18 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b7d2bcb398eb8f1e870c846e7d27df50.pdf 4e8852abbc53cfdaedca4650a3f964d9 PDF Text Text Discussion on the Traces of an Early Phase Lashed-Lug Boats of Southeast Asia Mr. Napat Piromrak (Underwater Archaeology Division, Thailand) ABSTRACT Lashed-lug boat-building techniques played a significant role in Southeast Asian trading networks. The previous studies reported that approximately 20 boats in this category have been found. Indeed, an archaeological survey in Thailand during the 1990s had reported the existence of several boats of this type, but the information was scarce and no excavation had been conducted. Not until 2019, a team of Thai underwater archaeologists carried out a survey along the Andaman Coast, the resources available to conduct the work including the discovery of boat remnants which were assumed to be lashed-lug type. The first was a boat plank found at Khlong Thom, the early port site in Krabi province, likely dating back to c. 1st – 5th century CE. The second was a boat plank found at Pak-Klong Kluai beach, Ranong province, located in the area of Phukao-Thong archaeological site. Therefore, research on the boat planks is needed in order to find out the technique of the boat-building and its age. The main purpose of the research is to present an insightful analysis of the boat remnants. The analysis of boat-building techniques, a sample collection for AMS dating, and a comparative studmanguiny were carried on. The result of the study reveals a significant aspect of an early phase lashed-lug boats: planks were carved into protruding lugs with hollowed holes, the hull was secured using a palm rope and wooden wedge, and no trace of a dowel hole are found. The AMS dating of a wooden sample from both sites provided a date of 1,856 ±25 BP and 2,303 ±29 BP. Comparatively, the boat structure is similar to the lashed-lug boat of Pontian (3rd – 5th century CE). However, the hull of these boats bears a different technique of making from other boats (e.g. Butuan and Ban Khlong Yuan boats, 9 th century CE). The discovery of the boat remnants in Thailand has shed new light on the early technique of constructing lashed-lug boats in Southeast Asia, confirmed by the AMS dating. Furthermore, information on boat-building development is provided. Keywords: Lashed-lug Boat, Mortise and Tenon Boat, Shell-based Boat, Sewn Plank Boat List of figures Figure 1. Map showing the shipwreck remains of Pak Khlong Kluai site between 2016-2019 : Courtesy of Decha Pornthai. Figure 2. Evidence of lashed lug plank no. 20 from Test Pit three. Figure 3. Lashed lug plank no. 4 (on top) and no. 5 (long piece) with ropes residue attached to each lug. Figure 4. Lashed lug plank with a frame piece attached to it by ligature. INTRODUCTION “Lashed lug” is specifically used to describe a traditional boat-building technique that spread and was used throughout Southeast Asia’s region. The technique consisted of a shell-based construction, in which the hull planking is constructed first to create an outer shell by edge joining method using wooden dowels and lacing ligatures to the pre-drill holes on the plank, sometimes only dowels are used. After the hull is assembled, frames are added to strengthen the overall construction by lashing to the lugs carved on the interior of the hull. Undoubtedly, the name “lashed lug” comes from the last procedure. Recent studies showed over 20 vessels that were identified as lashed lug boats (Manguin 2019; McGrail 2001), all of them were discovered both underwater and inland near the waterway of Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, and also Thailand. As a result, all have been dated between the fifth to the sixteenth centuries CE (Lacsina 2019, 40). Previous studies by several scholars have suggested a similar theory that early Southeast Asian boats might have been joined exclusively by lacing (Horridge 1982, 1, 32–33, 56-58), or at least lacing as a primary fastening and supplement with doweling (Manguin 1993, 260; McGrail 2001, 297). As Horridge (1982) asserted the need for metal technology in order to drill the dowel holes on the plank edge, which the lacing holes on the lug did not. Furthermore, Manguin (2019, 5) suggested the chronology of the development of plank fastening vessels, he stated that lashed lug boats in the early first millennium relied more on lacing than doweling. Then, during the second half of the first millennium, boatbuilders began to rely on dowelling than lacing, and toward the end of the millennium lacing were completely disappear. However, it is uncertain to conclude whether lashed lug plank fastening is evolving from exclusive lacing to exclusive doweling, without additional evidence on a much earlier plank-built boat (Lacsina 2016, 38). 1 �The earliest well-known evidence of watercraft assembled with lashed lug is the remains of Pontian boat found in Peninsular Malaysia, dating between 260 – 430 CE (Manguin 1993, 256). Traces on the plank show sign of lacing with a small number of doweling. Moreover, in 1985, Pierre-Yves Manguin (1993, 257) investigated a similar boat’s plank construction to the one at Pontian, which had been recovered and displayed at Wat Khlong Thom Museum, Krabi, Thailand. The planks are badly damaged and had no radiocarbon dating, however, relative dating suggested the age of the planks is between the fifth to the seventh centuries CE. Interestingly, the plank showed an identical lug design to its relative, the Pontian boat. Although, there is no sign of supplementing dowels, as the planks are badly degraded and were found in such a small length. The discovery of the Pontian boat and its relative, Khlong Thom plank could represent, what assume to be an early-stage lashed lug boat. However, the available evidence is scarce and incomplete. Nonetheless, a recent survey along the coastal port sites of Khlong Thom, Krabi and Phukao Thong, Ranong, located in the Southwestern coast of Thailand had discovered a few boat remnants that can reveal a new example of an early-stage lashed lug boat. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF LASHED-LUG BOATS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Archaeological evidence of vessels that were built using lashed lug technique number more than 20 throughout the region (Manguin 2019; McGrail 2001; Lacsina 2019). Despite the main concept of lashed lug construction, there is a distinctive difference in each construction. The major difference is the way planks are fastened, lashed lug vessels in the early period showed that plank stitching or lacing was a primary fastening method and supplemented with a dowel, this included the archaeological evidence of the Pontian Boat(3rd-5th CE), the Kolam Pinisi Boat (5th-7th CE), the Sambirejo Boat (7th-8th CE), the Punjulharjo Boat (7th-8th CE), and Ban Khlong Yuan Boat(early 9th CE). Later period vessels such as the five Butuan Boats (8th-10th CE), the Chau Tan shipwreck(9th CE), the Cirebon shipwreck(10th CE), the Paya Pasir timbers (12th-14th CE), the Sha Tsui Boat (13th-15th CE), the Gujangang shipwreck (15th-16th CE), and the San Isidro shipwreck (16th CE), only show evidence of doweling, discarded the practice of lacing (Manguin 1993; McGrail 2001; Liebner 2014; Lacsina 2016, 2019; Mochtar 2020). Archaeological finds supported that lashed lug technique evolved from primary plank lacing and gradually adapted to doweling (Manguin 2019; McGrail 2001). HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS There are very few historical accounts describing boats in Southeast Asia. As Southeast Asian most likely pass their knowledge through oral tradition (Lacsina 2016: 23). Most of the accounts are written by nonSoutheast Asian. Indeed, only a few describe insight detail of ship construction. A fourth-century Chinese book on Southeast Asian floral describes that sugar palm bark (Arenga pinnata) can be made into rope, which is used by Southeast Asian boatbuilders to bind timber together (Manguin 1993, 261). Another Chinese record from an eighth-century source describes the large ship of kunlun people (people beyond the barrier which refer to Southeast Asians) which they called “bo”. The source stated that this ship can reach 60 meters and can transport up to 1,000 passengers. The ship is bound together using the bark of coconut trees with no use of iron nails or clamps. There are several planks and sails (Manguin 1993, 262). A smaller size vessel was recorded by Wang Ta Yuan, a Chinese traveler that visit Madura during the fourteenth century. He stated that the boat was made using split rattan and plug the seam with cotton wadding (Scott 1982, 340, as cited in Lacsina 2016). 2 �More detailed accounts were produced during the arrival of the Europeans in the region beginning in the sixteenth century CE. The first Portuguese source described the Sumatra trading ship as junco, the word is derived from the Malay and Javanese word jong (Manguin 1993, 266), which appeared in Javanese inscription as early as the eleventh century (Manguin 1993, 266; Brandes 1889). The jong is large ship comparable in size to the Portuguese, which can carry between 350-500 tons deadweight (Manguin 1993, 266). The plank and frame were exclusively fastened with dowels and assembled multiple layers of planking. The jong used at least two masts and used two lateral rudders (Manguin 1993, 266–267). Another Portuguese account written by Gabriel Rebello described a boat building in Moluccas Sea in 1569. He described that the planks are drilled at the seam and were assembled using a mallet. The construction is so tight that the seam is barely visible. Then, the boatbuilders tied the interior (component) to the lug or cleat with ropes made from root (Manguin 2019). Indeed, the first-hand account of lashed-lug boat building is the record by Francisco Alcina, a Spanish priest who recorded step-by-step boat-building techniques in the Philippines during the seventeenth century CE. He wrote that after the keel was attached to the stem and stern post, the suitable length of wood was chosen for the planks. Only two planks can be produced from a single tree, the boat-builders reduces the thickness of the plank using adzes and left a series of lug or tambuku (Alcina 2005 [1668], 169, as cited in Lacsina 2016; 2019). STUDY OF EARLY LASHED LUG BOATS IN THAILAND Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site In 2016, a local fisherman discovered a large scale of wood remnants and pottery on the beach of Pak Khlong Kluai, Ranong province (Figure 1). The site is exposed during low tide, fortunately after the found he contact the authorities, which finally led to the Thai Fine Art Department conducting a slow process of unearthing and conserving the remains. The Fine Arts Department including the 15th Regional Archaeology Office (Phuket) and the Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD) conducted several archaeological surveys and site mappings from August to November of 2016. The remnant was identified as a shipwreck, due to a large amount of what was assumed to be wooden planks with a mortise and tenon fastening technique, the evidence also showed many scarf joints. The individual plank has an estimated dimension of 500 centimeters in length, 30-40 centimeters in width, and 10 cm in thickness. The overall structure was 20 meters long and eight meters wide. The plank analysis from the laboratory reveals that it is Terminalia nigrovenulosa Pierre which is commonly found in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand. The tenon was made of Dialium cochinchinese Pierre and the dowel was made of Cassia sp. AMS dating of the plank sample came out between BC 170-180 (Cal BP 2120±30, BP 2140±30) (The FAD 2017) The site location is near Bang Kluai Canal which is linked to an early coastal archaeological site of Phukao Thong, a site that play an important role as a port, stone, and glass ornament production dating around 2,000 years ago. Unfortunately, the wooden structure was in poor condition, and an attempt to reduce the deterioration using Geotextiles and sandbags did not work. As a re-examination show the structures couldn’t withstand the wave. So, the recovery excavation was planned in order to recover the main part of the wreck. 3 �Figure 1. Map showing the shipwreck remains of Pak Khlong Kluai site between 2016-2019: Courtesy of Decha Pornthai. The excavation was conducted in 2019, and the GPR (ground penetrating radar) was used in order to detect underground anomalies across 800 m². Test pits and trenches were planned based on this information to cover the study area. Due to the condition of the site as the wreck is exposed during low tide, the excavation process needs to be finished in one day. So, the trenches were divided into 17 long, narrow trenches and five test pits. As a result, the main wooden structure of 60m² (the volume of the structure reduced significantly based on the 2016 report) is identified as a ship plank, the length varies, the width is between 30-40 cm, and has 10 cm thickness. It was joined edge to edge and used mortise and tenon fastening techniques and supplemented with dowels to lock the joint. Wood identification was carried out for the second time, planks were made from Terminalia nigrovenulosa Pierre, tenons were made of Dialium cochinchinese Pierre and dowels were made of Tectona grandis L.f. (the fifteenth Regional Office of Archaeology 2016) Traces on the plank show at least six scarf joints and two rectangular shape holes. During the recovery process, various sizes of logs are found under the structure, some showed signs of rough-cut marks and were assumed not relevant to the ship’s parts, which could suggest the wrecks were likely abandoned. 80 percent of the pottery excavated from the site are orange-brown jar-shaped earthenware, decorated with cord marks. The rest of the potteries are bowl-shaped and has a variety of decoration such as impressing and polishing inside with black ash. All of them have a similar style to pottery found in Phukao Thong early historic site nearby. The AMS dating of the plank came out to be 200-140 BCE (Ploymukda 2020, 54), which is relative to artifacts found at Phukao Thong site. The remnant of mortise and tenon planks found at Pak Khlong Kluai site represent a few of these techniques that are found in Southeast Asia. However, it still remains unclear if it is part of a hull or other part, since, no further evidence of a keel or frame is found. Surprisingly, the excavation on test pit three (including the adjoined area of trench one, and trench three) revealed different ship construction to the main wreck. The test pit is 10 meters Southwest of the wreck. Timbers lying on test pit three show clear evidence of lashed lug construction, in addition, the lug design is relatively similar to the Khlong Thom boat plank and Pontian Boat which will be discussed more in detail. A total of three distinctive timbers were found in test pit three. They were all identified as a hull plank of a lashed lug-type vessel, as the timber is carved to create a protruding lug (Figure 2). Even though they were 4 �Figure 2. Evidence of lashed-lug plank no. 20 from Test Pit thee. found in the same area, planks were lying separated from one another. It was hard to consider if they were an adjacent plank or even came from the same vessel. The most complete one is plank number 20, which is 230 cm in length, and 40 cm in width, it has six cm of plank thickness and the same lug thickness. The lug shape is relative to Pontian and Khlong Thom Boat as it shows favorable use of a rectangular design, in which lugs are almost wide as a plank and are aligned to one side, leaving an edge protruding out about three cm, hence overlapping with the adjacent plank, overlapped part is made slightly slope down to the edge. However, there are some distinctive features that appear on this broken plank, there seems to be no sign of doweling or lacing hole on the seam as appeared on other plank-lacing vessels and the lug pattern is also quite different, the evidence on this plank shows only one rectangle-shaped hole on each lug and a combination of wide and narrow lugs with a continuous ridge connected between them, though, there are some holes on the seam of this ridge, but it seems not enough. AMS dating of this plank (D-AMS 034770) was dated to 2,303 BP ±29 or 408-357 cal BCE (Piromrak 2020, 41). This is considered the oldest lashed lug-type vessel in Thailand and probably in Southeast Asia. The longest piece is plank number 19, which is 320 cm in length, and 60 cm in width, the thickness of the plank is four cm, the same as the lug. The condition of this piece was badly degraded; however, the evidence showed the favorable design of a rectangular lug with a single hole. On the other hand, wide lugs (dimension of 60 cm) only appear with a spacing of 60 cm, and no traces of continuous ridge, doweling holes, or plank lacing holes were found. The last piece is plank number 17, which is the smallest 120 cm in length, 25 cm in width, and eight cm in thickness. The plank showed evidence of a center ridge lug with two holes bored through the width, however, one end has a slightly protruded lug roughly the width of the plank with six holes bored to the 5 �surface of the lug, these holes were not drilled through the plank but bored one and a half cm deep. There was also no sign of plank-fastening methods. This timber part was unidentified which part of the vessel it was, as no evidence of this kind has ever been found before. Evidence found at Pak Khlong Kluai site is rare and significant. The wreck’s identification suggested that at least two vessels were found, one favored a mortise and tenon technique, and another favored a lashed lug technique. The dating of both wrecks suggests that both boat-building techniques existed in the same period and also related to Phukao Thong site, which played a major role as an early port site, artifacts found at this site were Indo-Roman merchandise such as granulated gold beads, precious stone carved to a lionshape, ring carved into Roman figure and rouletted wares. The wood identification also indicated the use of Southeast Asia region woods, both vessels could be built in the region. Furthermore, sediment analysis from test pits one and four indicates that the geology of the site might be a shore instead of a sea bed (Ploymukda and Piromrak 2019, 197). Khlong Thom Archaeological Site In 1985, Pierre Manguin investigated boat planks displayed at Wat Khlong Thom Museum, the planks were found by a local and had been given to the museum. It was identified as lashed lug type, and features on the plank are relatively similar to Pontian boat, though no traces of dowel holes are found. The planks were relatively dated between the fifth to the seventh century CE as it is associated with the early port and beads production site of Khlong Thom (Manguin 1993, 257). Although Khlong Thom’s timbers are remarkably rare, they have been overlooked for decades. In 2019, Thai UAD conducted a survey along the canal where the plank was found in order to find more evidence about this vessel. The area along the canal is known as Khlong Thom Site (Kuan Luk-pad), an early port site on the Andaman coast that indicates an intensive overseas connection. The survey focused mainly on the canal where they were reported. As a result, the survey team found 12 damaged planks slightly buried under the sediment, the alignment was scattered and presumed not in situ. However, several planks were also found intact on the canal bank, they were assumed to have more archaeological context, however, no excavation had been conducted, but it is highly recommended in the future. Timbers recovered from the site are identified as lashed lug type. As it was submerged in a water-logged condition, which helps preserve the organic material very well, all still have ropes residue intact (Figures 3 and 4). All of the planks were classified into two main parts, hull plank, and keel plank (Piromrak 2020, 35–41). The hull plank The longest piece that was recovered is 150 centimeters in length, the width is around 25 centimeters, and ten centimeters in thickness (including the plank body and the lug). Features on the plank consist of rectangle lugs measured around 40x20 centimeters, each lug has two sets of trapezoid holes (five centimeters wide) bore through the edge. These holes are lashing points for the frame as one sample of plank still has what assume to be a broken piece of frame intact and several pieces still have rope residues loosely bonded. Each lug is 40 centimeters apart, though, one sample has a ridge connected to the others. The design of the lugs shows the intention for plank overlapping as one edge of the lug protrudes out from the plank body. In addition, the cross-section view of the lug also indicates inclination from the overlapped section to the other, which is assumed to follow the curvature of the hull. Furthermore, each corner of the lug appears to have two sets of L-shaped holes drilled through the seam of the plank, these holes acted as a plank fastening 6 �Figure 3. Lashed lug plank no. 4 (on top) and no. 5 (long piece) with ropes residue attached to each lug. point with ligatures, as ligature is passed through each hole on the adjacent plank to create a tensioned knot, and then supplemented with a wooden wedge bored into the knot space to create a tighter fit. However, no traces of plank doweling are found, which puts into question the strength of this vessel. The keel planks Two planks were identified as keel planks, as the design of the lug is distinct from the others. Lugs are placed in a fairly central position as opposed to hull planks that are adjacent to one edge. Evidence on plank #004 indicates a center ridge lug with large two holes bored through, on one end of the lug also showed Lshape lacing holes. The dimension of the fragment is 53 cm long, 28 cm wide, and 10 cm thick. This design is similar to Pontian’s keel plank (Gibson-Hill 1952, 114) and Butuan 5 keel plank which were referred as carinate or ridged keel (Green et al. 1995, 185–186; Lacsina 2016, 116–117). Another one is plank #003, the fragment piece is 49 cm long, 27 cm wide, and nine cm thick. The feature on this plank has a rectangle lug with a continued ridge. Unlike other planks, this one has L-shaped holes drilled through one side of the lug and a large hole bored through the ridge. Though the piece is very small in dimension and wasn’t showed continuous evidence, the lug pattern is relatively similar to Ban Khlong Yuan Boat and Butuan Boat 4 (Lacsina 2016, 190). Unlike the Pontian Boat, an investigation showed that the Khlong Thom plank has no evidence of doweling, the only method used for plank fastening is lacing the plank through L-shaped holes along the edge and supplementing with a wooden wedge. The use of wooden wedges is common in this vessel, as it is found in all spots that consisted of knot tightening, the relatively similar evidence of wedges was also found at Punjulharjo Boat, Indonesia. 7 �Figure 4. Lashed-lug plank with a frame piece attached to it by ligature. AMS dating by Direct AMS, USA, was conducted not long after the recovery of the plank. A sample of the wooden wedge (D-AMS 034772) was dated to 1,856 BP or 85-229 cal CE (calibrated with Oxcal 4.3) (Piromrak 2020, 41). Timbers used in building Khlong Thom boat were identified into three species. The hull plank is made from Hopea species, the frame and wedge are made from Mesua ferrea L., and the seam wadding was identified as Payena acuminate (Blume) Pierre. Moreover, ropes used for frame lashing and plank lacing were identified as Arenga Pinnata. As a result, all identified timbers are commonly grown in a wet tropical area and are of Southeast Asia origin. Other sites Previous reports between the 1990s-2000s recorded the discovery of several lashed lug vessels found in the Southern and up to the Central part of Thailand, unfortunately, most of them were brief and lost their archaeological context due to the unwitting recovery of the locals. The first one is remnants of boat timbers discovered at Ban Kok Yang, Trang province. The evidence showed a well-preserved early lashed lug boat recovered from an alluvial deposit. The report noted the existence of planks with integrated rectangle lugs, frames, and bulkheads, with the practice of plank lacing by ropes. No dating was ever conducted, the examination from photographs shows the relation to the Pontian boat and Khlong Thom timbers. Unfortunately, the remnants were demolished (Vatcharangkul 2001, 47). The second one is lashed lug planks found in Khlong Ta-Noo canal, Ban Koh-Takien, Chanthaburi. The report by Thai UAD in 1997 recorded that two planks were found buried under the canal bed, and being covered by bamboo branches. Due to the bad visibility, the diver found only two planks with no associated artifacts (Parnfuk 1997, 3-5). No radiocarbon dating or wood identification was conducted, however, planks are relatively similar to the Panjulharjo and Ban Khlong Yuan Boat, with evidence of laced holes and dowel 8 �holes. The plank is 250 cm in length, 30 cm in width, and 10 cm in thickness. It was identified as a hull plank of a lashed lug boat and shows the uses of a scarf joint. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Recent studies of early watercraft in Thailand have revealed interesting evidence of lashed lug vessels with their planks exclusively laced together and with no traces of dowel holes. They support the theory which suggested that lashed lug boats in the early period are primarily laced together. These features are associated with the absolute dating of the plank which came out to be earlier than the Pontian Boat, lashed lug watercraft which represent a transitional phase between exclusively lacing to a combination of both methods. Indeed, the site of Pak Khlong Kluai indicated an association between mortise and tenon ship construction and lashed lug vessels, a more intensive study should address this relation. Therefore, the discovery of exclusive plank-laced vessels has inspired more curiosity about their appearance and construction, whether they are raft-type vessels or hull-plank vessels. BIBLIOGRAPHY Evan, Ivor Hugh Norman. “Notes on the Remains of an Old Boat Found at Pontian.” Journal of the Federated Malay States Museum 12, (1927): 93-96. Fine Arts Department. Rai Ngan Kan Samruat Ruea Boran Hat Pak Khlong Kluai Mu 4 Ban Phukao Thong Tambon Kumpuan Amphoe Suk Samran Changwat Ranong. Samnak Silppakorn thi Sipsong, Nakorn Si Thammarat, (The Archaeological Survey of Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site Ranong Province), In Thai, 2017. Gibson-Hill, Carl Alexander. “Further Notes on the Old Boat from Pontian.” Journal of the Malayan Branch, Royal Asiatic Society 25, no. 1, (1952): 111-133. Green, Jeremy, Tom Vosmer, Paul Clark, Ray A. Santiago and Mauro Alvarez. “Interim Report on the Joint Australian -Philippines Butuan Boat Project, October 1992. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 24, no. 3 (1995): 177-188. Green, Jeremy, Tom Vosmer, Paul Clark, Ray A. Santiago and Mauro Alvarez. “Interim Report on the Joint Australian -Philippines Butuan Boat Project, October 1992.” Western Australian Musuem. Horridge, Adrian. The lashed-lug boat of the Eastern Archipelagoes, the Alcina MS and the Lomblen Whaling Boat. Maritime Monographs and Reports. Trustees of the National Maritime Museum, 1982. Lacsina, Ligaya. “The Butuan Boats of the Philippines: Southeast Asian Edge-Joined and Lashed-Lug the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 39, (2015): 126-132. Watercraft.” Bulletin of Lacsina, Ligaya. “The Same-Same Boatbuilding Tradition? Looking at the Different Examples of Lashed-lug Boats from the Southeast Asian Region.” In Past Present and Future of ASEAN Maritime Heritage, Proceeding of International Symposium 15 th16th June 2017, 38-53. The Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, 2019. Lacsina, Ligaya. Examining Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian Boatbuilding: An Archaeological Study of the Butuan Boats and the Use of Edge-Joined Planking in Local and Regional Construction Techniques, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, Adelaide, 2016. Liebner, Horst. The Siren of Cirebon, University of Leeds, 2014. 9 �Manguin Y. Pierre. “Asian Ship-Building Tradition in the Indian Ocean at the Dawn of European Expansion.” In The Trading World of the Indian Ocean 1500-1800, Volume 3 Part 7, edited by Om Prakash, 597-629. Delhi: Pearson India, 2001. Manguin, Y. Pierre. “The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 5, no. 2 (1980): 266276. Manguin, Y. Pierre. “Trading Ship of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of the Trade Networks.” Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 36, no. 3 (1993): 253-280. Manguin, P.‐Y. “Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: The stitched‐plank and lashed‐lug tradition.” International Journal of Nautical Aarchaeology 48 (2019): 400–415. McGrail, Sean. Boats of the World From the Stone Age to the Medieval Time. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Mochtar, S. Agni. “Recommendations on Cultural Heritage Site Management Plan for the Punjulharjo Boat in Rembang, Central Java.” Berkala Arkeologi, Volume 40, no. 2, (2020):243-266. Parnfuk, Veera. Rai Ngan Kan Samruat Bueang Ton Ruea Koh Khwang, Klum Ngan Boranna Khadi Tai Nam, Prachinburi, (The Archaeological Survey of Koh Khwang Wreck Site), Prachinburi, The Underwater Archaeology Office, 1997, In Thai. Piromrak, Napat. “Sak Ruea Jom Khlong Thom: Lak Than Ruea Phuk Yuk Raek Roem Thi Phop Nai Prathet Thai.” (Khlong Thom Wreck: Evidence of Early Lashed-Lug Boat Found in Thailand). Silpakorn Journal 63, no. 5 (2020): 30-41, In Thai. Ploymukda, Sira and Piromrak Napat. Rai Ngan Kan Kud Khon Tang Boranna Khadi Laeng Ruea Jom Pak Khlong Kluai Amphoe Suk Samran Jangwad Ranong, (The Excavation of Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site), The Underwater Archaeology Office, 2019, In Thai. Ploymukda, Sira. “Laeng Ruea Jom Pak Khlong Kluai Lak Than Choeng Prachak Dan Theknoloyi Kan To Ruea Lae Patisamphan Thang Thale Chai Fang Samai Raek Roem Prawat Sat. ” (Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site: Evidence-Based Shipbuilding Technology and Marine Interaction Across the Andaman Coast in Early History Period). Silpakorn Journal 63, no. 5 (2020): 4257, In Thai. Vatcharangkul, Erbprem. Prawat Sat Kan Panitnavy Thai Samnak Boranna Khadi Lae Phiphittaphantha Sathan Haeng Chat, Krom Silpakorn, (History of Thai Maritime Trading), The Fine Arts Department, 2001, In Thai. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Discussion on the Traces of an Early Phase Lashed-Lug Boats of Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Lashed-lug boat-building techniques played a significant role in Southeast Asian trading networks. The previous studies reported that approximately 20 boats in this category have been found. Indeed, an archaeological survey in Thailand during the 1990s had reported the existence of several boats of this type, but the information was scarce and no excavation had been conducted. Not until 2019, a team of Thai underwater archaeologists carried out a survey along the Andaman Coast, the resources available to conduct the work including the discovery of boat remnants which were assumed to be lashed-lug type. The first was a boat plank found at Khlong Thom, the early port site in Krabi province, likely dating back to c. 1st – 5 th century CE. The second was a boat plank found at Pak-Klong Kluai beach, Ranong province, located in the area of Phukao-Thong archaeological site. Therefore, research on the boat planks is needed in order to find out the technique of the boat-building and its age. The main purpose of the research is to present an insightful analysis of the boat remnants. The analysis of boat-building techniques, a sample collection for AMS dating, and a comparative studmanguiny were carried on. The result of the study reveals a significant aspect of an early phase lashed-lug boats: planks were carved into protruding lugs with hollowed holes, the hull was secured using a palm rope and wooden wedge, and no trace of a dowel hole are found. The AMS dating of a wooden sample from both sites provided a date of 1,856 ±25 BP and 2,303 ±29 BP. Comparatively, the boat structure is similar to the lashed-lug boat of Pontian (3rd – 5 th century CE). However, the hull of these boats bears a different technique of making from other boats (e.g. Butuan and Ban Khlong Yuan boats, 9th century CE). The discovery of the boat remnants in Thailand has shed new light on the early technique of constructing lashed Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Napat Piromrak Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Piromrak, Napat . 2023. “Discussion on the Traces of an Early Phase Lashed-Lug Boats of Southeast Asia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1943 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/231744352e9eb7e78476d7891b3fa1e9.pdf 4c85726b986801e0aa27851018bd6a3b PDF Text Text Distributional Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage and its Experimental Presentation in the Ryukyu Archipelago Chiaki Katagiri Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Naha, Japan, 900-0006 Email: katgiric@pref.okinawa.lg.jp Yuji Yamamoto Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka, Japan, 812-0041 Email: yamamoto@f-creer.com Yumiko Nakanishi, Osaka Prefectural Government, Osaka, Japan, 559-0034 Email: NakanishiYum@mbox.pref.osaka.lg.jp Abstract The Ryukyu Archipelago is located at the northwestern Pacific, between the islands of Formosa and Kyushu of southern Japan. It consists of 199 islands of all dimensions and the total range of its accurate distribution lengthen is approximately 1,200 km. Since the first human beings settled down on the archipelago during the Pleistocene, they have been living close by the sea there. The local populations have recognized maritime resources as a main and important nutritious food since the prehistoric era, while the Ryukyu kingdom used to be prosperous unprecedentedly in terms of seaborne oversea trade among Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. In the Ryukyu archipelago, the distributional survey of underwater cultural heritage has lately been conducted by the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and Kagoshima University, in order to assess its numbers, typologies, actual conditions, and so on. According to the research, 235 sites of underwater or maritime cultural heritage have already been confirmed: 9 shipwrecks, 33 submerged ports, 15 places where boat cargos are scattered on the seabed, 72 places where old boat cargos and other remains are found along the coasts, 30 stone anchors and cargos on land, 28 quarries, 45 stone tidal weirs, and 3 salt works. In 2011, as a result of the survey, an underwater cultural heritage presentation or guidance tour was carried out in Kume Island. Presumably, this experimental trial will lead the public to having the sense to acknowledge and protect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Key words: Ryukyu Archipelago, Ryukyu Kingdom, Transit trade, Distributional Survey, Open day Introduction The Ryukyu Archipelago consists of 199 islands of various sizes ranging about 1,200 km between Kyushu Island, the southernmost island of the Japanese Archipelago, and 1 �Taiwan in the northwestern coastal Pacific. The first humans reached there in the late Pleistocene and have long been living a life highly connected to the sea since then. Marine resources had been their major food source in prehistory, and the islands have prospered because of overseas exchanges using ships and the sea from the Gusuku Period to the Sanzan Period (from the latter half of 11thcentury to 1429 AD). The tidal zone was actively utilized for production activities until 1879, when the Ryukyu Kingdom became an independent state. Recent research accumulation revealed the numbers and types of underwater cultural heritage in this region by the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Kagoshima University, Tokai University and Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, and so on. It is notable that such researches include a whole series of different kinds of methods, such as collection of oral histories, interviews, archival researches, walking survey of the coastal area and the seabed, and the like. Based on the results of such researches, we have an underwater site open day in Kumejima Island in Okinawa for its experimental presentation on 11th September 2011 and 28th September 2013. On those days, we invited the willing public to visit and see underwater sites under the supervision and Fig. 1 Location of Archipelago. (C. Katagiri) guidance by the experts. The Ohajima Underwater Ryukyu Site was selected for the subject of this experimental presentation as it was the most suitable site on many reasons. We have collected the data regarding the interest of the visitors, trying to justify the validity of the method we have adopted. The research aims to lead to the protection and utilization of underwater cultural heritage. Types and numbers of the sites holding Underwater Cultural Heritage As shown in the Table 1, the area of sea around the Ryukyu Archipelago holds a wide variety of underwater cultural heritage. 9 shipwreck sites, 15 seabed artifact scattering sites (loads only, no hull found), 33 submerged ports, 72 coastal artifact scattering sites, 2 �76 production sites (28 quarries, 45 stone tidal weirs, an 3 salt pans), and 30 sites with findings on land, such as stone and iron anchors are so far found and categorized. type number contents a Shipwreck sites 9 Shipwreck b Sseabed artefact scattering sites 13 Only cargo, Almost ceramics c Ports 33 artefacts of various periods d Coastal artefact scattering sites 71 artefacts of various periods e Quarries 28 Sites to cut out stone f 45 Stationary fishing gear g Soltworks 3 Sites to produced the salt h Related underwater cultural heritage 30 Aimost Anchor of the ship Ⅰ Sites due to the marine accidents Ⅱ　Site formed by the frequent use of the sae and coasal areas Ⅲ　Sites due to production activities Ⅳ　Others Stone tidal weirs 合計 232 Table 1.Aggregation of Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Ryukyu Island. (C. Katagiri) Sites due to the Marine Accidents Shipwreck sites (a): Often only the wreckage and pieces of ships found. They are disturbed by natural phenomena like a typhoon or human disturbance like recovery after having been stranded or sunk. Seabed artifact scattering sites (b): Generally formed by loads thrown away from the ships, but sometimes caused by the wreck. Hard to distinguish either unless wrecked hull pieces are found. Sites formed by the Frequent Use of the Sea and Coastal Areas Ports(c): Proving that the area had been used as a port, with anchors and artifacts of various periods are found. Occasionally formed by the ship anchored there which accidentally sunk? Coastal artifact scattering sites (d): Formed as a result of utilization of the coastal area those who were living in the settlements there, such as cooking and discarding which are distinguished from the ports. Sites due to Production Activities Found in the tidal zone. Quarries (e) are well-recognized and well-preserved while salt pans(g) and stone tidal weirs(f) formed with the small pebbles piled are not preserved in a good state. Such structures are meant to be constantly used and repaired, and will be naturally destroyed once stopped being used. Many sites of this kind had been existed 3 �in the past, but the numbers dramatically decreased and hardly seen now. It is exigency to record those sites. Others Artifacts that used to be on the seabed are often recovered on land and conserved as cultural properties (h). Stone and iron anchors often apply to this case providing the clue to the identification of the ships sailing in the area at that time. Major characteristics of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Region Table 2 shows an overview of typical underwater cultural heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago and Fig. 2, Representative underwater cultural heritage of the Ryukyu archipelago. Underwater Cultural Heritage Related to Overseas Trades during the Gusuku Period (between the 12th and 13th Centuries AD) The Amamioshima-kurazaki underwater site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 2, Ukenson Board of Education, 1999) and the Kumejima- nakanohama underwater site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.13, Miyagi et al., 2004; Tezuka et al., 2005; Katagiri, 2007) are known to be holding underwater cultural heritage formed by the shipwreck or the load discarded from the ship, dated back to the latter half of the 12th century to the 13th century. In both cases, Chinese ceramics are densely found on the seabed, which provide a great deal of information related to the trading in the early Gusuku Period. Fig. 2Representative Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Ryukyu Archipelago. (C. Katagiri) 4 �Underwater Cultural Heritage Related to Overseas Trade from the Sanzan Period (the 14th Century AD) to the Ryukyu Kingdom Period (from 1429 AD to 1879) From the latter half of the 14th century to the beginning of the 15th century, a crucial turning point in the history of the region occurred regarding the transition of political power when the sovereign was centered during the establishment of the Ryukyu Kingdom. Ohajima Underwater site in Kumejima Island is one of the major sites during this period (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.12, Miyagi et al., 2004; Tezuka et al., 2008; Katagiri, 2007). Large amount of celadon of the early Ming Dynasty China is found. Moreover, 2 Chinese stone anchors have been identified in Kumejima Island. Kumejima Island and the surrounding sea area must have played a significant role in oversea trades during the early Gusuku Period and Sanzan Period, proved by the density of underwater sites and stone anchors dated back then.The Ryukyu Kingdom was in its heyday from the 15th century to the mid 16th century. The king resided in Shuri-jo Castle served as the sovereign ruler and the centralized nation was formed then. Nagura-shitadaru site (Underwater site) dated back to the mid to late 15th century is located in Ishigakijima Island and large amount of Chinese celadon discovered from the site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 22, Sakishima Culture Research Institute, 2009). Miyakojima Island holds Kurimajima Underwater site dated back to the first half of the 16th century. Chinese ceramics found from sites has been changing then, from the predominantly celadon before to the gorgeous flowery blue and white porcelain (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.19, Katagiri, 2009).After the invasion of the Satsuma clan in 1609, Tokara-retto Islands became a territory of Satsuma. An underwater sites indicating the maritime accident at that time is identified in Tairajima Island of Tokara-retto Islands. Clusters of Chinese porcelains of the Qing Dynasty dated to the 18th century found in the area, which would have been formed by the ship sunken or the ship loads discarded (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 1, Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economic and Humanities et al., 2010). Sunken Shipwrecks Revealing Ikoku-sen (the Western Ships) during the Last Years of the Ryukyu Kingdom In the last years of Ryukyu Kingdom, many West European ships called Ikoku-sen has constantly been around the sea area of the Ryukyu Archipelago.It is obvious that Asian 5 �intrusion and interference by the great powers of the West Europe came to influence so far as the Ryukyu Kingdom. Many shipwrecks found in the area can provide us the great deal of information on Western ships at that time. An English ship, Providence, sunken in Yaebishi in Miyakojima Island in 1776 was discovered (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.16, Katagiri, 2009). On top of the Providence, another English ship, Indian Oak, owned by East India Company sunken in 1776 was found in Chatan-cho in Chatan Oki (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.9, Nakamura, 1994). In 1853, the same year with when Mathew Calbraith Perry arrived at Uraga Port, an English ship sank off Yoshino Kaigan in Miyakojima (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.20, Katagiri, 2009) and a Dutch Ship, Van Bosse off Takada Kaigan in Taramason Village in 1857 (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.21, Katagiri, 2009). In 1872, when the Ryukyu Kingdom was inclining on verge of collapse, an English ship, Benares sank off Ginama in Kunigamison Village (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.4, Katagiri, 2013), as well as a foreign ship of unknown nationality sank off Minamiukibarujima in Uruma City (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.8, Katagiri, 2010). Wrecks and loads left by those foreign ships still remain on the seabed of those areas. Underwater Cultural Heritage Related to the Domestic Commodity Circulation within the Ryukyu Kingdom. In 1879, the Meiji Government abolished the Ryukyu Kingdom. The Kingdom became extinct on the map and came to be called “Okinawa Prefecture”. The ships called “Maran-sen” were playing significant role of carrying the supplies to many remote islands in Okinawa at that time. Agonoura Underwater site located in Zamamijima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.11, Miyagi et al., 2004), Yaebisi Underwater site Cluster in Miyakoshoto Islands (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.2-3, Katagiri, 2009), Yarabu Underwater Site in Ishigakijima Island (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.23, Katagiri, 2010, Ono et al., 2013), Sekiseishoko Underwater site Cluster in Yaeyamashoto Islands (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.24-26, Katagiri, 2009, Ono et al.,2013) are so far identified underwater sites dated to this period. A wide variety of Tsuboya-yaki pottery produced in Naha City in Okinawajima Island are found in those sites, accompanied with some Chinese Qing Dynasty Porcelain in some cases. Those sites and artifact scatterings were formed due to the accident of the ships which were transporting pottery produced at Tsuboya in Naha City of Okinawajima Island to the smaller islands around Okinawajima Island, 6 �such as Miyako and Yaeyama Shoto Islands, either by the hull being submerged or the loads abandoned on their way. In case of Sekiseishoko Underwater site Cluster, Point No. 3 (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 26), the submerged hull is identified. Moreover, fourarmed anchors that had never seen on land in Okinawa are discovered at Yarabu Underwater site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 23) in Ishigakijima Island, which provides us significant information to reveal the appearance and characteristics of the ships at that time (Katagiri, 2010; Ono et al., 2013). Submerged Port Sites Underwater sites showing evidence of having been the ports with frequent use are Shirasegawakako (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.14, Toma and Sakuda, 1999) and Majako (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.15, Katagiri, 2007; 2010) in Kumejima Island, Agonoura in Zamamijima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 11, Katagiri, 2007), Sesokojima Underwater site in Motobucho of Okinawajima Island (Fig. 2, Table Fig. 3 Landscape of Ohajima Underwater 2, Site No. 7, Katagiri, 2005). Majako Port had Site (A Large Amount of China Ceramics of the Late 14th on the Seabed) and Sea been a famous port known to be used for Area that Held a Tour. (C. Katagiri) tributary trades. There is a warehouse overseer near the site and stone anchors are found from the nearby settlement. A wide variety of artifacts dated back to from the medical to pre-modern and modern period are scattered on the coast and seabed in this area, which support that the area had long been used as a port (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.15). Combined investigations of such a site and previously mentioned Nakanohama underwater site and Ohajima underwater site that show the traces of maritime accidents will provide us with large amount of information to evaluate the site. Agonoura of Zamamijima Island is also known as a port related to the tributary trade.Many kinds of artifacts, such as the 15th century celadon, as well as the pre-modern and modern pottery produced in Okinawa, have been discovered on the seabed of the area (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.11). Sesokojima Sea area had also long been used as port on the trade route, which resulted in many artifacts findings especially on the east coast of Sesokojima Island. A 7 �stone anchor was found at Anchi-hama Beach, probing the existence of the ships anchored there (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.7, Katagiri et al., 2005). This stone anchor is relatively small, but mocking Chinese stone anchor having produced during the time of the Ryukyu Kingdom. The small stone anchors of this kind have recently been found at several places all over Okinawajima Island, which would be significant information source to reveal the structure of Maran-sen ships. Several stone anchors of this kind holding similar form were also found from the seabed off Sanko Port of Tokunoshima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.3, Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economic and Humanities et al., 2010). The area was tactically significant sea area for the port, and geographical as well as historical significance of the area are to be revealed. Production Site Production sites are generally recognized in the tidal zones. Quarries, stone tidal weirs and salt pans are the representative sites of this kind. A huge quarry in Kumejima Island of Kumejimacho (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.28, Katagiri, 2006), stone tidal weir cluster in Kohamajima Island of Taketomicho (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site Fig. 4 Tour scene of the Snorkel in Ohajima No.29, Katagiri, 2009), a salt pan in Underwater Site. (C. Katagiri) Nakijinson Village of Okinawajima Island and the like are so far identified (Fig.2, Table 2, Site No.31). Quarries are often well preserved due to its structural characteristic, while stone tidal weirs and salt pans made with small pebbles pile up are generally in disastrous preservation state. These types of sites have to be constantly used and repaired. The site, once stopped being used, would start to be reverted back to the original natural state and collapse due to the natural force of waves and tide. There had been many salt pans and stone tidal weirs in the past, which are hardly seen now. Recording of those sites is our urgent mission. 8 �No. Underwater Site Location Classification Contents Age 1 Tairashima Tokara, Tairashima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 18th 2 Kurakizaki Amami, Amami Oshima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 12-13th 3 Sankou Amami, Tokunoshima Ⅱc Port. Stone anchor Middle Ages 4 Ginama Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅰa Wreck. UK, Benares 1873 5 Emons Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅰa Wreck. USA, Emons 1945 6 Wajikaigan Okinawa, Iejima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 15th Middle Ages -Modern 7 Sesokojima Okinawa, Sesokojima Ⅱc Port. Okinawa stone anchor, China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery 8 Minamiukibarujima Okinawa, Minamiukibarujima Ⅰa Ｗｒｅｃｋ 1876 9 Indian Oak Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅰa Wreck. UK, Indian Oak 1840 10 Nahakou Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics Middle Ages-modern 11 Agonoura Okinawa, Kerama, Zamamijima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery Middle Ages-modern 12 Oha Okinawa, Kumejima,Ohajima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics Late14th 13 Nakanohama Okinawa, Kumejima, Hatenohama Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 12-13th 14 Sirasegawakakou Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery Middle Ages-modern 15 Majakou Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery Middle Ages-modern 16 Yabiji,No.1 Sakishima, Miyako, Yabiji Ⅰa Wreck. UK, Providence 1776 17 Yabiji,No.2 Sakishima, Miyako, Yabiji Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery Early modern period 18 Yabiji,No.3 Sakishima, Miyako, Yabiji Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery Early modern period 19 Kurimajima Sakishima, Miyakojima, Kurimajima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics Early16th 20 Yoshinokaigan Sakishima, Miyakojima Ⅰa Wreck. UK 1853 21 Takadakaigan Sakishima, Taramajima Ⅰa Wreck. Netherlands, Van Bosse 1857 22 Nagurashitadaru Sakishima, Ishigakijima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 15th Early modern period 23 Yarabu Sakishima, Ishigakijima Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery. Four claw iron anchor 24 Sekiseisyouko,No1 Sakishima, Sekiseisyouko Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery, China Ceramics Early modern period 25 Sekiseisyouko,No2 Sakishima, Sekiseisyouko Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery Early modern period 26 Sekiseisyouko,No3 Sakishima, Sekiseisyouko Ⅰa Wreck. Okinawa pottery Early modern period-modern 27 Yomitanson,quarries Okinawa, OKinawajima Ⅲe Production sites. Quarries Early modern period-modern 28 Kumejima,kitahara,quarries Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅲe Production sites. Quarries Early modern period-modern 29 Kohamajima,stone tidal weirs Sakishima, Kohamajima Ⅲf Production sites. Stone tidal weirs Early modern period-modern 30 Iriomotejima,stone tidal weirs Sakishima, Iriomotejima Ⅲf Production sites. Stone tidal weirs Early modern period-modern 31 Wakugawa,soltworks Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅲg Production sites. Soltworks Early modern period-modern 32 Amami Oshima,stone anchors Amami, Amami Oshima Ⅳh 8China stone anchors Middle Ages 33 Uegusuku,stone anchor Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅳh China stone anchor Middle Ages 34 Yamadagusuku,stone anchor Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅳh China stone anchor Middle Ages 35 Taramajima,stock anchor Sakishima, Taramajima Ⅳh Western Europe Stock anchor Early modern period 36 Yoshino,stone material Sakishima, Miyakojima Ⅳh Stone material Early modern period 37 Ikema,Iron products Sakishima, Miyako, Ikemajima Ⅳh Iron products Early modern period Table 2.Overview of Typical Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago. (C. Katagiri) 9 �Underwater Cultural Heritage Raised on Land There are some artifacts and parts of ship structure, which had been found on the seabed, raised on land, and then preserved and reverted to the cultural properties. Their information and use would be enhanced and its value increased by being connected with underwater cultural heritage in the area that still remains to be underwater. A stone anchor reused for the well of a Yamada Gusuku (Castle) in Onnason Village (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.34, Katagiri, 2007), iron anchors in Taramajima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.35, Katagiri, 2009), stone materials found in Yoshino Settlement in Miyakojima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.36, Katagiri, 2009), iron products of Miyako-Ikemajima Island and the like are so far recognized of this kind (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.37). They provide us the clue to figure out the ships sailing in this sea area. Experimental Site Open Day After the 10 years of distributional survey in sea area of the Ryukyu Archipelago, as a result, we now have a rough idea about the types and quantity of underwater cultural heritage in the area. The next step forward is to search for a method for protection and utilization of such cultural heritage bore in the beautiful sea in this region with high degree of transparency formed by coral leaf. For this purpose, we have experimentally undertaken a public site open day for underwater cultural heritage around Kumejima Island in Kumejimacho (Katagiri et al., 2012). Fig. 3 shows Landscape of Ohajima underwater site and sea area that held a tour.The major attraction of the day was Ohajima Underwater Site with dense distribution of Chinese pottery dated back to between the latter half of the 14th century and beginning of the 15th century. For the better understanding of the nature and characteristics of underwater cultural heritage, we had delivered a preliminary lecture for 30 minutes before the site visit, as well as observation tour of the artifacts already raised on land, such as pottery pieces collected from the seabed at Ohajima and a stone anchor found at UeGusuku (castle) for 30 minutes. Furthermore, we organized a tour visiting related cultural heritage sites on land, such as Tenkogu Site, Kuramoto-ato Site, Majako Port Site, quarries, and the like, for an hour, which aimed at explaining why the underwater site had been formed on seabed of Ohajima. We prepared 2 ways to visit for the actual 10 �visit of Ohajima Underwater site on seabed, both of which last for about an hour. We organized 2 groups of people with 20 people each, one for visiting the site by snorkeling and the other by a glass-bottom boat for those who are not willing to go into the water. Fig. 4 shows the tour scene of snorkel in Ohajima Underwater Site. This attempt was able to establish a model case for the site open day for the public visiting underwater cultural heritage, which could be followed by the other sites in the Ryukyu Archipelago although we still have to scrutinize this case to evaluate how far the case can be applied to the other cases as well as to the wider public. Conclusion History and culture of the Ryukyu Archipelago have long been together with the sea. Due to its few resources and small areas, it is often claimed that island areas provide harsh environment for the life and survival of human-being. Nevertheless, there is a distinctive maritime culture which have overcome and formed till now. The distinctive characteristics and history of such culture has not yet been fully revealed and evaluated even now. It needs further investigations. We believe that study of underwater cultural heritage would be essential field of research for the future of this area around the Ryukyu Archipelago. The researches so far done helped us to identify a wide variety of underwater cultural heritage ranging from the medial to the pre-modern and modern period. It is also found out that most sites tend to be related to the trade, port and production activity. Now, after the distributional survey, further intensive investigation on a particular area needs to be carried out. Even though we are still facing many problems for conservation and utilization of the site, utilization of underwater cultural heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago has a bright future, we believe. Many people from all over the world visit Okinawa to enjoy the observation of the seabed of the area by marine sports and glass-bottom boats. As it has been undertaken in Kumejima Island, the concept of establishing Seabed Site Museums is ideal way of utilization for such environment with beautiful sea in the Ryukyu Archipelago. We further intend to promote this attempt to the other sea area. Acknowledgements We are most grateful to Prof. Akifumi Iwabuchi of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology for giving us such a great opportunity to present this paper at APCONF 11 �as a session organizer, as well as to Dr. Tatsuya Nakata of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology for very useful advice. Also wish to thank Director Kenzo Hayashida of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Mr. Hiroki Miyagi of Nago City Board of Education who worked on the research project at the Ryukyu Archipelago with us, Prof. Yoshiro Watanabe of Kagoshima University, and all other friends who worked together. References Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Ed.), 2012. The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Nansei Islands. The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka (in Japanese). Kagoshima University and Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, 2010. The Report on Underwater Cultural Heritage around the Nansei Islands in Fiscal 2009. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, Vol. 3:5-31 (in Japanese). Kagoshima University and Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, 2011.The Report on Underwater Cultural Heritage around the Nansei Islands in Fiscal 2010. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, Vol. 4: 36-59 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Higa, N., and Sakihara, T., 2005. A Stone anchor found underwater near the Anchi Beach in Sesoko Island, Motobu-cho. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Vol.3: 61-70 (in Japanese）. Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2007. Distribution Survey Report of the Coastal Sites (I) – Volume on Okinawa-honto and Surrounding Islands. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2009. Distribution Survey Report of the Coastal Sites (II) – Volume on Miyako of Yaeyama. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2010. Distribution Survey Report of the Coastal Sites (III) – Site Map Volume. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., 2011. Attempt of Discovering Underwater, In Miyakojima City Board of Education (Ed.) Report on Management Plan of Nationally Designated Place of Scenic Beauty “Higashihennazaki”: 163 -168, (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Miyagi, H., Arakaki, T., Yamamoto, Y., and Watanabe, M., 2013. Research Studies of Ginama Foreign Shipwreck sites in Kunigamison, Okinawa, Japan. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Vol.6: 31-53 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Yamada, H., Sakihara, T., Nakajima, T., Miyagi, H., and Watanabe, Y., 2012.The Report of an Underwater Cultural Heritage tour in Kumejima- The Project of ‘The Museum of Underwater Cultural Heritage’. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Vol.5: 19-36(in Japanese). 12 �Miyagi, H., Katagiri, C., Arakaki, T., and Higa, N., 2004. Preliminary investigation into discovering sunken ships in the Southwest Islands: Underwater artifacts and marine transportation. Bulletin of the Archaeological Study of Okinawa, Vol. 2: 43-60 (in Japanese). Miyagi, H., Katagiri, C., Higa, N., and Sakihara, T., 2005. Preliminary investigation into discovering sunken ships in the Southwest Islands (II): Underwater artifacts and marine transportation. Bulletin of the Archaeological Study of Okinawa, Vol. 2: 81-108 (in Japanese). Nakamura, S., 1994. Stranded site of Indian-Oak. In Chatancho Board of Education (Ed.), Chatancho no Iseki, p. 22 (in Japanese). Ono, R., Katagiri, C., Sakagami, N., Kan, H., Miyagi, H. and Yamamoto, Y., 2013 Present and future of the Underwater Cultural Heritages in the Yaeyama Islands: Perspective from the recent research of Yarabuoki, Proceedings of Yaeyama Museum, Vol. 22: 20-43 (in Japanese). Sakishima Culture Research Institute (Ed.), 2009.Report of the Joint Research Project on Nagura Shitadaru Underwater Site. Sakishima Culture Research Institute, Ishigaki (in Japanese). Tezuka, N., (Ed.), 2005.Structural Analysis of Traded Ceramic Production and Demand in Medieval Japan, Nakano-hama Beach in Kumejima Island, Okinawa, Fiscal 2003. Research Report. Aoyama Gakuin University College of Literature Department of History, Tokyo (in Japanese). Tezuka, N., (Ed.), 2008.Structural Analysis of Traded Ceramic Production and Demand in Medieval Japan, Nakano-hama Beach in Kumejima Island, Okinawa, Fiscal 20062007 Research Report. Aoyama Gakuin University College of Literature Department of History, Tokyo (in Japanese). Toma, S., and Sakuda, I., 1999. The remains Collected at the Mouth of the Shirase River in Kume Islands. Bulletin of Culture Division Education Department Okinawa Prefectural Government, No.15: 25-32(in Japanese). Ukenson Board of Education (Ed.), 1999.KurakizakiKaitei Underwater Site.(in Japanese). Watanabe, M., 2009. Report 1, Research Report on Underwater Heritage in Nansei Islands Vol. 6, document research Fiscal 2009. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, No.3: 28-29 (in Japanese). Biography Chiaki Katagiri is the chief curator of the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum. He was born in Nagano, Japan in 1976, graduated from Okinawa International University in 1999 majoring in archeology. From 2000 to 2011, he worked as a Specialist in Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center and appointed to current post in 2011. He is specializing in anthropology of the islands, carrying out anthropological and archaeological fieldwork throughout Asia. He has been actively 13 �engaged in investigation and research of underwater cultural heritage in Ryukyu Archipelago. His papers include Research Studies of Ginama Foreign Ship Wreck Sites in Kunigamison, Okinawa (2012). Yuji Yamamoto is an underwater photographer participating in several projects by Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, as well as many other underwater heritage projects. Having graduated from Fukuoka University, he was taking pictures of Paris-Dakar Rally and F-1 races. He has participated in the investigation of Takashima Underwater Remains since 1998 and successfully photographed parts of the ship hull, tetsuhau, a helmet, the bundle of arrows of Mongolian Invasion discovered in muddled water. His pictures are published serially in the diver’s monthly magazine “Gekkan Diver” since 2014. Yumiko Nakanishi is an archaeologist working at Osaka Prefectural Government. She obtained M.Phill in Archaeology at Cambridge University in 2001 and is currently a PhD candidate, specializing on heritage management and public archaeology, as well as the final phase of Kofun Period in Kinki region of Japan. She is an Expert Member of ICOMOS Committee for Archaeological Heritage Management (ICAHM). Her publication includes, Theory and praxis of Cultural Heritage Studies in England, Journal of Heritage Studies, Vol. 1: 47-5; The Great East Japan Earthquake and cultural heritage: towards an archaeology of disaster, Antiquity, Vol. 87: 258-269. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Distributional Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage and its Experimental Presentation in the Ryukyu Archipelago Description An account of the resource The Ryukyu Archipelago is located at the northwestern Pacific, between the islands of Formosa and Kyushu of southern Japan. It consists of 199 islands of all dimensions and the total range of its accurate distribution lengthen is approximately 1,200 km. Since the first human beings settled down on the archipelago during the Pleistocene, they have been living close by the sea there. The local populations have recognized maritime resources as a main and important nutritious food since the prehistoric era, while the Ryukyu kingdom used to be prosperous unprecedentedly in terms of seaborne oversea trade among Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. In the Ryukyu archipelago, the distributional survey of underwater cultural heritage has lately been conducted by the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and Kagoshima University, in order to assess its numbers, typologies, actual conditions, and so on. According to the research, 235 sites of underwater or maritime cultural heritage have already been confirmed: 9 shipwrecks, 33 submerged ports, 15 places where boat cargos are scattered on the seabed, 72 places where old boat cargos and other remains are found along the coasts, 30 stone anchors and cargos on land, 28 quarries, 45 stone tidal weirs, and 3 salt works. In 2011, as a result of the survey, an underwater cultural heritage presentation or guidance tour was carried out in Kume Island. Presumably, this experimental trial will lead the public to having the sense to acknowledge and protect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chiaki Katagiri Yuji Yamamoto Yumiko Nakanishi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d0457b75cc3f08656b7f52a01ee73741.mp4 b31f29a255cc41f395884e81911c6b8c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dr. Bill Jeffery Subject The topic of the resource Conference Organizing Committee Chair introduction Description An account of the resource Dr. Bill Jeffery introduces the conference and the online proceedings. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/28/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Asia-Pac Chair 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/928756930b83aa685b1ab226a6c5d002.mp4 a02b321fedaf924c178da546e2b79483 Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dr. Le Thi Lien Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Speaker Description An account of the resource Dr. Le Thi Lien is senior researcher at the Institute of Archaeology (VASS). Her studies focused on Oc Eo culture in southern Vietnam, early cultural exchanges and interaction with Southeast Asia, India and China, and archaeology of the naval battle fields. Results of her research have been presented in several international conferences of the IPPA, the EurAsia, the SPAFA, and UNESCO … Her publications include a book on “Nghệ thuật Phật giáp và Hindu giáo ở Đồng bằng sông Cá»­u long trÆ°á»›c thế kỉ 10 [Buddhist and Hindu art in the Cuu Long River Delta prior to 10th century AD]” (2006), Editing book: “Di sản Lịch sá»­ và những hÆ°á»›ng tiếp cận má»›i [Historical Heritages and New Perspective]” (2011); and more than 80 chapters and papers in Vietnamese and English. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/29/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Asia-Pac Keynote 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Drifting Toward the Southeast: Manjiro Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ikaku Kawada Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available ; Spinner Publications Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Ikaku Kawada Item Type Book ISBN 0932027598 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 144 Place New Bedford, Mass. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available ; Spinner Publications Short Title Drifting Toward the Southeast Title A name given to the resource Drifting Toward the Southeast: Manjiro Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Coastal Trade in the Bay of Bengal Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Himanshu Prabha Ray Julian Reade Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Himanshu Prabha Ray Editor Julian Reade Item Type Book Section Book Title The Indian Ocean in Antiquity Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Pages 351-64 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Title A name given to the resource Early Coastal Trade in the Bay of Bengal India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/292b6ac489ef5a56d541f8b989d40fcc.pdf 3e2766957882237c92ff326ae8a7165e PDF Text Text Early Coins from Kerala: Situating the trade networks with special reference to Pattanam Hari Sankar B (Research Scholar, Tamil University) Dinesh Krishnan (Research Officer, Kerala Council for Historical Research) ABSTRACT The paper is intended for session 26, titled "Early Coins from Kerala: Situating the trade networks with special reference to Pattanam.” The research problem of the paper is to understand the distribution of coins and their role in understanding the trade network. The study would be based on the catalogue of coins from Kerala. Kerala, being known for its spices from ancient times, was not a secret to the world. Merchants from different parts of Europe, Arab countries, and Pacific regions came here for commercial activities, which resulted in exchanges of ideologies and material culture. Pattanam, an early historic port site on Kerala's coast close to the Arabian Sea, has produced evidence of commercial activities with foreign countries, indicated by the presence of ceramics and other material remains in large volume. According to early literary evidence, the Cheras controlled the region, and the presence of their coins from Pattanam also supports this. Apart from these Chera coins, the surrounding regions of the Pattanam site have been reported with Roman Gold and Silver coins and early Indian silver punch-marked coins in hoards. Interestingly, these coins were found in the sites connecting the Pattanam region to the neighbouring early historic sites like Kodumanal, Keeladi, and Azhagankulam. Hence, these sites can be considered part of the hinterland trade networks that connect the region with other early historic port towns in southern India. This paper tries to discuss the hinterland trade network of the Pattanam site and how these coins can be used to trace the early economic condition of the region and its monetary exchanges. Keywords: Coins, Trade, Hinterland, burials List of Figures Figure 1 Chera coins from Pattanam excavations Figure 2 Location of coins Figure 3 The coin hoard sites along with burials 1. INTRODUCTION The passages connecting the settlements, territories, and landscapes are the pathways that are known as trade routes, and they have been an important landscape feature in cultural interactions. Polities and states were keen on developing and controlling trade routes or highways to improve connectivity and interactions for their advantage (Selvakumar 2018, 3). South India emerged as a prominent trade and exchange centre during the Early historical period, evident by the literary evidence and material remains. The geographical location, long stretching sea coast, backwaters and rivers, and various spices were the main reasons for developing trade and ports in Kerala. Ports like Nelcynda, Bacare, Naura, Eli, and Muziris are mentioned in the Greco-Roman records. As part of the trade, monetary exchanges became an inevitable factor. Pattanam was such a port that became prominent during the Early historical period because of the overall favourable conditions. This can be ascertained from the rich cultural deposits at the site, which include ceramics. 2. BACKGROUND Pattanam is an archaeological site (N 10°09.434' E 76°12.587') in Vadakkekara village in Chittatukara Panchayat in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. Archaeological investigations at the site revealed an enormous amount of material and structural remains which are indicators of past economy and other culture-related activities. The site, which is close to the Arabian Sea, falls within the Periyar river delta, which provides an insight into the early history of Kerala, its economy, and its maritime activities. The Arabian Sea is about 4 km west of the site; in between the sea and the western 1 �boundary of the site is located the Tattapally River or Munambam backwaters that run parallel to the Arabian Sea (Cherian et al. 2015, 11-12). The port was under the control of Cheras during the early historic period. Roman Empire and Kerala had commercial links established through literary evidence of Pliny and Ptolemy and artefacts such as ceramics and coins. Pattanam had the presence of Roman Amphora, Arretine ware, Rouletted ware, which are Roman potteries, and other material remains, including cameos, intaglios, and gaming pieces. There was no evidence of Roman coins from the site but had the presence of Chera coins. The periplus and other literary evidence clearly showed that the spice trade, mainly pepper, was considered a precious spice. The seven and a half kg black pepper found in the famous Early Historic port town of Berenike in Egypt in an Indian storage jar with first-century CE context (Tomber 2008, 76-77) attests to the pepper trade from the region. It is stated that the western ships arrived in India comparatively light in weight and that a substantial bulk of Indian commodities were exchanged for Roman coins (Romanis 2020, 138). This indicates how large the pepper trade was. The presence of beryl beads from the site indicated the internal trade. Beryl mines are found in the Kodumanal region, which is the closest source of raw material. All these factors indicate the internal and external trade networks of Pattanam. The present study focuses on identifying and understanding the trade routes by locating the coins. The study also looks at the hinterland sites which could be present along the routes leading to other contemporary sites of Pattanam, such as Kodumanal, Keezhadi, and Azhagankulam. 3. THE COINS Coins are part of the source material for historical studies, which helps explain the economic, social, and political factors of the past formations. In Kerala, coins belonging to various dynasties from early historic to modern times were found in various places. Their presence can be inferred as part of the monetary exchange resulting from internal and external trade. 3.1 Chera coins The earliest coins of the Sangam period are the Chera, small square copper coins with symbols like an arched hill, elephant, trees, umbrella, river with fishes, swastika, sun, srivatsa, wheel (chakra), garland and bull on the obverse, and bow and arrow, the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse. These coins are die-struck. The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the Sun, square tank, caduceus, and sadacharachakra on the obverse and the dynastic symbol 'bow and arrow' on both sides (Vijayaraghavan 2000, 28-31). Three coins were reported from Alangad near North Paravur in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. These were found in an earthen pot unearthed during digging for agricultural purposes—two of the coins found were semicircular, and one with a square shape. The coins bear a bow and arrow symbol on the obverse and an elephant figure on the obverse (Sreekumar 1999, 162). Copper Chera coins were found from Pattanam during excavations lasting nine seasons from 2007, with a clear legend, bow, and arrow on the obverse and elephant on the reverse. These coins are also found in Tamil Nadu in Coimbatore, Karur, Perur, Vellalur, and Kodumanal. 2 �Figure 1. Chera coins from Pattanam excavations (Courtesy: KCHR coin collection) 3.2 Roman Coins The Roman coins were found in various places within Kerala and outside, mainly in the form of hoards. The Roman coin hoard was first found in Nellore in Andhra Pradesh in 1786, with around 40 gold coins (Berghaus 1996, 8). A die made of bronze from emperor Hadrian was reported from Karur in Tamil Nadu, which shows the demand for Roman coins in exchange for goods (Krishnamurthy 1996, 43-48). These coins are found buried in many sites in Kerala, like Kottayam (Aurei of Augustus Nero), Eyyal, and Poonjar (Aurei of Augustus) (Gupta 1965, 47). Eyyal - Eyyal was the first Roman coin hoard discovered in Kerala in 1945. Located about 15 km southeast of Kunnamkulam in Tallappalli taluk of Thrissur district in Kerala, the site is located on the Highway between the ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris. The hoard contains about 117 coins, of these, 71 were Gold, 12 were silver, and the rest of the 34 were punch marked coins. The coins of this hoard cover a period of about 123 BCE to 117 CE. This hoard has Denarii of Octavian, Claudius, and Tiberius found in highly worn condition and Aurei of Tiberius, Claudius Nero, and Trajan in a well-preserved condition (Gupta 1965, 48). Valluvally- The site is Located 6 km south of North Paravur in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. The hoard was discovered by local people while digging for agricultural purposes in 1983. The hoard contained thousands of coins, but only 252 were recovered by the local police (Sathyamurty 2011, 14). Most coins were in good condition with inscriptions. Nedumkandam- Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk of Idukki district in Kerala. The site is located near the Ghat route to Tamil Nadu. Over 50 silver coins were discovered from this hoard in 1992, but the reported coins are few (Berghaus 1996, 31). Poonjar- Poonjar is located along the Ghat route in the Kottayam district of Kerala, and the hoard had about 5 Aurei (Sathyamurthy 1965, 4). Idamaruku- Coins of the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at Idamaruku in the Kottayam district of Kerala. Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar (Turner 1989, 74). Niranam- Another finding has been at Niranam near Tiruvalla in the Pathanamthitta district of Kerala (Turner 1989, 74). Puthankavu- About 50 aurei have been reported from Puthenkavu, located near Chengannur Taluk in Alappuzha District. The exact number of coins is unavailable (Champakalakshmi 1996, 265). Kumbalam- The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district of Kerala has nine aurei (Berghaus 1993, 29-42). 3 �Figure 2. Location of coins (Roman in yellow, pmc in red, Chera in green) (Created with Google Earth) Kothamangalam- The Roman coin from the eighth to tenth centuries was reported from Kothamangalam in Ernakulam District of Kerala (Valath 1991, 68). There are a few other stray finds in the Alappuzha district, Kilaloor in the Kannur district, and Kadakavur in the Trivandrum district. However, the details regarding the coins are not available. 3.3 Punch-Marked coins Punch-marked coins are the earliest coinage of India, and most scholars consider them of indigenous origin. Punch-marked coins are generally known in silver and rarely in copper, with various sizes and weights. The size of the coins varies according to shape and weight. These are made of silver and copper and rectangular or square and sometimes irregular in shape. The term punch-marked comes from the technique used for preparing coins where the symbols are stamped on them with punches. They were in vogue when writing was not current in India and were rarely used (Goyal 1995, 79). Symbols are one most conspicuous features of these coins and do not bear any legend or inscription. Various forms of representations, like hills, birds, trees, animals, human figures, and floral and geometrical patterns, appear on them. However, the exact importance still needs to be clarified and remains as mysterious as ever (Vanaja 1983, 5). Several silver punch-marked coins have been discovered in different parts of Kerala. Three hoards of punch-marked coins were found from the region, which includes the Elikulamkara hoard in the Kottayam district, the Eyyal hoard in Thrissur district and the Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in the Ernakulam district (Department of Archaeology, Administrative Reports 1971-72, 75-76). The coin's origin is considered to be of something other than Kerala origin. However, an interesting fact is the discovery of punch-marked die from Karur, which can be used to mint coins (Murthy 1994, 51-56). A total of 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from the first two hoards, Elikulamkara, and Eyyal, in 1946. Of these, 184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam, and only 162 coins have been classified. Rests of the 34 coins were reported from Eyyal (Gupta 1965, 5). Kodussery- Kodussery is located near Angamaly in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. The coins were found inside an earthen jar discovered while digging the foundation of a house. The hoard containing 4 �783 silver punch-marked coins is now kept in the Numismatics Study Center, State Department of Archaeology, Nedumangad, Thiruvananthapuram (Satyamurthy 1994, 45). 4. TRACING THE HINTERLAND SITES AND TRADE ROUTES The three varieties of coins from the early historic period were found in various places over Kerala. Their distribution pattern will be traced to understand the trade routes and hinterland sites. The Pattanam site has Chera coins, but Roman and punch-marked coins are absent. These coins are found in large numbers outside the site. Foremost, the location of these coins and theIron age- early historic sites can be combined to get further information about hinterland trade and networks. The interesting fact regarding combining the iron age-early historic site data and of the coin hoards is that there is no evidence of well-recognised settlements identified, or even large mounds which are found in many parts of India in the region except at Pattanam and a few sites like Anakkara and Nachivayal. However, megalithic burials are found all over the area. (Krishnan 2017, 111). An important point highlighted here is that a burial cannot exist without the settlements. So naturally, nearby the burial sites, settlements must have existed. However, the issue is that we cannot recognise them because of the topographic features, continuous habitation, landscape modification, habitation remains, and the environmental conditions of Kerala, mainly seasonal floods. Therefore, we can assume that each burial site refers to a habitation. However, people definitely lived nearby since the vast material culture represented in the burials cannot come from nowhere.  Secondly, the traded materials, mainly pepper, can also be used in this context to understand the hinterland sites. As noted in Sangam and Classical texts, black pepper was one of the important products shipped out in vast quantities. It is possible to produce such a large amount of pepper only in the high ranges as it requires vast areas for cultivation, geographical conditions, trade, and communication for such large-scale trade. The Tamil inscription of Rajendra Chola found on a megalithic menhir stone near Rajakumari in the upper Periyar valley indicates spice production centres and the trade route passed through the region in the later periods also (Kumar 2017, 78-85). In modern days this region is also known for spice cultivating, especially pepper. Considering this, production of the resources must have taken place in the hinterland settlements and neighbouring regions and then transported to Pattanam for external trade. Furthermore, the port town Azhagankulam on the northern bank of river Vaigai in Tamil Nadu must have trade relations with Pattanam. Both these sites might have connected through the highland area of the Western Ghats and Madurai. Mainly there are two routes connecting these regions, one through the Bodinayakanur pass via Kothamangalam, Adimali, Munnar, Rajakkad, Theni, and Madurai. The second is through Cumbum pass via Kothamangalam, Idukki, Kumly, Cumbum, Theni, and Madurai. The Roman coin hoard found from the Nedumkandam and Poonjar is located in the same region, which indicates that trade and transport prevailed in the region. Another critical aspect being considered here is that in certain burials, there is the presence of carnelian beads where the raw materials are not locally available. Their presence in these burials is a big question unless there is a great trade network or communication. The literature says that the products from South India reached the Ganges. They also mention that export items such as products of semi-precious stones might have come from the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. The region is known for the mines of stones and production centres of various stone objects. The semi-precious stones raw materials, such as carnelian, chalcedony, agate, and beryl from Pattanam, might have come from these regions (Krishnan 2017, 252). 5 �Figure 3. Coin hoard sites along with burials and modern road ways (coins in yellow, burials in red), (created with Google Earth) The Eyyal hoard of coins with Roman and punch-marked coins is also found along the route to Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, an early historic site with Roman contacts glimpsed from the excavations. The Palakkad gap is a natural pass leading to the Coimbatore region and then to Kodumanal, famous for beryl mines. Roman coins from Coimbatore and Palakkad and the beryl beads and raw materials from Pattanam indicate trade and transportation between the sites and Eyyal being on the route. The Roman coin hoards are found in various places of Tamizhakam, such as Pollachi, Karur, Vellalur, Kalayamuttur, Madurai, Coimbatore, Yesvantpur, Pudukkottai, Eyyal, Kottayam, Valluvalli, Panangadu, and Puthenchira indicates the commercial contacts from region to region (Krishnan 2017, 190). 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The Roman coin hoards, the Chera coins, and punch-marked coins belonging to the Early historic period were recovered from various places in Kerala. The discovery of coins, a medium of exchange, means there were internal and external trade contacts. The material from Pattanam also supports this statement. Many artefacts belonging to the Romans, such as different varieties of pottery and beads, were found at the site. No Roman or punch-marked coins have been recovered from the site, which is a matter of question as they were found in surrounding places. The Chera coins were found at the site and from a nearby site, indicating internal trading activities. The Roman coins were found on the route to other contemporary sites in Tamil Nadu, such as Kodumanal, Karur, Azagankulam, and Keeladi. All these sites, along with intermediate sites, have the presence of Roman coins indicating the trade networks. It is clear that the development of the Pattanam site as an urban centre is based on maritime contacts with foreign countries as well as local interactions and development. The Iron Age people, who lived in the interior areas, supported the development of the port town of Pattanam. The commodities exported from the Pattanam site might have come from these interior locations where the local people cultivated or collected them. The coins might be part of this exchange system for goods found in several places. 6 �Considering the factors mentioned above, it can be assumed that the coins were found on the trade routes or nearby hinterland settlements/ burials which supported the port town of Pattanam. The coins came as part of the trade network and communication between these sites and Pattanam. However, the monetary value of the coins cannot be traced with limited literary evidence. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank KCHR for providing coins for the study. We also express our gratitude to Dr Selvakumar V of Tanjavur University and Sarath Chandrababu for their suggestions and kind support. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berghaus, Peter. “Roman Aurei from Kumbalam, Ernakulam District, Kerala”. in Studies in South Indian Coins 3. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. (1994): 29–42. Madras, India: New Era publication. Berghaus, Peter. “Roman coins from south India”. in Studies in South Indian Coins. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. Vol. 6. 7–14. Madras, India: New Era publication, 1996. Champakalakshmi, Radha. Trade, Ideology, and Urbanization: South India 300 BC to AD 1300. Oxford University Press, USA, 1996. Chedambath, Rajan. An Investigation into the Megalithic and Early HistoricPeriod of the Periyar and Ponnani River Basins of Kerala, Unpublished PhD. Dissertation, Pune: Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, 1998. De Romanis, Federico. The Indo-Roman Pepper Trade and the Muziris Papyrus. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. Goyala, S. The Coinage of Ancient India. Jodhpur, India: Kusumanjali Prakashan, 1994. Gupta, Parmeshwari Lal. The Early Coins from Kerala. Thiruvananthapuram, India: Department of Archaeology, Government of Kerala., 1965. Krishnamurthy, R. “A Roman coin die from Karur, Tamilnadu”. in Studies in South Indian Coins. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. Vol. 6. 43-48. Madras, India: New Era publication, 1996. Menon, A. Sreedhara. A Survey of Kerala History. D C Books, 2007. Sathyamurthy, T. Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins. 2nd ed. Department of Archaeology, Thiruvananthapuram, 2011. Sathyamurthy, T. “Nedumkandam hoard of Roman Dinarii”. in Studies in South Indian Coins. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. Vol. 6. 31-42. Madras, India: New Era publication, 1996. Sathyamurthy, T. “Angamali hoard of silver punch marked coins”. in Studies in South Indian Coins. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. Vol. 4. 45-50. Madras, India: New Era publication, 1995. Sathyamurthy, T. Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins in the Collections of Department of Archaeology, Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India: Department of Archaeology, Government of Kerala,1992. Satyamurthy, T. Angamali Hoard of Silver punch-marked coins in Studies on South Indian Coins IV (1994): 45-50, Selvakumar, V. “Ancient trade routes and inscriptions of Tamizhagam” in Epigraphical society of India-XLIII Annual session ( 2018): 3-39. Kozhikode, Kerala. Sidebotham, Steven E., and Willeke Wendrich. Berenike 1999/2000: Report on the Excavations at Berenike, Including Excavations in Wadi Kalalat and Siket, and the Survey of the Mons Smaragdus Region. ISD LLC, 2007. Sreekumar, K.S. Travancore Archaeological Series Vol. 5. Thiruvananthapuram: Department of Cultural Publications, Government of Kerala, 1999. Turner, Paula J. Roman Coins from India. Routledge, 2016. Vanaja, R. Indian Coinage. New Delhi: National Museum, 1983. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 26: General session Subject The topic of the resource Session 26 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 26 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Coins from Kerala: Situating the trade networks with special reference to Pattanam Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hari Sankar B Dinesh Krishnan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Krishnan, Dineesh and Hari Sankar B . 2023. “Early coins from Kerala: Situating the trade networks with special reference to Pattanam.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Pérez Álvaro. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2005 Asia-Pac Session 26 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Romila Thapar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Romila Thapar Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Place Berkeley Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Title A name given to the resource Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Indonesian Commerce: A Study of the Origins of Srivijaya Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource O.W. Wolters Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cornell University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author O.W. Wolters Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Place Ithaca Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cornell University Press Title A name given to the resource Early Indonesian Commerce: A Study of the Origins of Srivijaya Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Medieval trade on Japan's Southern Frontier and its Effect on Okinawan State Development: Grey Stoneware of the East China Sea Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Richard J Pearson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Richard J Pearson Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Issue 2 Pages 122-151 Publication Title International Journal of Historical Archaeology Title A name given to the resource Early Medieval trade on Japan's Southern Frontier and its Effect on Okinawan State Development: Grey Stoneware of the East China Sea Volume 11 China Japan