19 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c081b0871bbbf0b6fa0c240448dda2e9.pdf 97ffa952a72b3f784b89a76daa8e250c PDF Text Text Early Modern Japanese Whaling: An Iconographic Study Michelle Damian (University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Assistant Professor of History) ABSTRACT Small museums can be the repository of mighty collections. The New Bedford Whaling Museum (NBWM) in Massachusetts, USA, is one such example. The NBWM holds a significant collection of artwork depicting early modern (17th – 19th c) Japanese whaling. A systemic analysis of the imagery in these pieces allows us to learn more about the equipment and strategies used in whaling in the early modern period. This paper provides an initial review of those collections, highlighting the types of vessels used, tools and other equipment, and important shoreline infrastructure associated with whaling that are depicted in the artwork. Keywords: Whaling, Japan, Museums, Artwork Abbreviations: NBWM (New Bedford Whaling Museum) List of Figures Figure 1. A typical representation of a chase boat. Maker once known (Japanese). Geigyo Hinshu Zukan [Fourteen Varieties of Whales], 1760. Watercolor on paper, 10.5 in. x 20.25 ft. (26.7 x 6.2 m.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.4456. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. Figure 2. Spearhead with tang revealed, showing holes for ropes and fasteners. After Yuyuken Kizaki (Japanese). Shoni no Moteasobi Kujira Ikken no Maki [Net Whaling in Hizen Province, Kyushu], 1817. Watercolor on paper, 10.5 in. x 27.5 ft. (26.7 cm x 8.4 m.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.4426. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. Figure 3. Maker once known. Whaling Scene on the Coast of Japan, 1855. Engraving on paper, 6 x 9.25 in. (15.2 x 23.5 cm.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.10758. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. Figure 4. Hiroshige Shigemasa III (Japanese, 1843-1894). Kagura Nite Hikiageru Zu [Pulling in by a Kagura Winch], c. 1877. Woodblock on paper, 6.25 x 9 in. (16.1 x 22.5 cm.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.6666. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. INTRODUCTION At first glance, a small museum in Massachusetts (USA) does not appear to be an ideal location to conduct research on early modern (17th – 19th c) Japanese whaling. And yet the New Bedford Whaling Museum (NBWM) is just that. Their collections naturally focus on New Bedford as a port city and the history of whaling culture in the New England region. In 1843, however, a whaling ship returned to New Bedford with a Japanese castaway, sparking a strong relationship between Japan and this Massachusetts coastal town. Furthermore, the museum also enjoys a close association with Taiji, a town in Japan famous for its modern whale hunts. The curator of the town of Taiji’s historical materials serves as an advisory guest curator for the NBWM. 1 With these ties in mind, it becomes clearer why Frank Sowa, ‘Seaside Communities in Crisis: On the Construction of Collective Identity in a Japanese Whaling Town after the Moratorium,’ Annuals of Marine Sociology/Roczniki Socjologii Morskiej 23 (2015): 33. The Taiji Whale Digital Museum (https://kujira-digital-museum.com/en/categories/12/articles/) further notes that several scrolls depicting whaling near Taiji are owned by both the Taiji museum and the NBWM, and the NBWM also holds reproductions of some of the scrolls owned by Taiji. 1 1 �the NBWM has nearly nine hundred Japan-related items in its museum and library collections. This paper will provide some examples of what we can learn about early modern Japanese whaling and its infrastructure from those artifacts. THE NBWM COLLECTIONS For the purposes of this study, I focused on the NBWM sources related to early modern Japanese whaling. My intent was to learn more about the strategies of whaling in the early modern period via the artwork created at the time, and to catalog the vessels and equipment, capture and processing techniques, and evidence of shore support. I was able to view approximately 50 items at the museum. 2 19 were scrolls, 17 were woodblock prints, and the remainder were a variety of engravings, sketchbooks, and other types of artwork. The medium mattered for content analysis. Woodblock prints featuring whales generally fell into the ‘landscape print’ genre, showcasing scenes with whales as a novelty. When whale hunts were shown, usually the images were less detailed and the scene was depicted from afar, as though an observer was watching from shore. Woodblock prints were mass-produced for a popular audience, commemorating a notable scene, and so they were perhaps trying to recreate that outsider, observer’s view. Scrolls, however, appear to have been made more for insiders, used as a means to disseminate information about whales and whaling. They could be as long as approximately 10 meters, though many were shorter. Many begin with a brief textual introduction and a scene consisting of a whaleboat, a harpoon, and a spear – effectively showcasing the tools of the trade. This was often followed by depictions of several types of whales, likely the ones most hunted in that region. Some scrolls included more details of whale anatomy, providing diagrams of how to butcher it. Still others showed scenes of the whale hunt itself, from the chase to the kill, then towing it back to shore and processing the carcass, and in some cases even showing the celebrations after a successful hunt. Many of the scrolls are very precise in their detail, providing a type of manual for whaling. The scrolls appear to be more representative of whaling hunts overall, and provide information on the types of vessels and equipment used in whaling. 3 Perhaps the most important scroll is the Isanatori Ekotoba. Published in 1832 in Edo (modern Tokyo), it recounts details of whaling done by the Masutomi whaling group based in Ikitsukishima (modern Nagasaki prefecture). 4 Far more detailed than most of the other scrolls preserved in the NBWM, the illustrations are more complex and also include brief descriptions of the equipment, locations, and whales themselves. The range of depictions of whaling throughout all of the artistic examples are rich fodder for information about early modern Japanese whaling. The following sections will provide some examples of what we can learn through careful study of the museum collections, focusing particularly on whaling boats and equipment. WHALING VESSELS Nine scrolls include standalone depictions of whaling vessels, simply presented as a representative boat out of context (Figure 1). The most commonly depicted vessel is the chase boat (seko-bune 勢子船) and some scrolls also include net boats (ami-bune 網船 or sōkaibune 双海船). In most cases the chase 2 Although the museum does have close to 350 Japan-related items in their artifacts collection, and nearly 600 documents in the library, many of them were more modern objects, or alternatively were items brought back from Japan by New Bedford whalers. Early modern items depicting Japanese whaling were more limited. 3 The analysis includes only items that the author was able to view at the museum. There may be more depictions, but if a scroll was on exhibit, for example, only portions of the scroll were visible. 4 Jakobina Arch, Bringing Whales Ashore: Oceans and the Environment of Early Modern Japan (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2018), 128–29. The version in the NBWM is incomplete. 2 �boats are presented at the beginning of the scroll. They are almost uniformly colourful, with flowers and stripes adorning the hull. Most images include a ‘hashtag’ (#) on the stempost, indicating that they were affiliated with the Taiji whaling fleets. 5 While most of the depictions are relatively simplistic, two construction features do stand out: the sharp raked stempost with a decorative end, and the washboard. The latter comes to an end as it nears the stern, and other depictions of the chase boats in action show that that open area was where the rowers gathered to propel the vessels using sculling oars. 6 The Isanatori ekotoba suggests throughbeams are also present in these vessels, though most other depictions do not have that level of detail. As these boats needed to be fast and maneuverable to corral the whale and get close enough to launch harpoons, it stands to reason that the stempost/cutwater would be the most distinctive feature. The tall washboard likely provided some stability for the harpooners as they hurled the weapon at the whale. Figure 1. A typical representation of a chase boat. Maker once known (Japanese). Geigyo Hinshu Zukan [Fourteen Varieties of Whales], 1760. Watercolor on paper, 10.5 in. x 20.25 ft. (26.7 x 6.2 m.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.4456. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. As of the seventeenth century the prevalent way to hunt whales was through using nets to surround and capture the creatures. 7 The fact that only two scrolls specifically depict the net boats out of context is therefore somewhat surprising. One is somewhat amateurly drawn, while the other is in the array of boats depicted in the Isanatori Ekotoba. These boats are larger and wider than the chaser boats, since of course they would need to transport the net and maintain stability after the whale was trapped. Unlike the chase boats, the net boats have a rudder and what appears to be a mast. The masts are unstepped and lay across a horizontal beam supported by two upright posts at the stern of the vessel, and none of the scrolls depict the masts being stepped and used to sail. One scroll appears to show a sailor tugging at the mast as though to step it, perhaps to set a sail to counteract the tugging of the trapped whale, but 5 Hayato Sakurai, ‘Whales Caught on Paper Waves: Scroll Paintings of Whales and Old Japanese Whaling,’ in Whaling and History III (Sandefjord, Norway: Vestfoldmuseene IKS, 2010), 43. 6 Yuyuken Kizaki, Shoni no Moteasobi Kujira Ikken no Maki. New Bedford Whaling Museum, accession # 2001.100.4426 7 Arch, Bringing Whales Ashore: Oceans and the Environment of Early Modern Japan, 63–64. 3 �there is no evidence of a sail in sight. Solid throughbeams are placed at regular intervals in the stern especially, providing stands and support for the rowers. WHALING TOOLS Eight scrolls have detailed depictions of the harpoons and spears used for whaling. These are often found at the beginning of the scroll, showing the tools used for the hunt. In most cases only the blade is shown, without a handle. The reasons for this are unclear, though if these scrolls were indeed meant in part to be a ‘manual for whaling,’ it may be to reveal the holes in the tang and base of the spear blade that would be used to attach it to the pole. One scroll, ‘Whales Caught at Kumano-ura (Ki Peninsula),’ does have labels saying ‘the handle should be attached through this hole,’ indicating the holes in the tang, and another notes the hole in the base as the point to thread the rope through (Figure 2). 8 These are the exceptions rather than the rule, as most scrolls have minimal text associated with the tools beyond a brief description of the ideal length. Figure 2. Spearhead with tang revealed, showing holes for ropes and fasteners. After Yuyuken Kizaki (Japanese). Shoni no Moteasobi Kujira Ikken no Maki [Net Whaling in Hizen Province, Kyushu], 1817. Watercolor on paper, 10.5 in. x 27.5 ft. (26.7 cm x 8.4cm) The harpoons depicted have an asymmetrical head, with one point longer than the other. There seems to have been no set length, as some are described as being between 2 and 3 shaku (60 – 90 cm) long, 8 Anonymous, ‘Whales Caught at Kumano-ura (Ki Peninsula),’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, accession # 2001.100.4462; Shoni no Moteasobi Kujira Ikken no Maki #2001.100.4426 4 �and others suggest over four shaku (120 cm). 9 Two scrolls, the Isanatori ekotoba and a second untitled scroll, show a range of different harpoons, and so the different lengths may have been affiliated with various harpoon styles. The Isanatori ekotoba also displays a remarkably detailed range of rope knots used to secure the harpoon and allow for its recovery. Nets are another critical part of early modern Japanese whaling, yet they are depicted far less often than the harpoons or spears. Only three scrolls show details about whale nets, including how to knot or fasten the ropes to weave the net, and also how to attach the nets to their wooden floats. Two of the three provide dimensions for the floats as well. The Isanatori ekotoba further includes a scene where villagers are weaving the net on shore. Over twenty people are involved in uncoiling the individual ropes and spreading the net out as they weave it. Based on the spectators shown viewing the process, even weaving the nets appears to have been a major endeavor in the town. ONSHORE INFRASTRUCTURE A full analysis of the maritime cultural landscape involved in early modern whaling is beyond the scope of this paper, but two onshore structures should be noted here. Several pieces of artwork include lookouts or winches, both critical parts of the whale hunt and processing experience. Five pieces of artwork (three scrolls, one woodblock print, and one wood engraving) represent lookouts. They are small, permanent structures atop a shoreline hill or mountain. Various means of signaling were used to notify the boats at sea. Some depict a man swinging long white paper strips on a pole, others show flags, and still others suggest that fire/smoke signals were used to signal the presence of a whale. Many have some combination of the above. One of the more notable items in the NBWM collection is a wood engraving from ‘Ballou's Pictorial Drawing Room Companion,’ published in Boston in 1855. 10 The engraving shows 17 boats surrounding a whale, but the lookout is also clearly visible, with two men standing atop the roof of the lookout building, one waving a flag (Figure 3). Accompanying text reads in part, ‘Whaling is an occupation of large numbers of the Japanese, and they are exceeding expert in it, though we will venture to say by no means to be compared with our “Long Tom Coffins” of Nantucket and New Bedford.’ This is followed by a brief description of the whale hunt. 11 In 1855, formal diplomatic relationships between the United States and Japan were just beginning, as Matthew Perry had first arrived in Edo just three years prior. Yet there was obviously interest and awareness of Japanese whaling in Boston at this time, accompanied by a seemingly good-natured sense of rivalry. 9 Niwa Shohaku, ‘Illustrations of Whales,’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession # 2001.100.4465; Anonymous, ‘Geigyo Hinshu Zukan,’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession # 2001.100.4456; ‘Whales Caught at Kumano-ura (Ki Peninsula),’ #2001.100.4462 10 The scene is copied from a work published in 1832 by Phillip Franz von Siebold, a German physician who accompanied the Dutch delegation stationed on Dejima (modern Nagasaki prefecture) from 1823 to 1829. Peabody Museum of Salem, Whaling Prints in the Lothrop Collection, Salem: Peabody Museum of Salem, 1987. 146. 11 Anonymous, ‘Whaling Scene on the Coast of Japan,’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession # 2001.100.10758 5 �Figure 3. Maker once known. Whaling Scene on the Coast of Japan, 1855. Engraving on paper, 6 x 9.25 in. (15.2 x 23.5 cm.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.10758. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. Winches appear in three scrolls and three woodblock prints. They are large, wooden structures with four arms, and two or three men push each arm to wind the rope and drag the whale or its blubber on to shore. All three versions of the woodblock prints – all by different artists – focus on the men pushing the winches, some with facial expressions indicating the effort expended to haul the massive whale. One is part of a triptych, with the other two panels showing a graphic offshore flensing scene. The triptych is labeled as part of a series on ‘Japanese Famous Goods’ in Hizen province, and another is labeled as one of ‘The Great Illustrated Japanese Products’ series (Figure 4). 12 It suggests that the winches were emblematic of whaling and the efforts put in to processing the whales. 12 Kuniyoshi, ‘Nihon Meisan Zukushi. Hizen no Kuni Goto, Hirado, aruiwa Kishu niwa Shoshoura nite Kujira wo Toru Zu.’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession #2001.100.6668; Hiroshige Shigemasa III, ‘Kagura nite hikiageru zu,’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession #2001.100.6666 6 �Figure 4. Hiroshige Shigemasa III (Japanese, 1843-1894). Kagura Nite Hikiageru Zu [Pulling in by a Kagura Winch], c. 1877. Woodblock on paper, 6.25 x 9 in. (16.1 x 22.5 cm.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.6666. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE STUDIES This preliminary look at the collections of the New Bedford Whaling Museum suggests the rich potential in using artwork to understand more about early modern Japanese maritime cultural heritage. While perhaps not generally useful to understand specific aspects of ship construction for whaling vessels, the array of associated tools, weapons, and infrastructure detailed in the scrolls reveal more about the full maritime cultural landscape associated with early modern whaling in Japan. This is but one group of sources, and museum collections in Japan have additional whaling scrolls that should be brought in for a more comprehensive comparison. The NBWM provides an excellent example of the potential for small museums to hold important collections, and is a reminder not to overlook these types of institutions when conducting research. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to Jordan Berson, Emma Rocha, and Mark D. Procknik at the New Bedford Whaling Museum for opening their collections to me, pulling a large number of items out for viewing in a short period of time, and providing space in the research library for me to take photographs to my heart’s content. I could not have made the trip to conduct this research without financial assistance from the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater and Dean Frank Goza. I also thank Dr. Jenny Craig for her flexibility with my submission of this paper, and Dr. T. Kurt Knoerl for always being a sounding board, editor, and providing moral support. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arch, Jakobina. Bringing Whales Ashore: Oceans and the Environment of Early Modern Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2018. 7 �Digital Whale Museum, ‘Traditional Whaling in Taiji.’ May 29, 2023. https://kujira-digitalmuseum.com/en/categories/12/articles/ Peabody Museum of Salem. Whaling Prints in the Lothrop Collection. Salem: Peabody Museum of Salem, 1987. Sakurai, Hayato. ‘Whales Caught on Paper Waves: Scroll Paintings of Whales and Old Japanese Whaling.’ In Whaling and History III, 37–44. Sandefjord, Norway: Vestfoldmuseene IKS, 2010. Sowa, Frank. ‘Seaside Communities in Crisis: On the Construction of Collective Identity in a Japanese Whaling Town after the Moratorium.’ Annuals of Marine Sociology/Roczniki Socjologii Morskiej 23 (2015): 21–35. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Modern Japanese Whaling: An Iconographic Study Description An account of the resource Small museums can be the repository of mighty collections. The New Bedford Whaling Museum (NBWM) in Massachusetts, USA, is one such example. The NBWM holds a significant collection of artwork depicting early modern (17th – 19th c) Japanese whaling. A systemic analysis of the imagery in these pieces allows us to learn more about the equipment and strategies used in whaling in the early modern period. This paper provides an initial review of those collections, highlighting the types of vessels used, tools and other equipment, and important shoreline infrastructure associated with whaling that are depicted in the artwork. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michelle Damian Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Damian, Michelle . 2023. “Early Modern Japanese Whaling: An Iconographic Study.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2020 Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Muslim Traders in Southeast Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource G.R. Tibbetts Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1957 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author G.R. Tibbetts Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1957 Issue 1 Pages 1-45 Publication Title Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Title A name given to the resource Early Muslim Traders in Southeast Asia Volume 30 Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Swahili History Reconsidered Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Thomas Spear Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2000 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Thomas Spear Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2000 Issue 2 Pages 257-90 Publication Title International Journal of African Historical Studies Title A name given to the resource Early Swahili History Reconsidered Volume 33 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource East African Trade with the Orient Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chittick, Neville D.S. Richards Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Bruno Cassirer Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1970 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Chittick, Neville Editor D.S. Richards Item Type Book Section Book Title Islam and the Trade of Asia Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1970 Pages 97-104 Place Oxford Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Bruno Cassirer Title A name given to the resource East African Trade with the Orient https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/81e6302632d27e2faf778087c394cb31.pdf e74d5f9b2ee817fef53db8922606964a PDF Text Text East Asian shipbuilding traditions and its historical evolvement Jun Kimura Abstract The archaeological study of excavated ships can contribute to knowledge and understanding of past seafaring and maritime activities. Such study includes the assessment of the hull structure and construction methods. This paper highlights technological innovations evidenced by the remnants of ships in China, Korea, and Japan. Based on data of the excavated ships from the tenth century onwards, this paper addresses the significance of the bulkhead in oceangoing ships in the light of technological innovations, diffusion, and hybridization. This contributes to further understanding of the relationship between the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition,” the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition,” and the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition.” The “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition” has been presented by earlier researchers as a hybrid ship building technology. This paper highlights the integration of the technologies from the Yellow Sea and East China Sea into the South China Sea tradition by tracing specific hull components, such as bulkhead(s) used for East Asian seagoing ships. The “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition” is exhibited by ships operating in the northern waters of East Asia. Traditionally, these ships have flat bottoms but variations are represented by the early Tang Dynasty riverine ships and Goryeo Dynasty ships, and in later periods by Ming Dynasty ships excavated in Penglai, China. Recent archaeological inspections conducted on the Quanzhou ship, Shinan shipwreck, and ship timbers from the Takashima Underwater site established that these ships were built in the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. V-shaped bottoms, keel and bulkheads, and multiplelayered hull planking with iron fastenings, characterise this tradition. The ships built according to these two traditions came to be used in seaborne activities within and beyond East and Southeast Asia. The chronological linkage of three shipbuilding traditions developed in two regions will be pursued. Introduction The research on the hull is one of the most important themes in shipwreck archaeology as it offers us a better understanding of historical seafaring and human interaction with waters. It has been noted that the increase of the underwater archaeological expeditions in China, Korea, and Japan occurred through the last few decades, and this has resulted in facilitating accesses to the data of excavated ships in these countries. The Shipwreck ASIA project has lately demonstrated a basic data collection on the excavated hulls (Kimura 2010). The collective data allows a comparative analysis on the hull to clarify the development of East Asia shipbuilding tradition. Such an approach developed with a theoretical idea underlying technological innovations and integration of hull components. The East Asian shipbuilding tradition was explicit in previous researches in comparison with Southeast Asian shipbuilding technologies, focusing on the distinctive hull components of shipwrecks from the two adjacent regions (Green 1990; Manguin 1993). Pierre-Yves Manguin (1984; 1993) suggested that the emergence of the technological difference and similarity in these two regions are attributed to the inherence of technological hybridization observed in the historical development of shipbuilding and explained the “South �China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Based on the appreciation of inherent nature in historical shipbuilding, this paper overviews the creation of East Asian shipbuilding traditions over centuries that were formed in the two areas: the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition”, “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Context In many colonial and Asian societies, hybridity tended to be applauded in cultural terms (under labels like association or acculturation) even while disdained in racial ones,…(Reid 2010) One of the themes in the study of shipbuilding technologies is the identification of technological innovations in its history that tend to generate from endogenous growth as well as exogenous factors. In this context an approach to a technological hybridization observed on the hull components is important. Manguin’s studies on the early-mid 15th century Bukit Jakas site found at Bintan Island in the Riau archipelagos of Indonesia has presented an example of the hybridization of shipbuilding technology (Manguin 1993; Manguin 2010); the main structure of the hull consists of a keel and bulkheads with planks that are edgedjoined with wooden dowels, while the hull planking is fastened to sturdy frames by square iron nails. The use of wooden dowels for hull planking is recognized as Southeast Asian indigenous shipbuilding tradition, yet the use of bulkheads as main transversal structure for the hull and iron fastenings are regarded as of Chinese origin. A few excavated ships in the water of the South China Sea show a similar construction method, according to a different principle from the above mentioned two distinctive shipbuilding traditions. These ship remains reveal the features of hybrid ships, identified as the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Since the 16th century when European expansion to East Asia and Southeast Asia began the technological hybridization on the ship structure probably became more apparent than during the previous periods. This is evident in iconographical and historical resources. A drawing of a Japanese ship known as an Araki bune sailing to Vietnam depicts a hybrid feature in its rig and hull from European, Chinese, and Japanese traditions (Figure 1). The Europeans during colonization periods recognised the involvement of hybrid ships in Southeast Asian waters, though they used the Spanish term mestizo, instead of the English term hybrid. The fact that the Europeans applied the term mestizo to describe ships that had mixed features in their construction is recorded in the historical Japanese text titled Zoho Kai Tsushoko (Studies on the Intercourse and Trade with the Chinese and Foreigners) written in 1708 by Nishikawa, Joken (Ishii 1995: 72-76). A Siam ship depicted on the Japanese scroll painting is further evidence of the existence of the mestizo ship in Thailand around the 18th century (Figure 2). �Figure 1. Historical painting depicting the Red Seal Ship known as Araki bune sailing to Vietnam. Courtesy of Museum of Maritime Science Figure 2. Siam ship from the Japanese scroll painting (Tosen no Zu) depicted probably around the 18th century. At a glance its configuration is similar with the other seven Chinese ships drawn on the same scroll yet the rigs and stern structure of the Siam ship are different from them. Photo by author, Courtesy of Matsura Historical Museum �Structural features defined as being of the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition in archaeological sources are correspondent with iconographical and historical records. What all this evidence indicates is the existence of a technological cluster consisting of hull components and associated construction methods from different origins. Individual technologies that are composed of the cluster are further examined to clarify their role in a long-term formation of a shipbuilding tradition. The excavated hybrid ships, for instance, use bulkheads in their interior structure and the bulkhead is located as one of the most important components as it has consistently been used in the structure of the East Asian oceangoing ships over centuries. The shipbuilding traditions in East Asia are dated to an earlier period than the appearance of the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition. This needs to be further pursued to locate the point of integration of technologies in the history of shipbuilding development. Chronology of technological hybridization in East Asian shipbuilding The data of excavated ships in East Asia is presented in chronological order. These data focus on the remains of coastal and oceangoing ships with substantial structure rather than primitive watercraft. The examination on the hull and construction methods in this section intends to lead to three distinctive traditions which have been linked with Manguin’s studies the idea of technological hybridizations. In the Yellow Sea’s area In China, the use of bulkhead traces is identified in excavated ships dating to the tenth century during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.) (Kimura 2010; Xi, et al. 2004). Bulkheads initially appeared in the structure of riverine ships before their adaption to oceangoing ships. The bulkheads, which have been perceived as representative of Chinese shipbuilding tradition, were originally used for a flat bottom hull with no keel suitable for riverine ships. Two Tang Dynasty ships have been discovered inland of the Jiangsu Province. Such flat bottom ships, however, could have been used for sail out to sea. The province faces the Yellow Sea which is known for its shallow waters where people could probably embark using flat bottom ships which were originally designed as riverine ships. The Jiangsu Province and southerly adjacent Zhejiang Province had ports for ships conducting distant voyages before the tenth century. Many ships were involved in early maritime activities between the Chinese continent and Japan during the Tang Dynasty as evidenced by the delegation of envoys, including envoy ships (Reischauer 1940). To date, there are no ships that have been identified that are known to have been specifically designed for seafaring and dated to that period, therefore we can only deduce that the structure of those ships that people used to sail into the East China Sea were opposed to the structure and construction methods identified in the riverine ships. For example, in much later periods the Sha-chuan (sand ships) represented a Hangzhou Bay trader, or ship from Nanjing. These are still perceived as ships used for riverine and oceangoing �purposes in the Yellow Sea and northern East China Sea (Oba 1974). Early stage shipbuilding of oceangoing vessels in the northern coasts of China can be regarded as more similar to technology in-use for the construction of riverine boats at the same time. The keel-less ship was not the only prevalent type in riverine ships. In early East Asian shipbuilding technology (i.e. during the Goryeo Dynasty 9181392 A.D.) we have an example with the Wando ships, which consist of flat bottom hulls (Green and Kim 1989). These ships were discovered offshore along the west coasts of the Korean Peninsula. The fundamental structure identified on the Wando ships is perceived to be a long-term technology that used beams not bulkheads (Sasaki and Lee 2010). The shipbuilding technology developed in the Korean Peninsula, represented by baulks for longitudinal structures and athwart beams for transverse structures, resulted in the construction of ships with sufficient seaworthiness to sail in East Asian waters, especially, in the shallow waters of the Yellow Sea. This could have facilitated the dominant role of merchants who originated from the Korean Peninsula in maritime trade between the Korean Peninsula and Japan. The advent and evolution of the flat bottom ships, represented by the early northern Chinese ships for riverine use and the Goryeo Dynasty’s coastal traders, is identified as an ancestral form of seagoing ships. Consequently, the definition of the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition” encompasses the shipbuilding technologies that are identified in two distinctive shipbuilding technologies from northern China and the Korean Peninsula. Technological interactions and mutual influences that might have occurred in shipbuilding between these two regions are still speculative. There were many distinctive features in the construction methods and structural elements between the two traditions. Differences in the usage of distinctive fastenings and different materials for them, for example, represent less similarity, which lead to a perspective that two major traditions are distinctively identified in early East Asian shipbuilding tradition. In the East China Sea’s area In middle and southern China the details of early shipbuilding tradition before the 10th century has not been clarified. Contemporary historical records of Chinese Buddhist pilgrim w indicate the use of Southeast Asian indigenous ships to cross the South China Sea (Hall 1985; Wang 1958). Before the 10th century some cities from southward of Hangzhou Bay (around Ningbo) to southern China (Guangzhou), which face the East China Sea and South China Sea, were the focal area of trade by foreign merchants from Persia and Arabia. It is unclear the influence of the shipbuilding traditions from outside of East Asia on existent shipbuilding industries in the middle and southern Chinese coasts. The next phase of substantial technological development is suggested to have occurred during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), particularly southward around Hangzhou Bay and coasts around the Taiwan Straits. This may be represented as the advent of constructing oceangoing ships in the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. It is recognized as an innovation that bulkhead structure �and construction methods evolved to a keel. However, uncertainty exists as to how the keel was introduced into, or evolved from, existent hull components. The Quanzhou ship from China (dated to the second half of the 12th century) and the Shinan ship from Korea (dated to the first quarter of the 14th century) are archaeologically excavated ships that will here be considered in detail to address the structural characteristics of East China Sea shipbuilding tradition (Figure 3). They represent a standardization of the structure of these periods’ oceangoing ships (Figure 4). This is interpreted as one stage of the completion of technological integration or clustering of hull components. The keel and hull planking synergistically contribute to longitudinal strength. The keel is composed of three members and thick garboards are fixed. The hull planking that extends from the garboards form a steep deadrise angle. The hull planking is edge-fastened by skew nailing with rabbeted seams. The system of multiple layered hull planks has also been standardised for the purpose of the inner planks’ protection, and possibly to the shell hull planking itself for longitudinal strength. The bulkheads function in providing transverse strength. Large half frames are attached to secure the bulkheads’ planks, fixing them into the hull planking with brackets. A comparative study will develop in the future with the progress of research on the other ship remains that have recently been excavated in Chinese waters, including the Nanhai No.1 and Huaguang Reef No.1 shipwrecks (Kimura 2010). Archaeological examination on ship construction materials, specifically ship nails and timbers, has been practiced. A sample iron nail was collected from a hull plank of the Shinan shipwreck for analysis and the result reported (Lee, et al. 2010). The CT scan and X-ray images of the nail revealed the configuration of the nail is skewed. Since the nail has been fully degraded its original metal structure could not be identified. A similar degradation of nails was identified in the timber remains of the Takashima underwater site in Japan. This site is known as the late 14th century naval battle site associated with the Mongol Empire (Yuan Dynasty) invasion of Japan. The nails used for the Shinan shipwreck and Takashima underwater site are possibly produced through similar manufacturing procedures based on the microscopic image of the cross-section of the nails. These nails could have been manufactured from thin bar iron ingots with a square cross-section. Those iron ingots were as-cast products that were being widely produced in the iron industries and showed a substantial growth during the Song Dynasty (Hartwell 1962; Hartwell 1966). In order to be used as ship nails, the quality of the iron of these ingots needed to be soft ended and made more pliable through the process of decarbonisation (Lee, et al. 2010). For these processes, annealing work was conducted in the smithy and iron workshops, which could probably be built on the shipyards. Wood species identification has been conducted recently on specimens of ship timber from the Quanzhou ship (Noshiro and Abe 2010). Three major species were identified including Pinus massoniana, Lamb known as the Chinese pine; Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.), Hook known as the Chinese fir; and Cinnamomum camphora (L.), Presl known as the camphor tree. The result is comparable to wood used in the hull of the Shinan shipwreck and the ship timber �of the Takashima underwater site. Pinus massoniana is a dominant species used for most of the hull components of the Shinan shipwreck. The timber analysis data from the Takashima underwater site shows, that despite the wood taxa being diverse, Cinnamomum camphora and Cunninghamia lanceolata occupy the majority of the assemblage. From the comparative study there is a pattern in the use of specific wood types for distinctive hull components. The keel, for instance, consists of Pinus massoniana and Cinnamomum camphora which are harder than Cunninghamia lanceolata that were used for hull planks. Cunninghamia lanceolata are found as sheathing planks of the Shinan shipwreck, probably due to the wood being softer and lighter and relatively easy to be cut and worked and it has relevant resistance against marine borers. Figure 3. Cross-sections of the Quanzhou ship (above) and the Shinan shipwreck (bottom). Produced by author, Courtesy of the Western Australian Museum and the National Research Institute Evidence of technological hybridization in East Asia Excavated ships dating to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.) show different features from the previous periods’ ocean-going traders. As an example of the distinctive structural feature, multiple layered hull planking is hardly identified on the hulls of the Ming Dynasty’s ships, including the Xiangshan Ming Dynasty shipwreck from Ningbo and the ship remains discovered at Penglai (Kimura 2010; Xi, et al. 2004). These ships similarly have longer hulls in the length/beam �ratio than the hulls identified in previous periods, such as the Quanzhou ship and the Shinan ship. The Xiangshan ship appears to have been used around the East China Sea area and the Penglai ships were used around the Yellow Sea, but the similarity of these ships is emphasized. Of the four discovered ships in Penglai, the basic structure and construction methods of the two ships (Penglai No. 3 and No.4) are identical with the features of the Goryeo Dynasty’s Korean ships (Cultural Relics and Archaeological Institute of Shandong Province, et al. 2006) (Figure 4). In addition, the species of the woods of these two ships are clearly distinctive from the other Penglai ships of Chinese origin. While most characteristics of the two ships are correspondent to the Korean shipbuilding tradition, their transverse components are bulkheads (traditionally used in Chinese ships) not beams (traditionally used in Korean ships). The structural features of the Penglai ships evidence hybridization between the Chinese shipbuilding technology and Korean technology; by the period of the Ming Dynasty an interaction of shipbuilding technologies between the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea could widely have occurred. Figure 4. Ship lines of the Shinan shipwreck from Korea, involved in overseas trade between China and Japan. Produced by author Shipbuilding traditions The focus on hull components and construction methods helps in the development of a chronological sequence on East Asian shipbuilding traditions. It is suggested that the utilization of the bulkhead as a structural element in hull construction probably derived from its use in fluvial ships before the 10th century in China. Some of these ships could have been used to sail along coasts, perhaps even in early blue-water seafaring. The bulkhead came to be used in the �structure of the Song Dynasty’s oceangoing ships. The innovation of this is linked with keel-use. These regions in the sphere of the South China Sea historically had relationships with Southeast Asia and were probably the focus of exportation of East Asian shipbuilding traditions. Potentially, during the Yuan Dynasty to become more prominent during the Ming Dynasty, the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition gradually formed under the strong influence of technology from the middle and southern Chinese coasts. Table 1. Structural principle of East Asian shipbuilding traditions used for oceangoing ships. Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition Technologies are evidenced in the following: 1) Excavated Tang Dynasty’s riverine ships before the 10th century that might have been used for seafaring, show flat bottom and uses bulkheads and iron fastenings; 2) Excavated Goryeo coastal traders of the 11th to 14th centuries that show the hull of the floor with chines and use beams for transverse components and wooden fastenings; 3) Excavated Yuan and Ming Dynasties’ ships that have a keel and show round bottom, and the hull is constructed by single layered planking (baulks) and use bulkheads; 4) Excavated flat bottom keel-less ships that are constructed by Goryeo shipbuilding technologies use bulkheads and both iron and wooden fastenings. East China Sea shipbuilding tradition Technologies are evidenced in the following: 1) Excavated oceangoing ships of the 13th and 14th centuries that show V-bottom deadrise by the use of a keel and garboards. The transverse component composes bulkheads that are secured by half frames and brackets to the hull planking. The hull is constructed by layered planking and uses various types of iron fastenings; 2) Excavated ships dating from the Song to Ming Dynasty show a round bottom that uses a keel. The hull is constructed by single layered planking (baulks) and uses bulkheads. South China Sea shipbuilding tradition Technologies are evidenced in several shipwrecks, mostly dated to the 14th century and afterwards, found in Southeast Asian waters. They use a keel, showing a round bottom. The transverse components use bulkheads and, likely, half frames. The hull planking is multiple layered and the main planking (innermost planking) use wooden fastenings with compensatory uses of iron fastenings. Conclusion Based on the data of the hull components of the excavated ships in East Asia, this paper has outlined the formation of regional shipbuilding traditions. The concept that technological hybridizations were inherent in the regional shipbuilding history is of importance to explain the chronological development of traditions in the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea. This approach introduced the hypothesis that around the 13 th - 14th centuries innovations of the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition” in the region was an impact-factor to the advent of the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Both the growth of indigenous technology and innovations from outside of the region underlay the formation of regional shipbuilding traditions and their linkage over time. �Bibliography Cultural Relics and Archaeological Institute of Shandong Province, Yantai Municipal Museum, and Cultural Relics Bureau of Penglai City 2006 Church, S. K., 2010 Ancient ships from Penglai, Wenwu Press, Beijing. “Two Ming Dynasty shipyards in Nanjing and their infrastructure”, in Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies in East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 32-49. Green, J., “Maritime archaeology in Southeast and East Asia”, in Antiquity, 64, pp.347-363. 1990 Green, J., and Kim, Z. G., “The Shinan and Wando sites, Korea: further information”, in the International Journal of 1989 Nautical Archaeology, 18 (2), pp. 33-41. Maritime trade and state development in early Hall, K. R., Southeast Asia, University of Hawaii Press, 1985 Honolulu. Hartwell, R., “A revolution in the Chinese iron and coal 1962 industries during the Northern Sung, 960-1126 A.D.” in the Journal of Asian Studies, 21(2):153162. Hartwell, R., Markets, technology, and the structure of 1966 enterprise in the development of the eleventhcentury Chinese iron and steel industry, in the Journal of Economic History 26 (1):29-58. Wasen II (A Japanese vessel II). 3 Aufl. Mono to Ishii, K., ningen no bunkashi (Cultural history of materials 1995 and human), Hosei daigaku syuppankyoku (Hosei University Press), Tokyo. Kimura, J., “Historical development of shipbuilding technologies in East Asia”, in Shipwreck ASIA: 2010 Thematic Studies in East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 1-25. Lee, C.-H., Osawa, M., and “Iron nails recovered from the plank of the Shinan shipwreck”, in Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies Kimura, J., in East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun 2010 Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 50-55. Manguin, P.-Y., “Relationship and cross-influence between 1984 Southeast Asia and Chinese shipbuilding traditions”, in SPAFA consultative workshop on �research on maritime shipping and trade networks in Southeast Asia, Cisarusa, West Java, Indonesia. Manguin, P.-Y., “Trading ships of the South China Sea: 1993 shipbuilding techniques and their role in the history of the development of Asian trade networks”, in the Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 36 (3), pp. 253-280. Manguin, P.-Y., “New ships for new networks: trends in 2010 shipbuilding in the South China Sea in the 15th and 16th centuries”, in Southeast Asia in the fifteenth century: the China factor, (eds.) Geoff Wade, and Sun Laichen, NUS Press Singapore, pp. 333-358. Noshiro, S and Abe, H., “Identification of materials of the Quanzhou ship and Samed Nagam ship”, in Shipwreck ASIA: 2010 Thematic Studies in East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 74-77. Oba, O., “Scroll painting of Chinese junks which sailed to 1974 Nagasaki in the 18th century and their equipment”, in the Mariner's Mirror, 60 (4), pp. 351-362. Reischauer, E. O., “Notes on T'ang Dynasty Sea Routes”, in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 5 (2), pp. 1421940 164. Reid, A., “Hybrid identities in the 15th-century straits”, in Southeast Asia in the fifteenth century: the China 2010 factor, (eds.) Geoff Wade, and Sun Laichen, NUS Press, Singapore, pp. 307-332. Sasaki, R., and Lee, C. H., “Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), shipwrecks in Korea”. in Shipwreck ASIA: thematic studies in 2010 East Asian maritime archaeology, (ed.) Jun Kimura, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 56-73. Wang, G., “The Nanhai trade: a study of the early history of 1958 Chinese trade in the South China Sea”, in Journal of the Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society XXXI (2), pp. 1-135. Xi, L., Yang, X., and Tang, Zhongguo kexue jishu shi: jiaotong juan (The history of science and technology in China: X., (eds) transportation), Science Press, Beijing. 2004 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource East Asian shipbuilding traditions and its historical evolvement Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource The archaeological study of excavated ships can contribute to knowledge and understanding of past seafaring and maritime activities. Such study includes the assessment of the hull structure and construction methods. This paper highlights technological innovations evidenced by the remnants of ships in China, Korea, and Japan. Based on data of the excavated ships from the tenth century onwards, this paper addresses the significance of the bulkhead in oceangoing ships in the light of technological innovations, diffusion, and hybridization. This contributes to further understanding of the relationship between the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition,” the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition,” and the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition.” The “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition” has been presented by earlier researchers as a hybrid ship building technology. This paper highlights the integration of the technologies from the Yellow Sea and East China Sea into the South China Sea tradition by tracing specific hull components, such as bulkhead(s) used for East Asian seagoing ships. The “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition” is exhibited by ships operating in the northern waters of East Asia. Traditionally, these ships have flat bottoms but variations are represented by the early Tang Dynasty riverine ships and Goryeo Dynasty ships, and in later periods by Ming Dynasty ships excavated in Penglai, China. Recent archaeological inspections conducted on the Quanzhou ship, Shinan shipwreck, and ship timbers from the Takashima Underwater site established that these ships were built in the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. V-shaped bottoms, keel and bulkheads, and multiple-layered hull planking with iron fastenings, characterise this tradition. The ships built according to these two traditions came to be used in seaborne activities within and beyond East and Southeast Asia. The chronological linkage of three shipbuilding traditions developed in two regions will be pursued. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jun Kimura Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7c0ccb1c1189faec8d0702f52c565177.pdf 93452adb14f3d1912b3121bd9fe95dc6 PDF Text Text East in the West : Investigating the Asian presence and influence in Brazil from the 16th to 18th centuries. Cliff Pereira Royal Geographical Society, London, ,SW7 2AR United Kingdom E-mail: cliffjpereira@hotmail.com Abstract This study is the second part of investigative research into early Asian presence in the Atlantic. The first investigation focused on the islands of Macaronesia (Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde Islands), and resulted in a better understanding of the motives, means and influences that defined Asian presence in some of these islands, and not in others. It identified the existence of a maritime “Lusitanian space” which provided the vehicle of culture contact, and conveyance of Luso-Asians into the Atlantic World primarily through maritime employment, the work of the Society of Jesus (commonly known as the Jesuits) and within the entourage of people in governance and social prominence. This initial multi-disciplinary investigation hinted at a connection between Portuguese Asia and Brazil, which forms the basis of this research study. Keywords: Iberia, Portugal, Brazil, Maritime trade, Networks, 16th, 18th, centuries, Asia, Roteiro Introduction The arrival of Columbus in the Bahamas in 1492 and Cabral in Brazil in 1500 were voyages associated with the discovery of “the Indies” (i.e. all regions east of the Cape of Good Hope), resulting in the terms Indians or “Indios” for the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas. To avoid confusion and respect the rights of the indigenous Americans this paper uses the term “indigenous Brazilians” when describing the aboriginal people of Brazil. Luso-Asians are Asians who came under the sway of Portuguese influence since Vasco Da Gama arrived in Calicut in 1498. From an archival perspective they were characteristically Catholic and had Portuguese names. Remnants of Luso-Asians still exist in Asia and in other parts of the world (Pereira, 2011). Luso-Asians shared aspects 1 �of culture, including maritime traditions, art, architecture, religion and cuisine that were reinforced by centuries of Iberian rule and the impact of Iberian-based Catholicism. Methodology. Preliminary research was conducted prior to the fieldwork. This shaped the study to focus on specific localities and disciplines within the limitations of time and funds. The resultant focus is on the period from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, concentrating on Northeast Brazil. The field work was concentrated in two areas in the state of Bahia; the state capital of Salvador in the north and the southern provincial capital of Ilhéus where tangible and intangible aspects of heritage were identified. This study aims to academically validate and interpret the multidisciplinary investigation in a discussion leading to a conclusion. Discussion. In the early sixteenth century Portuguese colonisation with European settlers only really existed in Macaronesia, where the islands were originally uninhabited, with the exception of the Canary Islands. Portuguese colonisation in Brazil was based on initially sending out degredados (petty criminals) and adventurers who were sentenced to the new lands in the hope that they would settle among the indigenous Brazilians, learn their language and culture and produce a mixed population who would later serve the Portuguese as translators, and allies against hostile local or foreign invaders (Bradford Burns, 1980). Between 1530 and 1535 the coast of Brazil was divided into 15 almost equal parts of around 50 leagues, each governed by a hereditary captain. Each captaincy extended inland from the coast to the longitudinal line established by the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal. The Brazilian state of Bahia was composed of the Baia, Ilhéus and Porto Seguro captaincies. Portuguese presence in the Indies focused on strategic coastal feitorias (Factories) that were protected by forts. In 1534 Francisco Pereira Coutinho (d.1547) who had been at the conquest of Goa in 1510 was offered the captaincy of Baia. A factory was established at Salvador, Baia, but Brazil at first offered little in comparison to the riches of the East Indies and Coutinho established a wooden fort (Russell-Woods, 1998). In the Ilheus captaincy the village of Ilheus was founded in 1536 (Vianna, 1893). Another Asia-hand Tomé de Sousa (1503 -1579) arrived in Salvador as first governor-general of 2 �Brazil in 1549 with the first Jesuit missionaries (Russell-Woods, 1968). He established a shipyard in Salvador and encouraged the escala (calling for victualling and repairs) of Portuguese East Indiamen. But Lisbon was keen to keep a tight control on the high value imports from Asia including those (e.g. pepper) that were under a royal monopoly (Bentley Duncan, 1972). In the East Indies, trade and fortification was followed by the church who effectively managed the spiritual life of the new lands, moving into agriculture, education and medicine. A Misericordia was established at Salvador in 1549, just forty-four years after the one in Cochin, India (Malekandathil, 2001). It probably initially administered to the sailors, slaves and indigenous Brazilians. Through works by Jesuits in India like Garcia d’Oterga (Dalby, 2002) the use of Asian spices and herbs in medicine, were passed to the Jesuits in South America, and Jesuit discoveries spread from Tropical America to Asia (Hobhouse, 1987).The Misericordia in Salvador still holds a collection of labelled drug containers called mangas de farmácia for the major spices; pepper (Piper nigrum), cloves (Sygium aromaticum), and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) and cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum). All of these came from Asia (Malekandathil, 2001). The Jesuit priest Manoel de Nóbrega described how the first bishop Dom Pedro Fernandes Sardinha (d.1556) who served in Goa arrived in Salvador “with all his attendants and crew in good health” in 1552 (Vianna, 1893) and pronounced Ilheus as town and separate parish. Since their arrival in the Ilheus captaincy the Jesuits controlled the extraction of timber for construction and the navy, especially in the Fundo das Doze Légaus (Dias, 2010). Fieldwork suggests that the original Portuguese settlement at Ilhéus was on the easily defensible quarter now known as the Alto de Vitoria, with a harbour frontage below it within the estuary along what is now Avenida Dois De Julho. On the hill was a wooden church that was later built into the stone church of São Jorge in 1556. The third governor of Brazil was Mem De Sá (c1500 -1572) who assumed the role in 1558. Labour shortages led the colonists to enslave the indigenous Brazilians who were under the patronage of the Jesuits missions. De Sá was retained long after his difficult term (Bradford Burns, 1980) which was marked by a reduction of the number of East India vessels arriving in Lisbon. But in the following decade the number of East India 3 �vessels reaching Lisbon would increase to levels unseen for seventy years with many calling at Salvador. The area around the bay or Baia de Todos Santos known as the Recõncavo contains many rivers, islands and promontories that offered routes and easily defensible sites for the establishment of sugar estates and engenhos (sugar mills). On the outskirts of Santo Amaro is the small cloistered convent at Praça Frei Bento that includes the Museu do Recolhimento dos Humildes. Unfortunately the museum was shut, however a sister of the convent acknowledged the existence of many items which displayed Asian influences. São Francisco was the third town of the Recõncavo to be settled by the Portuguese. After Mem de Sá had subjugated the indigenous Brazilians he gave his land to his son Francisco who paid for the construction of the convent of Santo Amaro and the church with the possible Asian religious artefacts. Felipa, the daughter of de Sa’ eventually inherited the land and married Fernando de Noronha Third Count of Linhares (1540-1608), who was the cousin of the viceroy of India between 1629 and 1645. In the Ilheus captaincy Mem de Sá founded the engenho (sugar mill) on the Santana River at the site of the Church of Nossa Senhora de Santana. This is one of three pre-1550 churches in Brazil and has some architectural similarities with churches in Goa. The mill, large estate and church became the property of the absentee Fernando de Noronha and passed into the possession of the Jesuits. By 1585 Brazil was the largest producer and exporter of sugar in the world (Sequeira Antony, 2004) and Salvador developed rapidly (RussellWoods, 1968). The first stone fort to be built in Brazil was the Fort of Santo Antonio de Barra Salvador constructed in 1583, which is now the Museu Náutico da Bahia. A vessel called the Saveiro was once common in the calm waters of the bay and the Recõncavo. Many of the features of this craft have similarities with Asian vessels, especially Arab dhows for inshore trade. In fact the Saveiro is constructed with the use of measurements based on the palm of the hand, and an instrument from India called the Graminho. Another craft was the coastal raft or Jangada whose name itself is from Malayam (the language of Kerala, India). It appears that the Jangada was once widespread along the coast of Brazil, but is now only found in the Northeast, especially Ceará. 4 �At the Museu da Gastronomia Baiana local cuisine featured as an intangible heritage and sensory experience. In Brazilian popular culture the African connection to Baiana cuisine is stressed. However there are many ingredients that are not of African origin. The coconut (cocos nucifera) appears to have been unknown in the Atlantic at the time of the Portuguese discoveries and work on plant distribution suggest that there were two centres of origin for the coconut in tropical Asia. The Portuguese first encountered the coconuts in Eastern Africa where they called them “Indian palm or nut trees” (Linschoten, 2005). But the importance of the coconut tree was highlighted in India where they described how the Indians produced books “written on leaves of some trees which appear to be palms on which they always write and of these trees and their fruit are made these things; sugar, honey, vinegar, fruit and cordage for ships and for all other purposes” (Roxburgh McClymont, 1914). The Portuguese subsequently introduced the coconut to tropical Atlantic. However, this is quite different to introducing the technology and knowledge to produce the “things” encountered in India, especially the production of coir for cordage. The Portuguese word cayro (coir) is a corruption of the Malayalam “Kayara” (Linschoten, 2005). The production of coconut milk (as opposed to coconut water) by scraping and shredding the hard white coconut meat is done on a metal scraper and the extraction of the milk is done on a grinding stone in India. The use of the milk is a characteristic of South Indian and Southeast Asian cuisine. But two specific Baiana recipes use coconut milk; the popular prawn or fish Moqueca, and the chicken Xinxim de Galinha. The chicken recipe is particularly interesting for its use of ginger (zingiberi), garlic and onions. This combination is termed the “Indian culinary trinity”. It also has cloves and black pepper. Ginger in its green form was rare in Europe until the late twentieth century and was imported since medieval times from Asia as a ginger preserve. Garcia d’Orta mentioned that the best quality of preserved ginger came from the Bay of Bengal (Dalby, 2002). Asian influence is strongest in Brazilian sweets. The grated coconut that produces coconut milk is used in Brazil to make Cocada (Coconut Ice). The Brazilian and Goan versions of this sweet have the same name and use lime as flavouring. In Asia the outer flesh of the nutmeg was also preserved in sugar (Dalby 2002). When the Portuguese took the Guava from Brazil to India they called it Pera (i.e. Pear). The Goans produced a preserve that they 5 �called Perada, and it is this recipe that returned to Northeast Brazil where it is known as Goiabada. The Mango was introduced to Bahia from India along with Mangada (Mango preserve). Another Brazilian sweet that demonstrates Indian influence is the steamed rice pudding known as Acaça. The joining of the Portuguese and Spanish crowns opened the Portuguese empire to English and Dutch attack, resulting in much reduced Portuguese shipping from Asia and attacks on Salvador in 1625 (Russell-Woods, 1968) and Ilheus in 1635 (Vianna, 1893). Asian administrators such as the Viceroy of Goa Vasco Mascarenhas (1605-1678) were appointed to Brazil and despite the prohibition on the escala for ships returning from the Indies in 1656 and further decrees (Sequeira Antony, 2004), ships calling at Salvador from Lisbon were carrying Asian wares as shown by the artefacts from the 1668 wreck of Santissimo Sacramento. This period was marked by the growing presence of the Jesuits who between 1657 and 1672 began construction on a Jesuit church in Salvador. In 1677 the Viceroy of India Dom Pedro de Almeida (d.1678) was ordered to send spice cultivators to Bahia and in 1682 two Canarin (Goan) spice cultivators were to be sent to Bahia (Sequeira Antony, 2004). In that year the Jesuits succeeded in growing pepper and cinnamon at their Quinta de Tanque or Casa Suburbana de São Christavão (Russell-Woods 1998). In 1690 under the governorship of Antonio Luiz Gonzalves de Camara Coutinho (1638-1702) two Canarins were sent to Bahia. Their names were Laurenço de Noronha and Salvador de Tavora, both aged 30 and from Bardez. These men were unable to accomplish their work as spice cultivators and were returned to Goa as they were unskilled at peeling cinnamon bark (Sequeira Antony, 2004). Coutinho ended his governorship in 1694 and went on to serve as viceroy of India. The Misericordia in Salvador holds a painting of Captain Francisco Fernandes de Sym that appears to have been executed at the end of the seventeenth century and is accredited to Laurenço Veloso (d.1708), a Goan-born painter, who was trained by the Jesuits in Goa. Veloso also painted the local merchant Coronal Domingas Pires Carvalho in the Igreja da Ordem Terceira de São Francisco in Salvador. It seems that Carvalho was responsible for funding the rebuilding of the church in 1702. Two other viceroys had served in India in the seventeenth century and were later to serve in Brazil; Viceroy Pedro António Meneses de Noronha de Alburquerque (1661-1731) was appointed as 6 �viceroy of Brazil between 1714 and 1718 and Vasco Fernandes Cesar de Noronha de Albuquerque (1673-1741) who served as Viceroy of Brazil between 1720 and 1735. In 1722 a Portuguese Dominican missionary Brother Gabriel Baptista arrived in Bahia from India and established the Dominican order in Brazil (Vianna, 1893). Bahia increasingly offered a market for European and Asian goods and the British East India Company bound to or from Bombay or Bengal would often put in at Salvador. (Sequeira Antony, 2004). In 1750 fresh orders were issued from the Royal Court for married couples, especially from Bengal and the Coromandel Coast of India who were weavers or dyers of cottons and “muslins”. In a reply the viceroy of India explained the reluctance of Indians to go to Brazil due to caste restrictions and there being few Catholic converts among the textile workers. In 1752 the viceroy sent six Canarins as paid workers to Bahia with a detailed report on the uses of the coconut tree in Goa. Two died of scurvy on the voyage. For the remaining four we have the names of three of them, Pedro Ventura Castilho, João Rebeiro and Laurenço Raposo. These Canarins found that the palm trees of Brazil were not suitable for the extraction and production of palm arrack (Sequeira Antony, 2004). When the captaincy of Ilhéus was incorporated into the captaincy of Bahia in 1761 the functions of the captaincy were replaced by the comarça (county). In 1763 Rio de Janeiro replaced Salvador as the capital of Brazil and in 1767 the Portuguese crown outlawed the escala (Sequeira-Antony, 2004). The plantation at Ilhéus was destroyed by ants in 1788 and in 1798 the Viceroy of India was asked to remit teak plants from Daman, and Sandalwood from Goa, Timor or Solor for transplanting in Brazil. It appears that the cultivation of teak had been undertaken in the Comarça dos Ilheus (Sequeira Antony, 2004). Conclusion. From 1502 to around 1650 the jewel in the Portuguese Crown was India with its connections to the Spice Islands. Toby Green (2007) argues that the inquisition was established earlier in Goa then in Brazil because that was simply where greater profits could be made. The suggestion is that the colonisation of Brazil was initially based on a “blue-print” used by the Portuguese in the Indies. It is interesting that the Portuguese chose to locate Ilhéus within a river estuary, on an easily defensible island which is a 7 �similar geography to Cochin and Goa in India. Evidence of transfer of experience and skills acquired in Asia to Brazil was considerable, even though the social conditions were different. The Indian historian Dr. Malekandathil (2001) has suggested that the lack of sufficient ships for the India run in the early sixteenth century forced the construction of vessels at Cochin, where initial plans for a shipyard were established in 1504-1505. With Indian Teak, the yard was capable of building large vessels such as the 800 tonne capacity carrack Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai launched in 1520. This ship became the flagship of Vasco da Gama on his third voyage to India in 1525. Malekandathil (2001) points out that the master shipwright was Portuguese, but essential carpenters and dockyard workers were Indian. These vessels were in contact with Brazil and the returning Portuguese East Indiamen were manned with a supplement of “East Indian” crew. It is proposed that these men introduced Asian constructional elements found in the production of the Saveiro around Salvador. These shipwrights may have also initially introduced or at the least modified the raft that they named the Jangada in Northeast Brazil. Interestingly it is the culinary historian Michael Krondl (2007) who states that “the little Iberian kingdom never produced enough sailors to man every spritsail and ratline in its navy, as a result it had long been common for other nationals to join up”. Though in this case Krondl was discussing the employment of Europeans and not Asians. Contrary to the view of John Ferguson (1923) that “little interest seems to have been taken in coconut planting by Portuguese”, it appears that the Portuguese were fully aware of the importance of the coconut tree for its safe water, and useful cordage and promoted its cultivation in the tropics. In the sixteenth century prominent administrators, clergy, soldiers and merchants were transplanted from Asia, accompanied by an entourage of followers, wives, concubines, servants and slaves. As pointed out by Bradford Burns (1980). Portuguese women were notably absent from the settlement pattern during the first century of Portuguese-Brazilian history and the Portuguese became increasingly attracted to indigenous Brazilian, Asian and African women, but we have no idea of the early movements of Luso-Asian women whose voices and original names are rarely recorded. However in the second half of the eighteenth century Goan women were definitely sent to Brazil (Da Silva Gracias, 2001). Women are repositories of culture and we can attribute the use of coconut in Baiana 8 �cuisine to Luso-Asian women, or possibly enslaved African women from India. They also introduced the use of key spices. Ginger arrived in Brazil from São Tomé in the sixteenth century. But Russell-Wood (1998) does not explain how ginger got to the West African islands. Transplanted ginger production in Brazil and Africa was so successful that in 1578 the King forbade exports from the Atlantic in order to protect Asian exports. In the seventeenth century sugar production required abundant labour by enslaved Africans. At the same time the rise of the Dutch forced the Portuguese to consider other sources for spices and Asian textiles leading to specific requests for Luso-Asians in attempt to transplant Asian agriculture and textile technology to Brazil (Russel-Woods, 1998). This was also a period when Asian influences and presence were linked with the Jesuits and their global organisation, which acted like a modern multinational corporation, where concepts, technologies and people are relocated depending on needs. Brazilian ports like Salvador were regarded by captains, crew and passengers returning from Asia as places to legally and illegally exchange Asian exotics for Brazilian sugar, tobacco and gold. Among the items imported from the Indian Ocean were Zimbo’s or Buzio de Costa (Cowrie shells). These shells were important for the Atlantic slave trade, where they served as a currency and were among the artefacts recovered from the Santissimo Sacramento that sank off the coast of Salvador on 5th May 1668. Also in the wreck were ceramics from Macau bearing the coat of arms of the Silva family, which connects the wreck to Francisco Correa da Silva who died during the incident (Pernambucano de Mello, 1979). The recovery of Nozeras (Nutmeg containers) from the wreck suggest Asian trade and Luso-Asian contact via Lisbon. In conclusion this paper suggests that Luso-Asians were not isolated in Asia, rather they were present in and influencing the Atlantic World in a variety of ways in the sixteenth century. Luso-Asians have left identifiable legacies from their contact with early colonial Brazil in a number of disciplines. It also appears that people from all sectors of LusoAsian society were transplanted into seventeenth century Brazil directly from Asia or through Lisbon. This research like the previous one in Macaronesia breaks new ground for merely considering Asian heritage in this region of South America (Pereira, 2011). It is not the only Luso-Asian heritage in the Americas that has been ignored and a similar 9 �and overlapping Hispano-Asian (Filipino) narrative in the Americas remains to be fully studied. This opens up the notion of Asians across the Pacific, thereby combining the distribution of peoples with that of trade and ideologies in a global Iberian network (Junco, 2011). Bibliography Bentley Duncan, B., 1972. Atlantic Islands. Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verdes in the Seventeenth-Century Commerce and Navigation. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago. Bradford Burns, E., 1980 A History of Brazil. Columbia University Press. Guildford. Dalby, A., 2002. Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. British Museum Press. London. Da Silva Gracias, F. 2001. Goan Women in other Lands. In Malekandathil, P and Mohammed, T.J. (Eds.), The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads. Tellicherry: 364-373. Dias, Marcelo Henrique (2010). The Mercantile Forest: timber exploration in the captaincy of Ilheus in the18th Century. Revista Brasileira de Historia, 30(59) 193-214. Retrieval December 27, 2013. From http://www.sceilo.br/sceilo.php?script=sci_artex&pid=S010201882010000100010&Ing=en&ting=en. Ferguson, J., 1923. Coconut Planter’s Manual. Ferguson’s “All About the Coconut Palm” (Cocos nucifera). Treating of the history and cultivation, chemistry and physiology of the palm, and about its commercial products. Ceylon Observer Press. Colombo. Green. T., 2007. Inquisition-The reign of fear. Pan Books. London. Hobhouse, H. 1987. Seeds of Change: Five Plants That Transformed Mankind. Harper & Row. New York. Junco, R., 2011. The Archaeology of Manila Galleons. In M. Stanforth, J. Craig, S.C. Jago-on, B. Orillaneda and L. Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. Manila: 877-886. Krondl, M., 2007. The Taste of Conquest: The Rise and Fall of the Three Great Cities of Spice. Ballantine Books. New York. 10 �Linschoten, H., 2005. The Voyage to The East Indies. Volume 1. Elibron Classics. London. Malekandathil, P. 2001. Portuguese Cochin and the Maritime Trade of India 1500-1663. Manohar Publishers and Distributers. New Delhi. Pereira, C., Luso-Asian influences in Macronesia. In M. Stanforth, J. Craig, S.C. Jagoon, B. Orillaneda and L. Lacsina (Eds.),Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. 2011. Manila: 981-990. Pernambuco De Mello. U., 1979. The shipwreck of the galleon Sacramento 1668 off Brazil. The International Journal of Archaeology and Underwater Exploration. Vol. 8(3) 211-223. Roxburgh McClymont, J., 1914. Pedralaurez Cabral (Pedro Alluarez de Gouvea). His Progenitors, his life, his voyage to and from America and the Indies. Forgotten Books. London. Sequeira Antony, P., 2004. The Goa-Bahia Intra-Colonial relations. 1675-1825. MESHAR. Tellicherry. Russell-Wood, A.J.R., 1968. Fidalgos and Philanthropists: the Santa Casa de Misericordia of Bahia. 1550-1755. Duke university Press. London. Russell-Wood, A.J.R., 1998. The Portuguese Empire 1415-1898. A world on the move. John Hopkins University Press. Baltimore. Vianna, F.V. 1893. Memoir of the State of Bahia. Bahia Print & Book Binding Office of the “Diario da Bahia”. Salvador. Biography: Cliff Pereira is a senior researcher specialised in bringing the strands of history and geography, community, heritage and academia together to create factual, colourful, strong, interwoven social narratives with equity and cultural sensitivity leading to personal and community empowerment with an emphasis on shared cultural spaces. He has broad experience consulting for development in the heritage sector, especially for small, medium-sized and large museums, sensitive narratives, diversity and inclusion and accessibility. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource East in the West : Investigating the Asian presence and influence in Brazil from the 16th to 18th centuries. Description An account of the resource This study is the second part of investigative research into early Asian presence in the Atlantic. The first investigation focused on the islands of Macaronesia (Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde Islands), and resulted in a better understanding of the motives, means and influences that defined Asian presence in some of these islands, and not in others. It identified the existence of a maritime “Lusitanian space” which provided the vehicle of culture contact, and conveyance of Luso-Asians into the Atlantic World primarily through maritime employment, the work of the Society of Jesus (commonly known as the Jesuits) and within the entourage of people in governance and social prominence. This initial multi-disciplinary investigation hinted at a connection between Portuguese Asia and Brazil, which forms the basis of this research study. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cliff Pereira, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Economic History of Early Southeast Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kenneth R. Hall Nicholas Tarling Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Kenneth R. Hall Editor Nicholas Tarling Item Type Book Section Book Title From Early Times to c. 1500 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Pages 183-275 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Title A name given to the resource Economic History of Early Southeast Asia Volume 1, part 1 Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Edo Kaigun to Bezaisen. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kenji Ishii Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Nihon Kaiji Koho Kyokai Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1988 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Kenji Ishii Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1988 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 413 Place Tokyo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Nihon Kaiji Koho Kyokai Series Umi no rekishi sensho ;; 2; Title A name given to the resource Edo Kaigun to Bezaisen. Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/28b0d3ebe859f5999438bd9b383aee33.pdf 81ff082f50b6c3769f249d86aadd1a36 PDF Text Text Education on Maritime Cultural Heritage for Children with Disabilities: Focusing on Education Program Developed by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage in 2022 for Children with Developmental Disability Yun Bo-rum (Curator of Exhibition & Education Division, the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT This paper shares the Mokpo Maritime Museum outcome of the 2022 program developed for children with disabilities experience underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Materials on maritime exchanges between Asia and Korea and history of ships are displayed. For example, the hull of Sinan shipwreck excavated between 1976 and 1984 CE was treated for conservation and displayed at the center of exhibition hall 2. Other major exhibition items include jounseon1 and ceramics excavated from the west and south sea of Korean Peninsula and weapons, which are the traces of war that took place on the Korean Peninsula about 400 years ago. We have tried many things to deliver UCH effectively to various groups with different ages and characteristics. For example, we published a maritime cultural heritage braille comic book for the visually impaired in 2021, and on-site experience program for children with developmental disabilities in 2022. Here we discuss the development and utilization of on-site experience program for children with developmental disabilities developed by the Mokpo Maritime Museum. First, the cases of cultural heritage exhibition and education cases for domestic and overseas children with disabilities are examined for this study. Second, the exhibition items and exhibition environment of the Mokpo Maritime Museum are identified. Lastly, this paper shares the design of the program ‘Maritime Cultural Heritage Experience Program for Children with Developmental Disabilities’ and results of pilot operation. We discuss the environmental factors that need to be considered upon production of experience programs that target children with developmental disabilities, to thus design programs depending on disability type and response of participants. Keywords: children with developmental disabilities, education on maritime cultural heritage, Sinan shipwreck, Mado no. 1 shipwreck List of Tables and Figures: Table 1 Education program for people with disabilities provided by institutions that belong to Cultural Heritage Administration (2023) Table 2 Overview of express delivery of dolphins of Goryeo Trading Company! Figure 1 Exhibition of hull of Sinan Ship (exhibition room 2) Figure 2 Educational material (sticker) DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL CASES OF DISPLAY OF CULTURAL HERITAGE AND EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN WITH DISABLITIES The right to enjoy culture for children with disabilities According to the Act on the Special Education for the Disabled Persons in Korea, the types of children with disabilities include visual and hearing impairments, physical disability, emotional behavior disorder, autistic disorder, communication disorder, learning disability, health disorder, developmental delay, and other disabilities prescribed by Presidential Decree.2 In Article 24 (Prohibition of Discrimination in Cultural and Artistic Activities of the Act on the Prohibition of Discrimination Against Persons with Disabilities and Remedy Against Infringement of Their Rights) in terms of the right to enjoy culture of the people with disabilities3, it is stated that ‘the 1 Tax transporting vessel 2 Act on the Special Education for the Disabled Persons (http://www.law.go.kr/Act/, Act on the Special Education for the Disabled Persons), accessed at. May 3, 2023. 3 Act on the Prohibition of Discrimination Against Persons with Disabilities and Remedy Against Infringement of Their Rights (http://www.law.go.kr/Act/Act on the Prohibition of Discrimination Against Persons with Disabilities and Remedy 1 �state, local governments and cultural and art business operators should provide legitimate convenience to people with disabilities to participate in cultural and art activities’ and ‘the state and local governments should come up with measures necessary for the people with disabilities to use cultural and art facilities and engage in cultural and art activities actively. In addition, according to the Article 30 (1) and 30 (5) of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities4, prevention of discrimination against people with disabilities for cultural and sports activities and duties to improve environment are stipulated. It shows that the right to enjoy culture and art is included in the basic rights of people with disabilities in the enactment of laws (Lee and Park 2019, 42). However, according to the ‘Study on the Current Status of Cultural and Leisure Activities of People with Disabilities’, it was found that the overall cultural experience of people with disabilities was insufficient and especially the experience of enjoying culture was scarce. In general, the percentage of enjoying movie was relatively high as it has easy accessibility but the percentage of enjoying culture at theaters or art galleries was very limited, indicating that people with disabilities in Korea had very insufficient access to cultural and leisure activities5 (Oh and Gu 2019, 6-12). Institutions that exhibit cultural heritage have a distinctive and important role in realizing right to enjoy culture for people with disabilities. Institutions such as museums and exhibition halls that collect, research, and preserve cultural properties also serve as educational institutions for children. Museums for children, such as the Victorian & Albert Museum of Childhood, have been established for children's education, and studies that emphasize the role of museums as spaces for experiences and interactions prove this (Kirk and Buckingham 2018)6. On the other hand, Object Based Learning based on exhibition items is an element that differentiates exhibition halls and museums from other educational institutions. Exhibits-based education plays a multifaceted role in education through exploration based on exhibits and interaction with exhibits in the area that formal education such as school education cannot fill in the complex modern society (Kang 2011, 15-47). Cases of exhibition of cultural heritage and education for children with disabilities Recently, cultural heritage exhibition institutions in Korea are actively making efforts for the cultural enjoyment of the disabled. This includes exhibition space creation using tactile models, information using Braille boards, and voice guidance for the visually impaired. For example, since 2013, the National Museum of Korea has placed touchable exhibits in the exhibition hall for the visually impaired, and Seoul Museum of Craft Art, which opened in 2021. Here we produce miniatures of artifacts, allowing people to experience the exhibits through tactile senses (Lee 2022). Also, the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH) made the braille book, Is there a treasure under the sea?, and tactile teaching aids in 2021. These were distributed to students of schools for visually impaired across the nation (408 people, 1 book per student) and other relevant institutions. Tokyo National Museum of Japan helps children with visual impairment to participate in experience exhibition by providing printmaking process in braille guidebooks at the Ukiyo-e making experience in the Japanese Culture Plaza7. Against Infringement of Their Rights), accessed at. May 1, 2023. 4 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (https://ko.wikisource.org/wiki/Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities), accessed at. May 1. 2023. 5 The raw data for 4,214 people was analyzed utilizing the raw data of the second survey of the second way of employment panel survey conducted by Korea Employment Agency for Persons with Disabilities in 2017, and the cultural experience for the past year of people with disabilities showed: 1) watching a movie (45 per cent), 2) watching performance at a theater (play, music concert, musical, opera, etc.; 9.9 per cent), 3) museum, exhibition, art gallery, zoo and theme park (12.8 per cent). 6 Although this book discusses children's experiences in natural history museums, the same applies to exhibits such as history, art history, and literature. 7 The on-site survey on the experience exhibition for children with visual impairment by Tokyo National Museum was conducted by the author in April 2023 (Experience exhibition at Tokyo National Museum: https://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_free_page/index.php?id=2137). 2 �A representative service for the hearing impaired is a sign language exhibition commentary. Efforts are being made to expand the cultural enjoyment of the hearing-impaired, such as providing sign language video services by attaching QR codes to experience information boards in children's experience spaces, or providing sign language services for avatars using AI. In addition, the Cultural Heritage Administration is conducting face-to-face and non-face-to-face education for the disabled in 2023 (Table 1). Through non-face-to-face education, opportunities are provided to children who cannot visit the exhibition hall to experience cultural heritage, and face-toface education allows children who visit the exhibition hall to experience the exhibits more effectively8. Table 1. Education program for people with disabilities provided by institutions that belong to Cultural Heritage Administration (2023) Name of material Animals in the museum Go, go, go into the royal rites (non-face-toface) Palace story Institution National Palace Museum of Korea City Seoul Journey into the palace forest Goryeo Trading Company – Express delivery of dolphins! NRIMCH Target Special classes at elementary and middle schools Special classes at elementary and middle schools The visually impaired Mokpo Kindergarten for the hearing impaired and school for deaf mutism (the first and second grades of elementary school) Special classes at elementary and middle schools Details A class to understand royal culture through animals in museum artifacts A class comparing our lives with the culture of the Joseon Dynasty Audio commentary + 3D Gyeongbokgung Palace Learning royal culture through tactile models Providing experience kits with sign language videos, educational contents based on the flowers and trees of Changdeokgung Palace Finding relics with the help of video + treasure hunt map EXHIBITION ENVIRONMENT FACTORS OF THE NRIMCH The NRIMCH, located in Mokpo-si, Jeollanam-do, South Korea, is the only institution in Korea that discovers, researches, exhibits, preserves, and educates underwater cultural properties. In 1981, the Mokpo Conservation Center of the Cultural Heritage Administration was opened to preserve the hull of the Sinan shipwreck excavated between 1976 and 1984, and in 1994, the National Maritime Art Museum was opened. At the exhibition center, permanent and special exhibitions are prepared under the theme of ‘seapeople-culture-exchange-history’. There are four rooms for permanent exhibitions composed of exhibition room 1- Korea Maritime Exchange Hall, exhibition room 2- Asia Maritime Exchange Hall, exhibition room 3- Korea Underwater Excavation and exhibition room 4- Traditional Korean Ships to display the materials related to maritime exchanges between Korea and Asia, underwater excavation and history of ships. 8 For the education of children with disabilities, videos, tactile teaching aids, audio commentaries, sign language videos, and experience kits were used. 3 �The exhibition environment of the Mokpo Maritime Museum is dark compared to general exhibition halls, and the plane inside the exhibition hall is atypical. In particular, in the case of the Sinan shipwreck in the exhibition hall 2, the height of the exhibition space is high because the hull is high, and the exhibition hall is created using uphill and downhill roads. Figure 1. Exhibition of hull of Sinan Ship (exhibition room 2) In addition, videos using images of marine artifacts and the sea maximize the exhibition effect inside the exhibition room and are also used as a photo spot for the audience. Such images of dark environment and strong stimuli were pointed out by experts when producing programs for children with developmental disabilities. DESIGNING EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABLITIES The Act on Guarantee of Rights of and Support for Persons with Development Disabilities (hereinafter referred to as the Act on Persons with Developmental Disabilities) was passed in the National Assembly and enforced on November 21, 2015. It is the first law enacted for those with certain disabilities. Under this act persons with disabilities refer to people with intellectual disabilities and people with autism (Kim and Kim 2016, 3). According to Ministry of Education 2022 statistics, out of the total number of persons eligible for special education (103,695 persons), 70,742 persons (intellectual disability: 53,718 persons, autism: 17,024 persons), or approximately 68.2 per cent had developmental disabilities, (Ministry of Education press release, November 28, 2022)9. In fact, they account for high proportion in the elementary and middle school special classes. Table 2. Overview of express delivery of dolphins of Goryeo Trading Company! ○ Education title: Education program for children with developmental disabilities ‘Dolphinss’ Express Delivery of Goryeo Trading Company!’ (Developed in 2022) ○ Education target: Students from special classes of elementary and middle schools ○ Education objectives: 1) Providing education where students with developmental disabilities have interest in and enjoy the Mokpo Maritime Museum actively 2) Providing opportunity to students with developmental disabilities to make them have interest in maritime cultural heritage and enjoy exhibition hall ○ Education time:1 hour and 40 minutes ○ Education composition: orientation → treasure hunting at the exhibition hall → making educational materials No. Activity Time Place Education details required 1 Orientation 20 minutes Video room at Watching animation and exhibition hall pre-education 2 Treasure hunt 1 hour Exhibition hall 1 Treasure hunting at the and 2 exhibition hall 3 Making educational 20 minutes Video room at Coloring pottery-shaped materials exhibition hall balloon ○ Education material: Video, treasure map booklet, exhibit stickers (4 types), crafting tools (pottery-shaped balloons), video QR code sticker 9 Fulfilling the national responsibilities for special education by providing education customized to students with disabilities (https://www.korea.kr/briefing/pressReleaseView.do?newsId=156539165 ), November 28, 2022, Ministry of Education 4 �This program is an exhibition hall experience program designed for children with developmental disabilities. It was created to provide opportunities for children with developmental disabilities to experience an educational program that allows them to view the exhibition hall in an interesting and active way to have an opportunity to become interested in maritime cultural heritage and enjoy the exhibition hall fully. To this end, students explore the exhibition hall and search for treasure. They get information on exhibition items (4 items) subject to treasure hunt while watching a video clip and look for treasures in the exhibition hall while holding mission booklet made on the concept of treasure map. When they find an artifact, they receive an educational material (sticker) of the picture of the artifact they found and attach it to the treasure map. In addition, they can watch the video on the stories about the artifacts they found through QR code. After going through this process, the program is finished if they finally color the pottery-shaped balloon (Table 2). Figure 2 Educational material (sticker) An imaginary “Goryeo trading company” was assumed to explain the concept of “Maritime Transportation and Trade in the Goryeo Dynasty,” which is the main keyword of the learning objective. The story went on with the simulation concept of filling out an order form and shipping it by sea. Dolphin characters appear, and students check the order (wooden plate) and make decision on packaging and delivery by using the image of delivery companies familiar to children with developmental disabilities like “Coupang” and “SSG Delivery”. The program was designed to make students understand the concept of artifacts with the concept in the real life while checking the purpose of the relics. In the video, international trade (Sinan shipwreck) and domestic delivery (Mado no. 1 shipwreck) were conducted at the Goryeo trading company, an imaginary company and four artifacts at the exhibition hall: 1) Salted mackerel jar (Goryeo; 1207-1208, Taean Mado no. 1), 2) Celadon mandarin duck-shaped incense burner lid (Goryeo; the twelfth to thirteenth centuries, waters of Jindo Myeongryangdaecheop), 3) Peony pattern vase (Chinese Yuan; the first half of the fourteenth century, Sinan Jeungdo underwater), 4) Black teacup (Chinese Yuan; the first half of the fourteenth century, Sinan Jeungdo underwater) were used to make a story based on historical facts to make children with developmental disabilities understand UCH in a friendly way. For example, stories such as production site of salted mackerel, delivery using pottery upon maritime transportation, existence of secondhand products produced in Southern Song Dynasty among black teacups recovered from Sinan shipwreck are delivered through interesting stories. In other words, the difficult concept of maritime cultural heritage is explained with things encountered in daily life and historical facts are conveyed through interesting stories. In addition, the content of the video is composed of easy language and short sentences at the Literacy 2 level and the name of the artifact used in the video and educational materials (treasure search map and artifact stickers), artifact and image are unified. By doing so, children with developmental disabilities, who take longer to adapt to change than the general public, can experience marine cultural heritage safely. Pilot operation was conducted targeting 13 students from special classes of Gwangju Shinyong Elementary School on Dec. 5, 2022 in order to execute the program effectively. The number of students to be educated was set at around 15, considering the number of teachers per student. Prior to the pilot operation, special classes were contacted to check 1) the number of teachers, 2) special attention required for each student 3) the environment of the exhibition hall and 4) survey was shared with the school so that children with developmental disabilities can experience UCH while they were ready. 5 �Bibliography Cultural Heritage Administration of the Ministry of Culture and Public Information, Wando Underwater Artifacts: Excavation Report. Mokpo: Cultural Heritage Administration, 1985 (In Korean). Joo, Chan-mee. A Study on OBL Program Development Plan for People with Developmental Disabilities in the Museum: Focusing on Housing Life Objects in National Folk Museum of Korea, Master’s Thesis, Graduate School of Education Kyunghee University, 2018 (In Korean). Kang, Jae-young. “A Proposal for Inclusive Museum Considering Disabled Children: Focus on the Cases of 'Another Way of Seeing'.” Journal of Children and Museums 17 (2020): 9-34(In Korean). Kang, In-ae. “Alternative Ways of Education at School: Learning Based on Exhibit through Museum Education.” In Possibility of Museum Education, edited by Kang, In-ae, Seoul: Munemsa, (2011): 15-47 (In Korean). Kim, Sanseop. Na, Gyeong-eun, and Kim, Ki-ryong. Understanding Developmental Disability. Seoul: Hakjisa, 2016 (In Korean). Kirk, Elee. And Buckingham, Will. Snapshot of Museum Experience: Understanding Child Visitors through Photography. London and New York: Routledge, 2018. Lee, Yeon-soo, Park, Seon-yeong. “A Case Study on the Visually Impaired People for Museum Visits.” Journal of Children and Museums 16 (2019): 41-66 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Report on Conservation and Restoration of Dalido Shipwreck. Mokpo: The National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2012 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Special Exhibition of the 40th Anniversary of Underwater Excavation in Korea. Mokpo: The National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2017 (In Korean). NRIMCH, A Study on Restoration of Original Shape of Sinan Shipwreck. Mokpo: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2018 (In Korean). NRIMCH, A Study on Restoration of Original Shape of Sibidongpado Shipwreck. Mokpo: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2023 (In Korean). Oh, Soo-kyeong. And Koo, Bo-kyeong. “A Study on Current Status of Cultural and Leisure Activities of People with Disabilities.” Korean Journal of Culture and Arts Education Studies 17 (2019): 1-17 (In Korean). Internet sources Disability Discrimination Act (http://www.law.go.kr/) Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons (https://ko.wikisource.org/wiki/) To Build a museum for all by Seoul Museum of Craft Art (http://museumnews.kr/309column/) Tokyo National Museum (https://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_free_page/index.php?id=2137) Special Education Laws for Persons with Disabilities and Others (http://www.law.go.kr/). https://www.korea.kr/briefing/pressReleaseView.do?newsId=156539165 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 20: Effective Ways to Deliver Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 20 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 20 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Education on Maritime Cultural Heritage for Children with Disabilities: Focusing on Education Program Developed by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage in 2022 for Children with Developmental Disability Description An account of the resource This paper shares the Mokpo Maritime Museum outcome of the 2022 program developed for children with disabilities experience underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Materials on maritime exchanges between Asia and Korea and history of ships are displayed. For example, the hull of Sinan shipwreck excavated between 1976 and 1984 CE was treated for conservation and displayed at the center of exhibition hall 2. Other major exhibition items include jounseon1 and ceramics excavated from the west and south sea of Korean Peninsula and weapons, which are the traces of war that took place on the Korean Peninsula about 400 years ago. We have tried many things to deliver UCH effectively to various groups with different ages and characteristics. For example, we published a maritime cultural heritage braille comic book for the visually impaired in 2021, and on-site experience program for children with developmental disabilities in 2022. Here we discuss the development and utilization of on-site experience program for children with developmental disabilities developed by the Mokpo Maritime Museum. First, the cases of cultural heritage exhibition and education cases for domestic and overseas children with disabilities are examined for this study. Second, the exhibition items and exhibition environment of the Mokpo Maritime Museum are identified. Lastly, this paper shares the design of the program ‘Maritime Cultural Heritage Experience Program for Children with Developmental Disabilities’ and results of pilot operation. We discuss the environmental factors that need to be considered upon production of experience programs that target children with developmental disabilities, to thus design programs depending on disability type and response of participants. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yun Bo-rum Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Yun, Bo Rum. 2023. “Education on Maritime Cultural Heritage for Children with Disabilities: Focusing on Education Program Developed by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage in 2022 for Children with Developmental Disability.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1969 Asia-Pac Session 20 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ennin's Diary: The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ennin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Ronald Press Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Ennin Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Ronald Press Co. Title A name given to the resource Ennin's Diary: The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law China Japan