2 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Exploration for Shipwrecks off Sunchi Reef, Goa, West Coast of India Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sila Tripati A. S. Gaur Sundaresh Bandodker S. N. Bandodker Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Feb., 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Sila Tripati A. S. Gaur Sundaresh Bandodker S. N. Bandodker Item Type Journal Article ISSN 00438243 Abstract Note Archival records show that a number of ships have sunk in the waters off Goa, on the west coast of India, as a result of foul weather, warfare and human error. Explorations were carried out in 1997-9 to locate shipwrecks using a boat-towed metal detector and visual surveys in 3 to 9m water depth off Sunchi Reef. A wreck was discovered and its investigation revealed guns, a shot, potsherds, glass bottle pieces, a broken rudder and dressed granite stone blocks. These finds suggest that the wreck dates from the Portuguese period (seventeenth to eighteenth century AD) and was therefore a wooden-hulled ship. The most probable cause of the wrecking was the shallow laterite shoals in the region. Although modest in scope, this project is important as one of the few underwater investigations yet to be undertaken by Indian archaeologists. Access Date 2009-11-28 07:14:12 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Feb., 2001 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Issue Title: Shipwrecks / Full publication date: Feb., 2001 / Copyright © 2001 Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Issue 3 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 355-367 Publication Title World Archaeology Title A name given to the resource Exploration for Shipwrecks off Sunchi Reef, Goa, West Coast of India URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/827927 Volume 32 India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sasanian Maritime Trade Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource D. Whitehouse A. Williamson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author D. Whitehouse A. Williamson Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Pages 29-49 Publication Title Iran Title A name given to the resource Sasanian Maritime Trade Volume 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/698ffaab552da9f86d8915e24515eae0.pdf cf1be6134ac8eb198a59bbcc90e1a901 PDF Text Text Reading of the contemporary social consciousness through the shipwreck Earl of Shaftsbury Mr. A.M.A.Dayananda Abstract The shipwreck Earl of Shaftsbury is buried on the southern coast of Sri Lanka very close to a frequented tourist destination. It was run aground hitting on a rock at Akurala about three miles away from the shore. In 1893 when sailing from Bombay to Diamond Island the ship sailed past Rangoon through Colombo harbour after unloading charcoal. It is an iron build four mast sailing vessel. It collided with a reef due to rough waves. Six of the crew drowned and 22 survived. The shipwreck settled at a 50 foot depth. The incident was first reported in the The Ceylon Examiner Newspaper on 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th of May 1893. The value of the vessel was estimated at Indian Rupees (Rs.) 300,000 at the time. In one article there is another steamer ship reported wrecked some years previously. This paper includes details of the wreckage as are available from the newspaper reports. What happened after her wreckage was an interesting story. The time was the British colonial period in “Ceylon” (now Sri Lanka) during which time there was a growing general unrest against the colonial masters. Some information reveals that this mindset may have influenced the rescuers during their rescue efforts of the drowning crew. This paper it is going to elaborate on the story behind the shipwreck of the Earl of Shaftsbury and investigate the social influences towards the wreck site then and now. Introduction Even though Sri Lanka is a small island it is located at a geographically important juncture which joins the sea routes of East and West in the Indian Ocean. It was used as a trade centre within which goods were exchanged and as a resting place for navigators after a long sea voyage. “This ship was built in 1883 and belonged to the English firm The Browns and Sons” (Bruzelius 1996). A metallic vessel with four masts and a contemporaneously superior ship on the company's registration (The Ceylon Examiner Newspaper 08,05,1893). The ship had often arrived to the Colombo harbour but was wrecked in 1893 in the southern ocean of Sri Lanka marking its end of long sea voyages. The wreckage of the coal-transport ship is located between Hikkaduwa and Akurala and 14 meters deep in the seabed. Two of the newspapers, The Otago Daily Times and The Ceylon Examiner (Figure 2) reported over several days of the ship's tragedy and the problematic situation that the crew had to face after the wrecking. A minute detail of the reported facts and the way that they have been reported exposes the social background and the mentality of the social context. Discovery and Recognition of the Ship ‘Earl of Shaftsbury’ The Earl of Shaftsbury attracted both local and foreign divers visiting Hikkaduwa It was reported by Arthur C. Clerk in the 1960s (Clerk 1956-57:38). A very brief introduction of it is also mentioned in his book The Reef of Taprobane.” We later discovered, marked the resting place of the Earl of Shaftesbury, which ran on to the Akurala Reef in 1893” (Clerk 1956-57:p,38). A formal survey on this place has not been done since the diving activities conducted in the 1960s. This shipwreck not only entails historic and archaeological value but bears great significance to bio diversity as well. The ship which provides a place of living for different marine species of various colours represents an important environmental system. The Maritime �Archaeology Unit (MAU) in Galle, which is under the Central Cultural Fund, planned for an archaeological exploration on the shipwreck. Archaeological investigations on the ship first started in January 2008. The second step involved basic surveying activities in March and April 2008 by the participants of the Asian Pacific Regional Maritime Archaeology Training School established in association with the MAU (Figure 1). Figure 1. The group that assisted the exploration (Photo - R. Muthucumarana) Scriptorium Research Work Research was carried out on documents in search of the facts that had not yet been revealed. The divers who lived close to the site were aware that the Earl of Shaftsbury wrecked in 1893. The fact had been further proved by Clerk's book The Reef of Taprobane. So steps were taken to carry out an archive search based on the year 1893. Nishantha Kumara, an undergraduate who came to the MAU as a volunteer was sent to search the old newspapers. The attempt was fruitful because the Examiner reported the details of the shipwreck. This ship had been built in the Leigh region in England by the firm Reimage and Ferguson. It was registered under Lloyds, the authority on certificates of quality for ships. The Earl of Shaftsbury was of the highest condition among the ships then registered under the firm(The Ceylon Examiner news paper 08,05,1893). The length of the ship was 289.6 feet (ft.) and the width of it was 42.01 ft, her tonnage was 2079, and the dimension was 2869 ft. The owner of the ship was the Brown and Sons in England. The estimated value of the ship was three hundred thousand rupees in 1893. Out of the 28 members of staff onboard, six lost their lives in the wreckage (The Ceylon Examiner News paper 08, 05,1893). The ship had sailed to Bombay from New York harbour in America loaded with paraffin oil and coal. The empty vessel, which had been reloaded with ballast stones for balance, wrecked while sailing around Sri Lanka towards Diamond Island in Rangoon. At the time of the wreck the captain may have possessed a large sum of money; the money that the ship had earned from the goods unloaded at Bombay (Rasika 2010:06). �Figure 2. Otago Daily Time 23/06/1893 The Ceylon Examiner News Paper 08,05,1893 The Present Situation of the nautical ship, the Earl of Shaftsbury According to the initial research carried out in 2008, it was observed that the central part of the naval ship had been severely damaged. Further investigations of the ruins revealed that this was not only natural causes but also due to the activities of treasure hunters and metal collectors, who had caused the destruction using explosives. The bow and the stern sections are still in good condition and the massive iron masts of the ship can be well recognized. The ballast stones that had been used to balance the empty vessel are still lying around the ship. The ship which lies inclining on its left maintains unity from the front to the back. �Figure 3. The Ruins of the Earl of Shaftsbury (Photo - R. Muthucumarana) Field Strategies In 2008 the members of the MAU, did a survey on the wreck in a collaboration with the UNESCO Bangkok office. The wreck was measured and recorded by the team using 06 temporary control points fixed around the wreck. The site was divided in to two parts (from bow to mid-ship and from stern to mid-ship) and the two parts were measured separately. Each part was measured by using control points and the help of the Site Recorder program (a software developed by the 3H Consulting/United Kingdom). Also a base line was established covering the entire archaeological field. It was about 60 meters long and measurements were taken in the off-set method. For photographic records we used underwater digital still camera (Olympus C-770 camera with Ikelite housing) and video (Sony HC-90E camera with Ikelite housing). The expected goals were not achieved by this limited surveying activities conducted over four days(2008-03-27-29 and 2008-04-03) but they were enough to identify the naval ship as the Earl of Shaftsbury (Figure 4). �Figure 4. A Sketch of the wreck Earl of Shaftsbury (Drawing from the MAU archives) The Last Few Hours of the Earl of Shaftsbury The ship sunk due to natural hazards. The actual event was recorded by Leyers in (The Ceylon Examiner Newspaper 09,05,1893): After cruising around Sri Lanka the ship sailed to the right of Colombo harbour towards the Diamond Island in the City of Rangoon. At about 3 a.m. the nature of the sea turned extremely wild and brought howling storms along. The ship was expeditiously glided forward and pushed up and down by the ferocious waves. Suddenly something black appeared before the crew who were observing the route in the front of the ship. Through intermittent flashes of lightening the crew identified a reef. At once the crew on board started shouting. As the captain rushed out of his cabin to examine the cry the ship collided on the rock with a big noise. The captain was overwrought by this and rushed into the control cabin in attempt to take the ship into the deep sea. His efforts were futile and the ship was repeatedly raised by the harsh waves and thumped several times against the rock. The ship was ultimately steered into the deep sea with the captain's efforts. The ship had been unfortunately pierced by the knock against the rock and sea water rushed in. Soon it was filled with water and descending in the sea. Before the navigators stationed in the lower part of the ship's decks had time to think the ship started sinking (The Ceylon Examiner News Paper 09, 05,1893). Some other navigators who were saved from drowning, said the captain watched the navigators fight for their lives against the harsh waves. The waves threw the crew about as they hung on to the masts that had emerged out of water and others clasped the wreckage of the ship. “The captain was spotted convulsing, entering his cabin and locking himself in” (The Ceylon Examiner News Paper 10,05,1893) .Moreover, according to their revelations, at the moment of wrecking the Second Officer of the ship had acted immediately and been successful in launching a life saving boat. Fourteen navigators had boarded the lifeboat and headed towards the coast. The Earl of Shaftsbury then buckled up throwing all on board into the sea at about 150 meters from the coast. This unexpected incident made the tired crew more miserable (The Ceylon Examiner News Paper 09,05,1893). �There were also recorded some inconsistencies with the events around the captain. This may be an indicator that the crew itself were largely unaffected by the death of the captain. Perhaps the first entry to follow is indicative of the locals' mere dismissal of the captain, while the second entry is more emotional and perhaps more about the shocked tone of the crew. The officers were housed by the special agent of the government until dawn and then taken to the guest house in Ambalangoda. Three days later the body of the captain, which had been badly destroyed, was carried to shore by the water. After recognition of the body by the chief officer of the ship and the rest of the crew, it was carried to Saint James church and buried with religious rituals (The Ceylon Examiner news paper 11,05,1893). The Otago Daily Times (Allen 26,01,2010). revealed an entirely different story about the captain's death, according to Mr. Jones, a rescued crew member of the Earl of Shaftsbury, the only reason the captain died was because he fell off the lifeboat. The lifeboat had loosened in its ties from the ship and had fallen on the captain's head while he was swimming for his life which knocked him out. In the aftermath of the unfortunate event, (Levers 08,05,1893) records the reaction of the locals. This record is in fact a glimpse of the socio-politics at the time and is symptomatic of the Sri Lankan anger towards the European oppression. The survivors had no other option but to swim for their lives. They swam a small distance and soon realized the European uniform they wore was a swimming hindrance. They pulled them off and swam towards the coast. They were reported to be mentally imbalanced and shocked, with bleeding wounds caused by being knocked against the rocks close-in to shore. The locals provided the naked navigators with native clothing. The surviving navigators later said that even though they requested the locals to save the lives of those who are still hanging on the masts and wreckage of the ship, they were denied with mentions that money was needed if they are to be saved. Later, all the men hanging onto the wreckage were saved by government special agents who were dispatched to the location. European suits were sent from Colombo for those officers who were clad in native clothes. The Examiner reported what a great shame for the Europeans to have been in native clothes for the whole day until the arrival of European uniforms(The Ceylon Examiner News Paper 09,05,1893). The Names of the Drowned Captain T.B Mayyard, aged about 56 years, Second Mate. W.K Loyle, aged about 20 years. Steward, E. Morentz, aged about 21 years. Sail Maker. W perry, aged about 50 year. Two coloured seamen, natives of St Helena and Fiji Islands. The Survivors Chief Mate, JL Jones Carpenter, W Guest. Apprentices, G.O Trofaint, O.E pokely, and Thomson 14 coloured able seamen, 2 boatswains and the cook. Altogether 22. (The Ceylon Examiner News Paper 09,05.1893). �Reported Incidents After Sinking; Lack of Humanity? The Earl of Shaftsbury was smashed and wrecked in a period when Sri Lanka was a British colony (1815-1948). There had been no other shipwreck than the Earl of Shaftsbury to have revealed the detail of the area's social background. The thoughts and ambitions of the locals who were ruled by the Europeans and some of their behaviours can be seen through these reports. “Humankind does not always continue to exist with the same monotonous life style. Their thoughts and ambitions do fluctuate with time. Exterior influences are mostly responsible for these fluctuations”(Somarathne 1960 p,01). When studying social impacts and noting the larger context in which people conduct themselves, projects like this one, can reveal an underlying agency. To address this, newspaper records of the navigators' comments were gathered in hopes to note the voice of a colonized society. Among the reports that appeared on the wreckage the incident of not-saving crew members is the most highlighted fact. The Examiner reported that even though the surviving navigators had pleaded with the fishermen on shore to save the lives of the rest of the crew, the fishermen had demanded a considerable amount of money if they were to do so and would not otherwise. The newspaper report had highlighted that, “natives showed their lack of humanity” (The Ceylon Examiner News Paper 09,05,1893). In my personal view, the behaviour of the fishermen at a crisis like this could never be appreciated and should not take place in any civilized society. Especially in a great society that has been nurtured by Buddhist philosophies. Yet the reason for such hard hearted people must be found out by a subtle and thorough case study. The people in that society were under true agony from being oppressed with revolutionary attitudes. The influence of three powerful European nationalities that largely focused on economic advantages, from 1505 AD fostered a feeling of loss of freedom and the consequential loss of their culture. Up to the time of the wreckage there had been no other opportunity to record the deep-seeded anti-colonial feelings. The fishermen, with the mentality for freedom, may have refused saving the navigators due to their revolutionary attitudes caused by this anti-colonial sentiment. They might have used this incident to show their frustration and envy towards the colonists. They might have thought they would have been betraying their own nation by rescuing their enemies. Furthermore they would have been reluctant to throw their lives at risk by launching their small boats when the sea had become so violent that even large ships, such as the Earl of Shaftsbury, were not safe. The chagrin was not only visible in natives but also in Europeans. The report, “The Captain, Europeans and two Coloured men Drowned”, ( The Ceylon Examiner News Paper 08, 05,1893). highlights this, in that the report on the survivors and the dead had grouped the black and Europeans separately. Navigators’ were in local clothes until the European clothes were received and this was reported as an insult to them. All the above mentioned facts reveal that there had been a social conflict between the Europeans and the locals. Conclusions The only iron vessel with four masts so far found in Sri Lanka territorial waters is the wrecked Earl of Shaftsbury. This is an important research station for any marine �archaeologist studying ship building technology. Although there are so many laws and conventions enacted internationally and locally in order to protect these monuments, there are many practical difficulties in implementing them. One of the main difficulties is to find funding for archaeological projects. We had to depend on funds allocated by the state under the national budget. So it has become a common feature for a developing nation like Sri Lanka to depend on funds from other sources. However, I emphasize that archaeological sites of this nature shall be further studied and shall be protected for the use of future generations. As a place of archaeological importance for more than 100 years this wreck site is protected by archaeological law (Department of Archaeology 1940; Department of Archaeology 1998). Besides, steps are been taken to declare this site as protective monuments under purview of Government of Sri Lanka and thereby will get a blanket coverage for the site. Acknowledgements I wish to thank the organizers of the Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage for giving me an opportunity to participate. I also extended my gratitude to professor Mark Staniforth and professor Nimal de Silva, The Director General (Central Cultural fund) for encouraging me to publish this report. Bibliography Allen, T., 2010 Bruzelius, L., 1996 Clerk, A.C., 1956-1957 Department of Archaeology 1940 Department of Archaeology 1998 Levers, R.W., 1893 "Wreck of the Earl of Shaftsbury six Lives Lost", in Otago Daily Times 23 June Viewed 03 October 2011 http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?138941/>. Earl of Shaftesbury, Viewed 04 October , 2011. http://www.bruzelius.info/Nautica/Ships/Fourmast_ships/Earl_of_S haftesbury(1883).html The reefs of Taprobane, printed in the united states of America, Harper and Brother publishers, New York. Antiquities ordinance No 9 Amendment to the Antiquities ordinance No 9 of 1940 (21st May 1998) "Total Loss of The Ship Earl of Shaftsbury Off Akurella, Near Ambalangodde", in The Ceylon Examiner News Paper, 08,09,10,11, May. Dalanidu Magazine Vol II. Akurala verele Kedavachakaya Earl of Rasika, M., 2010 Shaftsbury, Maritime Archaeology Unit Central cultural fund. Somaratne, W., A Modern Ceylon and world history, Ceylon publishing 1960 cooperation. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Reading of the contemporary social consciousness through the shipwreck Earl of Shaftsbury Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource The shipwreck Earl of Shaftsbury is buried on the southern coast of Sri Lanka very close to a frequented tourist destination. It was run aground hitting on a rock at Akurala about three miles away from the shore. In 1893 when sailing from Bombay to Diamond Island the ship sailed past Rangoon through Colombo harbour after unloading charcoal. It is an iron build four mast sailing vessel. It collided with a reef due to rough waves. Six of the crew drowned and 22 survived. The shipwreck settled at a 50 foot depth. The incident was first reported in the The Ceylon Examiner Newspaper on 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th of May 1893. The value of the vessel was estimated at Indian Rupees (Rs.) 300,000 at the time. In one article there is another steamer ship reported wrecked some years previously. This paper includes details of the wreckage as are available from the newspaper reports. What happened after her wreckage was an interesting story. The time was the British colonial period in “Ceylon” (now Sri Lanka) during which time there was a growing general unrest against the colonial masters. Some information reveals that this mindset may have influenced the rescuers during their rescue efforts of the drowning crew. This paper it is going to elaborate on the story behind the shipwreck of the Earl of Shaftsbury and investigate the social influences towards the wreck site then and now. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A.M.A.Dayananda Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ef7955cb803dfa73bcb8f85e2aff694a.pdf 8048bc7ffe7a48f78d1130b7e3700af3 PDF Text Text Marine Archaeological Investigations on Tamil Nadu Coast, India: An Overview Sundaresh and A.S. Gaur1 Abstract Ancient ports such as Kaveripattinam, Nagapattinam, Korkai, Alagankulam, Periyapattinam, all on Tamil Nadu coast have played a dominant role in the transoceanic trade and commerce with many countries since the beginning of the Christian Era (CE, starting from year one on the Georgian Calendar). Many such port towns that existed on the coastal region vanished or were submerged in the sea probably due to coastal erosion, sea level changes and neo-tectonic activity and other causes. Poompuhar, a flourishing port town, played a major role in maritime activities in the beginning of the Christian Era. The Sangam literature vividly describes its location, habitation and town planning. The marine archaeological explorations around Poompuhar brought to light the remains of terracotta ring wells, brick structures, and storage jars in the inter-tidal zone. The brick structures, stone structures, and pottery from offshore explorations support the existence of the ancient settlement. Mahabalipuram is said to have been a seaport right from the beginning of the Christian Era. Geophysical survey and underwater exploration revealed structural remains including a fallen wall running about 10 metres (m) in length, scattered dressed stone blocks, a few steps leading to a platform and many other structural remains at various locations between 4 and 8 m water depth. The available data confirms that a large area comprising of a building complex have been submerged. These remains could be part of submerged structures and caused by severe coastal erosion in this area. The data collected at the above sites support the literary evidence to prove their existence as ports. The major cause for the submergence of these port towns was due to shoreline changes caused by coastal erosion. INTRODUCTION Ancient ports are the source of information to understand the strategic locations of ports, maritime trade, routes, material exchange and the socio-economic conditions of the contemporary period. Important ports such as Kaveripattinam, Mahabalipuram, Nagapattinam, Korkai, Alagankulam, Arikamedu and Periyapattinam all on the Tamil Nadu coast have played an important role in the transoceanic trade from the beginning of the Christian era. The Periplus2 has mentioned the ports on Tamil Nadu coast such as Camara, (Kaveripattinam) and Sopatma, (Mamallapuram), had maritime contacts with Roman countries during early centuries of Christian era (Ramaswami 1989:17). Many such port towns that existed on the coastal region vanished or were submerged in the sea, maybe due to coastal erosion, sea level changes and neo-tectonic activities. Ancient literary sources exist that provide possible explanations for the loss of these littoral settlements: like the Sangam literature which refers to the submergence of Poompuhar; or the popular beliefs regarding the submergence of the temples of Mahabalipuram; and the “Kumari Kandam” traditions of Tamil Nadu. It may well be impossible to search for their roots or find proof that such beliefs are based on facts. Nevertheless, many archaeological explorations have been taken up in an attempt to verify the historicity of these traditions. 1 National Institute of Oceanography, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, (CSIR), Dona Paula, Goa 403 004. 2 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a sailor’s manual written by a Greek of Alexandria dating to 1st Century AD and deals with the trade, commerce & ports from Red sea to Bay of Bengal. 1 �Sangam3 literature gives ample historical accounts on maritime trade and mentions the flourishing port town of Poompuhar, the capital of the early Cholas4 culture (Pillai 1989:13). The Manimekhalai5 mentions that Poompuhar was swallowed up by the sea due to the wrath of goddess Manimekhalai, for not celebrating the festival of Indra (Na Mu, et al. 2007:353,365-6). Though the reference is only to a supernatural incident, it may be taken as an echo of some actual sea erosion due to some high tidal wave surge(s) that engulfed the city. Mahabalipuram was well known to earlier mariners as ‘Seven Pagodas’. It is generally believed that out of seven temples originally constructed, all but “Shore temple” were submerged by the sea over a period of time. European travellers in the 18th and 19th century have recorded this folk tradition (Ramaswami 1989:48). Captain M.W. Carr (1984:11) refers to the account given by William Chambers (1869:11,1-29) after his second visit to Mahabalipuram in 1776 about the traditions on the submergence of pagodas. Marine archaeological explorations have been carried out at Poompuhar and Mahabalipuram (Figure 1) by scholars at the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, to find out the extent of the submerged evidence on the famous port towns. The underwater investigations have revealed information on submerged structures and also data on shoreline changes. The details of the findings are described below. 3 Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature, is a collection of more than 2381 poems composed by Tamil poets during 3rd Century BC and 3rd Century AD, from various professions and classes of society about the marriages, dress, ornamentation, culinary fare, war and religious life of the early Tamils. 4 Cholas were one of the most dominant political forces in the Tamil country. The early Cholas of the Sangam era ruled from their capital Urayur and Kaveripattinam. Medieval and later Cholas (848 AD1279 AD) ruled from their capitals Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram . Their empire consists of Tamil country, part of modern Karnataka and part of Sri Lanka. 5 Manimekhalai is considered to be one of the great epics of Tamil literature, the sequel to the Shilapaddikaram, tells the story of the conversion to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, which has been dated by various scholars between the 2-6th centuries AD. It is a poem in 30 cantos, describing about Puhar. Manimekalai which states as ; madavaral nallaai ninthan maanagar, kadal vayiru pukkadu kaaranam keelai (25:176-77) .............. aninagar thannai alaikadal kolkena, ittanal saabam pattathu ithuvaal (25:200-01) Meaning, the city Kaveripumpattinam was engulfed by the sea (200:176-77) since the festival for Indra was not performed the Godess Manimeekala cursed "may the city is eaten by the sea" (25:200201). 2 �Figure 1. Location map of the sites explored on Tamil Nadu coast (Map: prepared by R. Uchil, NIO, Goa). POOMPUHAR Poompuhar also known as Kaveripattinam, is situated on the northern bank of the river Kaveri on the Tamil Nadu coast. Sangam texts, specifically the Silappatikaram (Pillai 1989:13), Pattinapalai, Manimekhalai and Ahananaru vividly describe Poompuhar as the port capital of the early Cholas (Ramachandran 1974:8; Chandra 1977:107). Land excavations at Kilaiyur brought to light two brick structures that have been described as wharves (Rajan 1994:25; Rao 1991a:6,5-20; Athiyaman 1999), possibly located on an ancient channel of the river Kaveri, an inlet channel to a reservoir at Vanagiri and Buddha Vihara at Pallavaneswaram (Rajan 1994:23,2632). 3 �Coastal archaeological explorations Coastal archaeological explorations have been carried out between Poompuhar and Tranquebar in the inter-tidal zone to find out the remains of archaeological evidences. Poompuhar During the course of explorations in the inter-tidal zone at Poompuhar the following were exposed: a brick structure of eleven layers running parallel to the coast with dimensions 1.2 m width, 1.2 m height and 4 m length; and a terracotta ring well with dimensions 25 centimetres (cm) high, 4 cm thick at the rim, and a diameter of 75 cm with three courses (Figure 2). Further, four brick structures of 25 m length, 3.4 m width aligned in a straight line, were noticed at a water depth of 1 m, opposite to present Cauvery temple at Poompuhar. The size of the bricks is 22x13x6 cm. Figure 2. Terracotta ring well exposed in the intertidal zone at Poompuhar (photo: Mr. SN Bandodker, NIO, Goa) Vanagiri Vanagiri is located on the coast about 1 km south of Poompuhar. The 11th century Yellaiyamman temple was found. It had collapsed and the remains are scattered in the inter-tidal zone. Three terracotta ring wells (75 cm diameter, 15 cm high and 6 cm thick at the rim) were exposed about 300 m south of the Yellaiyamman temple. A neatly paved structure made of bricks (probably the floor of a house) was exposed in the inter-tidal excavation. Chinnavanagiri Chinnavanagiri is located on the coast about 3 km south of Poompuhar. A terracotta ring well with rings of 25 cm height, 5 cm rim thickness and 115 cm diameter, was found surrounded with burnt bricks, associated with megalithic black and red ware and beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones. The other important finds are a potsherd with an inscribed Brahmi letter ‘Ma’, an early Chola square coin (completely eroded), and later Chola coins. 4 �Findings of brick structures, terracotta ring wells, storage jars and brick-paved platforms prove the existence of a settlement in the inter-tidal zone. The pottery from Chinnavanagiri suggests that the ring well could be dated to the 2nd century Before Christ (BC) – Anno Domini (AD)6. The other ring wells found at Vanagiri and Poompuhar are of the same period. Similar kinds of ring wells found at Arikamedu and Vasavasamudram are dated to the 2nd century BC to the 3rd century AD (Rao, et al. 1995-96:15,7-22). The size of the bricks is 36x18x6 cm and closely corresponds to the bricks used in the Buddha Vihar at Kaveripattinam. Tranquebar Tranquebar, a principal port during Danish rule (1620 AD-1845 AD), is situated about 15 km south of Poompuhar. The 13th century Masilamani temple is partly collapsed and the remains are found scattered in the inter-tidal zone (Figure 3). Two brick wells were found exposed in the inter-tidal zone. There is also evidence on the destruction of modern houses due to the encroachment of the sea (Sundaresh, et al. 1997:595, 593-98). Figure 3. Partly collapsed Masilamani temple at Tranquebar (photo: SN Bandodker, NIO, Goa) A careful study of the ‘Historic map of Danish colony Tranquebar and Fort Dansborg, 1700 AD’, which is displayed at Dansborg museum at Tranquebar, suggests that Tranquebar was well protected by a fort wall with a distance of 50 m from the 6 BC and AD are designations of the Georgian Calendar. BC refers to the years before the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth from year -1 and continues backwards, whereas AD refers to the years after his birth from year 1 with years added as time progresses. 5 �shoreline. The Masilamani temple was located sufficiently landward about 250 m from the fort wall. This observation unequivocally suggests that the shoreline has transgressed about 300 m in the last 300 years, therefore infringing at an average rate of one metre per year. Offshore explorations Offshore survey was conducted between Tranquebar and Poompuhar with small grids of 250 m. The survey revealed several isolated objects such as rock boulders at a depth of 7-8 m and 11-13 m opposite to the Masilamani temple (Rao 1992:17, 17-22; Rao 1991b:22,21-31; Rao and Rao 1991:128,127-129). Off Poompuhar, three major sites of interest were observed at water depths of 5.5 to 10.5m and 23m. A few dressed stone blocks measuring 90x40x15 cm, a semi circular stone with an Lshape cut on its surface and many other irregular blocks of sandstone were noticed in 5 to 8 m water depth off the river Cauvery's mouth. The other findings observed during airlifting operations were rolled bricks and early historic pottery of black and red ware, Red ware, Buff ware and Grey ware, found 1 m below the seabed (NIO Technical Report 1993:30). Explorations on the north of Poompuhar revealed a few dressed stone blocks in three general dimensions (30x20x5 cm, 65x40x10 cm and 60x35x10 cm), and brought to light potsherds of grey ware and storage jars. The echograms of the subbottom profiler revealed a submerged palaeo-channel of the river Cauvery on the north of Poompuhar at 10 to 15 m water depth, with a width of 300 m to 500 m, buried 20 m below the sea bottom (NIO technical report 1997:15). Three structures identified with the help of side scan sonar surveys between 22 and 24 m water depth off Poompuhar were later confirmed by diving (Vora 1987:161,159-161). The first structure (in an oval shape) was located about 3.5 km offshore at 23 m water depth. The total periphery of the object is 140 m. About 40 m north of the abovementioned object, two smaller objects are found lying in east-west orientation within a distance of 10 m. The circumference of each object is not more than 15 m and their height is about 2 m (NIO Technical report 1995:22; NIO Technical report 1997:18). The archaeological evidence recovered in the inter-tidal zone as well as offshore, are of the Sangam period (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD). Evidence in the inter-tidal zone, hydrographic charts, and the 17th century map at Tranquebar all confirm the shoreline recession is at an average rate of one meter per year. If the same rate continued for the last 2000 years, then ancient Poompuhar must have definitely been extended much further towards the sea from the present coastline. MAHABALIPURAM Mahabalipuram is famous for its architectural marvels such as the Shore Temple, the Chariots, Arjuna’s Penance, bas relief and several cave temples built by the Pallava7 king Narasimha Varman during the 8th century. It is situated about 55 km south of Chennai and presently a World Heritage Monument. 7 The Pallava dynasty was a Tamil dynasty of South India which ruled the northern Tamil Nadu region and the southern Andhra Pradesh region with their capital at Kanchipuram, the largest capital of the sovereign nation Tondai Nadu of Tamilakkam. The early Pallavas had established themselves as a rd th notable rising power in the region during beginning of 3 – 4 Century AD. The later Pallavas came in th to prominence during early 5 Century AD and continued to rule till late 9th Century AD. 6 �Mahabalipuram is said to have been a seaport right from the beginning of the Christian era. The Periplus has mentioned the Roman trade from Damirica to Sopatma (Mahabalipuram) by very large vessels, made of single logs bound together, called Sangara (Ramaswami 1989:17). A few Roman coins of Theodosius (4th century AD) support this trade contact with the Roman world (Dayalan 1992:52). An 8th century Tamil text written by Tirumangai Alwar described this place as Kadal Mallai where ships rode at anchor (Ramaswami 1980:11). The epigraphical sources mention that the Pallava kings had an active contact with Sri Lanka, China and Southeast Asia. The Pallava king Sihmavarman lead two expeditions by embarking ships from Mamallapuram. The Pallava embassy and Vajradanthi, a Buddhist monk sailed, to China from the port of Mamallapuram (Ramaswami 1980:12). The huge buried remains of structures and ceramic varieties of the early historic and early medieval period found at Punjeri, about 1.5 km west of Mahabalipuram, on the western bank of the Bunkingham canal prove its flourishing existence in the past (Dayalan 1992:54). Underwater Findings The underwater explorations were carried out by geophysical surveys followed by diving. The seabed off Mahabalipuram, in depths ranging from 6 to 15 m, is highly undulating with variations in height from 1 to 6 m. Granitic rocks with patches of coarse-grained sand, carpet the floor. Several rectangular and square shaped structures appeared on most of the sonographs, particularly in the northern part, showing groups and clusters of blocks arranged in a systematic pattern. Strong reflections of the images suggest that they are massive hard bodies that are well shaped. It appears from the sonographs of the entire study area that some significant parallel discontinuous rocky structures exist on the seafloor at some places in addition to the dominant occurrence of natural rock outcrops. Based on the sonographs the following five major sites of interest were observed between the water depth of 5 and 13 m. Site A A structure was found about 700 m on the eastern side of the Shore Temple at 6 m water depth which comprised of several small structures on a raised platform. The upper portion of the structure is above the sea surface during low tide. The structure covers an area of approximately 75x35 m. The structure is broader on the northern side where a heap of stone blocks are also observed, while on the southern side scattered small stone structures of various sizes were observed. The structure has several north-south oriented wall sections. 7 �Figure 4. Stone block with a joinery projection found off Mahabalipuram (Photo: SN Bandodker, NIO, Goa) Dressed granite blocks were used for the construction of this structure. A wall about 250x65 cm with two to four courses is noticed. Huge rectangular blocks measuring approximately 2x1x1.5 m were also noticed on the central upper portion of the structure. Another wall measuring about 5.4 m in length was seen on the northern side along with two parallel walls on the southern side of the main structure, with a stair-like structure leading upwards. Further on the northern side, the remains of a wall extend up to 15 m in length. The length of some of these six walls varies from 7 to 32.5 m; the other walls being shorter in length. A floor measuring 2x2.5 m was also noticed towards the north-western side of the structure. The entire structure has thick marine growth of sponges, shells, barnacles and mussels; a few blocks were cleaned and chisel marks were observed. One of the blocks shows that it has joinery projections for interconnecting the blocks (Figure 4; Sundaresh, et al. 2004:1233). Site B Another interesting site was located about 200 m on the north-north-eastern side of Structure A at a depth between 5 - 8 m. The site has the remains of a wall, 2 m wide and 5 m in length running from east to west and many fallen dressed stone blocks found scattered around it. Another wall was found running more than 10 m with a width of 2.5 m. Some of the stone blocks appear to have figurines carved on them; however, identification was not possible due to thick marine growth. Apart from the above there were many more structural remains such as fallen walls, L-shaped connecting walls (Sundaresh, et al. 2004:1234), dressed square and 8 �rectangular stone blocks and a square platform reached by a flight of steps were found at different locations (NIO Technical Report 2003:22). The plan of the structures indicates that this construction could be part of a big complex, as the huge stone blocks and several fallen walls were noticed in situ. It appears that construction had been carried out on a raised platform with several walls and a floor made of granite blocks. An opening from the southern side between two walls with steps has been noticed which may be the entrance to the complex. The natural rock boulders noticed on the southwest side are similar in shape and size to those found on land on the hill at Mahabalipuram. Similarly, the construction style observed underwater is identical to that observed on adjacent land. It was not possible, however, to verify the binding material of the underwater structure due to thick marine growth and their damaged condition. There were many wall sections observed at different locations including the “quarry area” on a huge rock. The dressed stone blocks required for the construction were probably extracted from the quarry found nearby. In fact, most of the religious or ceremonial constructions, including the present shore temple at Mahabalipuram, have been built with granite. The sand stone and granite was extensively used for the construction of temples during Pallava rule (Srinivasan 1983: 28-67). Dating of Underwater Structures The archaeology of Mahabalipuram commenced from the early centuries of the Christian era. A few Roman, Chinese and Pallava coins have been reported from Mahabalipuram (Ramaswami 1980:4). One of the inscriptions of Narasimha I mentions that he (Narasimha I) is the first person to introduce the construction of cave temples made of granite. N.S. Ramaswami (1980:27) refers to several accounts of Europeans who recorded the submergence of the city and the tradition that, "a large city and six magnificent pagodas have been swallowed up at this place by the sea". William Chambers (1869:11,1-29), Graham Hancock (2002:121), P.M. Mohan and Victor Rajamanickam (2002:78,77-79) believe that out of seven temples carved out of granite during the 8th century AD only one has survived and the rest are submerged. Based on the facts that the rock art sculpture was encouraged by the Pallavas at this place and most of them were constructed during that period, it is inferred that these temples may not be less than 1200 years old. Possible Causes of Submergence M.S. Krishnan (1968:523), S.P. Mahapatra and M. Hariprasad (2002:134,132-136) have pointed out that the major and important factor affecting the Mahabalipuram coast is erosion, as severe erosion at Kalpakkam (south of Mahabalipuram) was observed due to long-shore sediment drift (Krishnakumar, et al. 1994:45,41-45). A recent study suggests the rate of coastal erosion in and around Mahabalipuram is 55 cm/year (Ramaiyan, et al. 1997:1179,1177-1181). If the same rate has prevailed since the last 1200 years then the shoreline at that time might have been around 800 m eastward and all the structures noticed underwater would have been on the land. The excavations at Saluvankuppam about 1.5 km north of Mahabalipuram, about 150 m from the sea coast, revealed three phases of construction belonging to 8-9th century AD, 6-8th century AD and 4th century AD at a depth of 3.2 m below the present ground level. Evident from the stratigraphy these structures were destroyed by the coastal flooding during 950 AD and between 320-560 AD (Rajendran, et al. 2006:1246,1242-1247). Therefore it may be mentioned here that the coastal erosion might have played a major role in the submergence of these structures. 9 �The underwater structures, especially the long walls having 2 to 3 courses, the scattered dressed stone blocks of various sizes, and the stones with projections are considered to be man-made. They may well be the remains of huge complexes or the temples of the so-called “Seven pagodas”. As the Pallavas encouraged temple architecture at Mahabalipuram during the 8th century, these structures may be assigned to the same period. Mahabalipuram served as a port during the Pallava period. Part of the earlier Mahabalipuram town may have been submerged in the sea. CONCLUSIONS The marine archaeological explorations on Tamil Nadu coast have brought to light the submerged structural evidence at Poompuhar and Mahabalipuram. The traditions mentioning the submergence of these port towns have been partially confirmed with the evidence from underwater. These structures may have been submerged due to coastal erosion followed by shoreline changes. As evident from Mahabalipuram excavations, these sites might have been submerged due to large coastal flooding. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Director, NIO for his support and encouragement. Thanks are also due to Shri. KH Vora for critical review of the manuscript and constant support, our colleagues Sila Tripati, SN Bandodker, SB Chitari for their help in fieldwork, Dr Mohan Rao and Shri Prem Kumar for their bathymetric study and finally Shri R. Uchil for line drawings. This is the NIO contribution no. 5068. BIBLIOGRAPHY Athiyaman, N., 1999 "Two Wharves at Poompuhar: A Technical Study", paper presented at Second International Conference on Marine Archaeology, held at Thane, 8-10 January. Carr, M. W., (ed.), The Seven Pagodas on the Coromandel Coast, Asian 1984 Educational Services, New Delhi, (first published in 1869 by same publisher). Chambers, W., "Some account of the sculptures and ruins at Mavelipuram, a 1869 place a few miles north of Sadras, and known to seamen by name of the Seven Pagodas", in (ed.) Captain M. W. Carr, Descriptive and Historical papers relating to The Seven Pagodas, on the Coromandel coast Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, pp. 1–29. Dayalan, D., "Punjeri – A Pallava sea port near Mamallapuram", (ed.) 1992 Natana Kashinathan, Seminar on Marine Archaeology, State Department of Archaeology, Madras, 52-56. Hancock, G., Underworld: the flooded kingdoms of the Ice Age, Penguin 2002 Books, London, pp.741. Krishnan, M. S., Geology of India and Burma, 5th edition, Higginbotham, 1968 Madras, pp.536. Krishnakumar, V., “Preliminary Investigations on Transient Erosion at Vethamony, P., and Kalpakkam beach, East Coast of India during June 1990” in Narayana Swamy, Mahasagar 27, 1, pp 41-45. G., 10 �1994 Mahapatra, S. P., "Historical sea level changes in relation to Archaeological and Hariprasad, M., structures on the East Coast of India", in Proceedings Volume 2002 of National Seminar: Four Decades of marine Geosciences in India, A retrospect, Special Publication no. 74, Geological Survey of India, 132 – 136. Mohan, P.M., and "Importance of Studies on the recent sea level changes in the Rajamanickam, V., southern part of East coast of India", in Proceedings Volume 2002 of National Seminar: Four Decades of marine Geosciences in India, A retrospect, special publication no. 74, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, pp 77-79. Moti, C., Trade and Trade routes in Ancient India, Abhinav 1977 Publications, New Delhi, p. 259. Venkatasamy Coolavaanikan Cattanaar in Manimeekalai Moolamum Nattar, N, M., and Uraiyum Saratha Pathippakam, Chennai (First edition 1951), Duraisami Pillai, pp. 353, 365-366. A.S., 2007 NIO Technical Marine Archaeological Explorations in Poompuhar waters, Report, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. No. NIO/SP/13/93, 1993 pp. 42. NIO Technical Marine Archaeological Explorations in Poompuhar waters, Report, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa No. NIO/SP/13/95, 1995 pp. 34. NIO Technical Marine Archaeological Explorations in Poompuhar waters, Report, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. No. NIO/SP/13/97, 1997 pp. 37 NIO Technical Underwater explorations off Poompuhar and Mahabalipuram, Report, Tamil Nadu, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, No. 2003 NIO/SP-2/2003, pp. 39 Pillai.R.S., Cilappatikaram, Tamil University Thanjavur publications, 1989 Thanjavur, pp. 150. Rajan Soundara, "Kaveripattinam Excavations 1963-73, (A port city on the K.V., Tamil Nadu coast)", in Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey 1994 of India No. 90, New Delhi. pp 151. Rajendran, C.P., "Evidence of ancient sea surges at the Mamallapuram coast Rajendran, K., of India and implications for previous Indian Ocean tsunami Terry Machado, T., events", in Current Science, 91, 9, pp. 1242-1247. Satyamurthy, T., Aravazhi, P., and Jaiswal, M., 2006 Ramachandran, Ahananuru in its Historical Setting, University of Madras C.E, Publications, Madras, pp.149. 1974 Ramaiyan, M., "Shoreline oscillation of Tamil Nadu coast", in the Krishna Prasad, E., Proceedings of Second Indian National Conference of and Suresh, P. K., Harbour and Ocean Engineering, (INCHOE - 97), held at 1997 Thiruvanathapuram ,7-10 December, pp. 1177-1181. Ramaswami, N. S., Mamallapuram, An Annotated Bibliography, New Era 1980 Publications, Madras, pp. 120. 11 �Ramaswami, N. S., 2000 years of Mamallapuram, Navrang, New Delhi, pp. 372. 1989 Rao, S.R., “Marine archaeological explorations of Tranquebar1991a Poompuhar region on Tamil Nadu coast”, in Journal of Marine Archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, Goa, 2, pp.520. Rao, T.C.S., “Marine archaeological surveys off Kaveripattinam for 1991b archaeological investigation”, in Journal of Marine Archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, 2, pp.21-31. Rao, T.C.S., and "Marine Archaeological surveys off Tranquebar, Tamil Nadu – Mohan Rao K., Preliminary Results", in Recent Advances in marine 1991 archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, Goa, pp. 127129. Rao, T. C. S., “Marine Geophysical surveys off Kaveripattinam for 1992 Archaeological Investigations”, in (ed.) Natana Kashinathan, Seminar on Marine Archaeology, State Department of Archaeology, Madras, pp. 17-22. Rao, S. R., Rao, T. “Underwater explorations off Poompuhar”, in Journal of C. S., Gaur, A. S., Marine Archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, Goa, 5Tripati S., 6, pp. 7-22. Sundaresh and Gudigar, P., 1995-96 Srinivasan, K. R., “Pallavas of Kanci: Phase I”, in (ed.) Michael W. Meister, 1983 Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, South India, Lower Dravidadesa, 200 BC-1324 AD, American Institute of Indian Studies, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, pp. 23-79. Sundaresh, Gaur, "Our Threatened Archaeological Heritage: A Case Study from A.S., Nair, R.R., Tamil Nadu Coast", in Current Science, 73, 7, pp.593-98. 1997 Sundaresh, Gaur, "Underwater Investigations off Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, A.S., Tripati, S., India", in Current Science, 86, 9, pp. 1231-1237. and Vora K.H., 2004 Vora, K. H., “A note on the geophysical explorations for marine 1987 archaeology of Tamil Nadu coast, India”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, London, 16, 1, pp.159-164. 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Marine Archaeological Investigations on Tamil Nadu Coast, India: An Overview Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource Ancient ports such as Kaveripattinam, Nagapattinam, Korkai, Alagankulam, Periyapattinam, all on Tamil Nadu coast have played a dominant role in the transoceanic trade and commerce with many countries since the beginning of the Christian Era (CE, starting from year one on the Georgian Calendar). Many such port towns that existed on the coastal region vanished or were submerged in the sea probably due to coastal erosion, sea level changes and neo-tectonic activity and other causes. Poompuhar, a flourishing port town, played a major role in maritime activities in the beginning of the Christian Era. The Sangam literature vividly describes its location, habitation and town planning. The marine archaeological explorations around Poompuhar brought to light the remains of terracotta ring wells, brick structures, and storage jars in the inter-tidal zone. The brick structures, stone structures, and pottery from offshore explorations support the existence of the ancient settlement. Mahabalipuram is said to have been a seaport right from the beginning of the Christian Era. Geophysical survey and underwater exploration revealed structural remains including a fallen wall running about 10 metres (m) in length, scattered dressed stone blocks, a few steps leading to a platform and many other structural remains at various locations between 4 and 8 m water depth. The available data confirms that a large area comprising of a building complex have been submerged. These remains could be part of submerged structures and caused by severe coastal erosion in this area. The data collected at the above sites support the literary evidence to prove their existence as ports. The major cause for the submergence of these port towns was due to shoreline changes caused by coastal erosion. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sundaresh A.S. Gaur Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/057f2b28fbb1d5bba3d04aa9a82d48f2.pdf c24516f4c28cb0ce0b4718bd32c19a62 PDF Text Text Maritime Archaeology of Gujarat: Northwest coast of India A.S. Gaur and Sundaresh Abstract rd The evidence of maritime activity in India may be traced back to the Bronze Age (early 3 nd millennium BC to mid- 2 millennium BC). The excavation of several Harappan sites including Lothal, Kuntasi, Padri, Nageshwar, Bagasra and many others have conclusively demonstrated an advance maritime culture during the third millennium Before Christ (BC). During the historical period several coastal towns had international trade and commerce including Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Hathab, Vallabhi, and Bharuch. Maritime activity reached it’s zenith in Gujarat during th th the Medieval period (8 to 14 century AD) when Arab traders dominated the Indian Ocean for over a millennia. Underwater investigations have been carried out at various places along the Saurashtra coast and a large number of stone anchors were found. This paper also discusses the effect of tide when using jetties and anchoring points along various parts of the west coast India. The archaeological evidence indicates that two gulfs along the Gujarat coast (Gulf Kachchh and Gulf of Khambhat) witnessed the hectic maritime activities in the past. Both gulfs have very high tidal ranges. The Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal range in India (11 meters). Ancient texts such as Vishnu Puran and Periplus of the Eruthreanean Sea vividly describe the tidal range and its uses in navigation. The discovery of the large number of stone anchors in the inter tidal zone along the gulf region support the above references. Introduction Maritime activities along the Gujarat coast dates back to the Harappan period and extensive excavations at Lothal (Rao 1974:70), Kuntasi (Dhavalikar, et al. 1996:76), Nageshwar (Hegde, et al. 1990:152), Bagasra (Sonawane, et al. 2003:41) and Nagwada (Bhan and Gowda 2003:51-80) have yielded conclusive evidence on maritime practices during the 3rd millennium BC. During the historical period (3rd century BC to 4th century AD) a series of ports existed all along the Gujarat coast and important among them were Nani Rayan (Irani and Dandekar 2003:91-97) Bet Dwarka (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003:57-66), Dwarka (Ansari and Mate 1966), Vallabhi, and Hathab (Pramanik 2004:133-140). Whereas by the Medieval period (8th to 14th century AD) the entire Gujarat coast had series of ports. Gujarat coast is punctuated with several creeks and seasonal rivers that facilitated safe harbours all along the coast. The waters around the Gujarat coast are also rich in marine resources, such as shells which were used as food as well as export products. Conch shell have been a major economy source for many fishermen in Gujarat (Pota and Patel 1991:445-450). The important sites of the maritime archaeological investigations along the Gujarat coast include Dwarka, Bet Dwarka, Miyani, Visawada, Somnath, Kodinar and Ghogha (Figure 1). The brief descriptions of the findings from these sites are provided in the following paragraphs. �Figure 1. Map showing archaeological sites mentioned in the manuscript along Gujarat coast (Prepared by. S.B. Chitari) Dwarka Dwarka was the first site in India where marine archaeological exploration commenced and investigations continued for almost two decades (Rao 1988:4753; Gaur, et al. 2004:1256-60). A number of artifacts were discovered during offshore explorations between 3 and 16 m water depths. Several stone structures were noticed off Dwarka and they are of various shapes and sizes. A few semicircular structures are partially intact and have jointed with hard binding material. The semicircular structures were constructed by using L-shaped blocks with provision for dowels (Gaur, et al. 2008:16). Besides semicircular blocks, a large number of rectangular blocks have been noticed in this area. They are scattered over a vast area and do not follow any regular plan. These blocks are found close to the semicircular structures, which indicate that these might have been parts of a larger structure. The circular and semicircular structures are presumably the bases of pillars and rectangular and square dressed blocks are of a main jetty structure that ran from shore into the water and continued until 300 m offshore. Hasmukh Sankalia (1966:10) has mentioned that “Sayajirao Gaekwad of Baroda had built a dock along the Gomati creek and a landing place on the opposite side, with huge stone pillars to facilitate tying the ship”. It is quite �likely that the remains lying on the shore and offshore regions are remains of the same dock. The presence of stone anchors that are lying along these structures also supports this hypothesis. Along with stone structures a large number of stone anchors of different shape and sizes were noticed between the inter-tidal zone and 16 m water depth, the concentration of them being in 6 to 8 m water depth (Sundaresh, et al. 1999:229-252). Broadly these anchors have been divided into three groups, a) Composite anchors: majority of the anchors have been chiseled out of a thin limestone block triangular in shape but often the narrower portion has a half circle with a circular hole known as rope hole and two rectangular or square holes on the wider side called fluke hole. The biggest anchor of this variety has a length of 1.8 meter and maximum width 86 centimeters (cm) and the estimated weight is 496 kilograms (kg) (Figure 2). The smallest anchor weighs 16 kg. b) Indo-Arabia type of anchors were cut from a hard and long stone block with a tapering on one side and a circular hole and the other side with two rectangular or square holes on either face of the block (Gaur, et al. 2004a:134-51). The biggest anchor has a length of 2.37 m, a width of 40 cm and an estimated weight of 668 kg while the smallest anchor with its shape fully preserved has an estimated weight of 82 kg. c) Ring stone anchors: twenty-four ring stone anchors have been found from Dwarka water and they are of various sizes (Gaur, et al. 2002: 390-404). The biggest has a height of 50 cm and diameter 52 cm and an estimated weight of 245 kg whereas the smallest ring stone weighs 20 kg. Similar types of ring stones have been reported from Oman waters (Vosmer 1999: 301). �Figure 2. Dwarka: Composite type stone anchor (Photo by S.N. Bandodkar in 2001) Bet Dwarka Bet Dwarka is an island situated in Okhamnadal and at the entrance of the Gulf of Kachchh. The area is also referred to as the Gulf of Barake in the Greek sea guide, the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Schoff 1912:38). However, Ptolemy mentioned Barake as an Island in the Gulf of Kanthi, which has been identified as the Gulf of Kachchh (McCrindle 1885:36). In the 17th century BC the late Harappan people had established their settlement on the northwest part of the Island (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003:57-66). They used rich marine resources available around the Island such as the variety of fishes and shells (Gaur, et al. 2005:941-46). A large fishhook (Gaur and Sundaresh 2004:512-14) and shell artifacts are the testimony of the above statement. The scanty habitation deposit suggests that the site was abandoned after a couple of centuries (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003:57-66). The Island was again inhabited during the 8th century BC on the southeastern coast of the Island. Maritime activities reached it’s zenith during the historical and the medieval periods. The Island continued to be an important center of maritime activity until the emergence of the Okha port in the Okhamandal area. The underwater explorations were carried out near the present Bet Dwarka passenger jetty in two seasons (2001 and 2002). A large number of artifacts including sherds of amphorae, lead anchors, lead ingot, a hand-mill of �stone, besides 45 stone anchors, were noticed from this area between water depth of 5 and 8 m. There are 42 stone anchors lying in Bet Dwarka waters close to the present Bet Dwarka jetty, in 6-8 m water depth. They are of two types: A) composite type: majority of them were cut from locally available limestone blocks. The circular hole (rope hole) is often found broken whereas two square/ rectangular holes on other side are preserved. The anchors are very similar to those reported from Dwarka and other places in Saurashtra. B) Indo-Arab type anchor are made of hard rock such as basalt and sometimes sandstone. The stone anchors have been dated between the historical and medieval periods. Pindara The ancient temple site of Pindara is situated close to the Northern Saurashtra coast in the Gulf of Kachchh about 36 km west of Khambhalia and 24 km from Kalyanpur. On the west of Pindara is a vast marshy land known as Okha Rann. Pindara is a well sheltered area, free from open sea waves. It is comprised of mud flats up to a distance of 2 km from the high waterline with a gentle slope. The average tidal range in the region is 1 to 4 m. A huge temple complex (10 X 10 m) is exposed during low tide in Pindara at about 300 m from high water line (Gaur, et al. 2007:733-35). Presently, the floor area is made of dressed lime stone blocks (Figure 3), it is well preserved, while the superstructure has been destroyed and the stone blocks have been washed/ taken away. This temple was dedicated to the Lord Shiva, as a yoni1 is present in the middle of the temple complex. The majority of the stone blocks measure 60 X 45 X 25 cms. The remaining part of the sanctum (Garbha griha) measures 4.75 X 4.5 m. The yoni measures 40 X 40 cms. The architectural feature of the submerged temple corresponds more or less with existing temple on the shore of Pindara. The size of the submerged temple must have been as big as other surviving temples in Pindara’s group of temples dating back to the 7th to 10th century AD. The evidence indicates that the Saurashtra coast shoreline has changed significantly during the last 1000 years. 1 Yoni is symbol of creation and worshipped across the Indian subcontinent since the antiquity. �Figure 3. Pindara: An ancient temple complex exposes during low tide (Photo by A.S. Gaur, 2006) Miyani Miyani is situated about 40 km east of Dwarka. This area is famous for ancient temples dating back to the 10th century AD (Sampura 1968: 87). On the coast of Miyani a temple is dedicated to a Goddess (locally known as Harshadmata). It is situated on a high hill. A vast creek known as Meda Creek runs a few miles into the hinterland, which has been used as a shelter in the harbour for local small craft, particularly fishing vessels. Underwater explorations were undertaken about 1 km offshore of Harshad Mata temple. Archaeological findings comprised of twelve stone anchors of various types. Visawada The small town of Visawada lies about 40 km west of Porbandar and about 20 km east of Miyani. The Hindu pilgrimage center and a temple dedicated to the Lord Krishna, is situated in the middle of the town. Kindari Creek runs a long distance up to Kindar Kheda (a Harappan town) and perhaps the creek’s name is derived from this particular ancient town. The western side of the coast is represented by a high cliff while the eastern coast consists of sandy beaches. Explorations were undertaken off the Kindari Creek as a baseline, it is located about 500 m from the coastline. Features and artefacts were concentrated between 5-6 m water depths. A total of 14 stone anchors were �found and types. represent three varieties: composite, Indo-Arabia and ring stone Somnath The archaeological excavations on land at Prabhasa by the Baroda University and Deccan Collage Pune have yielded evidence of a township dated to 2000 BC (Rao, et al. 1992:13-16). The temple of Somnath nearby is dedicated to Lord Siva and the linga2 is counted among the 12 Jyotirlingas of India mentioned in various Puranas. The explored area in Somnath water is located at a distance of 400 m south-west of the Somnath temple. Somnath waters contained the largest occurrence of ring stones anchors (Figure 4). Out of the 43 total anchors discovered, 80% are ring stone. The water depth varies from 7 m to 15 m. The ring stones observed shallower than 8m water depth had seaweed growth, however ring stones of deeper depths have a layer of greyish marine growth. Figure 4. Somnath: Ring-stone anchor (S.N. Bandodkar in 2001) Kodinar (Mul Dwarka) A small coastal village known as Mul Dwarka near Kodinar in the district of Junagad is one of the claimants of the original Dwarka of Mahabharata. The proximity with Junagadh hills on the north and the sea on the south situate the town as being associated with Dwarka (Sankalia 1966:7). An ancient temple is situated on raised land close to the sea. The temple is dilapidated and not under worship. The shrine is dated to the post 10th century AD (Sampura 1968:113). A circular structure situated close to the ancient temple is about 4 m in height and 2 Linga is a phallus symbol worshipped across the Indian subcontinent since the antiquity. �constructed with a similar type of dressed limestone blocks as that of the temple. Locally this structure is called as Diva Dandi which means a lighthouse (Gaur, et al. 2010:418-422). If this structure served as a lighthouse then this may be the oldest lighthouse remains on the Saurashtra coast. An ancient well was noticed near the jetty which is still used as a drinking water source. The exploration in the inter tidal zone yielded a composite stone anchor. The anchor is exposed during low tide. It is made of sedimentary rock. The anchor is similar to those reported from Dwarka (Gaur, et al. 2008:23-57) and Bet Dwarka (Gaur, et al. 2005:113-129) and dated between the historical and the medieval periods. The underwater investigations in and around Mul Dwarka (Kodinar) have been of significance in respect to understanding the archaeology of this region. Now the data of underwater explorations from all the three Dwarka on the Saurashtra coast are available and the most common aspects of them is the presence of similar types of stone anchors, therefore, the tradition of Dwarka at these places might have been existed contemporaneously (around 7th - 8th century AD). Another common aspect of these sites is the presence of Harappan (mid 3rd millennium BC) and late Harappan (early 2nd millennium BC) settlement within close proximity to each other. For example, Nageshwar and Bet Dwarka near Okhamandal Dwarka, Kindar Kheda near Mul Dwarka (Visawada) and Kanjetar and Kaj near Mul Dwarka (Kodinar). All the three Dwarka have ancient temples dated to the 10th -12th century AD. Nonetheless, these sites were busy ancient ports and perhaps temples were served as coastal marker points for navigators, as well as for worship before embarking on long voyages. Mithi Virdi The small village Mithi Virdi is situated about 30 km south east of Talaja, a taluka headquarter. The village is lying on a raised plateau close to the seashore. A small seasonal river merges with the sea on the western side of the village. The archaeological site is located about one km west of the village in an agriculture field. Five stone anchors are lying on agricultural land (ground nuts are the important crop of this field) about 1 km north of the seashore. Three anchors are lying together at a distance of 10 m and oriented in the east-west direction (Gaur, et al. 2005:110-14) The fourth anchor is laying partially buried north of the other three and oriented in the east west direction. All the anchors are similar to each other in shape and size. The anchors have rectangular cross-sections and trapezoidal longitudinal sections. These have sharp edges and chisel marks on them are clearly noticed. They have been cut from conglomeratic sedimentary grit rock, which is dark brown in colour and small gravel can be noticed. The anchors have two lower rectangular holes and an upper circular hole is absent in all the anchors. Ghogha The town of Gogha is located on the mid western coast of the Gulf of Khambhat in Bhavnagar district of Gujarat. A famous Gujarati proverb, “Lankani lari ane �Ghoghono var” (Bride of Lanka and groom of Ghogha) indicates direct overseas relation between Gogha and Sri Lanka in the past (Chaukasi 1989: 634). The presence of ancient Jaina temples at Gogha dating back to the 10th – 11th centuries suggest that this was a religious center also. The earliest Arabic inscription from Gogha dates to 1170 AD (Oza 1885: 2). During the British period ships up to 1500 tons were laden here (Habib 1982: 23). The exploration at Gogha was undertaken during low tide and findings were recorded with still photography and drawing. A large number of stone anchors were recorded between 100 and 200 m distance from the high water line (Gaur 2010:146-155). The majority of the anchors belong to the Indo-Arab type and nearly about 40% anchors are fragmented. Interestingly, the fresh surface of broken parts suggests that fragmentation of the anchors took place during the manufacturing stage and not during the anchoring processes. A composite anchor made of lime stone was found at the site. A few unfinished anchors were found from Gogha and Hathab. However, these anchors were submerged in 5 to 7 m water depth during high tide. Thus, it indicates that big boats were anchoring at this point during high tide. The author of the Periplus of the Erythrenean also refers to such activities detailing that during low tide boats rest on the seabed. The exploration in the inter tidal zone has also yielded several sherds of the glazed ware in the vicinity of stone anchors. These include a jar with internally and upper half externally glazed; and the rest of the sherds are glazed internally only. There are three main types of glazed ware (i.e. green, blue and brown). These are very similar to the Islamic glazed ware found from various parts of the country (Mohammad 1985:105). The medieval period glazed ware at Hastinapur (Lal 1954-55:5-151) was found in association with coins of Balban (1206-87 AD). The sherds recovered from the inter-tidal zone of Ghogha are very similar to those reported from another medieval period site at Lashkarshah in Khambhat which have been dated to 14th-16th century (Bhan 2006: 90-95). Thus the glazed sherds Ghogha may also be dated to the late medieval period. Hathab Hathab an early historical site is referred to as Astacampra in the Periplus of Erythrenean Sea (Schoff 1912: 40). On shore excavation yielded rich antiquities of the historical period and maritime contact with the west. It is located about one km into the hinterland. The exploration in the inter tidal zone of Hathab yielded two anchors similar to those of the Indo-Arab type and one anchor with a wide groove wrapped around the middle of the anchor. This is very similar to those reported from Japan and Chinese waters (Yang 1990:113-121). The remains of a jetty were noticed at the mouth of the river Shetrunji near the village Sultanpur. This was primarily a wooden jetty now abandoned due to emergence of other ports in the vicinity. Conclusions Coastal and maritime archaeological investigations along the Gujarat coast have conclusively proven that it holds the earliest evidence of the maritime activity in �the Indian subcontinent. Archaeological set up of the Kachchh region provide enough indication that the Rann of Kachchh was a navigable body during the third millennium BC. During the historical period Gujarat witnessed hectic maritime activities and boats from various regions including the Mediterranean Sea. The maritime activity reached its zenith during the Indo-Arabia trading network of the medieval period and a large number of evidence indicates that Gujarat played an important role in the Indian Ocean trade system during this period. Marine archaeological investigations during the last two and half decades have brought out a number of potential sites along the Indian coast which include ancient ports, jetties, and shipwrecks. The extensive explorations of the Saurashtra coast revealed several ancient ports and jetties. Interestingly, archaeological discoveries suggest that natural phenomena like tidal variations have been very effectively used in the Gulf of Kachchh and the Gulf of Khambhat in the past. Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to Mr. K.H. Vora for providing various comments and suggestions in the manuscript. Thanks also due to other colleagues in marine archaeology centre for various help during the field work. Mr. S.B. Chitari prepared line drawing for the manuscript. 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Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Archaeology of Gujarat: Northwest coast of India Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource The evidence of maritime activity in India may be traced back to the Bronze Age (early 3rd millennium BC to mid- 2nd millennium BC). The excavation of several Harappan sites including Lothal, Kuntasi, Padri, Nageshwar, Bagasra and many others have conclusively demonstrated an advance maritime culture during the third millennium Before Christ (BC). During the historical period several coastal towns had international trade and commerce including Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Hathab, Vallabhi, and Bharuch. Maritime activity reached it’s zenith in Gujarat during the Medieval period (8th to 14th century AD) when Arab traders dominated the Indian Ocean for over a millennia. Underwater investigations have been carried out at various places along the Saurashtra coast and a large number of stone anchors were found. This paper also discusses the effect of tide when using jetties and anchoring points along various parts of the west coast India. The archaeological evidence indicates that two gulfs along the Gujarat coast (Gulf Kachchh and Gulf of Khambhat) witnessed the hectic maritime activities in the past. Both gulfs have very high tidal ranges. The Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal range in India (11 meters). Ancient texts such as Vishnu Puran and Periplus of the Eruthreanean Sea vividly describe the tidal range and its uses in navigation. The discovery of the large number of stone anchors in the inter tidal zone along the gulf region support the above references. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A.S. Gaur Sundaresh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Qana’ (Yemen) and the Indian Ocean: The Archaeological Evidence Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A.V. Sedov Himanshu Prabha Ray Jean-Francois Salles Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Type The nature or genre of the resource Conference Paper Zotero Author A.V. Sedov Editor Himanshu Prabha Ray Jean-Francois Salles Item Type Conference Paper Conference Name International Seminar “Techno-Archaeological Perspectives of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean, 4th cent. B.C.-15th cent. A.D. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Pages 11-35 Place New Delhi February 28-March 4, 1994 Title A name given to the resource Qana’ (Yemen) and the Indian Ocean: The Archaeological Evidence India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Shio to kamisama to sono genryuu 塩と神様とその源流 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource 宝賀寿男 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1997 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author 宝賀寿男 Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1997 Pages 109 - 56 Publication Title Nihon engyou no kenkyuu 日本塩業の研究 Title A name given to the resource Shio to kamisama to sono genryuu 塩と神様とその源流 Volume 25 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Trade Relations between Bahrain and Iraq in the Middle Ages: A Commercial and Political Outline Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Abdel Jabbar Naji Abdullah bin Khalid al-Khalifa Michael Rice Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1991 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Abdel Jabbar Naji Editor Abdullah bin Khalid al-Khalifa Michael Rice Item Type Book Section Book Title Bahrain through the Ages: The History Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1991 Pages 423-44 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Title A name given to the resource Trade Relations between Bahrain and Iraq in the Middle Ages: A Commercial and Political Outline https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6255004e5893a8cbb3576e84f743f0cc.pdf 1ca69512ee981942c8419ceec0d1b4e6 PDF Text Text Underwater Archaeological Remains in Matano Lake, South of Sulawesi, Indonesia: Evidence of Iron Age Civilization Muslim Dimas Khoiru Dhony1, Shinatria Adhityatama2, R.R. Triwurjani3, Dida Yurnaldi4, Ahmad Surya Ramadhan5, Joko Wahyudiyono6, Aldhi Wahyu Pratama7, Suryatman8, Abdullah Abbas9, Alqiz Lukman10, David Bulbeck11 1Master Student of Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Underwater Archaeologist 2Griffith Centre for Social and Cultural Research, PhD Candidate and Archaeologist 3Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional, Pusat Riset Arkeologi Prasejarah dan Sejarah at Organisasi Riset Arkeologi, Bahasa dan Sastra, Senior Researcher 4Pusat Survei Geologi Bandung, Geologist 5Sentra Selam Jogja, Underwater Archaeologist 6Pusat Survei Geologi Bandung, Geologist 7RIJANG Research Institute, Archaeologist 8Universitas Hasanuddin, Lecturer and Archaeologist 9Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Sulawesi Selatan, Underwater Archaeologist 10Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional , Pusat Riset Arkeologi Maritim, Lingkungan dan Budaya Berkelanjutan at Organisasi Riset Arkeologi, Bahasa dan Sastra, Archaeologist 11Department of Archaeology and Natural History at the Australian National University, Visiting Senior Lecturer ABSTRACT Matano Lake is a natural freshwater lake located in South Sulawesi, Indonesia that has a depth of roughly 590 m, making this lake the deepest lake in Southeast Asia. The existence of cultural heritage in land surrounding Matano Lake was revealed in 1998, based on research conducted by OXIS projects, which found a quantity of artifacts dated approximately between the 6th and 16th. From 2016 to 2022 The National Research Centre of Archaeology Indonesia (now the Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional) conducted research in underwater and terrestrial observation relating to submerged landscapes in the Matano Lake environment. This research reveals the civilization of the iron age that has been developed since during much of the second millennium CE regarding mass iron production and iron smelting in Matano Lake. The agency utilized several approaches such as geography and geology as well as the method to collect primary archaeological data in terrestrial excavation and geology survey and also underwater observation using SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) to directly identify archaeological remains on the bottom of the lake. Based on the survey, literature study, and spatial analysis utilizing ArcGIS, there are five sites consisting of Sebengkuro, Pulau Ampat, Pontada, Sukoiyo, and Onetengka with various of human cultural remains such as iron tools , iron slag, pottery, tuyere, wooden poles, ore, charcoal, and fragments of an animal tooth which were laying on the bottom of the lake in 4 to 20 m. The result of the archaeological remains and geological analysis reveals that each site has a different type, contour, and period. Furthermore, based on a literature study, the existence of mass iron production was mentioned in Nagarakrtagama (a Javanese poem in the 14th century) proving iron production in Matano has been exported from Sulawesi Island to Java Island. Keywords: Matano Lake, Underwater Archaeology, Submerged Landscapes, Iron age, Indonesia List of Figures Figure 1. Maps of the distribution of underwater archaeological site in Matano Lake. Figure 2. The divers take archaeological remains for analysis sample. Figure 3. Variations of cultural remains in Pulau Ampat site. Figure 4. Maps of grid baseline and spread of wooden poles in Pontada Site. 1 �INTRODUCTION The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 18 (The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters) because of the current existence of underwater archaeological sites in Matano Lake that sank due to natural disasters. Underwater archaeological research on the lake has not been conducted in Indonesia before. Matano Lake is located in Malili Region, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia and has a depth of approximately 590 m and 382 m above sea level with an area of 16,408 ha. This became Matano Lake, the eighth deepest lake in the world and the deepest lake in South East Asia (Herder 2006). Based on a geology survey and map, Matano Lake is considered to be 1-4 million years old and lies on the Matano Fault Zone which is still active with tectonic movement of roughly 2 cm per year (Tamuntuan et al. 2010). Previous archaeological research in Matano Lake was conducted in 1998 by the OXIS project which involved Indonesian and foreign researchers. The research revealed that mass iron production and iron smelting was developed on the northern shore during much of the second millennium CE and the western shore of the lake dating from 1500 to 1900 (Bulbeck and Caldwell 2000). From that, the National Research Center for Archaeology (Now Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional) carried out research on the lake in terrestrial and underwater to collect various archaeological data. Beginning in 2016 to 2021, the research demonstrated that there are five underwater archaeological sites with cultural remains. This research attempted to elaborate on the causes of the sunken sites and the age of iron tools discovered underwater. CASE STUDIES The research project explores five underwater archaeological sites which are distributed in Matano Lake namely Sebengkuro, Pulau Ampat, Pontada, Sukoiyo, and Onetengka (Figure 1). Each site has different characteristics and forms of archaeological data which is still in situ within the context. Sebengkuro, Pulau Ampat, and Pontada are located on the southern shore of the lake. However, all these sites have a variety of types and shapes. For instance, in Sebengkuro, underwater archaeologists found cultural material at a depth of about 5 to 7 meters consisting of pottery fragments, clamshells, and a stone beater fragment. In Pulau Ampat and Pontada, the archaeological remains are more complex in a depth of 4 to 8 meters including fragments of pottery, accumulated iron slag, dispersed charcoal, tuyeres from a smelting furnace, iron tools, wooden poles, animal teeth, and bone, as well as stone flakes (Triwurjani et al. 2018-2021). Sites on the north shore of the lake including, Sukoiyo and Onetengka did not reveal as much cultural material as the southern shore sites. However, in these sites, there is evidence of tectonic activity in the past; geologists called the evidence graben (Subsidence areas) (Triwurjani et al. 2019). It is proven that the location of Matano Lake in the main Matano Fault which is still active today makes the environment around the lake become more dynamic. 2 �Figure 1. Maps of the distribution of underwater archaeological site in Matano Lake (Muslim Dimas KD). RESOURCES This research has been carried out from 2016 to 2022. During the research project, team members conducted surveys and excavations in terrestrial and underwater for collecting the archaeological data. After collecting, the team also did database recording and documentation of the samples for further analysis. The archaeological data consist of fragments of pottery, iron tools, animal teeth and bone, charcoal, flakes of stone, tuyeres, and a stone beater fragment which are kept in storage at Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional (now Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional). Moreover, for spatial analysis, the team utilized ArcGIS to show the distribution of underwater archaeology sites and the existence of the site in a geology map. In addition, we also studied literature related to mass iron production in Matano in the ancient text of Negarakertagama, a Javanese poem in the 14th century. Within the text it was written that the Majapahit Empire had imported the iron tools from the Matano Lake region (Mulyana 2006; Robson 1995). FRAMEWORK This project exerts underwater archaeology and submerged landscape studies to understand the cause of the sinking of the archaeological site in Matano Lake. Furthermore, this research uses inductive reasoning which in archaeology means taking material culture as the primary evidence (Tanudirjo 1995). Explorative and comparative-descriptive approaches were conducted focusing on primary archaeological data with the context of the remains in terrestrial and underwater environments. The observation was conducted by diving, using SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing 3 �Apparatus) equipment for underwater objects and an underwater camera for documenting archaeological objects and landscapes. The team also recorded and measured using underwater archaeological techniques such as the baseline and quadrant methods (Bowens 2009). Moreover, database recording was also done to achieve complete archaeological data collection of the findings at Matano Lake. The team also employed ArcGIS for spatial analysis, to demonstrate the distribution of archaeological remains and sites in Matano Lake and three dimensional photogrammetry recording and analysis on objects and sites located at the bottom of the lake. RESULTS Description of each site ● Sebengkuro This site is located on the southern shore of the lake. The underwater team conducted surveys in 2019 and 2022 for collecting archaeological remains and observation of the environment on the bottom of the lake with a depth of approximately five to eight meters. From the survey, the team succeeded in finding several kinds of remains such as pottery fragments, clamshells, iron slag, and a stone beater fragment (Figure 2). In addition, regarding the environment, the contour is quite declivous with sand material covered by grass on the bottom of the lake. Figure 2. The divers take archaeological remains for analysis sample (Triwurjani et al. 2019 and 2022). 4 �● Pulau Ampat Pulau Ampat is 2 kilometers to the east of the Sebengkuro site. This site has an area of about 4,6 ha with plenty of archaeological remains on the bottom. Based on observation by the team, the remains consist of fragments of pottery, accumulated iron slag, dispersed charcoal, tuyeres from a smelting furnace, iron tools, animal teeth and bone, and flakes of stone lying in a depth roughly 3 to 10 meters (Figure 3). Thus, the underwater team made a 10 by 10-m baseline and quadrant crossing the concentration of finds and recorded it by taking 3D photogrammetry for analysis (Adhityatama et al. 2022). In this site, it was interesting to observe the stone flakes that are spread on the bottom in context within iron slag and metal artifacts. Based on research analysis, the stone flakes were used by the Matano indigenous iron smelters for strike-a-lights and in particular for the combustion of fuel for iron smelting (Suryatman et al. 2021). Regarding the environment, the material is sand with rock boulders on steep slopes. In order to know the age of the site, the sample of charcoal was sent to the Bandung PSG laboratory for processing by the C14 calendar. The calibrated results show that samples date from between mid-7th and mid-8th centuries (Adhityatama et al. 2022) Figure 3. Variations of cultural remains in Pulau Ampat site (Triwurjani et al 2018). ● Pontada Located about 12 kilometres to the east of the Pulau Ampat site, the 14th century Pontada site has evidence of people and iron production (Adhityatama et al. 2023). Compared to the two sites before, Pontada Site is a more complex related form of material culture in a depth of about 2 to 8 meters with material sand covered by grass. Due to the density of archaeological remains, the underwater team made a grid baseline for recording and taking samples. Based on the observation, the remains were still intact within the context; for instance, a machete was found with fragments of pottery, charcoal, and tuyere. Additionally, there are wooden poles which had not been discovered on the previous investigations (Figure 4). 5 �Figure 4. Maps of grid baseline and spread of wooden poles in Pontada Site (Adhityatama et al 2023). ● Sukoiyo This site is located on the northern shore of the lake. Regarding archaeological data, this site is not as abundant as the sites on the southern shore of the lake. Based on the survey, the team found several pottery fragments exposed on the slopes of the rocks in depths of 15 to 20 meters. ● Onetengka During this research project, this site was visited twice for documenting and taking samples for geology analysis. It is located five kilometres to the west of the Sukoiyo Site. Based on observation, there is no cultural material on this site. However, at a depth roughly from 20 to 30 meters there is evidence of tectonic activity which geologists called graben (Subsidence areas). Geological interpretation According to geologists’ interpretations, Matano Lake was formed due to the pull-apart mechanism, where two opposite segments move apart. Thus, the mechanism will affect the middle to form a basin or graben. Then this graben will fill with water and form a lake (Triwurjani et al. 2018). Lake Matano is estimated to be one to four million years old and is a crypto depression lake, that is, a lake whose bottom is deeper than the seabed nearby (Tamuntuan et al. 2010). Concerning underwater archaeological sites, the availability of sites that sank on the shore of the lake is due to the location being in the Matano fault zone (Tamuntuan et al. 2010). The fault which is active with tectonic movement and is prone to major earthquakes in the past and present. 6 �CONCLUSION The archaeological research project in Matano Lake is significantly important to identify the chronology and development of the iron age civilization in Indonesia. By showing the cultural material as evidence of mass iron production activity and the result of the radiocarbon dating, people in Matano Lake had been conducting iron smelting since the early first millennium. In Addition, the chronology of the Matano Lake formation has a long dynamic process that lies on the Matano Fault Zone. Therefore, the underwater archaeological sites that are located on the shore of the lake were prone to destruction and sinking which is caused by tectonic movement and earthquakes. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adhityatama, Shinatria, Triwurjani, R.R., Suryatman, Priyatno Sulistyarto, Utomo, Bambang Budi.” Underwater Archaeological Study on Prehistoric Material Culture in Matano Lake, South Sulawesi, Indonesia”. Journal of Southeast Asian Archaeology, no 37 (2017): 37–49. Adhityatama, Shinatria, Triwurjani, R.R., Yurnaldi, Dida, Janssen, Renee, Dhony, Muslim Dimas Khoiru, Suryatman, Abbas, Abdullah, Lukman, Alqiz, Bulbeck, David. “ Pulau Ampat site: A submerged 8th century iron production village in Matano Lake, South Sulawesi, Indonesia”. Archaeological Research in Asia, no 29 (2022). Adhityatama, Shinatria, Triwurjani, R.R., Yurnaldi, Dida, Wahyudiono, Joko, Ramadhan, Ahmad Surya, Dhony, Muslim Dimas Khoiru, Suryatman, Abbas, Abdullah, Darfin, Lukman, Alqiz, Pratama, Aldhi Wahyu, Bulbeck, David. “ The Mid-Second Millennium A.D. Submerged Iron Production Village of Pontada in Lake Matano, South Sulawesi, Indonesia” . Asian Perspectives: The Journal of Archaeology for Asia and The Pacific (2023) (Preprint). Bowens, A. (Ed.). Underwater Archaeology: The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice, Second edition. Nautical Archaeology Society, London, 2009. Bulbeck, David, Caldwell, Ian. Land of Iron: The Historical Archaeological of Luwu and the Cenrena Valley. The University of Hull, Centre for South-East Asian Studies, Hull, 2000. Herder, Fabian, et al. “Preliminary checklist of sailfin silversides (Teleostei: Telmatherinidae) in the Malili Lakes of Sulawesi (Indonesia), with a synopsis of systematics and threats”. Band 5 ,139–163, Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft fürIchthyologie, 2006. Mulyana, Slamet. Tafir Sejarah Nagarakrtagama. Yogyakarta: PT. LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006. Robson, Stuart. DeśaWarnana (Nāgarakŗtāgama) by Mpu Prapanca. Translation. Leiden: KITLV Press Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 1995. Suryatman, Triwurjani, R.R, Adhityatama, Shinatria, Bulbeck, David, Yurnaldi, Dida, Murdihastomo, Ashar, Wahyudiono, Joko, Abdullah, Dhony, Muslim Dimas Khoiru. “Flaking stone activity in the tradition of iron smelting from the 8th to 17th centuries AD in the Matano region, South Sulawesi, Indonesia”. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, no 36 (2021). Tamuntuan, Gerald, Bijaksana, Satrioa, Gaffar, Eddy, Russell, James, Safiuddin, La Ode, Huliselan, Estevanus Kristian. “The magnetic properties of Indonesian lake sediment: a case study of a tectonic lake in South Sulawesi and Maar Lakes in East Java”. ITB J. Sci, no 42 (1) (2010): 31–48. Tanudirjo, Daud. Theoretical trends in Indonesian archaeology. In: Ucko, P.J. (Ed.), Theory in Archaeology:A World Perspective, 61-75. Routledge, London, 1995. Triwurjani, R.R, Shinatria Adhityatama, Priyatno Hadi Sulistyarto, Suryatman, Dida Yurnaldi, Hendra, Abdullah Abbas, Muslim Dimas Khoiru Dhony. Mengungkap Peradaban Danau Matano, Sorowako, Masa Paleometalik Hingga Masa Sejarah, Di Kabupaten Luwu, Sulawesi Selatan. Laporan Penelitian Arkeologi, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, 2018. Triwurjani, R.R, Shinatria Adhityatama, Sukmandaru Prihatmoko, Trinirmalaningrum, Suryatman, Abdullah Abbas, Joko Wahyudiono, Ashar Murdihastomo, Muslim Dimas K.D, Joko Dermawan. Mengungkap Peradaban Zaman Besi dan Mitigasi Bencana Gempa di Danau Matano, Sulawesi Selatan Melalui Kajian Arkeologi. Laporan Penelitian Arkeologi, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, .2019. 7 �Triwurjani, R.R, Shinatria Adhityatama, Alqiz Lukman, Suryatman, Dida Yurnaldi, Muslim Dimas Khoiru Dhony, Indah Permatasarie Tjan.. Mengungkap Peradaban Besi di Kawasan Danau Matano, Sulawesi Selatan. Laporan Penelitian Arkeologi, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, 2020. Triwurjani, R.R, Shinatria Adhityatama, Dida Yurnaldi, Joko Wahyudiono, Suryatman, Abdullah Abbas, Ahmad Surya Ramadhan, Joko Wahyudiono, Alqiz Lukaman, Muslim Dimas K.D, Indah Permatasarie Tjan, Aldhi Wahyu Pratama, Putra Hudlinas Muhammad. Mengungkap Peradaban Zaman Besi dan Mitigasi Bencana Gempa di Danau Matano, Sulawesi Selatan Melalui Kajian Arkeologi. Laporan Penelitian Arkeologi, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, 2021. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 15: The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters Subject The topic of the resource Session 15 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 15 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Archaeological Remains in Matano Lake, South of Sulawesi, Indonesia: Evidence of Iron Age Civilization Description An account of the resource Matano Lake is a natural freshwater lake located in South Sulawesi, Indonesia that has a depth of roughly 590 m, making this lake the deepest lake in Southeast Asia. The existence of cultural heritage in land surrounding Matano Lake was revealed in 1998, based on research conducted by OXIS projects, which found a quantity of artifacts dated approximately between the 6th and 16th. From 2016 to 2022 The National Research Centre of Archaeology Indonesia (now the Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional) conducted research in underwater and terrestrial observation relating to submerged landscapes in the Matano Lake environment. This research reveals the civilization of the iron age that has been developed since during much of the second millennium CE regarding mass iron production and iron smelting in Matano Lake. The agency utilized several approaches such as geography and geology as well as the method to collect primary archaeological data in terrestrial excavation and geology survey and also underwater observation using SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) to directly identify archaeological remains on the bottom of the lake. Based on the survey, literature study, and spatial analysis utilizing ArcGIS, there are five sites consisting of Sebengkuro, Pulau Ampat, Pontada, Sukoiyo, and Onetengka with various of human cultural remains such as iron tools , iron slag, pottery, tuyere, wooden poles, ore, charcoal, and fragments of an animal tooth which were laying on the bottom of the lake in 4 to 20 m. The result of the archaeological remains and geological analysis reveals that each site has a different type, contour, and period. Furthermore, based on a literature study, the existence of mass iron production was mentioned in Nagarakrtagama (a Javanese poem in the 14th century) proving iron production in Matano has been exported from Sulawesi Island to Java Island. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Muslim Dimas Khoiru Dhony Shinatria Adhityatama R.R. Triwurjani Dida Yurnaldi Ahmad Surya Ramadhan Joko Wahyudiyono Aldhi Wahyu Pratama Suryatman Abdullah Abbas Alqiz Lukman David Bulbeck Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Dhony, Muslim Dimas Khoiru, Shinatria Adhityatama, R.R. Triwurjani, Dida Yurnaldi, Ahmad Surya Ramadhan, Joko Wahyudiyono, Aldhi Wahyu Pratama, Suryatman, Abdullah Abbas, Alqiz Lukman, and David Bulbeck. 2023. ‘‘Underwater Archaeological Remains in Matano Lake, South of Sulawesi, Indonesia: Evidence of Iron Age Civilization.’’ Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Jennifer McKinnon. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1995 Asia-Pac Session 15 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/106a403852134c0d3828659ef8ab9c09.pdf b60170b018329ef80a2951e70ae1096e PDF Text Text Can tourism exploitation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) be incompatible with the UNESCO 2001 Convention? Abhirada Komoot1 Abstract Tourism is a major factor of economic growth in many countries especially in developing countries. In 2010, tourism accounted for about 6% of Thailand’s GDP. In a way tourism is commercial exploitation. But is it against Annex Rule 2 of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention)? In the Annex, only active commercial exploitation –trading, selling, buying and bartering– of cultural material is obviously forbidden. Yet, there might be other passive commercial exploitations like tourism which are not stated. Can tourism be an alternative source of funds that can be utilised for UCH site protection and management? Because of the country’s commercial benefits gained from promoting tourism, it can be argued that tourism exploitation is one of the commercial exploitations implied in Annex Rule 2. Additionally, for tourism, the sites have to be opened for public which may cause the tension to in situ preservation and physical protection of sites. Also, it could create direct effects, such as damage to the sites by divers souvenir hunting and treasure hunting, etc. On the other hand, tourism can be a successful tool to get people involved and raise awareness which is essential in safeguarding UCH. Furthermore, under Rule 7 of the Annex, it allows knowledge sharing with the public but only when it is not incompatible with the proper protection and management of the sites. In other words, public approach could possibly be applicable only in appropriate ways. However, it does not expressly mention exploitation through tourism. Tourism can bring good fortune to countries as well as many advantages for UCH. Therefore, the prohibition may lead to absurd and even contradictory results. Countries may find it difficult to find financial subsidy and raise pubic awareness for sustainable protection of UCH. Simultaneously, the public is unable to enjoy leisure activities and gain knowledge from the conserved sites. The commercial exploitation of underwater cultural heritage for trade or speculation or its irretrievable dispersal is fundamentally incompatible with the protection and proper management of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater cultural heritage shall not be traded, sold, bought or bartered as commercial goods—Annex Rule 2, UNESCO 2001 Convention. 1 Ms. Abhirada Komoot is an undergraduate student. She has obtained two bachelor degrees one from the Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University and another one from the Faculty of Law, Thammasat University. She aims to combine her two specialties as a cultural heritage manager with legal background in order to perform her management task more effectively in legal scheme and make legal issues more understandable among other stakeholders. And she has a strong passion for UCH. She has gained her experience on UCH by working as administrative assistant to the UNESCO foundation courses on UCH in Thailand. Now she is accepted by the Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University in the Netherlands for the course starting in February 2012. �UCH in Concern Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) was, a long time ago, a cargo or passenger vessel, village, primitive fish trap, dike or any other human trace. Many of them were faced tragic moments like sinking, inundation, and ultimately destruction. Until, they were swallowed by water and lying undisturbed in some cases for centuries. All of them contain some cultural, historical or archaeological values of human existences. In the case of the ship, it was sailing between continents on a sea route. Then, it was hit by an unavoidable disaster like heavy storms, or sometimes overweight cargo made the ship lose its balance so that it was capsized. After the chaotic moment of trying to survive, no one could ever see it again. It had been sleeping on the sea-floor calmly and undisturbed since then. A century later2, it becomes a significant evidence of human history. It is full of the story of the past. For example, what was the purpose of the finds? How was it built? Why did people have to make the journey? What was the cause of the wreck? Generally, there are some precious objects left behind. These sites attract those who are hunting for treasure among the remains. Classically, the salvage companies encourage individuals from all over the world to invest in the venture promising high financial returns. Although the careless salvage activity can be dangerous and expensive, it is still often worthwhile to do so. The treasure hunters traditionally only expose the site for its pricey items and lack of concern for human history. Their actions result in an irretrievable loss of knowledge. This is not what we, as heritage protectors use to define the value of cultural objects by the price. They are priceless! This legacy reflects the traces of human link with on-land heritage. Therefore, these priceless inheritances should be preserved as and for the benefits of mankind and the completion of human history. Besides, an unavoidable natural disaster, there is also, undeniably human impacts on UCH. Even though the heritage, located under water, is more difficult to access than a land site; it does not mean it is impossible to do so. By the wisdom of mankind, more sophisticated diving equipment has been developed, so that, they can widen the possibility of accessibility to the UCH. In other words, it is easier to get to the site and be able to stay longer under water with modern diving gear. Therefore, it is no longer possible for the site to remain undisturbed but it is now easier to be interfered with. More people are able to reach the sites, not only the treasure hunters, but also recreational divers, researchers, archaeologists, scientists and so on. So the intrusive activities are slightly growing. Among recreational divers, they can create two kinds of impacts on UCH sites; those who care for and are respectful to where and what they are visiting and understand the value of the heritage and those who pay less attention to how fragile and important the site is, only taking a snapshot and collecting some meaningful items from the site as souvenirs to prove they once visited there (Stanley 2006:2-4). 2 Based on the UNESCO 2001 convention, the historical objects is at least 100 years (See Article 1 of the convention). In some countries it cane be determined differently. �Additionally, some accidental damage occurs because of the lack of diver’s ability to control buoyancy, usually novice and newly qualified divers. Indirectly, another human threat is air pockets, especially on the metal materials. In the case of a penetration dive, it can cause two kinds of corrosion to the sites: loss of concretion through mechanical damage and the build up of oxygen concentration inside a shipwreck’s confined spaces (Viduka 2006:61-63). With the carelessness and lack of awareness of numerous dive tourists and operators, our UCH is suffering from these human habits. Even experienced and skilful underwater archaeologists, can also disturb the site by careless excavation, lack of documentation and leaving the site behind without taking any measures to protect it. Due to the increase of the common threats to UCH and the raising of awareness of this heritage within the international community, the UNESCO 2001 Convention was elaborately constituted to mainly protect this heritage from those stresses. One of the core principles of the UNESCO 2001 Convention is the prohibition of commercial exploitation of UCH that is in Article 2 paragraph 7, Article 4 and the Annex. In particular, Rule 2 of the Annex, the integral part of the Convention, states clearly about the kinds of the active commercial exploitation of the finds which are trading, selling, buying and bartering. These activities are obviously banned by the Convention and its Annex. However, in my view the UCH nowadays is in the spotlight, it is becoming more interesting among people, not only to the scientists or archaeologists, but also the public. In some countries they have gained a great deal of benefits not only from the forbidden activities but also from passive ways. The passive commercial exploitation can also be received from other activities like ‘tourism’. Nevertheless, it is not included in the Convention. We still have to put more concern on this issue as tourism is a double-edge sword. It can be tools of potential awareness raising or greedy exploitation. The mitigation between the dirt safeguarding and the dollar earning should be brought to the international stage in order to develop the best methods of managing tourism related to our heritage. Terminology and Tourism The term ‘tourism’, in general, has various meaning. According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the definition of tourism can be indicated as follows: (1) Tourism is about displacement from usual environment. (2) The purpose of the tourism can be anything, like leisure or business or both, other than being remunerated from the visited place. (3) The maximum of duration is not more than a consecutive year. So, tourist is a person who does such activity. Since the beginning of the human history, people had travelled around to neighbouring places for many purposes, for instance, food, shelter, war, etc. They started to make a journey mostly for basic needs. Then, as the improvement of the technology, the transportation had been developed. It was easier for them to make a distant trip. And the purpose of the travel had also been changed according to the endless curiosity and needs of recreational activities. At the time of the Roman Republic, the Romans were ecstatic persons. We can see through works of art. They thought they should, once in a lifetime, �visit the great wonder place of the history and myths like the ruin of Troy, Acropolis, Alexandria and some places in Asia Minor. Heritage is still the reason for people to travel today. They want to see the exotic ruins of empires and the glory of the past. Then, in the seventeenth and eighteenth century the ‘Grand Tour’ had been developed. It was more or less like the journey in Roman period. The wealthy European would traditionally travel to the ruins of the ancient Roman Empire to appreciate the cultural legacy of the Classic antiquity and Renaissance, including the great structures and works of art such as delicate marble sculptures and masterpiece paintings. It served as an rite of passage (Wokloer 2007:205-222). After the Industrial Revolution, transportation had immensely and rapidly improved. Then, the traditional journey extended to the middleclass since they became concerned about the importance of holiday. This allowed bourgeoisies to travel for leisure purpose on their free time. Thus far, people are still keen to see new things. They need to enjoy the benefits of the relaxing time and gain knowledge. There have been numerous emergences of niche or specialty tourism including cultural tourism, nautical tourism, medical tourism, etc. Therefore, tourism had become the popular activity for most people since then. And as the population rapidly grew, the need for relaxation has also increased dramatically. Tourism has had a huge impact on the world’s economic sector. Dirt or Dollars The traces of human existence, lying under water for a long time, acts like a time machine. It is often well preserved by nature as if time stood still from when it was swallowed by the water. It can keep people close to the past. But WHY do we have to get close to the past? What is the value in caring for the dirt? If it can make a cent of dollar to feed the starving lives, maybe this is the reason. Tourism is an attractive activity to most countries in the world as it can generate a great deal of money to improve the standard of living. In the world economy, tourism has played a vital role in economic growth. It became one of the rapidest growing sectors over decades. According to UNWTO’s information, in 2010, international tourism generated US$ 919 billion (€ 693 billion) in export earnings. Similarly, Thailand has also gained a valuable benefit from tourism. The overall economic growth of the country is 8% of GDP or THB 905 trillion (US$ 584 billion) in 2010. Tourism is one of the main industries making Thailand’s economy in progress, growing by 6% of GDP, after automobiles and automotive parts (11%), financial services (9%) and electric appliances and components (8%). To exploit in the form of tourism can bring many benefits to the economic sector. On the website of Coastlearn organization it explained that tourism can be used as a nation’s economic improvement tool including foreign exchange earnings, contribution to government revenues, employment generation, stimulation of infrastructure investment and contribution to local economies. Likewise, it happens the same way to Thailand. As informed by Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT), Thailand welcomes over 550,000 dive tourists and is home to over 80,000 certified divers of its own. And the number of recreational divers is growing since 1985 according to the report from Department of Marine and Coastal Resources. �Under the Thai sea, it can provide tourists not only the natural resources but also cultural heritage. Consequently, UCH can be a good source of tourism as well. From the figure, it shows that if the promotion of tourism is applied to UCH sites, the possibility to widen the divers’ interest on the heritage resources will be bigger. Precisely, UCH is a kind of product sold for foreigners who are seeking unusual experiences. More tourists is a money generator. In a way, tourism can make a lot of money to the host countries and has human’s effects; it can create both direct and indirect damage to this heritage as well. It can cause harmful impacts to the site such as village expansion, constructions, anchoring, looting, treasure hunting, salvaging, etc. So, is tourism exploitation included in the term of ‘commercial exploitation’ in Annex Rule 2 of the UNESCO 2001 Convention? However, tourism, the way to exploit it for wealth and prosperity for the countries and their people is not the bad thing to do. Unromantically, who can live without financial support? “No profit, end of dreams! Even non-profitable organizations survive on donations from other people’s earning and revenues, which are generated by the profit” (Stanley 2006:2-4). In addition to an alternative source of funds, tourism can make a great amount of money from diving enterprises, tourists, shops and other business sectors, involving the UCH. This financial benefit can effectively contribute to heritage management projects and local sector. For example, when locals learn that they can maximize benefits by providing a boat trip to visitors who wish to experience the shipwreck, then, they will care more about the site as it now becomes their tools of earning and improving their quality of life. They will be more concerned about the site. And all the benefits gained can encourage local people and governments to care more about the legacy. The awareness and good policy for sustainable UCH will be raised. Without dirt, there will be no more dollars. So, dirt and dollars on UCH’s aspect is something that relies on each other. It cannot survive alone. And it is difficult to choose only one of them. But the possible way is to find a middle point. Only be careful of overexploitation and unawareness of mass tourism. Education Not Prohibition Indeed, in the term of the sustainable and successful management of Underwater Cultural Heritage, what we need is an education, not prohibition. The site will become more interesting for the public only when they know something about it like how important the site is. Nevertheless, no legal scheme mentions about how tourism will work on UCH. In Rule 7 of the Annex in UNESCO 2001 Convention states about the public access. It can be implied that the promotion of knowledge sharing of the heritage shall be promoted in the parallel way with the proper site management. Moreover, in Article 20, it is a state’s obligation to raise public awareness by any practical ways. However, it is still not clear enough to apply that tourism is permitted by this Convention. Only case studies will be able to bring it to light. In many waterfront countries, tourism is also a possible tool to raise public awareness and provide education about UCH to extent public interests. To educate and encourage people about the importance of UCH is the greater positive benefits for all mankind. Because when we can build the inner �passion of people, they will eager to learn how to protect and safeguard this precious patrimony by themselves. Importantly, it is the right way to build a good cooperation between stakeholders; government, local community, archaeologist, tour operator and so on. In Thailand the popularity of wreck diving is becoming famous among recreational divers but most of sites are decommissioned warships, intentionally sunk for growing marine life, or new sunken ships. SW, Bangkok, 5 August 2011, he is the professional dive instructor, operating in Pattaya.3 He said, according to his experience, most of divers who visiting the wreck around Pattaya waters only enjoy their diving with corals and marine creatures. Their knowledge on wreck sites is very limited or none. The similar result is received from a professional underwater archaeologist, EV, Bangkok, 20 august 2011. He said that there is a small group of wreck divers who are enthusiastically interested in UCH diving. They are also researchers. They visit the sites not only for leisure activities but they are also keen to learn. They are monitoring the deterioration of the sites and do some publication. Even they are in the private sector, they can be watchdogs of UCH. Still, the visitation to UCH sites is limited compared to the number of amateur divers coming to Thailand each year and the number of UCH publications. The group of interested divers is still small but qualified. They have a strong interest and conduct on-going research on the wreck. After they distribute their publication, then, here is becoming well-known among advanced divers. The example is ‘Hardeep’ or ‘Suthathip’, the most famous Thailand’s shipwreck, and it is UCH. It is put in the diving route. The gradually increasing of tourism and educated divers on the sample site is a positive sign for an appropriate growing of tourism on UCH in Thailand. Unfortunately, there is no official record. In other cases, the application of tourism has given a good result in knowledge distribution to many other countries in the form of tourism. For example, the SS Maori in South Africa, Florida’s Maritime Heritage Trail in USA, and Maritime Heritage Trail in Cayman Islands. Freedom of Movement Freedom of movement is the fundamental right of humanity which is respected in the constitution of many countries. For example, it is stated in the section 34 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand. It includes the liberty to travel. A person shall enjoy the liberty of travelling. However, a person shall enjoy their freedom and liberty within the respect of the rights of others. In the term of tourism, it is also a way to promote respect of human rights. To be able to move freely does not encompass the rights to enter another country. But in the UCH perspective, it so means the rights to access the site. Tourists, in order to appreciate the heritage and gain knowledge, shall not be prohibited to approach the site. At the same time, they have obligations to venerate the rights of others as well. They shall not do any harm to the site and keep in their mind that the UCH is the heritage of mankind not 3 Pattaya is the well-known diving spot and tourist attraction in Thailand and located in Chonburi province. �the personal belongings. They shall do no harm to the site including but not limit to looting, souvenir collecting, or even treasure hunting. Rights always come with obligations. This legacy is a shared heritage, so it is our duty to safeguard it in every way we move. Therefore, a person who enthusiastically admires the UCH shall enjoy his/her freedom and liberty of movement and travelling to the UCH site under the limitation of other’s rights and liberty. World without Tourism Most of the UCH sites are lying in the open area, under the sea or river. It is impossible to lock up all the sites and apply strict rules. If we choose to keep the site secret and forbid public access, there will be the secret access as well. This can be more problematic because the intention might go wrong. In general, people travel for many purposes including leisure and learning. Without tourism there will be no real knowledge of the ancient wisdom gained at first hand. Only an unreal source of education such as books, television and Internet can be accessible but no physical appreciation. In other words, Tourism is a joyful way to develop public understanding and raise their attention, which are the key part to promote the sustainability of the UCH safeguarding. Conclusion In many ways, tourism is a potential tool to help increasing the public awareness and financial source, the core instruments of sustainable development of UCH. Restrictive accessibility to the UCH is the way to keep the site intact but it cannot educate people particularly locals. Without awareness, the blanket legislative protection cannot be enforced effectively. And without profit, all the dream projects become useless. Additionally, it becomes a human rights’ violation instead of respect. Even tourism can create some negative impacts, pros and cons are needed to be weighed. As the idea of the traces of humanity, the issue needs to be brought to the international phase in order to find a chance of hope for sustainable and effective management of tourism on UCH. Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the help of people who contribute to this work. I am grateful to Dr. Mr. R. Rujaya Abhakorn, the Director of SPAFA, for giving me a great opportunity and support. And this would not have been possible without the assistance of my friends, Mr. Erbprem Vatcharangkul, Mr. Chris Underwood, Mr. Martijn Manders, Mr. Andrew Viduka, Mr. Takahiko Makino, Mr. Saiklang Jindasu, Mr. Siwat Worachananan, and Ms. Pimolpan Wong A-ram. Bibliography Bureau of Committee 3, The Secretariat of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E.2550 (2007), Bureau of Printing Services, Bangkok. �House of Representatives, 2007 Coastlearn, Benefits Of Sustainable Coastal Tourism, CoastLearn, viewed 23 August 2011, <http://www.coastlearn.org/tourism/why_economicbenefi ts .html>. Manders, M. R., Managing Cultural Heritage Underwater. Publication no. Oosting, R. and 3, Educom BV, The Netherlands. Brouwers, W., (eds) 2009 Ministry of Foreign Tourism, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, viewed 12 Affairs, October2011, <http://www.mfa.go.th/web/20.php> 2011 Stanley, R., “It's All about 'P'”, in Heritage @ Risk 2006 - Special 2006 Edition: Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts, pp. 2-4 International Council on Monuments and Sites / Conseil International Des Monuments Et Des Sites, viewed 18 August 2011, <http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/2006/index.htm l>. Sorabella, J., "The Grand Tour", in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, 2000 New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–, viewed 12 October 2011, <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grtr/hd_grtr.htm>. Towner, J., and "History and Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research. Vol. Wall, G., 18, pp. 71-84. 1991 Tourism Authority Tourism Authority of Thailand News Room, Tourism of Thailand, Authority of Thailand, viewed 22 August 2011, <http://www.tatnews.org/latest_update/detail.asp?id=526 4>. UNESCO, Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural 2001 Heritage, downloaded November 2009, <unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001260/126065e.pdf UNESCO, "Underwater Cultural Heritage." in Museum International 2008 LX, No.4/240. pdf. UNESCO, Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania. Print, Paris. 2010 UNWTO, Why Tourism?, UNWTO, viewed 4 August 2011, <http:www2.unwto.org/en/content/why-tourism>. Viduka, A., “Managing Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage 2006 Sites: The Yongala as a Case Study”, in Heritage @ Risk 2006 - Special Edition: Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts, pp. 61-63, International Council on Monuments and Sites / Conseil International Des Monuments Et Des Sites, viewed 18 August 2011, �Walker, P., 2005 Wokler, R., 2007 <http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/2006/index.htm Hardeep Wreck, Thailand Wreck Diving, Thai Technical Diving and Dive Software, Thai Shipwrecks, viewed 4 August 2011, <http://www.thaiwreckdiver.com/hardeep_wreck.htm>. ‘Rite of passage and the grand tour, discovering, imaging and investing European civilization in the Age of Enlightenment’, in Anthony Molho and Diego Ramada Curto (eds.), Finding Europe: discourses on margins communities, images, Berghahn Books, USA, pp. 20522. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Can tourism exploitation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) be incompatible with the UNESCO 2001 Convention? Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 Some Challenges and Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Tourism is a major factor of economic growth in many countries especially in developing countries. In 2010, tourism accounted for about 6% of Thailand’s GDP. In a way tourism is commercial exploitation. But is it against Annex Rule 2 of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention)? In the Annex, only active commercial exploitation –trading, selling, buying and bartering– of cultural material is obviously forbidden. Yet, there might be other passive commercial exploitations like tourism which are not stated. Can tourism be an alternative source of funds that can be utilised for UCH site protection and management? Because of the country’s commercial benefits gained from promoting tourism, it can be argued that tourism exploitation is one of the commercial exploitations implied in Annex Rule 2. Additionally, for tourism, the sites have to be opened for public which may cause the tension to in situ preservation and physical protection of sites. Also, it could create direct effects, such as damage to the sites by divers souvenir hunting and treasure hunting, etc. On the other hand, tourism can be a successful tool to get people involved and raise awareness which is essential in safeguarding UCH. Furthermore, under Rule 7 of the Annex, it allows knowledge sharing with the public but only when it is not incompatible with the proper protection and management of the sites. In other words, public approach could possibly be applicable only in appropriate ways. However, it does not expressly mention exploitation through tourism. Tourism can bring good fortune to countries as well as many advantages for UCH. Therefore, the prohibition may lead to absurd and even contradictory results. Countries may find it difficult to find financial subsidy and raise pubic awareness for sustainable protection of UCH. Simultaneously, the public is unable to enjoy leisure activities and gain knowledge from the conserved sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Abhirada Komoot Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12