016. 7 �Holly M.B. “Archaeological Survey and Inventory of Submerged Resources in the Lagoons of Majuro and Kwajalein Atoll.” Part II Kwajalein Report. Kwajalein Sites on the South and Eastern Sides of Kwajalein Atoll. Republic of the Marshall Islands: Historic Preservation Office, 1999. Holly M.B. “Archaeological Survey and Inventory of Submerged Cultural Resources in the Lagoons of Majuro and Atoll.” Republic of the Marshall Islands: Historic Preservation Office, 2000. Holly M.B. “Submerged Cultural and Historic Resources of Maloelap Atoll, Marshall Islands.” Micronesian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 5, No. 1/2 (2006): 162-200. Jeffery B “Tidal Stone-Walled Fish Weirs in Asia-Pacific: An Austronesian Cultural Identity and its Relevance in Marine Ecology Conservation.” In An Archaeology of Human Resilience: Sustainability in Indigenous Island Societies edited by S. Fitzpatrick, J. Erlandson and K.Gill University Press of Florida, (In Prep). Jeffery B, Perrin M. Yamafune, K. “From small beginnings to a leading world industry: the connection of Micronesian underwater cultural heritage with its Tuna fishing industry.” J Mari Arch (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-023-09352-9 Jeffery B. “Reviving community spirit: furthering the sustainable, historical and economic role of fish weirs and traps.” J Mari Arch, no. 8 (2013): 29-57 Jeffery, B., & Pitmag W. “The aech of Yap: A survey of sites and their histories.” Unpublished report. Yap: Yap State Historic Preservation Office, 2010. Kawashima A. “Teikokushi Kenkyu to Okinawa Shusshin Nanyo Imin: Okinawa to Iu Genba Kara.” Komazawa Shigaku, no. 71 (2008): 48-69. Kirch P. “Peopling of the Pacific: A Holistic Anthropological Perspective.” Annual Rev. Anthropology, no. 39 (2010): 131-148. Merlin M. “Documenting fishing practices.” SPC Women in Fishing Information Bulletin, no. 11 (2002): 27-31. www.iclarm.org/Pubs/Wif/pub_wifglobal.htm check URL National Oceanic Resource Management Authority (NORMA) “Annual Report 2017-2019.” 2019. https://www.norma.fm/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/NORMA-Annual-Report-2017-2019-FINAL.pdf Accessed 2 October 2021 Parties of the Nauru Agreement (PNA) “Nauru Agreement.” 2021 https://www.pnatuna.com/index.php/content/nauru-agreement Accessed 2 October 2021 Purcell D.C. “The Economics of Exploitation: The Japanese in the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands, 1915-1940.” The Journal of Pacific History, 11, no. 3 (1976): 189-211 Rauchholz M. “Resources, boundaries and governance: What future for marine resources in Micronesia?” In Fisheries of the Pacific: The challenges of governance and sustainability. edited by E. 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Personal Communications William Pitmag, former Yap State Historic Preservation Office Technical Officer 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 16: The significance of Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Seascapes and Living Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Session 16 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 16 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A history and archaeology of fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource Tuna fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is currently a sustainable and profitable fishing industry and part of the leading world tuna fishing industry in the western Pacific. This paper will outline how the FSM got to this position and what related tangible and intangible heritage exists today. It begins with how indigenous people from the region implemented their fishing practices, using techniques that were implemented in balance and harmony with their marine environment. When Japan colonised the region, they were aware of the rich marine resources, proclaiming Micronesia had about ‘one-tenth of the total known fish in the world’. In 1918 they enthusiastically began to develop a fishing industry, which included exploiting shellfish, beche de mer, mackerel, different species of tuna, and skipjack tuna that became the dominant species exploited, for the benefit of Japanese people and the Japanese economy. However, local people in Micronesia were not actively encouraged to be part of this industry. The Japanese established a research station and imposed several regulations in how the industry should be developed and implemented. This activity occurred pre-World War II, and during the war many of the fishing vessels were converted to assist in the war effort, then lost during the war. Following World War II, the U.S. attempted to revive the tuna fishing industry in association with local people, having limited success, but today tuna is the FSM’s top export, and part of a sustainable billion-dollar industry that provides benefits to local people. Coupled with the extensive tangible and intangible heritage of indigenous fishing before Japanese times, a holistic picture of the cultural landscape and seascape associated with fishing will be provided in this paper. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jeffery, Bill . 2023. “A history and archaeology of fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2029 Asia-Pac Session 16 2023