19 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Ceramics of South-East Asia: Their Dating and Identification Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roxanna M Brown Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Art Media Resources Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2000, 1988 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Roxanna M Brown Item Type Book ISBN 1878529706 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2000, 1988 Extra External Resources: Find this item at Abebooks.com (Bookseller) Find this item at Alibris (Bookseller) Find this item at Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America (Bookseller) Find this item at Biblio (Bookseller) Cite This Item Search for versions with same title and author | Advanced options ... More About This In: Books in Print (Publication status and optional reviews) Edition: 2nd ed. Language: English Contents: Introduction. Guangdong wares ; The Tak/Omkoi burial sites ; New findings at Sawankhalok ; Gulf of Thailand sunken ships -- Vietnamese ceramics. Recent archaeology in Vietnam ; The Han Period ; The imtermediary wares ; The Ly Dynasty Period ; The Ly-Period chronology (AD 1009-1225) ; Early exported wares ; The introduction of blue-and-white ; The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ; The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ; Domestic cult wares ; The modern period -- The Go-Sanh kilns -- Khmer wares. The Phnom Kulen kilns ; Lie de Vin wares ; The Buriram kilns ; Prasat Ban Phluang ; General characteristics ; Dating -- The Sukhothai and Sawankhalok kilns. Origins and dating ; Chalieng wares ; Mon and Mon-associated wares ; 'Transitional' underglaze iron decorated wares ; Later chronology ; The old Sukhothai kilns ; Later Sawankhalok stonewares ; Later stoneware shapes ; Characteristics of decoration ; External influences ; The rebirth of celadon -- The northern and other Thai kilns. Northern Thai kiln sites ; A Lao tradition ; North-central and central Thai sites -- Burmese ceramics. The green-and-white group ; 'Martaban' storage jars ; Celadon wares ; Pegu temple plaques ; The historical setting. Note(s): Reprint. Originally published: Singapore ; New York : Oxford University Press, 1988./ Includes bibliographical references (p. 113-124) and index. Class Descriptors: LC: NK4154; Dewey: 738.0959 Responsibility: Roxanna M. Brown. More Records: Show record information Vendor Info: Baker & Taylor YBP Library Services (BKTY YANK) 49.95 Status: active Entry: 20001106 Update: 20091210 Provider: OCLC Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Place Chicago, IL Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Art Media Resources Short Title The Ceramics of South-East Asia Title A name given to the resource The Ceramics of South-East Asia: Their Dating and Identification Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Century of Reform Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mitsusada Inoue Delmer M. Brown Delmer M. Brown Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1988 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Mitsusada Inoue Delmer M. Brown Editor Delmer M. Brown Item Type Book Section Book Title Ancient Japan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1988 Pages 163-220 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series The Cambridge History of Japan Title A name given to the resource The Century of Reform Volume 1 Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Bakau wreck: an early example of Chinese shipping in Southeast Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michael Flecker Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Michael Flecker Item Type Journal Article DOI 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2001.tb01369.x Abstract Note Very few early Chinese shipwrecks have been discovered in Southeast Asia, despite the enormous volume of trade with China. This article describes the surprising hull features of one such wreck, and its diverse ceramic cargo. The Bakau Wreck dates to the early 15th century, and was bound from southern China to Indonesia via a Thai entrepot port. Access Date 2009-11-28 06:23:20 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Issue 2 Library Catalog Wiley InterScience Pages 221-230 Publication Title International Journal of Nautical Archaeology Short Title The Bakau wreck Title A name given to the resource The Bakau wreck: an early example of Chinese shipping in Southeast Asia URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2001.tb01369.x Volume 30 China Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/592d22d827324f19a6d882099a9672ef.pdf 42f25a845b2f6a85b4ea87b1005066a2 PDF Text Text Project Approach to the Establishment of Underwater Heritage Management in the Kingdom of Cambodia Heng Kamsan Abstract The establishment of Underwater Heritage Management under the leadership of Cambodia‟s Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts started a project to set boundaries and recognize limitations in its ability to oversee activities in underwater cultural heritage (UCH) management. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization‟s (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and the UNCLOS III International Law of the Sea were adopted in November 2007 In 2011 Cambodia is the only Southeast Asian country to ratify the convention. This paper will provide an outline of the bureaucracy and project development currently ongoing in Cambodia. Details will be provided on the initiation of structural management and of limitations authorities must consider when establishing proposed project outcomes. I. Introduction Cambodia has a long and important maritime history. The 2001 Convention was adopted in June 2006 with the intention to define Cambodian UCH and protect it for future generations. What is the project approach to Underwater Heritage Management in the Kingdom of Cambodia? All operations are run under the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts with the following common characteristics: performed by people; generally constrained by limited resources; requirements in planning, execution, and control. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts (henceforth the Ministry) assigned a Director General of Cultural Heritage to supervise. The Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit was established by the Ministry since January 2011 which consists of 11 members, one director, secretariat, and research team. “Project Start-UP” provides the basic framework in establishing subsequent projects. The proposed development entails a series of projects with the following parameters: define requirements; identify expected outcomes; results; fixed start and end dates; and extent of available budget/resources. Authorities must first define their expected results. A mission statement and name for the organization may be the first order of business. After the mandate has been established and a “project manager” (i.e. Ministry Director) assigned, the project starts. The end date is based on resources and limitations in the following factors: maritime cultural property, limits of authority on the sea and interior waters (lakes, rivers, baray [ancient Khmer reservoir); personnel, skills, and equipment. At this stage a comprehensive view of future requirements should begin to take shape (i.e. conceiving Phase 2, 3, 4, 5) and where it is anticipated that the organization will be in 5 years or more. With each project the following takes place in this order: 1. The Define phase: establish the plan; define what is to be accomplished and WHY. 2. The Start phase: Organization of people and equipment involved. 3. The Perform phase: Go do it! Track progress and maintain control while encouraging performance. 4. The Close phase: STOP! What are the results? 1 �II. Project Start-UP A) Phase 1 Projects are often implemented to achieve an organization‟s strategic plan. Operations and projects differ in that operations are ongoing and often the result of a project or projects, while projects are temporary and unique. According to the Project Management Institute (PMBOK) Guide a project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service”. The terms “temporary” denote a finite/defined beginning and end, and “unique” means that the product or service is in some way distinguishable from others. A project may be undertaken at almost any level within an organization. It may involve one or more people and run over a few weeks to several years. In many cases a project may cross inter-organizational boundaries and involve organizations that are outside the perimeters of control. Phase 1 is “Project Start-UP” or the basis for all that is to follow. Once the basic framework is established “Project Start-UP” would be complete and subsequent phases of the project initiated. Once the project is complete another project would be established to take the Ministries efforts to the next stage of development. Subsequent projects are expected to help in the strengthening and growth of the organization. i)- Temporary “Temporary” means that every project has a definite beginning and end (PMBOK p.5 see footnote). Temporary does not always mean short duration and some projects can last for several years until the desired results are achieved. However, a project has a definite end and cannot and should not be construed as an ongoing effort. The difference between a project and operations is that is a project ceases when the declared objectives are met, while operations adapt a new set of objectives and continue to work. The end is reached when the project objectives are achieved; or it becomes clear that the project objectives cannot be met; or the need for the project no longer exists and the project is terminated. ii)- Unique Projects involve doing something that has not been done previously. The establishment of a new department of underwater is unique even though the organization to which it will belong is large. The uniqueness is in the contents and context in which the organization is formed. iii)- Progressive Elaboration Progressive elaboration is a characteristic of projects that integrates the concepts of temporary and unique (PMBOK Guide p.5). Because of the uniqueness the project must be progressively elaborated. “Progressively” means gradual movement, proceeding in stages or development towards a destination or more advanced state; while “elaboration” means involving many carefully arranged parts; detailed and complicated, to develop or present in further detail. Initially broad elements are defined early in the project and progressively elaborated while the scope of work remains consistent. III. The Project All projects must meet the formal commitments made to the world community in complying with the 2001 Convention and UNCLOS III (1985). The unique product or service of a project 2 �is run under a specialized organization within the existing framework of the Ministry that can implement and sustain the Cambodian commitment to underwater heritage management. the PROJECT is to develop the framework for an Underwater Heritage Management Unit within the existing framework of the Ministry and integrate the Unit‟s objectives with those of other Ministries and government bodies. CONCEIVE=DEFINE=START=PERFORM=CLOSE The idea= The plan=The team=The work=The finish A) Defining Requirements: 1- Specific outcomes: results 2- Define start and end dates 3-Establish budgets/resources: people, funds, equipment, facilities, and information. B) What are the results? Before results can really be defined authorities must start the process by defining what desired results are expected. The results may simply be an interpretation of the 2001 Convention and how it applies to Cambodia or the required and expected results may be more complex. A mission statement and a basic name for the organization may be the first order of business. After the mandate has been established and a “project manager” (Ministry Director) assigned the project starts. The end date can now be set based on requirements of resources and definition of terms: 1- Maritime cultural property 2-Limits of authority on the sea and interior 3- Authority under existing Cambodia law 4- What personnel and skills are needed? 5- What equipment is required and when IV. The background of the Kingdom of Cambodia A)- Geographical setting Situated in the Southeast Asia Region, Kingdom of Cambodia forms part of the south portion of the Indochinese Peninsula between latitude 10º and 15º north and longitude 102º and 108º east. It is bounded on the north by Laos, on the east and southeast by Vietnam, and on the west and northwest by Thailand. In the southwest, Cambodia is bordered by the Gulf of Thailand (by the three provinces Koh Kong, Sihanoukville and Kampot) with a coastline of 435 kilometers (km). To the southeast of the country lies the delta of the Mekong River. 3 �Figure 1. Map indicating Cambodian waterways and plains (Encarta 2005) The capital and largest city of the Kingdom of Cambodia is Phnom Penh, sited at Chaktomuk, which translated means “four faces”, this relates to English as the geographical confluence of four rivers - the Upper and Lower Mekong, the Tonle Sap and the Bassac (MCDAI 1997). The city traditionally has been a commercial centre for the Mekong Valley with facilities for transportation by air, rail, river, and highway. Phnom Penh today, as it was in history, is a major river port with an outlet to the South China Sea through the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. Cambodia‟s most important river and waterway is the Mekong River, the longest river in Southeast Asia and the tenth largest in the world. Originating from the Chinese Himalayas, it runs through Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam before flowing into the South China Sea. The Mekong River runs southward through Cambodia for 486 km passing Phnom Penh where it divides into the aforementioned rivers. Both the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River are the hub of Cambodia's economy, transportation, and supports fisheries, agricultural irrigation (particularly important for rice production), and other cultural activities (Choulean, et al. 1996). 4 �Oudong Figure 2. Satellite image of Phnom Penh showing the crossing Mekong and Tonle Sap in front of the city (Phnom Penh développement urbain et patrimoine, MC-DAI 1997) There are several other important river networks in Cambodia. To name a few, they include the Battambang rivers (centered on the Sangke River), the Stung Treng group (the Sesan, Sekong and Srepok Rivers), and the Sen River (Kompong Thom). B) Historical Review of Waterways in Cambodia Waterways have been and are important elements for communication. They are the most reliable natural feature to support transportation, thus providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. Maritime relations were established early between India, China, and the Arabs and then firmed between various parts of the coast of the Indochinese peninsula, the Malay Peninsula, the islands of Sunda in Indonesia and Japan (MC-DAI 1997). However, well before the arrival of foreign navigators the local populations living along the littoral of rivers had established their own fleets of ships and built cross-community relationships due largely to continual exchanges along the coasts (MC-DAI 1997). The river network provided the grid along which settlements were established, of which the Mekong River remains the most important feature. Further to the southeast, another city contemporary to Angkor Borei, was built on the coast. It was once the Gulf of Siam, now named Oc-Eo (in present day Vietnam). This was a Funan site (Pélliot 1903) and an important port where foreign merchants came to settle since sea routes from India and the Malay Peninsula probably ended here. The exterior wall of the Oc-Eo site consisted of four embankments with five moats. The principal axis of the site was probably a canal, and the site lay at the heart of a regional network of waterways. Aerial photographs reveal a large network of waterways, dug by humans, which served as drainage channels and irrigation canals. This network of canals, interconnected with each other and to rivers was also used for water traffic between population centers found along the Bassac and Mekong Rivers. In areas close to the sea, this system of waterways helped to regulate the degree of salinization from the sea. Waterways in the Oc-Eo region seem to have run from north-northeast to south-southwest, following the general gentle slope of the terrain. C) Natural Environmental influences on the Typology of Khmer Traditional Boats Cambodia is located in a tropical region and under the influence of seasonal monsoons. These weather patterns provide abundant water and forests are a dominant element in the Eco-Environment of the Kingdom of Cambodia. During the wet season access by land is 5 �sometimes difficult as the region is often penetrated by floodwaters. Winds are moderate and predictable with monsoons blowing from the west or south in May-August and northwest or northeast in December-March. The temperature of freshwater is uniform, encouraging fisheries and there is an abundance of wood near the river banks suitable for boat-building. These access factors were conducive for our Khmer ancestors. They used the waterways and maritime sea-lanes to supply the needs of their daily life. Artificial canals connected rivers or the Great Lake to cities and villages which required many kinds of craft to move over. It is unfortunate that today some types of traditional boats, especially sea-craft, have disappeared. Traditional boats are described in detail below. The information is primarily focused on the riverine boats that ply the Mekong River, the Tonle Sap and the Great Lake. It is sometimes difficult to precisely define the function or record the original name of boats so they are identified by either method and/or materials-used in their construction: Royal Barge is called Tuok Ke Hauv (early 20th Century) Boat Cabin is called Tuok Koeng (late 16th century ) Racing Boats is called Tuok Ngor (Angkor period «802-1432») Sugar Palm Trunk Boat is called Tuok Thnaot (French Colonia «1863-1953») Touk Mead or Tuok Bilan (late 20th century) Bamboo Raft in called Kbone Russei (Angkor period «802-1432») Fishing Boats (early 20th century) Pleasure Craft (Early 20th century) Ferry Boats (late 20th century) House Boats (around 17th century?) Figure 3a. Royal Barge called Tuok Ke Hauv, early 20th Century (National Museum), historic photographs 6 �Figure 3b. Royal Barge called Tuok Ke Hauv, early 20th Century (National Museum) (cont.), modern photographs 7 �V. Notes on underwater archaeology that provide scope to current and future project requirements Underwater archaeology fieldwork is not unlike its parallel sub-discipline of terrestrial approaches, in that it requires broad scanning methods and detailed visual inspection. The photography, recording, and surveying use the same general principles as on land, however it is more time consuming, cumbersome and dangerous. A) The assessment process of underwater archaeology: i) Site identification: chronological position, date and nature of the site fundamentals ii) Contents of the site: what type of evidence is expected to be encountered will dictate the excavation strategy iii) Condition: what are the condition of the site as well as the conditions at the site (depth, currents, boat traffic i.e. in a port, or offshore) iv) Recovery techniques: what if anything will be recovered and how, and the resources that make recovery possible v) Post-excavation/recovery: what samples should be considered for analysis, specialists need, and the specific requirements of the post-excavation / recovery vi) Conservation requirements: limiting exposure to air of fragile artifacts, and facilities to care for the immediate and long term preservation of organic and fragile finds. B) General view of UCH Not all underwater archaeology concerns ships. In areas where the land has been altered either naturally or manmade, the possibility of human habitation exists that should be explored and studied. Canals, wetlands1 and other manmade engineering features make for possible sites too. Sites are evaluated according to the following: 1. Site discovery 2. Initial assessment and research design 3. Excavation 4a. Feature and artifact recording and rising 4b. Structural recording, mapping and tracing 5a. Artifact and Spatial Analysis: activity area 5b. Structural disassembly, raise; record; rebury Cargo lading, ballasting 6a. Shipboard life 6b. Shipbuilding techniques VII. 2001 Convention This section is to provide clarity as to what Cambodian authorities understand the 2001 Convention to entail. It is a complement to other like international conventions. 1-Is a comprehensive international instrument on the protection of maritime cultural property. 2-The convention fills the gaps in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea Imbedded within the charter is the need for building capacity for heritage management and conservation of artifacts in the coastal zone of the Kingdom of Cambodia. Capacity building denotes the development of a core group of highly motivated professionals to manage the heritage and cultural assets associated with the coastal zone and inland waterways. 8 �VIII. Objectives The team must be able to develop and expand six key objectives: A) Knowledge and understanding i) Maritime archaeology management; ii) Threats to underwater cultural heritage; iii) Role of the maritime museum; public interpretation; iv) Marine archaeological conservation; and v) Marine archaeological protection. B) Cognitive mastery i) Assessment of maritime landscapes with respect to the application of management skills; ii) Assimilate issues relating to legislation and preservation of marine archaeological resources; iii) Public awareness, and best practices of marine artifact conservation; and iv) Independent research. C) Practical application i) Assist in establishing framework and legislative systems changes to benefit protection of heritage; ii) Apply best in class conservation, management, and preservation practices; and iii) Develop future framework and systems. D) Transferable skills i) Research; ii) Conferences and seminars; and iii) Develop educational plans for future generations. E) Tasks i) Develop public interest in the historical environment with solid leadership, effective partnering, and a sound base with which to develop policies. ii) Develop the full potential of the historical environment as a learning resource. iii) Develop accessibility to the site, knowledge base iv) Protect and sustain the historical environment for future generations v) Develop the historical environment‟s importance as an economic asset. F) Special traits to be understood in current marine archaeology i) The site can be located outside the territory of their state of origin. ii) The discipline is poorly understood and as a result a poorly developed research framework. iii) The sites are situated in a hazardous environment subject to continuous and rapid change. iv) The sites are not easily accessible and manageable without specialized skills, techniques, and equipment. v) The undertaking of marine archaeology as a result of the above is expensive. 9 �Figure 4. View of shipwreck sites along the coastline provinces in the Kingdom of Cambodia IX. Summary The „Project‟ approach to heritage management provides a proven process and procedure that can be adapted and refined to meet all the requirements of planning, executing, and controlling a specific group of tasks that develop a unique product that will be on time, within budget, and conform to all required specifications. It is only now that Cambodia is beginning to progress and build its capacity in maritime archaeology after the country became the first, and only, Southeast Asian country to ratify the 2001 Convention. The Ministry has established an UCH Unit to lead the national efforts in the field of underwater archaeology, heritage protection and preservation. This team is currently conducting research and fieldwork surveys to establish a preliminary cartography of the heritage within the boarders of Cambodia. The preliminary cartography of underwater cultural heritage in Cambodia will be finalized and published at the end of year 2011. The UNESCO Phnom Penh Office has been working on a project dedicated to the inventory of Cambodia‟s UCH. The result of which will be a document that provides a synopsis outlining a three year plan to introduce a capacity building project that will allow for locating, protecting, conserving and studying the underwater legacy of Cambodia. This will lead to the development of a framework that will eventually enable a permanent public exhibition of this legacy. It will therefore be publicly accessible and will have the potential to be appreciated by people around the world. Within the framework of ongoing cultural 10 �activities and with the objective to preserve UCH, UNESCO is supporting the project The Preliminary Cartography of UCH in Cambodia. Through the efforts and resources of organizations and the sound project management of the people involved, the initiative to implement a world-class functioning Underwater Heritage Management and Archaeological Organization within the Ministry will be successfully achieved. Bibliography Choulean, A., Prenowitz, E., and Thompson, A., 1996 Ministère de la Culture, Département des Affaires Internationales (MC - DAI), 1997 Bunker, E.C., and Latchford, D., 2004 Coedès, G., 1989 Delaporte, L., 1880 Ishizawa, Y., 1999-2004 Higham, C., 2002 Hoc, C. S., 1973 Osborne, M., 1866-1873 Prak, S., 2000 Vann, M., 1999 Vann, M., 2003 Ya, D., 1995 Pélliot, P., 1903 Project Management Institute 2009 Française d'ExtrêmeOrient 1942 A manual for the Past, Present, and Future, APSARA, Royal Government of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Angkor. Atelier parisien d'urbanisme, Phnom Penh, developpement urbain et patrimonie, Paris. Adoration and Glory: The Golden Age of Khmer Art, Art Media Resources, Chicago. Articles sur le Pays Khmer, Française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO), Paris. Voyage au Cambodge, Delagrave, Paris, Encarta 2006, Microsoft DVD ROM. Along the royal roads to Angkor, Weatherhill, Tokyo Early cultures of Mainland Southeast Asia, River Books, Bangkok. "Esquisse d'une étude de la batellerie khmère", in Memoire d'une fin d'étude, River Road to China, the search for the source of the Mekong "Traditional metalwork of Cambodia: A Case Study in the Kampong Luong Commune", in Renaissance Culturelle du Cambodge, 17, Socio-Cultural Development, Survey Report. Les cités khmères anciennes, Toyota Foundation, Phnom Penh. Modern Khmer cities, Reyum Publishing, Phnom Penh. Khmer Boat-racing, Thesis for Diploma in Archaeology, Faculty of Archaeology, Royal University of Fine Arts, Phnom Penh. “Le Fou-nan", in Bulletin of Française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO), tome III, Paris. A Guide to the Project Management Body of knowledge (PMBOK Guide), Newton Square Pa, pp.4-5. tome XLI 1941, fasc. 2, Hanoi. 11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Project Approach to the Establishment of Underwater Heritage Management in the Kingdom of Cambodia Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 Some Challenges and Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource The establishment of Underwater Heritage Management under the leadership of Cambodia’s Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts started a project to set boundaries and recognize limitations in its ability to oversee activities in underwater cultural heritage (UCH) management. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and the UNCLOS III International Law of the Sea were adopted in November 2007 In 2011 Cambodia is the only Southeast Asian country to ratify the convention. This paper will provide an outline of the bureaucracy and project development currently ongoing in Cambodia. Details will be provided on the initiation of structural management and of limitations authorities must consider when establishing proposed project outcomes. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Heng Kamsan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/19b6abb9f37e5d8b013f90d8faf75a8d.pdf 56461cb3b96b38e611cf8b5239a332ad PDF Text Text Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Sunny O. Ngirmang and Calvin T. Emesiochel1 Abstract Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts & Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey & Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey & Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide detail of their efforts and goals, challenges, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. Palau Island Brief History, Geography & Geology The Palau Island is the westernmost archipelago in the Caroline chain approximately 7 degrees North of the equator, consisting of six island groups totaling more than five hundred high and low islands (only 16 of which are inhabited) including World War II battleground of Peleliu and world-famous mushroom shaped rock islands. The inhabited islands of Palau including from north to south is Kayangel, Babeldaob, Koror, Peleliu, Angaur and the Southwest Island groups. Most of the Islands are encompassed in a barrier reef that stretches for approximately 105 kilometers except for the Southwest Islands Palau lies on a subduction zone causing Babeldaob, the largest island to submerge about a half millimeter per year. Consequently, it is hypothesized according to paleoenvironmental studies that the earlier colonization and settlement sites along the coast of Babeldaob are underwater (Dickinson and Athens 2007). More archaeological data are needed from other possible sites for examination and identification pending comparative analysis. The possibility to access other sites around 1 Bureau of Arts & Culture, Palau Historic Preservation Office, Koror, Republic of Palau 96940 �Palau Pg - 2 - of 8 Micronesia is needed for a further reexamination to cement together proposed hypothesis of early settlement and exclude others. Bureau of Arts & Culture The Bureau is a branch of the Palau National Government responsible for identifying, documenting, protecting, preserving and managing all cultural and historical resources within the Republic First established in 1978, then called the Division of Cultural Affairs and is presently the Bureau of Arts and Culture through Executive Order No. 203 since 2001, is a Palau governmental entity under the Ministry of Community & Cultural Affairs, which mandates a framework for the adequate protection of archaeological sites and tangible cultural resources (Emesiochel 2008:4). Additionally, the Bureau implements Section 106 of the US National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended. The Bureau helps in the implementation of acceptable historic preservation laws in the 16 states of the Republic of Palau. The Bureau receives funds from the Palau National Government and the Historic Preservation Funds from the U.S. National Parks Service, Department of the Interior. The Bureau has a total of 11 staff members. It operates with the advice and assistance from the 16-member Palau Historical and Cultural Advisory Board, 16-member Society of Historians, and 5-member Technical and Professional Review Committee. The mission of the Bureau is to protect and preserve all the Republic’s cultural and historical resources to enhance, enrich, and foster the Palauan heritage now and into the future. To achieve this mission, the Bureau had four main goals: First to preserve and foster cultural and historical resources for the benefit of Palauan people; Second, to preserve and educate Palauan tradition that are threatened with extinction; third, to protect cultural and historical resources from destruction; and finally, to preserve culture and tradition in the face of inevitable increasing foreign contact and interaction. A. Historical & Cultural Preservation Act 19 PNC § 102 Created in 1974, the Palau Historic Preservation Act (PNC Title 19) is administered by the Bureau that is intended to serve as the official inventory of all those historical sites and tangible cultural properties which are deemed of significance to the Palauan people and culture hence worth preserving, plus be protected from destruction and impairment. The Palau Register is the legal instrument to ensure that registered properties or properties that may be eligible, threatened by public or private development will be subject to comment and review in accordance with the procedures prescribed by law. 19 PNC § 134: Each state (and national government) reserves to itself the exclusive right and privilege of ownership and control over historical sites and tangible cultural property located on the lands and waters owned or controlled by the state. A.1 Survey, Inventory and Archaeology The Survey, Inventory and Archaeology Section are the leading responsible for the identification and inventoried of all cultural and historical resources within the Republic. �Palau Pg - 3 - of 8 To carry out this responsibility, we have divided our survey into three phases: First, Babeldaob survey, second, rock island survey then underwater survey. The basis of determining and prioritizing our survey in this way was based on economical, developmental, policy, as well as not enough staff, training and funding to do both surveys at one time. Especially Underwater Cultural Heritage that require more technical skills. Even though data haven’t input into the database, the information of underwater cultural heritage but we do have readily available hard copies that provide descriptive information including coordinates, maps, drawings, and photos. There are records of more than 60 wreck sites are submerged around the Palau lagoons. Some of these sites are very popular for tourist diving spots which are shown on the map. Diving tour companies are really strict as to preserve these sites for their own benefit. They usually report to our office as they found new wrecks or even suspicious action of looting. The issue of Geographic Information System (henceforth referred to as GIS) in Palau and future plan is to centralize a main information office that manages all data. Each government agency should be interconnected to the Information office and have their own GIS program they manage and provide data to the central office. This will allow all agencies to share and upload files from different agencies. But due to lack of funding, only few government offices and NGOs are able to acquire GIS program. Right now, the office of PALARIS - Palau Automated Land and Resource Information System is the office that has well trained and full GIS operation staff. This office is the one that supposedly be the central GIS information office. Short-term Goals • Revisit identified underwater archaeological sites/resources for further analysis of: site condition, assessment, and verification of information, and inventory • Identify immediate threat (deterioration, looting, etc) affecting underwater cultural resources • Develop community and local state government interest and collaboration Long-term Goals • Method of conservation and preservation • Establish a database for underwater archaeological sites/resources • Create a underwater cultural resources management plan to be implemented at the state and national level • Continuous management, protection, and preservation of underwater cultural resources This section assist in public education in “disseminating information and educating the public through presentations and site visits, in order to foster awareness and importance of protecting, preserving, and conserving our cultural heritage that is our national identity for our future generations” (Emesiochel 2008: 8). B. Palau Lagoon Monument 19 PNC § 306 It is hereby declared that it is a policy of the Republic to preserve forever historic landmarks, structures, and other sites and objects of significance to the Republic of the Trust Territory situated within the jurisdiction of the Republic for the inspiration and benefit of the people of the Republic. �Palau Pg - 4 - of 8 All ships, other vessels and aircraft, and any and all parts and contents thereof, which formerly belonged to or were part of the armed forces or commercial fleet of Spain, Germany, Japan, and the United States or any other nation, which were sunk to or otherwise deposited on the bottom of the Palau Lagoon and its territorial waters, subject to applicable salvage laws, shall be and hereby are set apart as monuments which shall be collectively called the Palau Lagoon Monument. The administration, protection, and development of the monument shall be exercised under the direction of the President of the Republic or his duly authorized representatives. The strictness of this law, give us enough time to seek assistance and trainings to accomplish the survey and inventory of the underwater cultural heritage of Palau. In order to convict someone for violating the Palau Lagoon Monument, the government must prove that the individual (1) removes, appropriates, damages, or destroys (2) ships, other vessels or aircraft (or parts thereof), which formally belonged to the armed forces or commercial fleet of any nation and which are at the bottom of the Palau lagoon. C. Types/Categories of Underwater Cultural Resources The most notable types of UCH sites within the Republic are the WWII wrecks located mostly in the Southern Lagoon. There are more than 60 WWII ship and aircraft wrecks sites in Palau. The wrecks sites are popular tourists dive spots. Tourists who decide to dive the wrecks are educated in the types of ship, ship content, and their components. Captain Wilson’s shipwreck of 1783 off the Coast of Ulong Island is also a well-known site. The Antelope shipwreck site is under the control of the Koror State Government. Some of the ship’s remnants can be seen during low tide. Other UHC sites are locally known by the form of myths and folklore for instance is the sunken City of Ngibtal. Fish trapping sites, stone docks/piers, underwater burial sites, and submerged landmarks are known UCH sites which are found in different parts of Palau – all are protected under Title 19. Other known but not fully documented is the numerous Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport from Palau to Yap. These large stones or “megaliths” were quarried in Palau by Yapese islanders prior to European contact (Hazell and Fitzpatrick 2006:12). During their several hundred kilometers of oceanic voyage to Yap, some vessels transporting the money disks capsized, leaving a trail of money disks from several trips on the ocean floor. It is not yet certain where exactly these money disks are located. There has yet to be a full documentary, mapping, and surveying of the Yapese stone money disks under the waters of Palau. Recent work by Scott M. Fitzpatrick in the management and protection of the quarry sites provides the opportunity for the local communities in Palau and Yap to take lead in the preservation of such sites. The proposed management plan covers sites located inland. Sites or money disks underwater are also given the same amount of attention and protection it deserve once the sites have been identified. One of Palau’s local community leader and well-known scuba diver Francis Toribiong takes lead in the advocacy and protection of UCH sites in the Republic. �Palau Pg - 5 - of 8 As part of public education and outreach, the Bureau in collaboration with Palau Visitors Authority, the Belau National Museum, and local state government aims to promote community awareness on the types of underwater cultural heritage. From the shipwrecks to sunken city and to the Yapese megaliths, Palau aims to increase the fascination and value into the preservation and conservation of UCH sites. D. Tourism, location, and accessibility Palau was the headquarters of the Japanese command in Micronesia and was heavily fortified by the Japanese in the years leading up to WWII in the Pacific. Malakal Harbor was a major forward supply base for Japanese shipping. On March 31, 1944 U.S. dive-bomber strikes from aircraft carriers Yorktown and Bunker Hill, of Carrier Task Force 58 destroyed over 50 warships and airplanes of the Japanese Imperial Forces, making Palau's western lagoon their final resting place. Most of the wrecks are located within a few minutes of Sam's Tours dive center and remain in excellent condition for diving. Each year in March, Sam Scott of Sam's Tours hosts Palau Wreck Week to mark the anniversary of the sinking of the Japanese fleet. WWII shipwreck sites are mainly located in Palau’s Southern Lagoon in Koror, the states of Peleliu and Angaur and other sites around the coast of Babeldaob. Most of Palau’s dive shop, naming for instance Sam’s Dive Tour offer services, kayak, and dives to the WWII wrecks. Provided in the tour, the dive operator educates the tourist basic information of the wreck. There are 10 popular wreck dive sites which Sam’s Tour takes their clients for diving. Accessibility to the sites is not restricted; tour operators can freely access the wreck for photo taking, kayak, and other recreational activities. E. Current legislation, Preservation and Management of Underwater cultural resources Aside from PLM, local conservation legislations and regulations pertaining to the protection and management of UCH sites are very minimal. The permits or MOA’s administered by the office of the President of stipulations of the management and treatment of UCH sites are only created in the event such salvage, research, etc arises. With the exception of Title19 and PLM, the Protected Areas Network Act (henceforth referred to as PAN) and the Micronesia Challenge established in 2007 aims to protect not only terrestrial cultural heritage but up to 20% of marine areas including where such UCH sites are located. Since there is not a definite line where the 20% occupies, it would be logical to deduce that such percentage be broken accordingly to where high concentration of UCH sites are found. Included in the 20% however should be reserved also for the protection and preservation of high marine biodiversity areas. To be protected under PAN, local state government endorses the PAN Act and agrees to the stipulations and guidelines under PAN to ensure full resource safeguarding. In turn, the sites designated by the states as PAN sites are eligible for funding and other opportunities for the effective management of the sites. Local state governments take full responsibility in the protection of the UCH sites located within their municipal boundaries. Such legislation, rules and regulations or guidelines must address the proper protection, monitoring, and research around the areas. Special cases such as the salvage of a particular vessel or parts thereof will be �Palau Pg - 6 - of 8 under the unified consensus and understanding between the foreign entity, the state government, and the President with the cooperation and guidance from the Bureau. F. Threats The ever changing climatic changes, erosion, and oil spills are potential yet inevitable threats to marine cultural heritage. The supposed submerged landscape such as the City of Ngibtal is prone to heavy silt erosion due to development projects inland. As Palau is eagerly searching for economic and financial stability during this present-day world financial crisis, Palau may explore other sources of renewable sources of energy such as water currents which could inevitably have serious impacts to UCH sites. The lack of or minimal legislation in place which specifies the integrity of UCH sites makes these sites at risk of improper handling and inadequate recording or data recovery. Salvage of particular artifacts, relics, or components of a UCH site when exposed to the elements may oxidize hence damage to the object. This possibility will hinder any salvage attempts but will not impede any foreign entity to reclaim their objects. The parts of some vessels of WWII ships are exposed during low tide. This exposure speeds up oxidation and the deterioration. More attention needs to be made from the administrative center in charge of and mandates UCH sites within the Republic. G. Status of Salvage Any foreign entity wishing to salvage parts of or contents of any submerged vessel shall comply with the provisions outlined in the rules and regulations of the Palau Lagoon Monument section of Title 19. A signed memorandum of agreement between the foreign entity and the Republic of Palau government must agree to the outlined stipulations in the memorandum. Usually before any salvage, proper research and documentation of the wreck site, the parts, and contents to be salvage are conducted. Salvage instances seldom occurs in Palau. The expense of research and data recovery rests on the foreign entity wishing to repatriate their artifacts. Entities wishing to repatriate goes through a series of negotiation with the Palau Government stating intention and the need of such artifacts being returned. H. Case Study Republic of Palau (plaintiff) v. Cameron James Avenell, Matthew Young, Richard Sumor, David Tansey, and Ian McCombie; ROP vs. Avenell, 13 ROP 272 (Tr. Div. 2006) Criminal Action No. 06-072 Mr. Cameron Avenell and Mr. Matthew Young, the remaining defendants where charged for removing pieces of artifacts from shipwrecks. These shipwrecks have been declared by low to be preserved as “Palau Lagoon Monument”. The Government charged the defendants for their conduct with counts based on the Palau Lagoon Monument Act. The divers took artifacts from Amatsu Maru wreck, Chuyu Maru wreck, Ryuku Maru wreck and an unidentified forth wreck. Amongst the artifacts found during the search resulted in the recovery of a porthole, a compass, a frame, lanterns, light bulb covers, and porthole frames. The artifacts were recovered from the Lionwind vessel operated by divers. �Palau Pg - 7 - of 8 Francis Toribiong and the Republic of Palau (plaintiffs) v. John C. Gibbons, Koror State Executive Administrator, et al. Civil Action No. 451-91; 24 September 1993 Plaintiffs allege that Koror Sate intends to dismantle or remove a World War II Zero fighter airplane which is located under the Palau lagoon at the depth of approximately sixty feet. They allege that such removal would violate the provisions of 19 PNC § 301 et seq. because the Zero is part of the Palau Lagoon Monument. The relief sought by the Plaintiffs is a declaratory judgment that Koror State may not remove or dismantle the Zero without complying with the Lagoon Monument Act and that it be permanently enjoined from the removing or dismantling the Zero unless it obtains a permit to do so pursuant to the Lagoon Monument Act. Plaintiffs have proven by a preponderance of the of the evidence that the airplane at issue herein is a Zero formerly a part of the armed forces of Japan and that is has been sunk or otherwise deposited on the bottom of the Palau lagoon. Section 304 of the Lagoon Monument Act requires that, before a person may gain access to a monument aircraft to examine it or gather objects from it, a permit must be obtained from the President of his duly authorized representatives. Similarly, section 306 provides for penalties for any person who removes such aircraft or any part thereof without first obtaining permission from the President. Koror State contends that it does not have to comply with the Lagoon Monument Act by obtaining a permit to gain access to or otherwise deal with the Zero because (1) under Article I, Section 2 of the ROP Constitution, Koror State is the owner of the Zero, and the owner can “do what he pleases with what he owns”; (2) the Republic of Palau’s regulatory power are limited by Koror State’s right to own and derive revenues from exploiting state resources; (3) the Lagoon Monument is unconstitutional as sought to be applied here because, without compensation, it takes away Koror State’s right to exploit and derive revenues from the Zero; and (4) absent regulations, the Republic of Palau has no rights under the Lagoon Monument Act. Conclusion Currently, there is only three staff within the Bureau with adequate training on maritime archaeology. The minimal expertise available within the Bureau reduces the speed of anticipated surveys and monitoring. In addition, there is no other available expertise on island particularly in maritime archaeology. Due to a very few certified trainees in underwater archaeology and courses on island, the support of such discipline is minimal. Public interest is high however there is a lack of available resources for the proper education and awareness of underwater archaeology. The Bureau is always looking for opportunities plus welcomes any opportunity that offers the adequate training, education, and the right tools in assessing, monitoring, and managing UCH sites. The Palau Community College offers a course in archaeology but short of the resources to expose students in underwater archaeology. The college aims to seek available programs that are geared towards the protection of marine cultural heritage which is a much needed field in Palau. In addition, such opportunity will help increase in the public awareness and advocacy and the potential push needed to help create new �Palau Pg - 8 - of 8 or strengthening existing legislations for the protection of UCH sites at the state and national level. Bibliography Bailey, D. E., 1991 Dickinson, W. R., and Athens J. S., 2007 Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2008 Flatman, J., 2009 Emesiochel, C. T., 2008 Hazell, L. C., and Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2006 Liston, J., 2009 Olsudong, R., (M.A.) et al., Palau National Code Title 19 1982 Sam’s Tours WWII Wrecks of Palau, North Valley Diver Publications, California. Holocene Paleoshoreline and Paleoenvironmental History of Palau: Implications for Human Settlement. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 2(2):175-196 Maritime interregional interaction in Micronesia: Deciphering multigroup contacts and exchange systems through time. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27 (2008) Pp. 131-147 Preservation and management for Yapese Stone Money sites in Palau and Yap. Editorial. Conserving Marine Cultural Heritage: Threats, Risks, and Future Priorities. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites (11):1 Pp. 5-8 Palau County Report: Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection: Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains. Nara: Japan The maritime transport of prehistoric megaliths in Micronesia. Archaeol. Oceania 41 (2006) Pp. 12-24 Cultural Chronology of Earthworks in Palau, Western Micronesia. Archaeol. Oceania 44 (2009) Pp. 56-73 Draft: Inventory of Cultural Sites and Oral History in Melekeok and Irai. Palau: Bureau of Arts & Culture (1997) Draft: Inventory of Cultural & Historical Sites and Oral History in Ngarrard State. Vol. I: Inventory of Cultural and Historical sites. Palau: Bureau of Arts & Culture (2000) Cultural and Historical Preservation Act www.samstours.com, accessed Oct 11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts & Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey & Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey & Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide detail of their efforts and goals, challenges, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sunny O. Ngirmang Calvin T. Emesiochel Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ef7955cb803dfa73bcb8f85e2aff694a.pdf 8048bc7ffe7a48f78d1130b7e3700af3 PDF Text Text Marine Archaeological Investigations on Tamil Nadu Coast, India: An Overview Sundaresh and A.S. Gaur1 Abstract Ancient ports such as Kaveripattinam, Nagapattinam, Korkai, Alagankulam, Periyapattinam, all on Tamil Nadu coast have played a dominant role in the transoceanic trade and commerce with many countries since the beginning of the Christian Era (CE, starting from year one on the Georgian Calendar). Many such port towns that existed on the coastal region vanished or were submerged in the sea probably due to coastal erosion, sea level changes and neo-tectonic activity and other causes. Poompuhar, a flourishing port town, played a major role in maritime activities in the beginning of the Christian Era. The Sangam literature vividly describes its location, habitation and town planning. The marine archaeological explorations around Poompuhar brought to light the remains of terracotta ring wells, brick structures, and storage jars in the inter-tidal zone. The brick structures, stone structures, and pottery from offshore explorations support the existence of the ancient settlement. Mahabalipuram is said to have been a seaport right from the beginning of the Christian Era. Geophysical survey and underwater exploration revealed structural remains including a fallen wall running about 10 metres (m) in length, scattered dressed stone blocks, a few steps leading to a platform and many other structural remains at various locations between 4 and 8 m water depth. The available data confirms that a large area comprising of a building complex have been submerged. These remains could be part of submerged structures and caused by severe coastal erosion in this area. The data collected at the above sites support the literary evidence to prove their existence as ports. The major cause for the submergence of these port towns was due to shoreline changes caused by coastal erosion. INTRODUCTION Ancient ports are the source of information to understand the strategic locations of ports, maritime trade, routes, material exchange and the socio-economic conditions of the contemporary period. Important ports such as Kaveripattinam, Mahabalipuram, Nagapattinam, Korkai, Alagankulam, Arikamedu and Periyapattinam all on the Tamil Nadu coast have played an important role in the transoceanic trade from the beginning of the Christian era. The Periplus2 has mentioned the ports on Tamil Nadu coast such as Camara, (Kaveripattinam) and Sopatma, (Mamallapuram), had maritime contacts with Roman countries during early centuries of Christian era (Ramaswami 1989:17). Many such port towns that existed on the coastal region vanished or were submerged in the sea, maybe due to coastal erosion, sea level changes and neo-tectonic activities. Ancient literary sources exist that provide possible explanations for the loss of these littoral settlements: like the Sangam literature which refers to the submergence of Poompuhar; or the popular beliefs regarding the submergence of the temples of Mahabalipuram; and the “Kumari Kandam” traditions of Tamil Nadu. It may well be impossible to search for their roots or find proof that such beliefs are based on facts. Nevertheless, many archaeological explorations have been taken up in an attempt to verify the historicity of these traditions. 1 National Institute of Oceanography, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, (CSIR), Dona Paula, Goa 403 004. 2 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a sailor’s manual written by a Greek of Alexandria dating to 1st Century AD and deals with the trade, commerce & ports from Red sea to Bay of Bengal. 1 �Sangam3 literature gives ample historical accounts on maritime trade and mentions the flourishing port town of Poompuhar, the capital of the early Cholas4 culture (Pillai 1989:13). The Manimekhalai5 mentions that Poompuhar was swallowed up by the sea due to the wrath of goddess Manimekhalai, for not celebrating the festival of Indra (Na Mu, et al. 2007:353,365-6). Though the reference is only to a supernatural incident, it may be taken as an echo of some actual sea erosion due to some high tidal wave surge(s) that engulfed the city. Mahabalipuram was well known to earlier mariners as ‘Seven Pagodas’. It is generally believed that out of seven temples originally constructed, all but “Shore temple” were submerged by the sea over a period of time. European travellers in the 18th and 19th century have recorded this folk tradition (Ramaswami 1989:48). Captain M.W. Carr (1984:11) refers to the account given by William Chambers (1869:11,1-29) after his second visit to Mahabalipuram in 1776 about the traditions on the submergence of pagodas. Marine archaeological explorations have been carried out at Poompuhar and Mahabalipuram (Figure 1) by scholars at the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, to find out the extent of the submerged evidence on the famous port towns. The underwater investigations have revealed information on submerged structures and also data on shoreline changes. The details of the findings are described below. 3 Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature, is a collection of more than 2381 poems composed by Tamil poets during 3rd Century BC and 3rd Century AD, from various professions and classes of society about the marriages, dress, ornamentation, culinary fare, war and religious life of the early Tamils. 4 Cholas were one of the most dominant political forces in the Tamil country. The early Cholas of the Sangam era ruled from their capital Urayur and Kaveripattinam. Medieval and later Cholas (848 AD1279 AD) ruled from their capitals Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram . Their empire consists of Tamil country, part of modern Karnataka and part of Sri Lanka. 5 Manimekhalai is considered to be one of the great epics of Tamil literature, the sequel to the Shilapaddikaram, tells the story of the conversion to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, which has been dated by various scholars between the 2-6th centuries AD. It is a poem in 30 cantos, describing about Puhar. Manimekalai which states as ; madavaral nallaai ninthan maanagar, kadal vayiru pukkadu kaaranam keelai (25:176-77) .............. aninagar thannai alaikadal kolkena, ittanal saabam pattathu ithuvaal (25:200-01) Meaning, the city Kaveripumpattinam was engulfed by the sea (200:176-77) since the festival for Indra was not performed the Godess Manimeekala cursed "may the city is eaten by the sea" (25:200201). 2 �Figure 1. Location map of the sites explored on Tamil Nadu coast (Map: prepared by R. Uchil, NIO, Goa). POOMPUHAR Poompuhar also known as Kaveripattinam, is situated on the northern bank of the river Kaveri on the Tamil Nadu coast. Sangam texts, specifically the Silappatikaram (Pillai 1989:13), Pattinapalai, Manimekhalai and Ahananaru vividly describe Poompuhar as the port capital of the early Cholas (Ramachandran 1974:8; Chandra 1977:107). Land excavations at Kilaiyur brought to light two brick structures that have been described as wharves (Rajan 1994:25; Rao 1991a:6,5-20; Athiyaman 1999), possibly located on an ancient channel of the river Kaveri, an inlet channel to a reservoir at Vanagiri and Buddha Vihara at Pallavaneswaram (Rajan 1994:23,2632). 3 �Coastal archaeological explorations Coastal archaeological explorations have been carried out between Poompuhar and Tranquebar in the inter-tidal zone to find out the remains of archaeological evidences. Poompuhar During the course of explorations in the inter-tidal zone at Poompuhar the following were exposed: a brick structure of eleven layers running parallel to the coast with dimensions 1.2 m width, 1.2 m height and 4 m length; and a terracotta ring well with dimensions 25 centimetres (cm) high, 4 cm thick at the rim, and a diameter of 75 cm with three courses (Figure 2). Further, four brick structures of 25 m length, 3.4 m width aligned in a straight line, were noticed at a water depth of 1 m, opposite to present Cauvery temple at Poompuhar. The size of the bricks is 22x13x6 cm. Figure 2. Terracotta ring well exposed in the intertidal zone at Poompuhar (photo: Mr. SN Bandodker, NIO, Goa) Vanagiri Vanagiri is located on the coast about 1 km south of Poompuhar. The 11th century Yellaiyamman temple was found. It had collapsed and the remains are scattered in the inter-tidal zone. Three terracotta ring wells (75 cm diameter, 15 cm high and 6 cm thick at the rim) were exposed about 300 m south of the Yellaiyamman temple. A neatly paved structure made of bricks (probably the floor of a house) was exposed in the inter-tidal excavation. Chinnavanagiri Chinnavanagiri is located on the coast about 3 km south of Poompuhar. A terracotta ring well with rings of 25 cm height, 5 cm rim thickness and 115 cm diameter, was found surrounded with burnt bricks, associated with megalithic black and red ware and beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones. The other important finds are a potsherd with an inscribed Brahmi letter ‘Ma’, an early Chola square coin (completely eroded), and later Chola coins. 4 �Findings of brick structures, terracotta ring wells, storage jars and brick-paved platforms prove the existence of a settlement in the inter-tidal zone. The pottery from Chinnavanagiri suggests that the ring well could be dated to the 2nd century Before Christ (BC) – Anno Domini (AD)6. The other ring wells found at Vanagiri and Poompuhar are of the same period. Similar kinds of ring wells found at Arikamedu and Vasavasamudram are dated to the 2nd century BC to the 3rd century AD (Rao, et al. 1995-96:15,7-22). The size of the bricks is 36x18x6 cm and closely corresponds to the bricks used in the Buddha Vihar at Kaveripattinam. Tranquebar Tranquebar, a principal port during Danish rule (1620 AD-1845 AD), is situated about 15 km south of Poompuhar. The 13th century Masilamani temple is partly collapsed and the remains are found scattered in the inter-tidal zone (Figure 3). Two brick wells were found exposed in the inter-tidal zone. There is also evidence on the destruction of modern houses due to the encroachment of the sea (Sundaresh, et al. 1997:595, 593-98). Figure 3. Partly collapsed Masilamani temple at Tranquebar (photo: SN Bandodker, NIO, Goa) A careful study of the ‘Historic map of Danish colony Tranquebar and Fort Dansborg, 1700 AD’, which is displayed at Dansborg museum at Tranquebar, suggests that Tranquebar was well protected by a fort wall with a distance of 50 m from the 6 BC and AD are designations of the Georgian Calendar. BC refers to the years before the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth from year -1 and continues backwards, whereas AD refers to the years after his birth from year 1 with years added as time progresses. 5 �shoreline. The Masilamani temple was located sufficiently landward about 250 m from the fort wall. This observation unequivocally suggests that the shoreline has transgressed about 300 m in the last 300 years, therefore infringing at an average rate of one metre per year. Offshore explorations Offshore survey was conducted between Tranquebar and Poompuhar with small grids of 250 m. The survey revealed several isolated objects such as rock boulders at a depth of 7-8 m and 11-13 m opposite to the Masilamani temple (Rao 1992:17, 17-22; Rao 1991b:22,21-31; Rao and Rao 1991:128,127-129). Off Poompuhar, three major sites of interest were observed at water depths of 5.5 to 10.5m and 23m. A few dressed stone blocks measuring 90x40x15 cm, a semi circular stone with an Lshape cut on its surface and many other irregular blocks of sandstone were noticed in 5 to 8 m water depth off the river Cauvery's mouth. The other findings observed during airlifting operations were rolled bricks and early historic pottery of black and red ware, Red ware, Buff ware and Grey ware, found 1 m below the seabed (NIO Technical Report 1993:30). Explorations on the north of Poompuhar revealed a few dressed stone blocks in three general dimensions (30x20x5 cm, 65x40x10 cm and 60x35x10 cm), and brought to light potsherds of grey ware and storage jars. The echograms of the subbottom profiler revealed a submerged palaeo-channel of the river Cauvery on the north of Poompuhar at 10 to 15 m water depth, with a width of 300 m to 500 m, buried 20 m below the sea bottom (NIO technical report 1997:15). Three structures identified with the help of side scan sonar surveys between 22 and 24 m water depth off Poompuhar were later confirmed by diving (Vora 1987:161,159-161). The first structure (in an oval shape) was located about 3.5 km offshore at 23 m water depth. The total periphery of the object is 140 m. About 40 m north of the abovementioned object, two smaller objects are found lying in east-west orientation within a distance of 10 m. The circumference of each object is not more than 15 m and their height is about 2 m (NIO Technical report 1995:22; NIO Technical report 1997:18). The archaeological evidence recovered in the inter-tidal zone as well as offshore, are of the Sangam period (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD). Evidence in the inter-tidal zone, hydrographic charts, and the 17th century map at Tranquebar all confirm the shoreline recession is at an average rate of one meter per year. If the same rate continued for the last 2000 years, then ancient Poompuhar must have definitely been extended much further towards the sea from the present coastline. MAHABALIPURAM Mahabalipuram is famous for its architectural marvels such as the Shore Temple, the Chariots, Arjuna’s Penance, bas relief and several cave temples built by the Pallava7 king Narasimha Varman during the 8th century. It is situated about 55 km south of Chennai and presently a World Heritage Monument. 7 The Pallava dynasty was a Tamil dynasty of South India which ruled the northern Tamil Nadu region and the southern Andhra Pradesh region with their capital at Kanchipuram, the largest capital of the sovereign nation Tondai Nadu of Tamilakkam. The early Pallavas had established themselves as a rd th notable rising power in the region during beginning of 3 – 4 Century AD. The later Pallavas came in th to prominence during early 5 Century AD and continued to rule till late 9th Century AD. 6 �Mahabalipuram is said to have been a seaport right from the beginning of the Christian era. The Periplus has mentioned the Roman trade from Damirica to Sopatma (Mahabalipuram) by very large vessels, made of single logs bound together, called Sangara (Ramaswami 1989:17). A few Roman coins of Theodosius (4th century AD) support this trade contact with the Roman world (Dayalan 1992:52). An 8th century Tamil text written by Tirumangai Alwar described this place as Kadal Mallai where ships rode at anchor (Ramaswami 1980:11). The epigraphical sources mention that the Pallava kings had an active contact with Sri Lanka, China and Southeast Asia. The Pallava king Sihmavarman lead two expeditions by embarking ships from Mamallapuram. The Pallava embassy and Vajradanthi, a Buddhist monk sailed, to China from the port of Mamallapuram (Ramaswami 1980:12). The huge buried remains of structures and ceramic varieties of the early historic and early medieval period found at Punjeri, about 1.5 km west of Mahabalipuram, on the western bank of the Bunkingham canal prove its flourishing existence in the past (Dayalan 1992:54). Underwater Findings The underwater explorations were carried out by geophysical surveys followed by diving. The seabed off Mahabalipuram, in depths ranging from 6 to 15 m, is highly undulating with variations in height from 1 to 6 m. Granitic rocks with patches of coarse-grained sand, carpet the floor. Several rectangular and square shaped structures appeared on most of the sonographs, particularly in the northern part, showing groups and clusters of blocks arranged in a systematic pattern. Strong reflections of the images suggest that they are massive hard bodies that are well shaped. It appears from the sonographs of the entire study area that some significant parallel discontinuous rocky structures exist on the seafloor at some places in addition to the dominant occurrence of natural rock outcrops. Based on the sonographs the following five major sites of interest were observed between the water depth of 5 and 13 m. Site A A structure was found about 700 m on the eastern side of the Shore Temple at 6 m water depth which comprised of several small structures on a raised platform. The upper portion of the structure is above the sea surface during low tide. The structure covers an area of approximately 75x35 m. The structure is broader on the northern side where a heap of stone blocks are also observed, while on the southern side scattered small stone structures of various sizes were observed. The structure has several north-south oriented wall sections. 7 �Figure 4. Stone block with a joinery projection found off Mahabalipuram (Photo: SN Bandodker, NIO, Goa) Dressed granite blocks were used for the construction of this structure. A wall about 250x65 cm with two to four courses is noticed. Huge rectangular blocks measuring approximately 2x1x1.5 m were also noticed on the central upper portion of the structure. Another wall measuring about 5.4 m in length was seen on the northern side along with two parallel walls on the southern side of the main structure, with a stair-like structure leading upwards. Further on the northern side, the remains of a wall extend up to 15 m in length. The length of some of these six walls varies from 7 to 32.5 m; the other walls being shorter in length. A floor measuring 2x2.5 m was also noticed towards the north-western side of the structure. The entire structure has thick marine growth of sponges, shells, barnacles and mussels; a few blocks were cleaned and chisel marks were observed. One of the blocks shows that it has joinery projections for interconnecting the blocks (Figure 4; Sundaresh, et al. 2004:1233). Site B Another interesting site was located about 200 m on the north-north-eastern side of Structure A at a depth between 5 - 8 m. The site has the remains of a wall, 2 m wide and 5 m in length running from east to west and many fallen dressed stone blocks found scattered around it. Another wall was found running more than 10 m with a width of 2.5 m. Some of the stone blocks appear to have figurines carved on them; however, identification was not possible due to thick marine growth. Apart from the above there were many more structural remains such as fallen walls, L-shaped connecting walls (Sundaresh, et al. 2004:1234), dressed square and 8 �rectangular stone blocks and a square platform reached by a flight of steps were found at different locations (NIO Technical Report 2003:22). The plan of the structures indicates that this construction could be part of a big complex, as the huge stone blocks and several fallen walls were noticed in situ. It appears that construction had been carried out on a raised platform with several walls and a floor made of granite blocks. An opening from the southern side between two walls with steps has been noticed which may be the entrance to the complex. The natural rock boulders noticed on the southwest side are similar in shape and size to those found on land on the hill at Mahabalipuram. Similarly, the construction style observed underwater is identical to that observed on adjacent land. It was not possible, however, to verify the binding material of the underwater structure due to thick marine growth and their damaged condition. There were many wall sections observed at different locations including the “quarry area” on a huge rock. The dressed stone blocks required for the construction were probably extracted from the quarry found nearby. In fact, most of the religious or ceremonial constructions, including the present shore temple at Mahabalipuram, have been built with granite. The sand stone and granite was extensively used for the construction of temples during Pallava rule (Srinivasan 1983: 28-67). Dating of Underwater Structures The archaeology of Mahabalipuram commenced from the early centuries of the Christian era. A few Roman, Chinese and Pallava coins have been reported from Mahabalipuram (Ramaswami 1980:4). One of the inscriptions of Narasimha I mentions that he (Narasimha I) is the first person to introduce the construction of cave temples made of granite. N.S. Ramaswami (1980:27) refers to several accounts of Europeans who recorded the submergence of the city and the tradition that, "a large city and six magnificent pagodas have been swallowed up at this place by the sea". William Chambers (1869:11,1-29), Graham Hancock (2002:121), P.M. Mohan and Victor Rajamanickam (2002:78,77-79) believe that out of seven temples carved out of granite during the 8th century AD only one has survived and the rest are submerged. Based on the facts that the rock art sculpture was encouraged by the Pallavas at this place and most of them were constructed during that period, it is inferred that these temples may not be less than 1200 years old. Possible Causes of Submergence M.S. Krishnan (1968:523), S.P. Mahapatra and M. Hariprasad (2002:134,132-136) have pointed out that the major and important factor affecting the Mahabalipuram coast is erosion, as severe erosion at Kalpakkam (south of Mahabalipuram) was observed due to long-shore sediment drift (Krishnakumar, et al. 1994:45,41-45). A recent study suggests the rate of coastal erosion in and around Mahabalipuram is 55 cm/year (Ramaiyan, et al. 1997:1179,1177-1181). If the same rate has prevailed since the last 1200 years then the shoreline at that time might have been around 800 m eastward and all the structures noticed underwater would have been on the land. The excavations at Saluvankuppam about 1.5 km north of Mahabalipuram, about 150 m from the sea coast, revealed three phases of construction belonging to 8-9th century AD, 6-8th century AD and 4th century AD at a depth of 3.2 m below the present ground level. Evident from the stratigraphy these structures were destroyed by the coastal flooding during 950 AD and between 320-560 AD (Rajendran, et al. 2006:1246,1242-1247). Therefore it may be mentioned here that the coastal erosion might have played a major role in the submergence of these structures. 9 �The underwater structures, especially the long walls having 2 to 3 courses, the scattered dressed stone blocks of various sizes, and the stones with projections are considered to be man-made. They may well be the remains of huge complexes or the temples of the so-called “Seven pagodas”. As the Pallavas encouraged temple architecture at Mahabalipuram during the 8th century, these structures may be assigned to the same period. Mahabalipuram served as a port during the Pallava period. Part of the earlier Mahabalipuram town may have been submerged in the sea. CONCLUSIONS The marine archaeological explorations on Tamil Nadu coast have brought to light the submerged structural evidence at Poompuhar and Mahabalipuram. The traditions mentioning the submergence of these port towns have been partially confirmed with the evidence from underwater. These structures may have been submerged due to coastal erosion followed by shoreline changes. As evident from Mahabalipuram excavations, these sites might have been submerged due to large coastal flooding. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Director, NIO for his support and encouragement. Thanks are also due to Shri. KH Vora for critical review of the manuscript and constant support, our colleagues Sila Tripati, SN Bandodker, SB Chitari for their help in fieldwork, Dr Mohan Rao and Shri Prem Kumar for their bathymetric study and finally Shri R. Uchil for line drawings. This is the NIO contribution no. 5068. BIBLIOGRAPHY Athiyaman, N., 1999 "Two Wharves at Poompuhar: A Technical Study", paper presented at Second International Conference on Marine Archaeology, held at Thane, 8-10 January. Carr, M. W., (ed.), The Seven Pagodas on the Coromandel Coast, Asian 1984 Educational Services, New Delhi, (first published in 1869 by same publisher). Chambers, W., "Some account of the sculptures and ruins at Mavelipuram, a 1869 place a few miles north of Sadras, and known to seamen by name of the Seven Pagodas", in (ed.) Captain M. W. Carr, Descriptive and Historical papers relating to The Seven Pagodas, on the Coromandel coast Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, pp. 1–29. Dayalan, D., "Punjeri – A Pallava sea port near Mamallapuram", (ed.) 1992 Natana Kashinathan, Seminar on Marine Archaeology, State Department of Archaeology, Madras, 52-56. Hancock, G., Underworld: the flooded kingdoms of the Ice Age, Penguin 2002 Books, London, pp.741. Krishnan, M. S., Geology of India and Burma, 5th edition, Higginbotham, 1968 Madras, pp.536. Krishnakumar, V., “Preliminary Investigations on Transient Erosion at Vethamony, P., and Kalpakkam beach, East Coast of India during June 1990” in Narayana Swamy, Mahasagar 27, 1, pp 41-45. G., 10 �1994 Mahapatra, S. P., "Historical sea level changes in relation to Archaeological and Hariprasad, M., structures on the East Coast of India", in Proceedings Volume 2002 of National Seminar: Four Decades of marine Geosciences in India, A retrospect, Special Publication no. 74, Geological Survey of India, 132 – 136. Mohan, P.M., and "Importance of Studies on the recent sea level changes in the Rajamanickam, V., southern part of East coast of India", in Proceedings Volume 2002 of National Seminar: Four Decades of marine Geosciences in India, A retrospect, special publication no. 74, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, pp 77-79. Moti, C., Trade and Trade routes in Ancient India, Abhinav 1977 Publications, New Delhi, p. 259. Venkatasamy Coolavaanikan Cattanaar in Manimeekalai Moolamum Nattar, N, M., and Uraiyum Saratha Pathippakam, Chennai (First edition 1951), Duraisami Pillai, pp. 353, 365-366. A.S., 2007 NIO Technical Marine Archaeological Explorations in Poompuhar waters, Report, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. No. NIO/SP/13/93, 1993 pp. 42. NIO Technical Marine Archaeological Explorations in Poompuhar waters, Report, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa No. NIO/SP/13/95, 1995 pp. 34. NIO Technical Marine Archaeological Explorations in Poompuhar waters, Report, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. No. NIO/SP/13/97, 1997 pp. 37 NIO Technical Underwater explorations off Poompuhar and Mahabalipuram, Report, Tamil Nadu, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, No. 2003 NIO/SP-2/2003, pp. 39 Pillai.R.S., Cilappatikaram, Tamil University Thanjavur publications, 1989 Thanjavur, pp. 150. Rajan Soundara, "Kaveripattinam Excavations 1963-73, (A port city on the K.V., Tamil Nadu coast)", in Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey 1994 of India No. 90, New Delhi. pp 151. Rajendran, C.P., "Evidence of ancient sea surges at the Mamallapuram coast Rajendran, K., of India and implications for previous Indian Ocean tsunami Terry Machado, T., events", in Current Science, 91, 9, pp. 1242-1247. Satyamurthy, T., Aravazhi, P., and Jaiswal, M., 2006 Ramachandran, Ahananuru in its Historical Setting, University of Madras C.E, Publications, Madras, pp.149. 1974 Ramaiyan, M., "Shoreline oscillation of Tamil Nadu coast", in the Krishna Prasad, E., Proceedings of Second Indian National Conference of and Suresh, P. K., Harbour and Ocean Engineering, (INCHOE - 97), held at 1997 Thiruvanathapuram ,7-10 December, pp. 1177-1181. Ramaswami, N. S., Mamallapuram, An Annotated Bibliography, New Era 1980 Publications, Madras, pp. 120. 11 �Ramaswami, N. S., 2000 years of Mamallapuram, Navrang, New Delhi, pp. 372. 1989 Rao, S.R., “Marine archaeological explorations of Tranquebar1991a Poompuhar region on Tamil Nadu coast”, in Journal of Marine Archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, Goa, 2, pp.520. Rao, T.C.S., “Marine archaeological surveys off Kaveripattinam for 1991b archaeological investigation”, in Journal of Marine Archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, 2, pp.21-31. Rao, T.C.S., and "Marine Archaeological surveys off Tranquebar, Tamil Nadu – Mohan Rao K., Preliminary Results", in Recent Advances in marine 1991 archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, Goa, pp. 127129. Rao, T. C. S., “Marine Geophysical surveys off Kaveripattinam for 1992 Archaeological Investigations”, in (ed.) Natana Kashinathan, Seminar on Marine Archaeology, State Department of Archaeology, Madras, pp. 17-22. Rao, S. R., Rao, T. “Underwater explorations off Poompuhar”, in Journal of C. S., Gaur, A. S., Marine Archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, Goa, 5Tripati S., 6, pp. 7-22. Sundaresh and Gudigar, P., 1995-96 Srinivasan, K. R., “Pallavas of Kanci: Phase I”, in (ed.) Michael W. Meister, 1983 Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, South India, Lower Dravidadesa, 200 BC-1324 AD, American Institute of Indian Studies, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, pp. 23-79. Sundaresh, Gaur, "Our Threatened Archaeological Heritage: A Case Study from A.S., Nair, R.R., Tamil Nadu Coast", in Current Science, 73, 7, pp.593-98. 1997 Sundaresh, Gaur, "Underwater Investigations off Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, A.S., Tripati, S., India", in Current Science, 86, 9, pp. 1231-1237. and Vora K.H., 2004 Vora, K. H., “A note on the geophysical explorations for marine 1987 archaeology of Tamil Nadu coast, India”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, London, 16, 1, pp.159-164. 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Marine Archaeological Investigations on Tamil Nadu Coast, India: An Overview Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource Ancient ports such as Kaveripattinam, Nagapattinam, Korkai, Alagankulam, Periyapattinam, all on Tamil Nadu coast have played a dominant role in the transoceanic trade and commerce with many countries since the beginning of the Christian Era (CE, starting from year one on the Georgian Calendar). Many such port towns that existed on the coastal region vanished or were submerged in the sea probably due to coastal erosion, sea level changes and neo-tectonic activity and other causes. Poompuhar, a flourishing port town, played a major role in maritime activities in the beginning of the Christian Era. The Sangam literature vividly describes its location, habitation and town planning. The marine archaeological explorations around Poompuhar brought to light the remains of terracotta ring wells, brick structures, and storage jars in the inter-tidal zone. The brick structures, stone structures, and pottery from offshore explorations support the existence of the ancient settlement. Mahabalipuram is said to have been a seaport right from the beginning of the Christian Era. Geophysical survey and underwater exploration revealed structural remains including a fallen wall running about 10 metres (m) in length, scattered dressed stone blocks, a few steps leading to a platform and many other structural remains at various locations between 4 and 8 m water depth. The available data confirms that a large area comprising of a building complex have been submerged. These remains could be part of submerged structures and caused by severe coastal erosion in this area. The data collected at the above sites support the literary evidence to prove their existence as ports. The major cause for the submergence of these port towns was due to shoreline changes caused by coastal erosion. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sundaresh A.S. Gaur Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c324f807126d85486f05e06ece461e66.pdf 8f528ef644788043b01fc83bbe99327b PDF Text Text The Introduction of Conservation Treatment of Maritime Artifacts in Korea Dr Whan-suk Moon1 Abstract Since 1976, the underwater excavation program, which began with the Shinan ship, has yielded some 94,500 relics and eleven shipwrecks (including two foreign ships) from 18 sites in Korea. To conserve each material appropriately conserved on site and then the artifacts salvaged from the sea were safely moved to the laboratory. In particular the hulls of the ships were salvaged by separated pieces. Treatment of PEG 2-step method was applied for several years. The two ship hulls (Shinan and Wando) have been displayed after conservation treatment, and one is being prepared for a new display. We first tested pre-conservation treatment for safe stabilization and then have applied the best method of pre-study results to the ceramics, wooden tags, metallic objects, bones, crops etc. We excavated many bamboo artifacts after 2009, and are currently studying preconservation treatment. 1. Introduction The dominant maritime relics found in Korea are shipwrecks and their artifacts. They represent specific points in history, which like time capsules, clearly assert the culture of previous eras. The number of declared maritime discoveries in Korea has spanned approximately 242 cases since 1971. Underwater scientific research began in 1976 with the excavation of the Shinan artifacts. To date, there have been 18 excavations of underwater sites which have yielded 94,500 artifacts, 11 vessels, including 9 Korean vessels from the Goryeo dynasty, as well as 2 Chinese vessels. Underwater salvaging was implemented after determining which areas had the greatest spread of artifacts. The Mokpo Conservation Center was established for the conservation of the Shinan shipwreck site in 1980, and has taken full charge of the relics since then. This paper describes the introduction of conservation treatment of maritime artifacts salvaged in Korea. 1 Chief of Underwater Excavation & Conservation Division, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH), KOREA, moon118@hanmail.net �2. Conservation treatment and management of maritime artifacts 2.1. Types of underwater artifacts So far, the salvaged underwater artifacts are predominately the vessels themselves as well as the porcelains contained within the site. In the case of the Shinan shipwreck, interest from several international maritime institutes led to its collaborative excavation in 1970. During that excavation, 20,000 Chinese ceramics, red woods (native plants in India and west Asia), 28 tons of coins, pewter bars, wooden tablets (shipping manifest), and the vessel kitchen utensils were recovered. At the Taean underwater site over 29,000 Goryeo porcelains, grains, salted foods, and small portable dining tables made of bamboo were salvaged. Scholastically speaking, the ship's manifest in the form of wooden tablets were of the most interesting. These recorded a sailing time, an owner of the cargo ship, the quantity of goods, as well as other important data. Also in the Mado vessel excavation at Taean, more than 62 stone anchors were salvaged, which demonstrates the frequency of marine accidents in the area. Historical documents from that era note a lack of national finance as a direct result of these frequent maritime accidents. 2.2. Conservation treatment of an organic materials 2.2.1. Conservation treatment of old vessels If it is the case that a salvaged ship is not identified in Korea, then it is named after the region (the sea) where it is excavated. To date, 10 vessels have been salvaged, which includes the Shinan, a 14th century merchant vessel from China. Salvage operations on Mado vessel number 3 are currently underway. The vessel's hull was normally made of pine, but the nails were made of more durable oak. Because wooden nails were used in the vessel's construction, this made it easier to separate the boards during the salvage operation. The boards were then cut into smaller sections and labeled. Similarly, the Shinan was cut into four sections to facilitate its recovery. The base plate of Mado vessel number 2 was also made of oak. The Jindo ship was constructed with camphor wood. In the first stage of the preservation process the hulls of the ships were placed in a desalination tank for 2~5 years. A consolidation process was also necessary because of serious deterioration. The ships had been in tidal flats for hundreds of years attacked by marine borer, bacteria, and soft rot. The percentage of water content was up to 500%. The outer surface was substantially deteriorated, but the interior remained consistent to that of green woods. In the consolidation process, the wood is first impregnated with 5~20% of PEG 400 (Polyethylene glycol) at 40 , to begin the consolidation with PEG. In the second stage the wood is saturated with 25~70% of PEG 4000 for 5~10 ℃ �years. The conservation process of two ships is now complete, and they are currently being exhibited. The third ship is being stored after the second stage of the consolidation treatment. The fourth ship is now being dried after consolidation. The Jindo ship, which is made of camphor wood, requires special care and is being dried using the fixative FRP to prevent deformation and warping. The drying conditions are being closely monitored. Figure 1. Storage and desalination in pool (NRIMCH) Figure 2. PEG treatment tanks for salvaged ship (NRIMCH) Figure 3. Display condition after reconstruction of Shinan ship (NRIMCH) 2.2.2. Conservation treatment of wooden tablets From the underwater excavation at Daesom, Taean in 2007, bamboo tables and wooden tablets (ship's manifest), which describe the type of cargo, the quantity, the place of shipment, and the receivers were excavated. These tablets and tables were constructed with bamboo, pine, ash, and chestnut wood. Several kinds of small tools were used to remove mud from the surface of the wooden tablets, and the wood was immersed in a 2% solution of EDTA-2Na. Next, a low concentration (5~40%) of PEG#4000 (in t-butanol) was used to �make the inscriptions on the wood more visibly distinct for accurate translation. After that, a vacuum freeze-dry conservation treatment was applied. For sufficient stabilization of the tablet dimensions, the PEG density of the immersed tablets was gradually increased in stages over 15~20 days. 2.2.3. Conservation treatment of crops At the Taean Mado 1 site many crops such as rice, buckwheat, and millet, were salvaged. Only the husks remained because the crops’ main component of starch had dissolved and disappeared after more than 800 years of being underwater. The safest conservation method for the crops, was chosen among the waterlogged wood conservation treatments, using Sucrose, PEG immersion, PEG (in t-butanol), a vacuum freeze-dry conservation treatment, an high quality alcohol method (cethylalcohol,1 : 1 = cethyl alcohol : stearyl alcohol), which involved distoetion, color change, by visual observation, and surface observation using a stereoscopic microscope. It was determined impossible to keep the logged crops in a consistent dry form without conservation treatment first. Shrinkage was evident at 9.34% in length, and 26.0% in width. In such cases, it is essential to apply conservation treatment prior to the drying process. The formation and color of crops were well preserved in high quality alcohol method (cethylalcohol). Also the impregnation was concluded in 70% grade, since there was no difference between 70% and 100%. Figure 4. After conservation treatment (NRIMCH) 2.3. Conservation treatment of metals Most of the salvaged metals at the site were shipboard utensils such as metal pots, copper dishes, and spoons. These were processed for conservation treatment by initial examination, desalination, stabilization, consolidation and restoration. In the case of metal pots, 0.5M NaOH was used to desalinate and eliminate rust on it. Specifically, cast metals might have been severely damaged �because cracking can occur during the drying process if the artifact is not prepared properly. Cracking was prevented and reduced with the addition of adhesive. 0.1M Sodium Sesquicarbonate was used to desalinate and wash the bronze dishes and spoons. It was also noted that a Citric acid wash easily removed debris from coins; especially debris on the many salvaged coins dating back to the Chosun Dynasty. The coins were then treated to prevent corrosion, dried, and consolidated to complete the conservation process. 2.4. Conservation treatment of pottery As this paper previously mentioned, the staple of underwater excavation is porcelains. The salvaged pottery was mostly intact with defined forms, but when it was damaged, restoration was completed on speculation and through reconstruction as best could be determined. The pottery that had shells fixed to their surfaces were placed in HCI, and the shells were removed using a bamboo knife. They were set in 60 immersion for desalination. After that the acid was removed by placing the artifacts in flowing water. Fragments of similar shaped porcelains were recovered in large quantities, thus making the reconstruction process in the laboratory difficult. However, the more technical and high quality fragments, such as inlaid celadon, were restored and colored as well. ℃ 2.5. Management conservation and subsequent change research after There are two methods for managing finished conservation artifacts in Korea; one method is to exhibit the artifacts, and the other method is to keep the artifacts in storage. The latter method keeps the relics stabilized at a constant temperature and humidity. The Shinan and Wando vessels are currently on exhibition after completion of the conservation treatment. However soon after the exhibition of the Shinan vessel, corrosion began to occur for two reasons. First, the metal nails the shipbuilders used to connect the parts of the vessel began to corrode. Secondly the PEG used as consolidant appeared to increase the metal corrosion. This type of phenomena was observed in the Vasa, Mary Rose timber, Batavia and other vessels. Experts are now conducting investigative research to help prevent this sort of event from occurring. Likewise, we have also been monitoring the state of change regularly since September 2010. The two ships in exhibition are currently being monitored. This involves measuring temperature and humidity, time-lapsed photographic comparison to check the state of change, and illumination photometry. Oxidization of the Shinan ship became apparent about a year after it was first exhibited in 1995. PEG was leeching out of both the Wando and Shinan vessels. But until currently the amount of the PEG has been small enough to be removed. Based on the monitoring research results, our Institute is assured of the budget to improve the constant temperature and humidity of exhibition spaces. �3. Conclusion To sum up, this paper has dealt with the introduction of conservation treatment of underwater excavated artifacts in Korea. Conservation of underwater relics began with the Shinan vessel excavation. At first, our Institute was in charge of vessel conservation treatment only, but has treated all types of other artifacts as well. The primary step in conservation of salvaged artifacts is on-site preliminary processing, and the treatment of the artifacts prior to laboratory applications. In Korea, underwater archaeologists and laboratory conservators must work together to ensure complete treatment and conservation of the Korean maritime heritage. For this purpose, a new conservation facility in Taean near the excavation site, now processes everything immediately in conjunction and cooperation with the conservation treatment centered at our division. However, even with the addition of this new facility at Taean, the diverse variety and large amount of materials makes it difficult to deal with conservation of all artifacts perfectly. For this reason a collaborative research project has been instituted through an exchange program of personnel with other foreign maritime conservation organizations; Western Australia Museum being one. Both institutions are working on research projects set up together. We are specifically trying to solve the corrosion problem in the Shinan vessel. This will improve not only our capacity to better treat maritime artifacts, but also their overall safer conservation treatment in general through global cooperation and exchange of knowledge. Bibliography Bowens, A., (ed) 2009 Underwater Archaeology - The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice.. Cultural Heritage Administration. 1984 The Wando Wreck Underwater Excavation. Cha, M. Y., in press Conservation of shipwrecks in Korea, International Meeting on Protection Presentation and Valorisation of Underwater Cultural Heritage, UNESCO and Chinese Academy of Cultural heritage, Chongqing, November 2010. Cha, M. Y. and Yonn, Y. H., 2011 Conservation of Waterlogged Archaeological Rice Seeds. The 33rd National Conference of the Korean Society of Conservation Science of Cultural Heritage, Korea: 123-124. Cultural Heritage Administration. 1988 The Shinan Wreck Underwater Excavation �Mokpo Conservation Report on The Excavation of Jindo Log Boat. Institute for Maritime Archaeological finds. 1993 Moon, W. S., B. K. Kim, I. J. and S. S. On-Site Conservation of the Underwater Objects Excavated, Conservation Studies 25, National Research Yang., Institute of Cultural Heritage. 2004 National Maritime Museum. 1999 Report on The Excavation of Talido Shipwreck. National Maritime Museum. 2004 The Conservation and Restoration Report of Ship. National Maritime Museum. 2005 The Underwater Excavation of the sea off Sibidongpa Island, Gunsan. National Maritime The Excavation of Anjwa ship. ․ Museum Sinan-gun. 2006 National Maritime Museum. 2008 Nation Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. 2009 Pearson, C., 1987 Ansan Daebudo Ship Sea Site Submarine Excavation. ⅠⅡ Taean Treasure ship , - Submarine Excavation. Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Introduction of Conservation Treatment of Maritime Artifacts in Korea Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource Since 1976, the underwater excavation program, which began with the Shinan ship, has yielded some 94,500 relics and eleven shipwrecks (including two foreign ships) from 18 sites in Korea. To conserve each material appropriately the artifacts salvaged from the sea were safely conserved on site and then moved to the laboratory. In particular the hulls of the ships were salvaged by separated pieces. Treatment of PEG 2-step method was applied for several years. The two ship hulls (Shinan and Wando) have been displayed after conservation treatment, and one is being prepared for a new display. We first tested pre-conservation treatment for safe stabilization and then have applied the best method of pre-study results to the ceramics, wooden tags, metallic objects, bones, crops etc. We excavated many bamboo artifacts after 2009, and are currently studying pre-conservation treatment. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr Whan-suk Moon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/85787d79fe25897696333f4f59acf9d4.pdf d23766701a0d68d28066eaedc2683cdb PDF Text Text Cricket run or Home run? Can a correlation between Emporia and non-Emporia based trade be made using the wreck of the Lena Shoal? Brian Fahy Abstract Is it possible to look at a shipwreck like the Lena Shoal and investigate patterns of emporia and non-emporia trade throughout Southeast Asia? Was the boat simply ferrying cargo from one specific port to another specific one, or was the trade a linear, multi-legged run? By looking at the artifactual assemblage of the boat and its cargo, its construction, as well as the socio-political and th economic climate of 15 Century Southeast Asia and China, it is the goal of this paper to assess what trading might have looked like from a boat like the Lena Shoal. Both types of trading were most likely happening simultaneously, but there may certain characteristics that the Lena Shoal wreck possessed that may stress a specific role or function that it had in the smaller (or larger) scheme of Southeast Asian trade. Construction methods and ship size of the boat may reveal details into the boats’ intended role in maritime trade. Can correlations be made between ships of specific sizes having specific purposes? An attempt at comparing ship size and cargo of similar wrecked vessels that share a similar temporal space in the area will be necessary and vital to ascertain such qualities. Much, but not all of the cargo was Chinese, the whole of which may help reflect a particular course of trade through the area. Planned testing of the metals excavated at the site will hopefully help promote the need for a complete database of metallurgical sources in the th region, to help further understand the role that the Lena Shoal played in 15 Century Southeast Asian Maritime trade. Introduction Shipwrecks are often referred to a “time capsules,” whereby the moment a ship sinks and comes to rest on the ground; it produces a pseudo-effect of an event “trapped” outside of time. Everything on that ship (including cargo and hull) in that moment gives us a font of information most importantly due to their connection with each other. Since all these items onboard were deposited in situ at the same time, then they have relatability to one another. While fieldwork methods of mapping, excavating and cataloguing the artifacts will yield a large amount of data, there are a number of other inferential corollaries to be made with the finds. Richard Gould (2000:12) notes that these, “so-called events (the moment a ship wrecks, becoming a potential archaeological site) prove to be embedded in ongoing processes linked to social, economic, and even symbolic activities”. There is valued information to be gained not only from looking at the moment of the wreck, but also from the various circumstances preceding and proceeding it. Shipwrecks are part of larger social and cultural landscapes; they are not without a wider set of interpretive contexts. In the instance of the Lena Shoal wreck (or Busuanga), there is a great deal of artifactual evidence to process. Dated to approximately 1490 CE, the wreck carried a various array of materials: metal ingots and cannons, ivory, glass beads with the bulk of the cargo being a large assemblage of Chinese and Southeast Asian ceramics. �The objective of this paper is to attempt to describe the environment of 15 century production and exchange in Southeast Asia, as it possibly relates to the Lena Shoal, to put the wreck back into the social, cultural and economic systems that created it. Can inferences be made on the cargo of a wreck to determine whether the cargo practicing direct trade between two ports (making a sort of “cricket run”, between two bases), or will the cargo tell us a tale of a linear, port-to-port circuit trade known as “tramping” (like a batter traveling around the bases in baseball)? I plan on addressing this in a two ways; the artifactual assemblage, (ceramics and metals) as well as the material used in the construction of the ship. Other sources located within the assemblage give supporting claims to regional provenances, but are not as concrete as the ceramic wares. Items like ivory tusks, brass arm bangles, brass and iron cannons, bronze gongs and tin ingots reveal their presence in the remains, yet are less distinct in the details. In these cases traditional typological studies can reveal vague regions of production rather than specific production centers. This paper is also intended to stress the strict need for metallurgical surveys and X-ray Florescence (XRF) catalogues throughout the region, to aid in distinguishing provenances of the ingots (both the iron and tin) and well as the brass workings in the collection. To achieve these goals, it will be necessary to understand the concepts of what is and what is not an emporium, how this affects and directs trade routes and connectivity, and whether the classical definition of the term applies to the ports of trade in Southeast Asia. th The wreck of the Lena Shoal The wreck was discovered in 1996. The book, Lost at Sea by Goddio, et al. (2000) relates the discovery and subsequent archaeological excavation through the following facts. The research vessel Kaimiloa, en route to another archaeological site, was waylaid by reports of fisherman bringing up ceramic shards in their fishing nets. A quick scan and reconnaissance dive by the vessels’ crew revealed a large swath of ceramics and elephant tusks at a depth of about 48 meters. After an impressive feat of organization and logistics, in a matter of weeks the team managed to secure the site, map the wreck in commendable detail, and bring up thousands of artifacts from the wreck. The bulk of the cargo seems to have been ceramic in nature. Monique Crick (2002:86) notes that there were blue and white porcelains, celadon ware, monochrome and Fahua porcelains from China within the wreckage. The cargo also consisted of Thai Sawankhalok and Tao Maenam Noi jars, Siamese Celadons and Vietnamese stonewares. These items clearly have a specific provenance in their creation; ones which archaeologists are able to correlate to definite kiln sites throughout Southeast Asia and China. Other items uncovered within the wreck include; bronze arm bangles, bronze and iron cannons, iron pots, tin ingots and pig iron, as well as laquerware, iron needles, elephant tusks, glass beads , stone/shell objects and pepper. �Comparative analysis was done on the remainder of the hull (left in situ) to determine the materials used in its construction, and spectrographic samples of the tin, brass and beads were performed. Concepts of Emporia There are varying definitions for the word “emporia”. At its barest definition, the word was used merely as a synonym for “port” (Rouge 1966); Its’ other minimalistic meaning was known as a “place where ships are built” (Rouge 1966). This acts as a “stepping off” point, to be able to define the term in a more elaborate manner. Defined from a purely economical position, emporia is characterized by historian and Indologist Deitmar Rothermund (1991:3) as a: (M)arket place in which a variety of goods is more or less continually available and in which a plurality of buyers and sellers can meet without undue restraint under predictable conditions of supply and demand. A synthesis of these base definitions were made by Alain Bresson (1993), using translations and writings from Greek geographer Strabo and analyses of Strabo from Michel Casevitz (1993). He notes the necessity to include geographical terms in the definition of emporia, notably the need for its connectivity to water (i.e. river, canal, and sea). This is useful because it includes both a market function AND connectivity. With the exception of Rothermund, these authors are referring to emporia in the Mediterranean during the Roman period, yet I believe there are similarities in the terms and universals in the concepts that can be used to define emporia globally. Obviously there are some differences in defining Asian emporia and Mediterranean emporia, as well as temporal differences in entrepots between the Roman era (27 BCE - 476 CE) and the Medieval Era (10th - 15th centuries), further research is needed to properly compare and contrast the two. In the case of Southeast Asia, an attachment to the sea certainly applies here. The regions’ major centers of civilization come from water rich areas. Riverine locales promoted an agricultural boon and the use of the rivers as trade routes imply that early cities established on these coastal tributaries may embody the very nature of emporia (see Hall 2011). Strabo notes there are specific activities and structures that contribute to the identity of emporia. Obviously, commercial activity is one aspect that defines an emporium. He stresses that trade can have a single axis (i.e. one way trade, tribute), or dual axes (i.e. forms of exchange, barter). With these commercial activities come commercial structures; buildings like trade offices, storage facilities and market halls. From an agricultural standpoint, it would be necessary to have grain storage of some sort not only for the local populace, but as a tradable commodity. Technically, an emporium would benefit from places to build or repair one’s ship as well as fabricate certain items. Certain religious structures would be present to cater to the various religions of the local populace as well as the passing sailor and traveler. Institutional and bureaucratic structures like tax �offices and administrational centers would be in place to facilitate profit for the state and establish diplomacy in state matters. Emporia in Southeast Asia certainly had some of these structures and processes in place to varying degrees. These structures may take form as a “Bund”, built similarly like Shanghai’s port that was established during the 18 th century steamship era, or something more organic, whereby structures and processes were erected and established in a port as they were needed, and wherever they could fit them. However, some of these structures may not have been necessary in Southeast Asia, certainly depending upon how large or small the emporium was. There are theories in maritime economics that propose varying degrees of emporia, based upon region of connectivity. Some emporia may cater to a local, riverine population; other mid-level emporia operate within small seas or cities along a stretch of coast line, while other, even larger emporia may provide interactions from a multitude of continents. Martin Stopford attempts to place these emporia into different sizeable contexts, based on type of maritime trade. He proposes that there are some ports that specialize in either Interregional trade, Short sea trade, and/or Land/River/Canal based trade. (1988:39) The models are applied by Stopford in a modern framework, defining Interregional trade (or “Deep-Sea shipping”) as economic exchange between continental landmasses; Short Sea trade is defined as the coastal distribution of the cargo delivered to major ports by Deep Sea shippers. Local/River/Canal transport is small scale, localized trade within a series of waterways or river network (Figure 1). Figure 1. Stopford’s Models of Modern Sea Trade �There are certainly emporia that do some or all of these types of trade, but within these types of emporia one trade method is usually more popular than the others. Within the region of Southeast Asia, and using Stopford’s models of trade I suggest breaking and splitting Interregional trade into Inter-regional emporia and Intra-regional emporia (Figure 2). I believe that these terms would easily assist in defining which ports were catering to ports mostly within (Intra) Southeast Asia and those emporia whose region of trade and contact was between two regions (Inter). Stopford’s “Short Sea” shipping model can apply to vessels that operate Intra-regionally, because the largely common practice of following the coast applies to Most of Southeast Asia. Examples of Inter-regional emporia would be cities along the straits of Moluccas and Java in the West and the Chinese cities of Guangzhou and Quanzhou in the East. There are other regional emporia which had some degree of inter-regional contact, depending upon politics and security at that time. Entrepots that typically operate as Intraregional emporia are those that are mostly engaged in trade within the South China, Sulu and Java Seas, including the Gulf of Thailand (Hall 2011). Figure 2: Augmented Inter/Intra regional model for within Southeast Asian context. �Reflections on the wreck of the Lena, as it relates to Southeast Asian emporia The ship It is important to note that while the design of the Lena may be Chinese in nature, the ship itself is not. Identification of the planking reveals the type of wood to be a variety of Shorea (Shorea sp.) It is a tropical hardwood belonging to the family Dipterocarpaceae, and found most commonly in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. Two taxa of Shorea are found in China, but both are rare, and not located near the coastal China. The pegs/treenails used to connect the planking were identified as GuttaPercha (Palaquium sp.) of the family Sapotaceae. Again, this is a wood primarily native to Southeast Asia and Northern Australasia. These factors point to a ship that was most likely constructed in Southeast Asia, in the Southeast Asian junk tradition, and most likely called its home port somewhere in the region. The cargo The wreck contained items from all over Southeast Asia and China, the majority of the cargo coming from China. Franck Goddio (2000) surmises that the Lena Shoal most likely overshot its port of call in the Philippines, after visiting ports of China, Vietnam and Thailand (in that order), and while attempting to come around, grounded itself along the Palawan Coast. It is most likely that the ships’ next port of call was the Philippines. A nearly identical list of commodities that the Philippine elite were importing was documented by E.P. Patanñe (1996:59) in The Philippines in the 6th through 16th Centuries, he states, (t)he elite [of Tanjay] also possessed [in their burial contexts] status-symbolizing goods such as trade porcelains from China , Annam and Siam, iron and bronze weaponry, brass and copper gongs and drums, silks and fine cotton textiles, elaborate basketry, beaded and gold ornaments. This shows that there is a clear corollary between the marketable commodities popular in the Philippines at that time, and the cargo on the Lena Shoal, deemed as product that never made it to its intended destination. Further Study It is conjectured that the Lena arrived and traded at ports in China, Vietnam and Thailand before making its last leg of the trip to the Philippines – tramping (Figure 3; Goddio, et al. 2000:259). �Figure 3. Emporia based “Direct trade” example vs. Non-emporia, “Tramping” model (adapted from Goddio, et al. 2000:259). I wish to propose an alternative pattern of trade that the Lena may have taken before its untimely end. As mentioned earlier, the tin was (expertly) analyzed by Energy Dispersive Spectrometer. Without going into great scientific detail about the process, an elemental spectrum is created of the sample, and, with the help of other measured metallic spectra, there may be a chance to source the material being analyzed. The goal is to look at sources of tin throughout Southeast Asia, with the hopes of locating where the tin on the Lena Shoal came from. The island of Mendo Barat, in Indonesia is one of the largest, if not the largest sources of tin in the region. If analysis of these sources of tin is catalogued, then we can cross reference the data from Mendo Barat with the tin ingots found within the Lena cargo. The same holds true for the Brass bracelets located within the wreck. Spectrographic analysis gives us a detailed look at the copper, zinc and tin elements in the arm bangles. Again, if accurate analyses of said sources were measured and catalogued, it might reveal useful information about the arm bangle and bracelet trade as well as the ship(s) that carry them. At that time, India held the largest sources of zinc, and if the spectrographic analysis matched sources from there, it would reveal significant insight into the metallurgy trade of the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. �If the tin was from Mendo Barat, it could suggest that the Lena Shoal had docked there previously. The ship could have made its way up from Srivijaya, through Thailand and Vietnam, up into China and on its way to the Philippines when it overshot its port. It still remains plausible that the Lena’s next port was in the Philippines, quite possibly with the intent to unload the whole of its cargo. However, the sheer volume of high quality blue-and-white ceramics on the boat does not coincide with the social atmosphere in 15th century Philippines. Studies done by John Miksic (2006) and Laura Junker (1999) show an increase in the demand of high quality porcelain, but not to the extent of what the Lena Shoal was carrying. It lends credence to the possibility that the Philippines was at least the intended port of call for a portion of the blue-and-white, with the bulk of the Chinese ceramics destined for points farther West. In that regard, we may envision a ship whose route was forever clockwise, possibly engaging in a cyclical trade pattern throughout Southeast Asia and Southern China. Clearly identified trading routes would certainly contribute to such a scenario. Goddio (2000:8) put forth the claim of a maritime trading route up and down the Western Palawan coast, stating that although there are no textual sources that mark a trade route via this corridor, he believed that it was a frequently used route since the eleventh century. He backed that up with finding and documenting other wrecks along the coast, showing that indeed the route was a popular one. An original map of the region, recently rediscovered in the Bodleian Library Special Collections in Oxford, dating to the mid-16th century further supports his theory. Figure 4. Selden Map. Orientation - North is to the right (photo by author, copyright Ashmolean Museum). �The “Selden Map”, is a detailed map of Southern China and Southeast Asia in the 17th Century (Figure 4). Dated to 1653, it was allegedly made by Chinese cartographers and captured during a British military operation. There were two documented independent ventures from Britains to China around that time; One by Henry Bornford made in 1635 and another made in 1637 by William Corteen’s Association. Both were going to Macao, but no mention of the map was in either record (Riddick 2006). The map appears to have been made in Quanzhou, as it appears to be the start of all the sea routes on the map. The map clearly shows Goddio’s suggested Palawan Strait route, supporting his theory regarding that coastal trade route. The map also reveals a direct trade route from Quanzhou to the Philippines, which may help bolster the cyclical route of the Lena Shoal. Certainly, there are a great many other factors to be taken into account to help support this claim. Agents like weather patterns, politics and maritime logistics need to be, and will be, studied to bolster this theory (Fahy in prep). I hope though that the paper shows the necessity for a more complete metallurgical spectroscopy catalogue, and a need for continued collaboration supporting the field of maritime archaeology in Southeast Asia. Bibliography “Flora of China, 2004-2010”, in The Flora of China Project, Missouri Botanical Garden Press, accessed June 17 th 2011: http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/. Bresson, A., and L’Emporion, De Boccard, Paris. Rouillard, P., 1993 Cricket Run or Home Run: Emporia and non-Emporia based Fahy, B., trade in Southeast Asia, unpublished DPhil thesis, Oxford In preparation Centre for Maritime Archaeology, University of Oxford. Sunken Treasure: Fifteenth Century Chinese Ceramics From Goddio, F., the Lena Cargo, Periplus, London. Pierson, S., and Crick, M., 2000 Goddio, F., Crick, Lost at Sea: The Strange Route of the Lena Shoal Junk, M., Pierson, S., Periplus, London. and Scott, R., 2002 Archaeology and the Social History of Ships, Cambridge, Gould, R. A., 2000 Cambridge University Press. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Hall, K. R., Societal Development, 100-1500, Rowman and Littlefield, 2011 Maryland. Raiding, trading, and feasting: the political economy of Junker, L. L., Philippine chiefdoms, University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu. 1999 Brach, A. R., 2011 �“Chinese Ceramics and the Economics of Early Southeast Asian Urbanisation, 14th to 16th Centuries”, in Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 26, pp.147-153. The Philippines in the 6th through 16th Centuries, LSA Press, Patanñe, E.P., 1996 San Juan. The History of British India: a chronology, Praeger Riddick, J. F., 2006 ,Connecticut. Rothermund, D., “Asian Emporia and European Bridgeheads” in (eds.) Roderich Ptak and Dietmar Rothermund, Emporia, 1991 commodities and Entrepreneurs in Asian Maritime Trade, C.1400-1750., Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart. Recherges sur L’organisation du Commerce Maritime Rouge, J., Mediterranee sous L’empire Romain, Service d'Edition et de 1966 Vente des Publications de l'Education Nationale (S.E.V.P.E.N.) , Paris. Selden Map of MS Selden Supra 105], Map Collection, Bodleian Library, Southern China University of Oxford, Oxford. and Southeast Asia, 1653 Stopford, M., Maritime Economics, Unwin Hyman, London. 1988 Miksic, J. N., 2006 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cricket run or Home run? Can a correlation between Emporia and non-Emporia based trade be made using the wreck of the Lena Shoal? Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource Is it possible to look at a shipwreck like the Lena Shoal and investigate patterns of emporia and non-emporia trade throughout Southeast Asia? Was the boat simply ferrying cargo from one specific port to another specific one, or was the trade a linear, multi-legged run? By looking at the artifactual assemblage of the boat and its cargo, its construction, as well as the socio-political and economic climate of 15th Century Southeast Asia and China, it is the goal of this paper to assess what trading might have looked like from a boat like the Lena Shoal. Both types of trading were most likely happening simultaneously, but there may certain characteristics that the Lena Shoal wreck possessed that may stress a specific role or function that it had in the smaller (or larger) scheme of Southeast Asian trade. Construction methods and ship size of the boat may reveal details into the boats’ intended role in maritime trade. Can correlations be made between ships of specific sizes having specific purposes? An attempt at comparing ship size and cargo of similar wrecked vessels that share a similar temporal space in the area will be necessary and vital to ascertain such qualities. Much, but not all of the cargo was Chinese, the whole of which may help reflect a particular course of trade through the area. Planned testing of the metals excavated at the site will hopefully help promote the need for a complete database of metallurgical sources in the region, to help further understand the role that the Lena Shoal played in 15th Century Southeast Asian Maritime trade. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Brian Fahy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/36bcdd5d88fc4e3399f1332bee97eb48.pdf b2c5f3adf35ab2a0dfacfd4f5b4c8a9e PDF Text Text Understanding Behind Shipwrecks: filling the missing gap of local history Dr. Widya Nayati1 Abstract Archaeological evidence of contact and exchange can be found in many sites in Indonesia. Different areas of the Archipelago experienced different levels of socioeconomic complexity because of many factors including local resource distribution and topography, which in turn affected the nature of contact with foreign traders. Contacts between resource-providing areas and outsiders who sought these resources have affected the development of local cultures. Buddhist, Islamic and Christian ideas and material culture were intensively and widely distributed in the Indonesian Archipelago from the seventh century onward. Archaeological data supported the activities of the contact, such as Hindu and Buddhist temples, Chinese temples, Mosques, Churches, forts, ceramics, beads, statues (made from stone and metals), and shipwrecks. While historical data gives information on the varieties of Indonesian commodities. Hundreds of shipwrecks are believed to be within Indonesia seas. However, the study of shipwrecks— especially in Indonesia--is always as a single object and usually only discusses the artifacts found from the shipwreck. Based on the information above, there are many data which could be helpful in understanding the past from shipwrecks. How would it be if the ship had reached the local harbour? Who would buy the artifacts? What would have happened with the locals if they used the artifacts? Is there any tangible artifacts and intangible culture which could be related to the development of the harbours or the local kingdom? Is there any ‗missing link‘ of the local history which is found from the shipwreck? This paper will analyse the effect of shipwrecks and understanding the role of local history behind the shipwreck. This paper will study the correlation of shipwrecks found in the Batam and Cirebon regions of Indonesia with the history of those two places. Keywords: shipwreck, Development of settlements, tangible and intangible culture, Cirebon, Batam Island, Indonesia Introduction The development of trading centres in the Indonesian Archipelago has been significant since early in the first millennium Anno Domini (A.D.)2 when Javanese, Chinese, Malay and west Asians traded in many ports in the Indonesian Archipelago (van Leur 1955; Meilink-Roelofsz 1962; Wolters 1967). Then, all commodities came to Melaka. The Indonesian Archipelago itself was legendary initially for forest, sea and spice products (Cortesao 1944; van Leur 1955; Meilink-Roelofsz 1962). The trade later developed to include inter local and international products, such as ceramics, beads, coins, gongs, jewellery, metal goods, and precious stones (Cortesao 1944; van Leur 1955; Meilink-Roelofsz 1962; Wolters 1967). The exchange in luxury items could possibly have taken place in the coastal, hinterland or ecotone areas, by land (track) and river (Nayati 1 M.A, widyanayati@yahoo.com A Georgian Calendar designation that starts at year one from the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth. 2 �2005). In the harbors, the elites controlled the trading activity as they had accumulated the necessary resources (Junker 1990; Nayati, 2005). Such land trading was closely interconnected with sea/inter island trading (Nayati 2005) and trading activity in this region has developed and is intertwined with other systems over a long period. However, evidence shows that changes of trading patterns have occurred as responses to internal, inter-regional, and international contacts (Nayati 2005). Artifacts have been found in the capital kingdom and their settlements both on the coastal area and in land areas (Nayati 1994; Nayati 2005), while intangible cultural influences were interacting with local people (Reid 1984; 1993; Jungker 1990; Nayati 1994; Nayati 2005). Those introduced cultures became interrelated with local cultures, thereby influencing such aspects as language, daily activities, costume, ceremony, politics, and technology (Jungker 1990; Reid 1984; Reid 1993; Nayati 2005). It can be said that understanding the maritime archaeology of this region is not as simple as recording local and non local artifacts, but should be seen as a contact of land to land culture using both land and sea transportation. Such contact involves time, energy, space, and adaptation which could open many other possibilities. So, any interpretation of the scope of maritime archaeology must encompass wider and deeper considerations which can open the way to seeing and understanding the many possibilities generated by the wider cultural contact. Historical documents can help interpret the maritime archaeology. Some documents describe the ships, the dates, the shift of trading activities from one market to another depending on the supply of local products, the fluctuating prices, and the influence of local rulers on the trading activities. The documents also provide a record of each centre by illustrations, sketches and maps. However these data are only recorded for the Complex Entrepots and Fort Regulated sites, where the document writers stayed for longer periods and even established settlements, such as in Banten, Batavia (Jakarta), west coast of Sumatra, and Banda (Cortesao 1944; Nayati 1994; Nayati 2005). By contrast, there are almost no comparable data about the development of the Direct Exchange sites or about the people, culture and trade to be found in such sites (Nayati 1994). Consequently archaeological evidence can throw further light on these changes by comparing the material culture and archaeological remains across different periods, even though not all historical information is supported by material culture or vice versa (Nayati 1994). The archaeological and historical data have already revealed much about the successes of shipping and trading activity in the past. Trading activity by sea and river was risky and full of danger, not only because of pirates but also weather. Hundreds of shipwrecks are believed to lie within Indonesia and its waters. It is believed that there are around 500 sites where ships have sunk within the Indonesian seas, yet, less from data recorded by Nigel Pickford (1994: 155). �Figure 1. Shipwrecks in Sumatra and Java (Pickford 1994: 155). The discovery, investigation and removal of shipwrecks in the Indonesian sea has been done many times. Nevertheless, the study of shipwrecks is always a single object and usually only discusses the artifacts found from a particular wreck. In Indonesian case, the findings from such an action is normally just a "finding" without any further interpretation what it may reveal about the role of local history to the world or vice versa. There are many data from the wreck which could help in a wider understanding of the past. In this paper, I will focus on one site and ask what might have happened in Cirebon and in Batam if the ship had not sunk? Is there any "missing link" of the local history which can be found from this shipwreck? In the history of Indonesia, Batam does not seem to rate any special mention (Cortesao 1944; Meilink-Roelofsz 1962; Kartodirdjo, et al. 1975; Reid 1993). It interprets that Batam, an island in the strait of Malacca, could have acted as a stop-over harbor as Malacca had both important Complex Entrepots and Fort Regulated sites, while direct trading sites were located in Sumatra and Java. It can be assumed that Bantam could play an important role whenever the trading ships/junks were attacked by pirates, or ran into weather problems—as Batam island is located in the monsoon area. While Cirebon did not rate mention in as many historical journals as the Banten kingdom, Batavia city, and Gresik (Cortesao, 1944; Meilink-Roelofsz, 1962; Kartodirdjo, et al. 1975; Tjandrasasmita 2009), both are located on the north Java sea and Cirebon was an important Islamic kingdom from the 15th to the late 19th century (Sulendraningrat 1972; Kartodirdjo, et al. 1975; Sulendraningrat 1985). �Trading Activity within the Indonesian Archipelago: filling some missing link in local history It is difficult to specify the nature of the connections among producers, traders, agents, and consumers in pre-modern society (Nayati 2005). Many different scenarios are possible as an individual can act as producer, as consumer, as agent, and as trader at the same time (Nayati 2005). Goods were distributed and redistributed both in simple and complex societies, both through reciprocity and centralized movement, variables which are related to socio-cultural life (Nayati 2005). These may each have positive and negative gains for the actors – socially and in terms of real wealth. Archaeological artifacts have not been found to confirm the whole range of recorded trading activities. Archaeological evidence can provide some information about commodities arriving in trading sites but little about the local commodities taken out from these markets (Nayati 1994; Nayati 2005). Yet archaeological data can give clues about the local activities that lead to an understanding and explanation of the past by drawing on both historical and archaeological studies (Nayati 1994). However, there are still many questions on trade remaining, such as how the local people–both coastal and in the hinterland– were affected by the international trading network, and what kind of socioeconomic structures and networks they developed to support their involvement (Jungker 1990; Nayati 2005). Related to the questions of this nature that arise, Jesse Ransley (2005) argues that maritime archaeology is a complex discipline. We should be aware about the many possibilities generated for interpreting the past, as the data are unique and the development of culture may differ and is not always linear between one place and the next. Case Study of Cirebon and Batam For a start, not all sea trading was successful. Pickford (1994) in his study of locations of wrecks does not mention any shipwreck along the north Java Sea including Cirebon but does refer to some spots in Batam. There are reports of underwater research activity there (H Harun). These activities were undertaken by the people in Jakarta during the Suharto era and Haji Harun said that all materials found have been brought to Jakarta. Equally, in 2004 to 2005 there was research conducted on a shipwreck located on 05°14‘ 30‖ and 108° 58‘ 25‖, which is 60-70 miles north of Cirebon. �Table 1. Types of artifacts found in Cirebon Shipwreck (Source: PT ParadigmaPutera Sejahtera (Setyawan 2009)—with modification.) No Type of Artifacts Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Metal (Gold, Silver, Iron, bronze, copper, Tin) Precious stones Earthenware Ceramics Glass beads Container made from Glass Upstream Kris Ivory Bones and tooth Horn Spices Woods (part of the ship) Others 15.215 2.607 35,819 256.943 1.475 1.591 1 59 281 10 28 19 114 Cirebon Based on the artifacts found from the Cirebon shipwreck, it should be asked – if there could also be any commodities which were destroyed by sea water. This question must be addressed as ships could stopover in many ports before (almost) reaching Cirebon harbor and this implies that these ships possibly bought other commodities, though not from China. Researchers have interpreted that the shipwreck - based on the ceramics and glassware - is dated to the 10th century (Setiawan 2009). Yet such a date should be questioned as the first Cirebon king came to power in 1478 (Sulendraningrat 1972; Sulendraningrat 1985; Panzuri 1994; Tjandrasasmita 2009). Before this time, Cirebon was just a small fishing village under the local merchant Ki GedeTapa (Sulendraningrat 1972; Sulendraningrat 1985; Panzuri 1994). This village then became crowded as many people settled there and this growing population was supported by the surrounding area, especially with rice and sea products (Panzuri 1994). According to local history Ki GedeTapa was replaced by his son who built a new kingdom named Pakungwati, and used the name Pangeran Cakrabuana (Sulendraningrat 1972; Sulendraningrat 1985; Tjandrasasmita 2009). He was in turn replaced by his cousin, named Syarif Hidayatullah or Sunan GunungJati (Sulendraningrat 1972; Sulendraningrat 1985; Tjandrasasmita 2009). In 1677 Kraton Cirebon (formally Pakungwati) was then divided into three kingdoms: Kraton Kasepuhan, Kraton Kanoman and Keprabonan, which has a centre of learning (Sulendraningrat 1972; Sulendraningrat 1985; Tjandrasasmita, 2009). Between 1798-1803 Kraton Kanoman was further divided into two kingdoms: Kraton Kanoman and Kasultanan Kacirebonan (Sulendraningrat 1972; Sulendraningrat 1985). Interestingly, the most intriguing point is the amount of ceramics found from the Cirebon shipwreck. If all these commodities were to be sold in Cirebon market, what would the Cirebon kingdom look like? Certainly, there are ceramics used in the interior of the palace of Sunan Gunung Jati and the sultan‘s graveyard (Figure 2). Gunung Jati is believed to have married Chinese women, but if there were at least 271.000 ceramics, mostly bowls to be sold in Cirebon, �the people of Cirebon would seem to have been practicing a Chinese life style. Yet, based on the personal survey, only one Chinese temple is known to have been located nearby the central market of the kraton in Cirebon. If those artifacts were to be exchanged in Cirebon how did they collect all the commodities to the harbor? And if so, where did they store these commodities from outside Cirebon and from the local area come from? And, most intriguing of all, what was Cirebon‘s most popular trade commodity, as there are no precise historical data on this for Cirebon? Yet We have to interpret more that Cirebon had developed a powerful political and social organization which could organize the accumulation of local commodities to be exchanged with international commodities. If so, the history of Cirebon is not to be restricted to an account of the succession from father to son/cousin. Cirebon must have been a rich country with great social and political organization; it must have included many non local inhabitants but it was all controlled by the kingdom. Figure 2. Ceramics at Gunung Jati Graveyard (http://thearoengbinangproject.com/2010/11/wisata-gunung-jati/) Batam In contrast, while shipwrecks in Batam have not yet been covered scientifically, yet there are more than 100 Chinese temples in the area. Only 20 of these Chinese temples are legal (Ah Cui). A personal survey of the Chinese temples on Batam island has found that many temples have been relocated because of the developments on the island. Some hilly areas have been leveled, and new settlements built—especially shop house—along the main road, although old Chinese temples remain located in the bay (see Figure 3; the original location of the Chinese temples). Moreover, there are some Chinese ceramics dated between Ming and Qing dynasty and beads on the main altar. �Figure 3. Location of Old Chinese Temples in Batam Island (sources: BAPPEKO Batam (1995-1998), http://pn-batam.go.id/profil-daerah/45-pemerintahan-kotabatam/81-sejarah-pulau-batam.html In Bantam, based on the personal survey on July 2011, there are three groups of temples: firstly, temples used for Toa Pe Kong (ancestor) and Santikong; secondly, temples for Kwan Im; and thirdly, temples with Buddha statues. This can be interpreted as that the first settlers placed their ancestors and santikong in their temples as Tao followers and their clan continues to venerate their grandparents‘ temples. Their duties are to renovate and rebuild it better than before. If they have to move the temple, they have to move the Toa Pe Kong and Santikong with them. Interviewed with Ah Chui informed that when renovations or rebuilding of the old temples are still to still maintain the traditional shape. Any reshaping can only be done in unimportant parts of the temple, while any new buildings must be built outside the original temples. Base on the same survey, there are several Chinese temples with Toa Pe Kong and Santikong located in the strategic bay of Batam. It can be assumed that these temples have been built by the Chinese who originally stopped over in Batam temporarily, possibly because of bad weather or pirates and or trade matters. They could safely anchor in Batam bay—as Batam has many safe bays. It assumed that some Chinese continued living in Batam. This assumption is supported by information from Ah Cui‘s that people in Batu Ampar were Chinese who worked as fishermen and merchants. Moreover there were 13 Chinese families who lived in Batu Ampar, a settlement with a trading center, namely A Chui, Tok Riri, AngTeng Hiang, A Ti Pincang (An Kai Lai), Tan Ching Long, Tan Pa Long, Pen Kiang, Cui Siang, Lao Ho, Qi Bak, Bak Ti, Tio Seng, Po Lim and Po Chin. The oldest Chinese temple was originally in Batu Ampar, but then moved to Nagoya because a factory was built in Batu Ampar. Moreover, Ah Cui a local Malay fishermen living in Tanjung Uma and adjacent areas — noted this is �the case especially along the coastal area. Based on personal survey on the 24th of July 2011, in Tanjung Uma an old mosque has been renovated and became a masjid Jami‘ named Al Mukminin. The history of Batam should be expanded to include the existence of the Chinese and their settlements and history during the 1950s, when the Chinese and Malay of Batam worked in rubber plantations and planted pepper and gambier (Ah Cui). These plantations no longer exist as all the forest has been cut down and replaced with shop houses, factories and malls. Based on interviewed with several people in Batam from 21th to 25 of July 2011, it can be concluded that Batam people do not forget their history. Much of the history of local Batam is still missing. However, from the location of the Chinese temples we can understand a little more about the past of Batam. Clearly it was not under firm local control as it was not a kingdom, as the Chinese were free to choose where they settled and where they built their temples. It assumed that the Chinese visited Batam because it was located near trading activity, and a safe haven from bad weather and pirates. Thus this location could have then become a silent trading place where the merchants met the producers from Sumatra and other places in Asia before reaching the major trading centre of Malacca. Conclusion The difference in the commercial functions of Cirebon and Batam influenced the spread of Chinese in those places. In Cirebon, a the Complex Entrepots-Chinese were located in a Chinese settlement called Pecinan, near the market and Kraton, however in Batam—a Direct trading sites—Chinese lives spread in the island. Yet any analysis of trading activities must also take account of the reality that trading is not just confined to the exchange of goods but also involves and influences culture (Nayati 2005; Nayati 2009). The different types of trading sites between Batam and Cirebon seems affected to the development of traders—especially the Chinese. People now living in Batam and Cirebon are often not aware of the richness of their own history and culture. Knowledge merely about their local culture and the role of their local histories provides only an inadequate understanding of their true culture. As people who live in coastal areas, the inhabitants of Batam and Cirebon are largely unaware of the significance of their location in relation to both land and sea. Yet it should be the role of education to make people aware that their local histories are developed and influenced from both land and other resources from the sea, and vice versa. However, their culture and histories are not complete as much information could still be hidden under the land surface and underwater. The findings of recent archaeological and historical data should be anticipated in augmenting the riches of the past, local, national, and international, as local history is strongly correlated with world history, especially in relation to trading activity. This data does not always come exclusively from researchers but should, where possible, involve the local community. Therefore, researchers – especially in Indonesia - have a duty to �inform the communities who live surrounding the historical sites about their findings so the local people will better appreciate the importance of their own past for the wider world. Archaeological findings from shipwrecks both in Batam and Cirebon can fill out their local history. Ceramics from the shipwreck in Cirebon dated on the 10th century, nonetheless, there are ceramics in Cirebon—including on the wall— are dated on the 15th onwards. Moreover the historical data of Islamic kingdom of Cirebon is dated on the 15th century. So, the artifacts and the ships are not only data for the shipwreck itself but raise wider issues such as where did the ships come from, what kinds of artifacts were found in the wrecks, how accurately is the dating of the artifacts and ships, and then those shipwreck data should be related with the situation on the land, in this case the island of Batam and the kingdom of Cirebon. Data from shipwrecks is not extensive, but it can help in filling in the local history of the nearby land area. It is important for gaining a better understanding of the local people‘s role (and their ancestors‘ roles) in the wider world. Each place in the world is intertwined and inter-correlated. Why should we think our place is better than others if their lives and cultures, like ours, have been supported and developed in conjunction with other cultures (including other commodities)? Acknowledgments Thanks you to Ms. Ika Ayu Kristianingrum and Mr. Anggoro Budi Prasetyo for accompanied me to do the survey in Batam. Thanks also goes to Mrs. Brigid Ballard to help me fixing my English in this paper. Thanks also to Miss. Jennifer Craig to sharpen the quality of this paper. Oral Sources Ah Cui alias Lim Bouson (61 years old), Head of Vihara Cipta Dharma at Sei Panas, Batam; Coordinator of Yayasan Sosial Umum at Batam, interview on the 21st of July 2011, cited as Ah Cui Haji Harun (70 years old), former fisherman, Batam, interview 23rd July 2011, cited as H Harun. 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Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Understanding Behind Shipwrecks: filling the missing gap of local history Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 Some Challenges and Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Archaeological evidence of contact and exchange can be found in many sites in Indonesia. Different areas of the Archipelago experienced different levels of socioeconomic complexity because of many factors including local resource distribution and topography, which in turn affected the nature of contact with foreign traders. Contacts between resource-providing areas and outsiders who sought these resources have affected the development of local cultures. Buddhist, Islamic and Christian ideas and material culture were intensively and widely distributed in the Indonesian Archipelago from the seventh century onward. Archaeological data supported the activities of the contact, such as Hindu and Buddhist temples, Chinese temples, Mosques, Churches, forts, ceramics, beads, statues (made from stone and metals), and shipwrecks. While historical data gives information on the varieties of Indonesian commodities. Hundreds of shipwrecks are believed to be within Indonesia seas. However, the study of shipwrecks—especially in Indonesia--is always as a single object and usually only discusses the artifacts found from the shipwreck. Based on the information above, there are many data which could be helpful in understanding the past from shipwrecks. How would it be if the ship had reached the local harbour? Who would buy the artifacts? What would have happened with the locals if they used the artifacts? Is there any tangible artifacts and intangible culture which could be related to the development of the harbours or the local kingdom? Is there any ‘missing link’ of the local history which is found from the shipwreck? This paper will analyse the effect of shipwrecks and understanding the role of local history behind the shipwreck. This paper will study the correlation of shipwrecks found in the Batam and Cirebon regions of Indonesia with the history of those two places. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Widya Nayati Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Edward L. Dreyer Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Longman Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2006-05-13 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Edward L. Dreyer Item Type Book ISBN 0321084438 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2006-05-13 Library Catalog Amazon.com Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Longman Short Title Zheng He Title A name given to the resource Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 China