18 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/619fe2418e86ea65a168eee139661716.pdf 29441aae6f7b4b5112edae0d68b00115 PDF Text Text Interdisciplinary and Community Inclusive Approaches to Submerged WWII Heritage Research in the Pacific 1 Jennifer F. McKinnon (East Carolina University, Professor; Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research Inc., Research Associate) 2 David Benavente (Tasi Research and Consulting, Owner/Operator) 3 Toni L. Carrell (Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research Inc., Vice President) 4 Erin Field (East Carolina University, Associate Professor) 5 Vicki Richards (Western Australian Museum, Manager Materials Conservation) 6 Della Scott-Ireton (University of West Florida, Interim Associate Dean) 7 Mark Stephens (Task Force Dagger Special Operations Foundation, Chair of the Board) 8 Aleck Tan (Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc., Research Associate) 9 Kota Yamafune (APPARATUS, Owner/Operator) ABSTRACT There are many opportunities, challenges, and competing interests related to the development of research on and preservation of submerged WWII heritage in the Pacific. This paper outlines an interdisciplinary, community inclusive project which brings together historians, archaeologists, biologists, conservation scientists, photogrammetry specialists, GIS specialists, veterans and Micronesians to focus on the archaeological and biological research of WWII underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Mariana Islands, specifically Saipan. It is a continuation of research that has been underway since 2008 on WWII sites related to the battle for Saipan and includes a third set of data collection spanning 15 years. At the time of writing, the project is currently underway, and results will be reported at the conference. As such, this paper is an overview of the work being conducted with adjustments made as the field project progresses. KEY WORDS: WWII, Lidar, Photogrammetry, eDNA LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Project area indicating targets to be tested and sites to be investigated (Map by Aleck Tan). Figure 2. 3D model of Japanese auxiliary submarine chaser in Saipan Lagoon (Model by Kota Yamafune). Figure 3. Mariana Islands Nature Alliance rangers extracting eDNA samples on the project (Photo by Mike Thomin). Figure 4. Veterans preparing for dive inspection on a Japanese Daihatsu landing craft (Photo by Mike Thomin). INTRODUCTION Saipan is one of 15 islands in the Mariana Islands chain situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It is the capital of the U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The battle for Saipan in the Mariana Islands, code-named Operation TEARAWAY, was the largest U.S. amphibious invasion in the Pacific Theatre by June/July 1944. The operation involved thousands of troops from all branches of the military and an imposing number of vessels, vehicles, and weapons. In the lead up to D-Day, 15 June 1944, U.S. fleet commanders conducted staging operations approximately 1,000 yards off the western coast of Saipan. These operations included battleships, cruisers, destroyers, carriers, support craft, amphibious vehicles, and the very first offshore seadrome (a floating airdrome serving as an intermediate or emergency landing place for airplanes) in the Pacific theatre. The battle for Saipan marked the end of the drive through the Western Pacific and allowed the U.S. to access mainland Japan directly through a controlled airspace. After nearly a month of conflict, almost the entire Japanese garrison of over 29,000 soldiers were killed. Of the roughly 67,000 U.S. troops that landed, nearly 3,500 lost their lives with nearly 10,000 wounded. Hundreds of Japanese civilians were killed in crossfire or by suicide, and nearly 933 non-combatant Pacific Islanders of Chamorro and Carolinian heritage were killed (Cabrera 2015). The battle for Saipan is considered of such significance that large portions of the island including the World War II (WWII) landing beaches were listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places and designated a U.S. National Historical Landmark (NHL) in 1985. The NHL, designated based on 1 �the history of the area and the integrity of the landing beaches, encompasses 1,366 acres of land and water (Thompson 1984). Dozens of publications, official histories, biographies, memoirs, documentaries, films, and reports focus on the conflict on land, but there has been less focus on the offshore naval, amphibious, and aerial operations and the losses incurred. To date, no Pacific War offshore staging area or seadrome has been investigated archaeologically. Furthermore, no comprehensive, systematic geophysical or remote sensing survey for associated submerged heritage in the offshore staging areas and seadrome of the Saipan battlefield has been conducted. The staging and aerial invasions were critical areas of activities during the battle. The location and investigation of these areas is essential to holistically identifying, analysing, managing, and preserving the full battlefield. As such, a project was conceived to utilize emerging technologies to explore, locate, and characterize the UCH of the offshore deepwater battlefield including the first Pacific war seadrome, invasion staging area, and potential environmental hazards from post-war dumping. Shoreline development and reef clean-up have already altered the amount and type of WWII sites preserved in the shallow lagoon areas of Saipan. Additionally, a long-term research investigation and monitoring program has been focussed on the lagoon sites (McKinnon et al. 2011, 2014, 2018). The deeper areas offshore, however, remain relatively untouched by development and disturbance and no research has been conducted in this area (Figure 1). 2 �Figure 1. Project area indicating targets to be tested and sites to be investigated (Map by Aleck Tan). The project is an interdisciplinary collaboration between historians, archaeologists, biologists, conservation scientists, photogrammetry specialists, and GIS specialists that focuses on the archaeological and biological aspects of WWII UCH. It contributes to the study of the naval, amphibious, and aerial staging in the offshore battlefield through the location, identification, and characterization of sites, as well as their function as artificial reefs and contributors to the local Blue Economy. Blue Economy is a term introduced by the United Nations and used by many world organizations to describe the ocean in economic terms with a particular focus on sustainable use. LIDAR, MACHINE LEARNING, AND Artificial Intelligence (AI) Funded by a NOAA Ocean Exploration Grant, the project leverages biophysical data products from a bathymetric and benthic mapping effort (FY20-22) that has been coordinated across multiple NOAA offices and has direct spatial and temporal overlap with the development of high-resolution benthic 3 �habitat maps for Saipan through Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center and National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science. This survey covers the land and nearshore waters (depths < 50 meters). Bathymetric data meet, and in some cases, exceed USGS Lidar base specifications for quality level two data, which supports the gridding of a one-meter resolution three-dimensional bathymetric model. Additionally, post-processing of the Lidar point clouds has included classes 43 (Submerged objects) and 44 (International Hydrographic Organization S-57 Objects). For this project the bathymetric data was reprocessed in ArcGIS Pro utilizing a machine learning approach by training a deep learning model to identify and predict UCH site locations based on known sites in Saipan. The output, however, did not successfully identify potential UCH sites as the model appeared to select natural features. Unknown wreckage may be partially buried under sand or may contain coral growth, making it difficult for the model to detect remains. Potential ways to improve the model include increasing the training sample size or utilizing a different machine learning model outside of ArcGIS Pro. In another visual analysis method, the bathymetry imagery was processed using the Relief Visualization Toolbox in order to obtain a visualization for archaeological topography, highlighting archaeological characteristics (Kokalj and Somrak 2019; Zakšek et al. 2011). By visual analysis of the archaeological topography for potential non-natural features, target anomalies were identified. Target anomalies were ranked based on discovery potential, and testing was conducted via veteran and archaeological divers on SCUBA and closed-circuit rebreather and through remote operated vehicles (ROV) investigations. While most targets appeared natural, cultural remains were still identified during target testing. When successful, the exploration and identification of WWII UCH sites using emerging technologies such as machine learning, AI, and Lidar can help develop a concept of operations (ConOps) for future cultural heritage surveys with the potential to decrease costs through reduction of in-field survey and increase accuracy in discovery and identification. The scientific impact of discovery of underwater cultural resources from new and re-processed bathymetric mapping has significant relevance for future location and management of such heritage in other areas where similar surveys have been conducted. Additionally, both sets of biophysical data and heritage data can contribute a better understanding of the scientific value of UCH more broadly. ROV AND PHOTOGRAMMETRY Once sites were confirmed to be cultural, further survey and characterization proceeded using 3D structure-from-motion photogrammetric diver survey consisting of underwater still and video cameras to capture 100+% coverage of sites and surroundings. Ground control points and scale markers were used to ensure accurate spatial reconstruction of the sites at the millimetre (mm)-scale. Wrecks located deeper than 40 m were recorded utilizing a Chasing Gladius ROV. Data is being processed with Agisoft Metashape modelling software to create a 3D reconstruction of each site. The resulting 3D models will be rendered with the original imagery to create the final digital surface model that provides high-resolution textured 3D models of the study sites. High-resolution ROV photogrammetric surveys are used in the exploration of sites and provide ground validation data that can be georeferenced for benthic environment and habitat models, archaeological site models that provide the first record of a site, as well as site formation data and public outreach materials. Few studies have been conducted utilizing high-resolution ROV photogrammetric surveys on underwater cultural heritage sites for understanding benthic environment and habitat models. The Mega Lab at University of Hawaii, Hilo has conducted some SCUBA photogrammetric survey of underwater cultural heritage in the Pacific, but the use of a ROV provides additional scientific methodologies that can be used in deep-water environments on underwater cultural heritage. These models also contribute to historical and archaeological research and understanding of the battle and resulting UCH resources (Figure 2). Models can be studied and reviewed in detail without having 4 �the limitations of diving at depths. They are analysed for cultural and natural features, modifications, battle scars, identifying marks, and any other details that may aid in the interpretation of the sites. These models can then be used to create traditional line drawing site plans. Models can also be used as longitudinal data for preservation initiatives using deviation analysis which can provide physical decay trajectories. Finally, photogrammetric recording is a permanent record that allows for the raw data of UCH to be stored for future use by archaeologists and biologists. Figure 2. 3D model of Japanese auxiliary submarine chaser in Saipan Lagoon (Model by Kota Yamafune). BLUE ECONOMY AND EDNA The project focusses on wrecks as habitat and Blue Economy in local and regional commercial and recreational fisheries and ecotourism industries. Sunken WWII shipwrecks, tanks, amphibious vehicles, and aircraft represent significant cultural remains in the Pacific for the US and Japan. They also have substantial socioeconomic value for local small Pacific Island communities. WWII UCH provides Blue Economy opportunities in diving and marine tourism and fisheries, significantly bolstering island economies. The use of eDNA sample collection and analyses allows for assessing biodiversity in an aquatic environment on UCH (Figure 3). The organisms associated with these wreck environments such as microorganisms, fish, and corals leave DNA traces (i.e., eDNA) through their attachment to wrecks, release in the nearby water column from skin cell shedding, release of waste products, and the persistence of this DNA in the nearby sediment over time. As each organism has a unique DNA signature, the same sample can be used to detect thousands of different organisms ultimately providing a snapshot of which organisms live in the current environment and where (Rees et al. 2014). Studies have shown that increased biodiversity led to a more productive environment (Lehman and Tilman 2000; Liang et al. 2016), which is important for monitoring the success of artificial reefs for supporting fisheries and other economic resources. Researchers can compare the biodiversity indices between locations to better understand which areas may be more productive as there is a direct correlation between biodiversity and ecosystem health. In addition to assessing overall biodiversity the project also focusses on specific taxa of importance to the wreck environment and Blue Economy of the region. This data combined can be leveraged with the other physical, biological, and biogeochemical data collected to begin answering questions about how we can better manage these environments long-term. 5 �Figure 3. Mariana Islands Nature Alliance rangers extracting eDNA samples on the project (Photo by Mike Thomin). Samples for eDNA were collected through biofilm surface sampling of the wrecks, filtration of nearby water, and sediment collection across the entire site. For each wreck environment, 10 biofilm surface samples were collected spaced evenly across the wreck for even coverage. Water column (surface and benthic) and sediment samples were collected. Samples will be processed to evaluate relative abundance and calculate diversity indices of the entire biological communities to assess overall biodiversity and health of the wreck ecosystem. The indices directly correlate to and can be used to visualize community differences and identify taxonomic members responsible for differences across the environments. These data will be compared within niche environments (i.e., across one wreck), as well as between areas, to identify areas that have high diversity vs. low diversity, as well as to compare the community structures (i.e., who’s there) in order to identify the organisms responsible for this diversity. Ultimately, this can be used to assess the ecosystem health of each sample area and develop recommendations for monitoring and preservation of these areas. The eDNA data will be leveraged to take a targeted organismal approach of those taxa that may play a particularly important role in the wreck environment and its connection to Blue Economy. Researchers will identify and quantify corrosion-causing microorganisms including known sulfatereducing bacteria (e.g. Deltaproteobacteria) and iron-oxidizing bacteria (e.g. Zetaproteobacteria), as well as waterborne pathogens such as Vibrio and Prevotella spp. which may have negative effects on fisheries, ecosystem health, and ultimately the productivity of these artificial reefs. Lastly, researchers will look for evidence of terrestrial or human-associated species that may represent contaminant species that have been brought in through boating, tourism, or other human activities. The relative abundances of any specific targeted taxonomic group such as those mentioned above can be identified. Researchers will also use the whole community extracted DNA to conduct quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies and quantifies taxa of interest as well as functional genes from the whole community extracted DNA involved in sulfate reduction (e.g. dsrAB) and iron oxidation (e.g. cyc2). The research will help capture taxonomic groups that may be rare but still play an important functional role, or taxa that are not currently associated with known sulfate reduction or iron oxidation functions. The data will also be analysed for contaminants (both biological and chemical) to identify the human impacts on wreck sites and the impacts of these wrecks on the nearby natural environments looking for taxonomic groups, such as freshwater or human-associated taxa, not typically found in the nearby environment and may have been carried in through human-based processes. Combined with archaeological integrity results, this approach allows for assessing the 6 �ecosystem health and current status of the wreck areas and for developing recommendations for improved monitoring and preservation methods. Difficult issues related to WWII UCH involve human remains and repatriation; unexploded ordnance; pollution through oil, metals, and ammunition; lack of legal protection; unintentional damage through anchoring and fishing; and looting and souveniring. eDNA sampling and analysis of biocorrosioncausing microbes, human health hazard and invasive species, and overall microbial and eukaryotic biodiversity indices using universal microbial and eukaryotic primers contributes more broadly to the difficult issues that plague WWII UCH. IN SITU CORROSION SURVEYS In situ corrosion surveys provide the decay mechanisms and rates of deterioration for in situ management and preservation with an eye towards sustainability. In situ corrosion surveys are critical to small island Pacific nations with limited funding and resources to conduct recovery and conservation of cultural heritage; management happens in situ, rather than the recovery and conservation that larger nations may undertake. As such, understanding the condition of the resources is an important step in this management process. Corrosion surveys explore sites for identification of decay mechanisms and corrosion rates that help managers make informed decisions about their management and preservation. Understanding corrosion status and rates contributes to broader scientific questions about climate change, as ferrous and non-ferrous metals are excellent materials for testing the impacts of acid acidification, temperature changes, and differences in oxygen levels that can be related to deterioration rates of all UCH. Conservation surveys primarily include the collection of data related to the environment (chemical and physical) that allows for a better understanding of the degradative forces affecting sites and artifacts and specific cultural information including data on material composition of objects, as well as modern cultural impacts to sites (MacLeod and Richards 2011, 2014). This data is vital to understanding the longevity of sites with relation to the material composition of metals and organics, how they react to and survive within the environment, and their overall structural integrity. Further, they record the modern cultural impacts on a site and produce a scientific, systematic record that can be used for managing sites. Conservation surveys will obtain a clearer understanding of the nature of the degradation forces operating on selected sites, determine the extent of degradation of materials onsite, and determine the overall stability of a site. This data adds to an existing set of baseline data for future measuring and monitoring of the sites whereby they can be assessed quantitatively (in contrast to qualitative visual surveys) for passive or active corrosion. As a result, this information can help to prioritize sites with regards to future loss and retention of historical information and to develop an appropriate monitoring and management program. COMMUNITY COLLABORATION, ENGAGEMENT AND CITIZEN SCIENCE Collaboration and engagement with the community is central to the project. It incorporates Micronesian researchers with local knowledge of the waters who contribute ideas to the development of the project, are involved in collecting data, and promote sustainable management programs after the project has ended. The project provides materials for an immersive learning activity for local schoolchildren who cannot otherwise access submerged shipwrecks. The activity involves the storytelling of science, technologies, and careers in science of discovery and utilizes 3D animations. 3D models also provide opportunities for sharing important ocean discoveries with a wider audience via webpages such as Sketchfab and on the existing WWII Maritime Heritage Trail website so that it is accessible after the project ends. 7 �Finally, partnerships and meetings with the local Historic Preservation Office, Division of Fish and Wildlife, Department of Coastal Resource Management, on island non-profit organizations, and Micronesian researchers provide opportunities for co-production of knowledge and hands-on training. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands agencies and researchers have been involved in all phases of project development and data collection to ensure that outputs are geared towards local management needs. Furthermore, engaging local heritage and natural resource practitioners and managers in developing techniques for identifying and recording UCH sites helps increase interdisciplinary management programs on island. This project takes a public archaeology and citizen science approach to community engagement. A citizen science veteran rehabilitative program and event was developed and involves Special Operation Forces and local veterans who are injured or have illnesses and are reintegrating into civilian society (Figure 4). The combination of citizen science and rehabilitative therapy in underwater archaeology is a recent development and suggests that there are psychological and physiological benefits of participation in outdoor activities, scuba diving, and connection with peer support groups for veterans. Participation in science projects allows veterans to use many of their professional skills and experiences, which also advanced overall goals of the research. This project utilizes veteran citizen scientists in all aspects of planning, data collection, and processing. Surveys of participants and the efficacy of the citizen science experience will be administered by archaeological trainers. Figure 4. Veterans preparing for dive inspection on a Japanese Daihatsu landing craft (Photo by Mike Thomin). CONCLUSION While the project is still underway at the time of writing, this paper has outlined the overall plan for an interdisciplinary, community inclusive, exploratory research agenda utilizing emerging technologies. The project leverages existing biophysical data products from bathymetric Lidar to conduct machine learning and AI to identify submerged sites in deeper waters up to 50 m below the surface. Archaeological and biological surveys of the sites include a focus on the wrecks as habitats and part of the Blue Economy in local and regional commercial and recreational fisheries and ecotourism industries. Samples of eDNA and corrosion data as well as 3D models using ROV will contribute to questions about the health of these sites, potential contamination, and their long-term preservation. Collaboration with veterans for an adaptive rehabilitative event trains off- and on-island veterans in citizen science archaeology and biology skills. Finally, engagement with local agencies, 8 �non-profits, and schools provide opportunities for knowledge creation and exchange. Results from the project will be presented in further detail at the conference. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cabrera, G. “A Historical Overview of the Battle for Saipan.” In Underwater Archaeology of Pacific Battlefield: The Battle of Saipan, edited by J. McKinnon and T. Carrell, 15-25. New York: Springer Press, 2015. Kokalj, Ž., Somrak, M. "Why Not a Single Image? Combining Visualizations to Facilitate Fieldwork and On-Screen Mapping." Remote Sensing 11, no. 7 (2019): 747. Lehman, C. L. and Tilman, D. “Biodiversity, stability, and productivity in competitive communities.” The American Naturalis 156, no. 5 (2000): 534-552. Liang, J., Crowther, T.W., Picard, N., Wiser, S., Zhou, M., Alberti, G., Schulze, E.D., McGuire, A.D., Bozzato, F., Pretzsch, H. and De-Miguel, S. “Positive biodiversity-productivity relationship predominant in global forests.” Science 354, (2016): 6309. MacLeod, I.D. and Richards, V.L. “In-situ corrosion studies of wrecked WWII aircraft in Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.” In ICOM-CC 17th Triennial Conference Preprints, Melbourne, 15–19 September 2014, ed. J. Bridgland, International Council of Museums, Paris, art. 0902, 2014. MacLeod, I.D. and Richards, V. “In-situ conservation surveys of iron shipwrecks in Chuuk Lagoon and the impact of human intervention” Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material Bulletin, 32 (2011): 106-122. McKinnon, J. F. and T. Carrell. “Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail.” Report submitted to American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington DC. Santa Fe: Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, 2011. McKinnon, J. F. and T. Carrell. “Management Plan and Public Outreach for WWII Submerged Resources in Saipan.” Report submitted to American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington DC. Santa Fe: Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, 2014. McKinnon, J. F., T. Carrell and M. Roth. “Expanding Documentation and Research of WWII Maritime Heritage.” Report submitted to American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington DC. Santa Fe: Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, 2018. Rees, H.C., Maddison, B.C., Middleditch, D.J., Patmore, J.R. and Gough, K.C. “The detection of aquatic animal species using environmental DNA–a review of eDNA as a survey tool in ecology.” Journal of Applied Ecology 51, no. 5 (2014): 1450-1459. Thompson, E. N. National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form. Landing Beaches, Aslito/Isley Field, and Marpi Point, Saipan Island. National Park Service Denver Service Center, Lakewood, CO, 1984. Zakšek, K., Oštir, K., Kokalj, Ž. "Sky-View Factor as a Relief Visualization Technique”. Remote Sensing 3, no. 2 (2011): 398-415. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interdisciplinary and Community Inclusive Approaches to Submerged WWII Heritage Research in the Pacific Description An account of the resource There are many opportunities, challenges, and competing interests related to the development of research on and preservation of submerged WWII heritage in the Pacific. This paper outlines an interdisciplinary, community inclusive project which brings together historians, archaeologists, biologists, conservation scientists, photogrammetry specialists, GIS specialists, veterans and Micronesians to focus on the archaeological and biological research of WWII underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Mariana Islands, specifically Saipan. It is a continuation of research that has been underway since 2008 on WWII sites related to the battle for Saipan and includes a third set of data collection spanning 15 years. At the time of writing, the project is currently underway, and results will be reported at the conference. As such, this paper is an overview of the work being conducted with adjustments made as the field project progresses. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon David Benavente Toni L. Carrell Erin Field Vicki Richards Della Scott-Ireton Mark Stephens Aleck Tan Kota Yamafune Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. McKinnon, Jennifer F.. 2023. “Interdisciplinary and Community Inclusive Approaches to Submerged WWII Heritage Research in the Pacific.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1899 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cb1c161bbaa7a450fc48bc6ab05269e8.pdf 8a93e7c3d3312637a6e064514b83e3e6 PDF Text Text ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY OF WORLD WAR II JAPANESE AIRCRAFT IN AUSTRALIA: THE CASE STUDY OF HAJIME TOYOSHIMA’S ZERO Hiroshi Ishii (Flinders University, MA Student) ABSTRACT During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and Army (IJA) carried out a series of air raids on northern Australia. The Bombing of Darwin by the IJN on 19 February 1942 was the most significant foreign attack in mainland Australia since the colonisation of Australia by the British Empire. One of the IJN Zero fighters flown by a petty officer, Hajime Toyoshima, was force-landed on Melville Island, north of Darwin. The pilot was subsequently captured by an Indigenous man, Matthias Ulungura, and became the first Japanese prisoner of war on Australian soil. This study examines historical records and remains of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials currently displayed in three museums around Darwin to answer the research questions of why and how the utilisation of the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials have changed over time. Close examination with 3D photogrammetry recording of the wreckage shows characteristics of the early model of Mitsubishi M6A2b Type 0 Model 21 carrier fighter and evidence of use of this aircraft wreckage. Examination of related materials also indicate debatable authenticities. Despite the questionable legitimacies of these related materials, exhibitions of museums utilize them in their attempted recreations of the past event. Furthermore, those materials reflect the social value shifts that those items went through. This study focuses on interactions between Australians, which includes the Indigenous people, and the IJN aircraft. KEYWORDS: World War II, Aviation, Japan, Australia LIST OF IMAGES Figure 1. Toyoshima’s Zero, force-landed on 27 February 1942 (Photograph: Australian War Memorial). Figure 2. 3D-rendered orthographic view of the Zero (Created by the author, November 2022). Figure 3. A close-up of the Type 14 pistol, which is exhibited at the Darwin Military Museum as Toyoshima’s pistol (Photograph: Author, 4 December 2021). Figure 4. A bronze statue of Matthias Ullungura (left) and a three-blade propeller (right) outside the Patakijiyali Museum (Photograph: Wendy Van Duivenvoorde, 27 May 2021). INTRODUCTION World War II (WWII) significantly impacted Australia, as it was the first time in postcolonial Australian history that foreign forces attacked the country. From 1942 to 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and Army (IJA) conducted a series of air raids in northern Australia (Lewis and Claringbould 2020), combined with naval attacks by the Japanese and German navies in Australian waters (Lewis 2010; McCarthy 2009a, 2009b, 2011; Smith 2008), which greatly influenced the country’s establishment of a national identity independent from the British Empire. The Bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 was the first and largest Japanese air raid in Australia. During the raid, a Mitsubishi A6M2b Model 21 Zero (Zeke) fighter flown by Petty Officer Hajime Toyoshima and launched from IJN aircraft carrier Hiryu, was forced to land on Melville Island. Toyoshima became the first prisoner of war (POW) in Australia (Alford 2011, 38–39). The remains of the aircraft and related materials, including the propeller, Toyoshima’s pistol and a statue of the Indigenous man, Matthias Ulungura, who captured the pilot, are displayed in three museums in Darwin and Bathurst Island, serving as significant mementoes of the war for Australian, Indigenous, and Japanese history. This study focuses on how Australians and Indigenous people have utilised the wreckage of the Japanese aircraft and related materials. 1 �RESEARCH QUESTION As a research question, this study will focus on why and how utilisations of the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials have transformed over time. This research pursues the following four avenues to address the question. Firstly, historical documents and records of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials will be examined. Secondly, the current condition of the Zero in the Darwin Aviation Museum will be recorded and analysed to observe any trace of utilisations. Thirdly, related materials and displays in three museums (the Darwin Aviation Museum, the Patakijiyali Museum, and the Darwin Military Museum) will be observed. Lastly, the gathered data will be interpreted to understand human behaviours towards materials related to the war. THE BOMBING OF DARWIN The Bombing of Darwin occurred on 19 February 1942, several days after the fall of Singapore, and was a combination of two raids. The first raid was carried out by IJN and led by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo and his First Mobile Striking Force (‘Mobile Fleet’). Even though the Mobile Fleet is often called the ‘Nagumo Force’, later historians evaluate Nagumo as a ‘largely passive and not terribly innovative’ commander (Parshall and Tully 2005, 17). Nagumo was, however, fortunate to have talented young officers such as Commander Minoru Genda, who designed this raid as well as the Pearl Harbor attack (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 50–51). The first raid involved 188 IJN aircraft, including 36 Mitsubishi A6M2 ‘Zero (Zeke)’ fighters, 71 Aichi D3A1 ‘Val’ dive bombers, and 81 Nakajima ‘Kate’ bombers. Launched from four carriers – Hiryu, Soryu, Kaga and Akagi – the aircraft attacked Darwin in the morning (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 286). The Kates and Vals dropped a total of 82,800 kg of bombs (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 88). Their primary targets were merchant and navy ships in the harbour and port facilities, such as Stokes Hill Wharf and oil tanks. Some bombs hit the city area and destroyed a post office, possibly because of overshoots (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 82–83). Twenty-one ships in the harbour were heavily damaged or sunk during the raid. The exact number is uncertain, but at least 252 people were killed, and 350 were injured during the first raid (Alford 2011, 34). IJA carried out the second raid, which involved 54 land-based bombers, a combination of 27 Mitsubishi G4M1 ‘Betty’ bombers from Kendari in Sulawesi and 27 Mitsubishi G3M1 ‘Nell’ bombers from Ambon on the Maluku Islands in the Netherlands East Indies, attacking Darwin over an hour after the first raid, at noon. The Nells and Bettys dropped a total of 32,050 kg of bombs and primarily targeted the airport (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 233). DESK ASSESSMENT AND FIELD SURVEY Desk-based research was conducted before a field survey in Darwin to gather historical records, photographs, and films to understand the interactions between people and the Zero. Primary sources, such as historical photographs, films, and archived official documents and reports, were collected to achieve historical accuracy, along with secondary sources like published books, websites, and newspapers. The Heritage Branch, Northern Territory Government, and a local historian, Bob Alford, kindly provided unpublished reports. The collected data was utilised to aid the field survey in three museums: the Darwin Aviation Museum, the Darwin Military Museum, and the Patakijiyali Museum on Bathurst Island. The Darwin Aviation Museum exhibits the majority of the portion of Toyoshima’s Zero and is run by the Aviation Historical Society of the Northern Territory (AHSNT) (Darwin Aviation Museum 2017). The Darwin Military Museum is run by the Northern Territory branch of the Royal Australian Artillery Association (RAAA) and has Hajime Toyoshima’s pistol in their theatre-like exhibition (Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission [ACNC] 2022). The Patakijiyali Museum is run by the Tiwi people and has a propeller from Toyoshima’s Zero and a bronze statue of Matthias Ulungura 2 �(O’Toole and La Cana 2017). As the examined materials were displayed in publicly accessible areas, no permission was needed except for recording the Zero at the Darwin Aviation Museum. EXAMINATION AND 3D RECORDING OF THE ZERO The photographic examination and 3D recording of Toyoshima’s Zero, which are exhibited in the Darwin Aviation Museum, were planned to analyse the identification, current condition and traces of past utilisation of the aircraft. Permission to survey the remains of the Zero was granted by the committee of AHSNT in May 2021. 3D recordings and modelling of cultural heritages and archaeological sites are technologies that have recently been rapidly and widely adopted among researchers, especially maritime archaeologists (McCarthy et al. 2019, 1–2). These technologies are applied to recordings of aircraft wrecks and restored aircraft (Lickliter-Mundon 2018, 36). For this research, photogrammetry was chosen as a 3D recording technique for three reasons. The first reason is that photogrammetry requires neither any contact nor the destruction of recording objects since it only requires photo shooting. The second reason is that photogrammetry can produce the desired accuracy and data resolution for this research. Finally, photogrammetry only requires low-cost equipment and one operator to record a feature. HAJIME TOYOSHIMA ON MELVILLE ISLAND Several Tiwi people’s testimonies mention their encounters with Hajime Toyoshima on Melville Island. One Indigenous woman who first encountered Toyoshima on the island, Missus Aloysius, described her encounter with Toyoshima in her letter to a friend. She described that Toyoshima tried to communicate with them and even offered his watch to a boy they were taking care of (Lockwood 2013, 95). Although Toyoshima’s approach to the Indigenous people was peaceful, Matthias Ulungra (Ngapiatilawai)’s disarming of Toyoshima as the first Japanese POW on Australian soil symbolises their encounter with Toyoshima (Riseman 2018, 138). Matthias described the event details when he approached Toyoshima from behind and told him, ‘Hands up!’ He took his revolver and a map (Lockwood 2013, 96). Without any resistance, Toyoshima was captured, and his flying suit, his Belgian .32 inch (8.1 mm) automatic pistol and his map were taken by Matthias. Later he was taken to the Australian Army on Bathurst Island and handed to Australian Army Sergeant Les Powell (Piper 1995, 58). Toyoshima said he was an air gunner from Ambon, and his name was Tadao Minami. He died during the infamous Cowra prison breakout in New South Wales on 5 August 1944 (Powell 2007, 91). THE ROYAL AUSTRALIAN AIR FORCE’S INVESTIGATIONS OF THE ZERO IN 1942 Despite Toyoshima’s temptation to hide his identity and the existence of his wrecked Zero, Tiwi people traced his movements and found the wreck site. In early March 1942, a team of Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) led by Indigenous men visited the site (see Figure 1). This was the first time in WWII that the Allies captured a fully intact Zero (Piper 1995, 60). Squadron Leader Sergeant Allan Beatty, one of the No. 13 Squadron (RAAF) from Darwin, led the investigation team and wrote his report on 7 March 1942 (NAA 1942). Since it was impossible to carry the whole Zero with their manpower, the RAAF intelligence team partially dismantled the Zero, including all armaments, the engine, the rear fuselage and instruments. Those parts of the Zero were later manhandled to the coast and then shipped to Darwin for further inspections (Piper 1995, 60). Around 1983, the team leader – Sergeant Allan Beatty – described his ‘finding the empty oil tank of the fighter with a single hole and some metal about the size of a .303 bullet inside’, which might be the cause of the Zero’s malfunction and wrecking (NAA 1942). Beatty kept ‘the small drogue from the pilot’s parachute’ from the site as a souvenir until 1993, the year in which he donated it to the Darwin Aviation Museum (Piper 1995, 63). 3 �Figure 1. Toyoshima’s Zero, force-landed on 27 February 1942 (Photograph: Australian War Memorial). REDISCOVERY OF THE ZERO In September 1960, during the development of a road on Melville Island, the Zero was rediscovered. The director of the Welfare Branch, Northern Territory Administration, Harry Christian Giese, recognised the Zero as the first Japanese aircraft shot down on Australian soil and advised that it be secured for future usage in a museum or similar facility. Eventually, the Zero was stored in a secure area at Snake Bay, Melville Island (NAA 1971). From 1962 to 1969, the Returned Sailor’s, Soldier’s and Airmen’s Imperial League of Australia (RSSAILA) Darwin Sub Branch and the RAAA Northern Territory branch showed their interest in obtaining Toyoshima’s Zero to the Administrator of the Northern Territory. The Tiwi people, however, refused to provide the wreckage (NAA 1971). In late October 1977, after lengthy negotiations, the Milikapiti (Tiwi) Council agreed to lend the Zero to AHSNT under a formal agreement. The remaining aircraft parts were shipped to Darwin and secured in an AHSNT facility (Piper 1983). THE CURRENT CONDITION OF THE ZERO During the field survey for this research on 3 December 2021, 1,401 images of Toyoshima’s Zero were taken with a Nikon D5600 digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR) at Darwin Aviation Museum. All images were successfully aligned with Agisoft Metashape, and a high-quality 3D scanned model of the remains of Toyoshima’s Zero was created. Further, the 3D model of the Zero 4 �with one-metre scale bars was rendered with the 3D software Blender for analysis and display purposes (see Figure 2). The round-shaped oil tank in front of the fuselage is a characteristic of an early model of Zero, such as Model 11 or 21 (Hara 2001, 169). Furthermore, the wingtip from the port wing displayed in the Darwin Aviation Museum shows folding and locking mechanisms. Assuming the wingtip belongs to the front fuselage of the same Zero, it indicates either a Model 21 or 22 (Hara 2001, 277). Therefore, the Zero in the museum is likely identified as a Model 21 Zero. The remaining parts of the engine mount on the Zero are physical evidence of the salvage operation by the RAAF salvage team at the end of February 1942. Other missing characteristics of this wreckage, such as the engine, the rear fuselage and instruments, match with information from the RAAF salvage team’s report. Thus, this Zero can be identified as Toyoshima’s Zero. Figure 2. 3D-rendered orthographic view of the Zero (Created by the author, November 2022). TOYOSHIMA’S PISTOL Although Matthias Ulungura described Toyoshima’s pistol as a ‘revolver’, Piper (1995, 58) and Alford (1991, 20–21) describe Toyoshima’s pistol as a .32 Belgian automatic pistol with seven rounds fully loaded in its magazine. This description of the .32 Belgian automatic pistol probably comes from Australian Army Sergeant Lew Powell’s testimony. Since Powell was military personnel, it is unlikely that he misidentified the calibre and characteristics of the pistol, while he would not have gained any benefits from a false description. It is easy to identify the model of Toyoshima’s pistol as the FN Model 1910 based on Powell’s specific description (Gorenstein 2022, Chapter 10). A Japanese Type 14 pistol, however, is displayed as Toyoshima’s at the Darwin Military Museum. This pistol is not likely to come from Toyoshima. The manufacturing year and month for a Type 14 pistol were engraved near its grip. In the case of the pistol in the Darwin Military Museum, the manufacturing year and month can be read as ‘昭18.4’, which means ‘April 1943’ (Shōwa 18) (see Figure 3), and it is more than a year after the capture of Toyoshima. There is a record that a Mitsubishi Ki-46 Type 100 Command Reconnaissance Aircraft – the Allied codename Dinah – flown by IJA Lieutenants Saburo Shinohara and Hideo Ura crashed north of the Bathurst Island Mission on 17 August 1943. Their bodies were buried near the crash site (Lewis and Claringbould 2020, 112). The pistol currently exhibited as Toyoshima’s at the Darwin Military Museum likely belongs to either Shinohara or Ura. 5 �Toyoshima’s pistol often appears in many stories and museums, such as the statue of Matthia, because it is the direct physical evidence of his surrender. Since Toyoshima is the first Japanese POW captured on Australian soil, the identity of who disarmed him later became a historical matter, and his pistol symbolised the event. Since the social value of the event increased over time, Powel attempted to reclaim the credit for the disarming of Toyoshima much after the war (Bellamy 1995, 63). Figure 3. A close-up of the Type 14 pistol, which is exhibited at the Darwin Military Museum as Toyoshima’s pistol (Photograph: Author, 4 December 2021). STATUE OF MATTHIAS ULLUNGURA AND PROPELLER ON BATHURST ISLAND As a plaque on the statue of Matthias Ullungura in Patakijiyali Museum indicates, the Northern Territory Government built this statue in 2016 to commemorate the contributions of Matthias and the Tiwi people during WWII (Figure 4). Despite Matthias mentioning Toyoshima’s pistol as a ‘revolver’, his statue holds an FN Model 1910 pistol which Lew Powell’s description influenced. It is questionable whether the Tiwi people requested or benefited from this statue, given the oral history and dance they have developed to represent this part of their history (Davidson 2015). It is more likely that the statue is the government’s way of indicating interest in the Tiwi people and the shared past. Though more research is required, a brief inspection of the picture of the propeller near the Patakijiyali Museum attributed to Toyoshima’s Zero by Ken Lai, a curator of the Darwin Aviation Museum, suggests the association is unlikely for two reasons. First, the propeller reduction gear and the propeller shaft, which appear in the propeller on Bathurst Island, are still visibly intact on the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero in the historical picture (see Figure 1). The propeller reduction gear of Toyoshima’s Zero is still covered with a metal housing and surrounded by the cowling in the picture. Second, the propeller should be bent backwards, since Toyoshima’s Zero force-landed. The propeller on Bathurst Island (Figure 4), however, is bent forwards, indicating the propeller hit ground or water from the side or back but not from the front. It is challenging to identify whether the propeller on Bathurst Island originated from either a Japanese or an Allied plane because Sumitomo Metal 6 �Industries was licenced by American company Hamilton Standard in 1934, and the company started to manufacture hydromatic propellers in 1938 for Zeros (Yoshida 2019, 76–78). Figure 4. A bronze statue of Matthias Ullungura (left) and a three-blade propeller (right) outside the Patakijiyali Museum (Photograph: Wendy Van Duivenvoorde, 27 May 2021). SOCIAL VALUE CHANGES From this research, historical narratives of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials can be observed. The Darwin Aviation Museum uses Toyoshima’s Zero as a medium to recreate the 1942 Bombing of Darwin. The Darwin Military Museum pistol and the Patakijiyali Museum propeller are used to lend legitimacy and authenticity to the host institutions. Meanwhile, status of Matthias Ulungura serves as a tourist attraction. These narratives suggest that the social values of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials have also changed over time. Parallels can be observed elsewhere, as in the case of USS Arizona in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. During the war, the wreckage of the USS Arizona was utilised for war efforts. After the war, the wreckage was heavily salvaged for relic collecting until the time came in the 1960s when the wreck became a war memorial (Delgado 1992). RE-CREATING THE PAST WITH MEDIUMS All museums surveyed during this research attempt to re-create the event by utilising Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials to some degree. In other words, those materials work as mediums to connect visitors and the past event – the Bombing of Darwin. In the case of the Darwin Aviation Museum, Toyoshima’s Zero is a medium to re-create past events. The pistol in the Darwin Military Museum and the propeller at Patakijiyali Museum also serve as a medium through which to provide legitimacy and authenticity to the respective museums, despite the questionable credibility of those artefacts. Further, the creation of related materials, which are fabricated mediums, occurred in the 7 �cases of the Patakijiyali Museum (i.e., the statue of Matthias Ulungura). These cases illustrate how mediums are significant in experiencing a past event and are also used for tourist attractions. CONCLUSION This study attempted to answer the main research question: Why and how have utilisations of the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials changed over time? Four research aims were addressed to answer this research question. The first aim was to examine historical documents and records of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials. Through analysis of historical documents, value shifts towards Toyoshima’s Zero over time were observed. The aircraft had value as an enemy aircraft during the war. After the war, it was forgotten until its rediscovery. After its rediscovery, several stakeholders were interested in obtaining the aircraft as a war relic and tourist attraction. The second aim was to record and analyse the current condition of the Zero in the Darwin Aviation Museum to observe any trace of utilisations. With the recording and analysis of the Zero in the Darwin Aviation Museum, this study successfully identified the model of the Zero as an early Model 21 flown by Toyoshima; this study also examined traces of salvage attempts. The third aim was to observe related materials and displays in three museums. With the observation of museum displays, this research found the credibility of artefacts claimed to be Toyoshima’s pistol and the propeller from his Zero questionable. Overall, the survey concluded that all three museums attempted to re-create the event by utilising artefacts to some degree and I noted social value changes over time. The final aim was to interpret collected data to understand human behaviour towards materials related to the war. As explained above, the social value of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials has changed over time. Historical records and the current condition of the Zero reflect these shifts. Moreover, museums utilise Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials as mediums to connect visitors with the re-created past event. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the Aviation Historical Society of the Northern Territory (AHSNT), Bob Alford and Ken Lai, for the permission to examine Toyoshima’s Zero. I would also like to thank David Steinberg from the Heritage Branch, Northern Territory Government, for his support of this project. This paper is based on the author’s thesis research. Thanks to my thesis supervisor, Wendy Van Duivenvoorde. 8 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Alford, Bob. Darwin’s Air War 1942–1945: An Illustrated History. Darwin: Colemans Printing, 1991. Alford, Bob. Darwin’s Air War, 1942–1945: An Illustrated History Commemorating the Darwin Air Raids, 2nd edn. Darwin: Aviation Historical Society of the Northern Territory, 2011. Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission “Royal Australian Artillery Association (Northern Territory) Incorporated.” Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission. 2022. Accessed October 31, 2022. https://www.acnc.gov.au/charity/charities/c7f8d255-3aaf-e811-a95e-000d3ad24c60/profile Bellamy, C. “The question of Hajime.” honours dissertation, University of New South Wales, 1995. Darwin Aviation Museum “About the Darwin Aviation Museum.” Darwin Aviation Museum. 2017. Accessed October 31, 2022. https://www.darwinaviationmuseum.com.au/about/ Davidson, Helen. “ N.T. prepares to honour Indigenous people’s efforts in second world war.” The Guardian. October 14, 2015. Accessed December 1, 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/oct/14/nt-prepares-to-honourindigenous-peoples-efforts-in-darwin-bombing Delgado, James P. “Recovering the past of USS Arizona: Symbolism, myth, and reality.” Historical Archaeology 26, no. 4 (1992): 69–80. Gorenstein, Nathan. The Guns of John Moses Browning: The Remarkable Story of the Inventor Whose Firearms Changed the World. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2022. Hara, Katsuhiro. Zerosen hiroku = The Zero fighter. Tokyo: KK Besuto Serāzu, 2001. Lewis, Tom. Darwin’s Submarine I-124. Kent Town: Avonmore Books, 2010. Lewis, Tom, and Michael Claringbould. The Empire Strikes South: Japan’s Air War against Northern Australia 1942–45. Kent Town: Avonmore Books, 2020. Lewis, Tom, and Peter Ingman. Carrier Attack Darwin 1942: The Complete Guide to Australia’s Own Pearl Harbor. Kent Town: Avonmore Books, 2013. Lickliter-Mundon, M.E. “Aviation archaeology: History, theory, practice and direction.” PhD dissertation, Texas A&M University, 2018. Lockwood, Douglas. Australia under Attack: The Bombing of Darwin 1942. London: New Holland Publishers, 2013. McCarthy, John., Jonathan. Benjamin, Trevor. Winton and Wendy van Duivenvoorde “The rise of 3D in maritime archaeology.” In 3D Recording and Interpretation for Maritime Archaeology, edited by John. McCarthy, Jonathan. Benjamin, Trevor. Winton and Wendy van Duivenvoorde, 1–10. Cham: Springer, 2019. McCarthy, Michael. “Towards an understanding of the importance of the HMAS Sydney II and HSK ‘Kormoran’ sites. Part 1: The genesis and evolution of the controversies.” The Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 33, no. 1 (2009a): 72–78. McCarthy, Michael. “Towards an understanding of the importance of the HMAS Sydney and HSK ‘Kormoran’ sites. Part 2: The inordinate delay in commencing a search.” The Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 33, no. 1 (2009b): 79–85. McCarthy, Michael. “Archaeology and the HMAS Sydney.” The Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 35, no. 1 (2011): 18–27. National Archives of Australia [NAA]. Report of Japanese aircraft crashed on Melville Island, A9695, 468, Remains of Japanese Zero on Melville Island, 7 March 1942. National Archives of Australia, 1942. Accessed December 1, 2022. https://recordsearch.naa.gov.au/SearchNRetrieve/Interface/SearchScreens/BasicSearch.aspx 9 �National Archives of Australia [NAA]. Remains of Japanese Zero on Melville Island, F1, 1971/7282, Remains of Japanese Zero on Melville Island. National Archives of Australia, 1971. Accessed December 1, 2022. https://recordsearch.naa.gov.au/SearchNRetrieve/Interface/SearchScreens/BasicSearch.aspx O’Toole, Kate. and Xavier. La Cana. “Sister Anne Gardiner hands over keys of Patakijiyali Museum to Tiwi Islanders to run.” The ABC News. March 18, 2017. Accessed October 31, 2022. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-18/sister-annegardiner-hands-over-keys-of-patakijiyali-museum/8366298 Parshall, Jonathan. and Anthony P. Tully. Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. Dulles: Potomac Books, 2005. Piper, Robert. "Epitaph for a Darwin Raider". The Canberra Times. February 12, 1983, 13. Piper, Robert. The Hidden Chapters: Untold Stories of Australians at War in the Pacific. Carlton: Pagemasters, 1995. Powell, Alan. The Shadow’s Edge: Australia’s Northern War. Darwin: Charles Darwin University Press, 2007. Riseman, Noah. 2018 “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander military service in the Second World War”. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 19, no.2 (2018): 137–156. Smith, Tim. “Managing an Australian midget: The Imperial Japanese Navy type a submarine ‘M24’ at Sydney”. The Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 32, no. 1 (2008): 79–89. Yoshida, Hideo. “History of the aluminum technology from duralumin to extra super duralumin (part 5). Extra super duralumin and Zero Fighter (2). Application of extra super duralumin to Zero Fighter”. UACJ Technical Reports 6, no. 1(2019): 67–80. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Archaeology and Anthropology of World War II Japanese Aircraft in Australia: the Case Study of Hajime Toyoshima's Zero Description An account of the resource During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and Army (IJA) carried out a series of air raids on northern Australia. The Bombing of Darwin by the IJN on 19 February 1942 was the most significant foreign attack in mainland Australia since the colonisation of Australia by the British Empire. One of the IJN Zero fighters flown by a petty officer, Hajime Toyoshima, was force-landed on Melville Island, north of Darwin. The pilot was subsequently captured by an Indigenous man, Matthias Ulungura, and became the first Japanese prisoner of war on Australian soil. This study examines historical records and remains of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials currently displayed in three museums around Darwin to answer the research questions of why and how the utilisation of the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials have changed over time. Close examination with 3D photogrammetry recording of the wreckage shows characteristics of the early model of Mitsubishi M6A2b Type 0 Model 21 carrier fighter and evidence of use of this aircraft wreckage. Examination of related materials also indicate debatable authenticities. Despite the questionable legitimacies of these related materials, exhibitions of museums utilize them in their attempted recreations of the past event. Furthermore, those materials reflect the social value shifts that those items went through. This study focuses on interactions between Australians, which includes the Indigenous people, and the IJN aircraft. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hiroshi Ishii Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ishii, Hiroshi. 2023. “Archaeology and Anthropology of World War II Japanese Aircraft in Australia: The Case Study of Hajime Toyoshima’s Zero.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1898 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/59e0f43444e6dc4b9ee02a88b508e760.pdf c798578e0cb81af17f7b9c5a4eddf124 PDF Text Text The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site. 1 2 Peter D. Fix, PhD (Texas A&M University, Associate Research Scientist) Russell E. Matthews (Air/Sea Heritage Foundation, President) ABSTRACT The topic of the paper, entitled “The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis, and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site,” best fits within the session, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges due to its context and subject matter. Before sunrise on 1 February 1942, aircraft from the USS Yorktown (CV-5), sortied as part of Task Force-17’s attack on the Japanese Mandated Islands of Jaluit and Milli, in present day Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Makin, the northernmost island in the Gilbert Islands chain. During the raid, two TBD-1 Devastator torpedo bombers [BuNo. 0298 (5-T-7), and BuNo. 1515 (5-T-6)] were forced to ditch in Jaluit Lagoon as each aircraft was low on fuel. The aircrews of both planes survived the water landing, were captured by Imperial Japanese Naval forces, and survived captivity in POW camps in Japan. Since 2004, a group of scientists, engineers and researchers have undertaken seven expeditions to the resting place of these aircraft in a remote section of the lagoon to document and conduct analysis on aspects of the artifacts’ preservation. As part of the monitoring and assessment, plans have been generated to potentially recover one of the aircraft to archaeological and materials conservation standards. KEYWORDS: World War II, Naval Aviation, TBD-1 Devastator, Marshall Islands INTRODUCTION Since 1 February 1942, two TBD-1 Devastators [BuNo. 0298 (5-T-7), and BuNo. 1515 (5-T-6)] have remained submerged in Jaluit Lagoon, the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Each artifact was the result of a controlled emergency landing on water when the pilots determined that it would not be advisable to try to return to their carrier strike force. The location, on a remote atoll in the central Pacific Ocean, and the even more isolated western side of Jaluit Lagoon, has sheltered them and protected each plane from inadvertent contact or vandalism. The first of the two aircraft was identified during a US National Parks Service sponsored cultural survey in the late 1990s while the second was relocated a few years later following a dedicated search by local divers. Although slightly different, the preservation level of each submerged structure is exceptional. Starting in 2004, a team of scientists and historians have visited the site seven separate times to document and assess their condition. The two aircraft provide a unique opportunity for in situ study. One is submerged at an average depth of (-)50 feet and has overwhelmingly been assimilated into the surrounding environment of a coral head. The other is submerged at a depth of (-)110 feet and lying on a coralline sandy plain where there is considerably less biologic activity. Over the course of the seven expeditions to the site, the planes have been thoroughly documented by hand measurements, photomosaic models and one of them, BuNo. 1515, the deeper wreck, was thoroughly laser-scanned with subsea LiDAR. Along with on-site corrosion testing, engineers have assessed the aircraft’s structural integrity, and samples have been exported under permit for metallurgical analysis. The archaeological documentation and preservation analysis have helped guide the formation of plans to potentially archaeologically recover and stabilize one of the submerged structures for future museum installation and display. This conference paper is an overview of the project and draws directly from the Permit Report (2018-1) submitted to the US Navy History and Heritage Command, Underwater Archaeology Branch in 2021. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Shortly after clambering from the wing of their TBD-1 Devastator into the small, three-man inflatable life raft, James Dalzell, RM/1c, Radioman/gunner on BuNo. 0298 recalled looking up and seeing “…number 6 hit!” The number six Dalzell referred to was BuNo. 1515. Herbert R. 1 approximately 100 yards from his position. It Hein, Jr., as it made an emergency water landing was down to good fortune, skill, and the experience of pilots LT. Harlan T. ("Dub") Johnson aboard torpedo bomber �BuNo. 0298 and ENS. Herbert R. Hein, Jr. in BuNo. 1515 that all six members of the combined aircrews survived their planes’ ditching into the lagoon at Jaluit Atoll on 1 February 1942, and that none suffered serious injury during the event. The floatation bags meant to keep each aircraft afloat deployed as designed, allowing time for the aircrews to inflate the rubber life rafts and escape with whatever survival gear that was immediately available. Once the raft was clear of BuNo. 0298, the crew attempted to puncture the floatation bags with .45 caliber bullets from their service pistols so the plane would not fall into enemy hands. Unfortunately, the small bullet holes failed to deflate the bags sufficiently, and the Bombardier, ACMM Charles E. Fosha had to reenter the bobbing plane to retrieve what he called his “sword,” a long, dagger-shaped blade that he kept with him in the center cockpit in case the floatation bags unintentionally inflated during flight. The dagger worked and BuNo. 0298 slowly disappeared beneath the surface of the lagoon. Over on BuNo. 1515, the crew did not have the same trouble sinking the aircraft, however the radio antenna anchor point inadvertently snagged and punctured the life raft during evacuation and it began to deflate. Suddenly, only one rubber boat remained for six men. Taking turns, half the men stayed in the water while the group slowly steered their raft about a mile and a half to Pinglep Islet on the western perimeter of the lagoon. Once safely ashore, they were given shelter, along with food and water by the resident Marshallese. Several days after the incident, both aircrews were captured by marines of the Imperial Japanese Navy, who had been dispatched from the seaplane base located on the eastern side of the lagoon. Taken as some of the earliest American POWs, the six US Naval airmen were transferred to the Japanese home islands where each survived the duration of the war by working as prisoner laborers. The two TBD-1 Devastators and their aircrews were part of combined airstrikes on the Japanese Mandated Islands of the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, by two United States carrier task groups centered around the USS Enterprise (CV-6) and the USS Yorktown (CV-5). The USS Enterprise was at the center of Task Force 8 under the command of Vice Admiral William “Bull” Halsey Jr., which attacked the northern atolls of Kwajalein, Wotje and Taroa. Task Force 17, under the command of Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher and centered around the USS Yorktown, attacked Jaluit and Mili Atolls in the Marshall Islands, and Makin Island in the Gilbert Island Chain. On the morning of the launch, heavy squalls and lightning were reported in the direction of Jaluit. Since Jaluit was the furthest target from the carrier, 17 Douglas SBD Dauntlesses of Bombing 5, and 11 Douglas TBD-1 Devastators of Torpedo 5 were the first to launch from the ship and all were reported clear of the deck by 0517. With the thick, overcast cloud cover and storms nearby, few of the aircrews were in visual contact with each other during the 140-mile journey to Jaluit Atoll. It was not until they broke through the ceiling at approximately 1,000 feet that they could begin to assess their targets around the islet of Jabor. Each plane dropped their bombloads and many continued to strafe targets on land and in the harbor. Shortly after dropping bombs over the target harbor area at Jabor, Jaluit Atoll, the pilot, Lt. Johnson of BuNo. 0298 determined that his plane would not have enough fuel to make it back to the carrier, and they might not even be able to make “Point Truck”. “Point Truck” was an area south of the atoll that had been designated as the rendezvous location where a destroyer would be stationed to act as a lifeguard and pick up the crew of any downed aircraft in the event they could not get back to the carrier task force. The first offensive action by the United States Navy in the World War II Pacific Theater following the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, the two aircraft’s connection to the raids on the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, alone, would elevate each to the classification of “significant” and qualify them for inclusion on the US Secretary of the Interiors’ list of National Historic Landmarks. The two aircraft, however, could also be considered “significant” for their revolutionary designs. With an overall length of 35ft and a height of 15ft 1in, the Douglas Aircraft Company’s TBD-1 Devastator recorded several firsts for any aircraft built for the US Navy. It featured an all-metal structure of semi-monocoque construction. The single low-mounted wing was 50ft across but was fitted with revolutionary power actuated hydraulic folding mechanisms that would cut the wingspan virtually in half (down to 25ft 8in) to better store more aircraft on the crowded hangar decks of fleet aircraft carriers. It also boasted the debut of independent Bendix® wheel brakes on its main landing gear, and completely enclosed the 2 �crew positions (pilot, bombardier, radio operator/gunner) under a glass canopy. Incorporated within the airframe and skin were still more technological advances including the integration of special alloy metals such as Alclad® aluminum. Of the 129 TBD-1 Devastators built for the United States Navy, none were preserved in any museum or collection and the location of only eleven wrecks is currently known. Seven are at the bottom of the Coral Sea, approximately 500 miles off the eastern coast of Australia. These Devastators are associated with the wreckage of the aircraft carrier USS Lexington (CV-2), which was located and documented by the research vessel R/V Petrel on 4 March 2018, resting at a depth of approximately 9842 feet. Two other examples lost in stateside training accidents have also been found. One is off the coast of Miami, Florida in approximately 500 feet of water, while the other is off the coast of San Diego, California in approximately 800 feet of water. Of all these aircraft, the two in Jaluit Atoll lagoon, by far, combine the highest level of preservation with the greatest accessibility. RESEARCH DESIGN The overlying archaeological research design for this project has sought to study the two planes for both their historical and archaeological value, while monitoring the submerged structures’ physical integrity and level of preservation, to determine the best plan to potentially recover and conserve the most promising example. Data collected during the seven individual site visits has been augmented with archival research, oral history interviews, and lab analysis to develop a more complete narrative of the raid on Jaluit, and detailed data on the Douglas Aircraft Co. TBD-1 Devastator. Access to the site for the first four expeditions was through small regional dive boats that had to make the 100 plus nautical mile trip from Majuro to Jaluit. Later trips were from larger live-aboard dive charter boats moored nearly on top of the site. On each trip however, the dive platform was some form of self-contained breathing apparatus. Most divers reached the two sites by diving on compressed air, and strictly adhering to Navy Dive Tables, which limited an individual’s bottom time to approximately 10 minutes, but greatly increased the safety factor while working in such an isolated area. In 2013, dive team members Brett Seymour and Brian Kirk dove using a mixed-gas fraction of Nitrox, which allowed Brett to stay on site longer than the rest and gain the images required to assemble a photographic mosaic of the deep wreck BuNo. 1515. During the 2018 site visit, Brett Seymour and Evan Kovacs both dove on a closed-circuit rebreather system, which allowed them considerably greater bottom time on the site, less decompression time, and a shorter surface interval. Throughout all expeditions extensive documentation has been conducted on both sites that include still photography and videography, sketches, written descriptions, hand measurement, LiDAR scanning and the use of several analytical instruments. ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES AND SITE FORMATION The two VT-5 Devastators ditched into the lagoon at Jaluit on the same day, under the same conditions, and barely 100 yards apart. Each sank to the bottom within minutes of one another and appear to have received only minimal damage in the process. The only notable difference between the two aircraft is that one slid 50 feet down the west side of a reef face, while the other sank to a depth of 110 ft and landed on a relatively flat section of bottom sediments. In the process, both received nearly the exact same overall structural damage. Archaeologically, the two planes provide an excellent opportunity for comparison between the two series of aircraft. BuNo. 0298, the shallow wreck, represents the first batch of 114 aircraft delivered to the US Navy by the Douglas Aircraft Co. BuNo. 1515 was part of a second order of 15 planes that replaced aircraft that had crashed in operational accidents or were considered beyond repair and stricken from the US Navy inventory. While very similar there were slight nuances between the two separate aircraft orders that can only be confirmed by the side-by-side comparison of the two Jaluit TBDs. A catalog of missing features or damage to the structure of the Jaluit Devastators was made by visual observations during the expedition dives, comparison of the two aircraft, and through review of 3 �historic photographic and written resources. Each can be divided into two categories: accident damage incurred during the initial ditching event and damage due to long-term immersion in saltwater. Damage or missing features attributed to the ditching: 1. The two floatation bag cover plates on each aircraft are not on the site. 2. The tail wheel for each aircraft is missing and not on site. 3. The engine on each aircraft is either disassociated from the structure or the engine bolts originally holding the engine in place have fractured. 4. A small section of the skin on the underside of the fuselage aft of the recess for the torpedo has been ripped and folded back. 5. The outboard end of the port aileron frame (“shallow wreck”) is bent and folded from contact with a coral head after sliding down the reef face. 6. The port bombsight door is open on the “deep wreck.” 7. The port wing of “deep wreck” may be slightly bent aft. 8. The upper skins on the horizontal tail surfaces (most evident on the port side of the “deep wreck”) are deformed inwards, presumably due to water pressure acting on the still air-filled watertight compartments within as the planes sank. 9. Port leading edge landing light on the “shallow plane” is hanging loose. 10. Pilot’s seat in the “deep wreck” is out of alignment (twisted to the left) and possibly broke loose during the ditching. Missing or Damaged Features 1. .30 Caliber M-2 Flexible Mounted Machine Gun from the “shallow wreck” is missing. 2. The Pilot’s map case from the “deep wreck” (the same could not be verified on the “shallow wreck” because of coral intrusion). 3. Norden Bombsights on both wrecks are missing. 4. The fuel tank filler plate on each wing from both planes is missing. 5. The port side of BuNo. 0298’s top canopy has shattered. 6. The starboard horizontal stabilizer on BuNo. 0298 has recently separated from the tail structure and now hangs from its internal control linkages with the outboard edge resting on the seabed. Undisturbed Features 1. Pilot’s cockpit 2. Bombardier’s cockpit 3. Gunner’s cockpit PRESERVATION ASSESSMENT By the time the first group of project researchers dove onto the site in 2004, the two submerged structures had already been subjected to a little over 62 years of immersion in salt water. Corrosion had been, and remained, active in several notable places, but the overall condition of the aircraft was exceptional considering the environment. Engineers that assisted in the project frequently noted how much strength and integrity the structures appeared to hold. Part of the challenge of assessing the level of preservation for any aircraft is the number of different types of metals that were incorporated into the aircraft. For the Aluminum and steel categories, there are approximately twenty to twenty-five additional variations of metal created through alloying or plating. Finishing processes also change the material properties of a metal, which in turn alters its corrosion resistance. The TBD-1 metals were cast and wrought, heat treated and cold worked, annealed, and quenched by different mediums. On site, observers specifically searched for visual evidence of active corrosion of the structural metals. 4 �1. 2. 3. 4. Signs of galvanic action, or dissimilar metal contact. Signs of stress corrosion (especially on extruded pieces). Signs of pitting corrosion or copper deposition. Signs of accelerated corrosion due to differential aeration cells, including crevice corrosion. Visual observations and documentation of metals deterioration has been undertaken on each trip through written descriptions and a photographic record. This has allowed for monitoring and comparison analysis over the duration of the project. In addition, corrosion potentials (Ecorr) have been taken on several trips and one trip employed ultrasound to determine the overall thickness of the aircraft skin. Disarticulated samples from each aircraft were collected during the 2006 site visit and exported under permit to laboratories at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX for metallographic analysis and to determine if microbial influenced corrosion could be playing a role in the deterioration of the metal structure. CONCLUSIONS Both TBD-1 Devastators in Jaluit Lagoon are historic and hold considerable archaeological information. Information that can be found nowhere else, but on these two sites. Galvanic corrosion and differential aeration cells resulting in crevice corrosion, and the growth of soft corals and sponges across the surfaces of the planes, which is presumed to be forming new differential aeration cells, are beginning to accelerate the deterioration rate of both planes. Since it is closer to the surface and affixed to a coral head, BuNo. 0298’s assimilation into the environment is far more extensive and coral growth on top of the plane’s engine and pilot’s cockpit is flourishing. Because removing it from this environment would undoubtedly cause irrevocable harm to the ecosystem, and since BuNo. 1515 offers additional information not available in the original drawings or blueprints of the plane type, the Devastator Project scientific team has moved forward with developing plans to recover the deeper wreck. The engineering team is currently working out some final aspects of the initial lift off the bottom. Considerable logistical planning remains, but when completed the proposal will be submitted to the US Navy History and Heritage Command, Underwater Archaeology Branch for approval and permission to move forward. The Devastator Project team is likewise consulting regularly with the RMI Historic Preservation Office as well as the local and traditional leaders of Jaluit Atoll, working together to determine the best path to protect and preserve these unique cultural heritage resources. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Christiansen, Henrik, The Archaeology of World War II in the Marshall Islands, Five Volumes: Vol I Torwa (80 pages); Vol II: Wojja (65 pages); Vol III: Jalwoj (55 pages); Vol V: Tourism: (33 pages). Historic Preservation Office, Majuro, 1994. Dalzell, James W., RM/c, Radioman/rear gunner TBD-1 BuNo. 0298, Narrator, Ric Gillespie, and Russ Matthews Interviewers, 2004. Douglas Aircraft Company. Handbook of Instructions for the Erection and Maintenance of the Model TBD-1 Airplane for the United States Navy. Santa Monica, CA: Douglas Aircraft Company, 1937. Douglas Aircraft Company. Pilot’s Handbook for the Model TBD-1 Airplane. Santa Monica, CA: Douglas Aircraft Company, 1937. Fix, Peter D. and Russell E. Matthews. Final Report: US Navy History and Heritage Command, Special Use Permit #20181. MS on file. 2021. Gillespie and King, The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery, “Jaluit Submerged Aircraft Survey,” TIGHAR Tracks Vol 20, #3 July 2004. Harris, M., & Martin, L-E, Jaluit “Underwater Survey, Final Report,” Historic Preservation Office, Majuro, 1997. Lundstrom, John B. 1984. The First Team: Pacific Naval Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute. Macleod, Ian. “In-situ Corrosion Studies on Wrecked Aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy in Chuuk Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35(1):128 – 136. Plaia, T.W. et al., Investigation of Bacteria Associated with WWII Aircraft Wrecks in Jaluit Lagoon, Marshall Islands: Implications for Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion. Published Report submitted to Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval Historical Trust, Department of Navy, 2006. National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, as amended, 54 U.S.C. 300101 et seq. (2014), and Protection of Historic Properties, 36 CFR part 800. United States Navy; Office of Naval Intelligence. Early Raids in the Pacific Ocean, Combat Narrative, The Raid on the Marshall and Gilbert Islands February 1, 1942, Washington, DC: Publication Section, Combat Intelligence Branch Office of Naval Intelligence, United States Navy, 1943. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site. Description An account of the resource The topic of the paper, entitled “The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis, and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site,” best fits within the session, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges due to its context and subject matter. Before sunrise on 1 February 1942, aircraft from the USS Yorktown (CV-5), sortied as part of Task Force-17’s attack on the Japanese Mandated Islands of Jaluit and Milli, in present day Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Makin, the northernmost island in the Gilbert Islands chain. During the raid, two TBD-1 Devastator torpedo bombers [BuNo. 0298 (5-T-7), and BuNo. 1515 (5-T-6)] were forced to ditch in Jaluit Lagoon as each aircraft was low on fuel. The aircrews of both planes survived the water landing, were captured by Imperial Japanese Naval forces, and survived captivity in POW camps in Japan. Since 2004, a group of scientists, engineers and researchers have undertaken seven expeditions to the resting place of these aircraft in a remote section of the lagoon to document and conduct analysis on aspects of the artifacts’ preservation. As part of the monitoring and assessment, plans have been generated to potentially recover one of the aircraft to archaeological and materials conservation standards. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Peter D. Fix Russell E. Matthews Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Fix, Peter D., Russell E. Matthews. 2023. “The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology.URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1897 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2fa63a4e7948034bda4040250102942f.pdf 6815dca04ba5f026365fa0eaa8a12c7f PDF Text Text THE GALLOPING GHOST OF THE JAVA COAST: PRESERVING THE STORY OF WWII ERA HEAVY CRUISER USS HOUSTON (CA-30) Alexis Catsambis (Underwater Archaeology Branch, Branch Head [Acting]) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within the Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges session of the conference as it is directly relevant to the session’s theme. The paper presents a case study on the wreck site of USS Houston (CA-30), a heavy cruiser located in Banten Bay, Indonesia, sank in combat during the Battle of Sunda Strait in 1942. It is associated with one of the greatest losses of life tied to a single sinking event in U.S. Navy history. The wrecksite of USS Houston has been documented over the course of the last several years through the use of diving and remote-sensing based surveys. Collaborative management efforts between the Governments of Indonesia and the United States have recently focused on site preservation, a point of particular concern as nearby contemporary warships have suffered significantly at the hands of unauthorized salvage operations. The results presented will demonstrate what has been learned about the shipwreck over the course of the last decade, as well as highlight transnational approaches to the preservation of underwater cultural heritage sites. KEYWORDS: World War II, Shipwreck, U.S. Navy, Indonesia INTRODUCTION USS Houston (CA-30), a heavy cruiser measuring 600 feet (c.183 meters) in length, was launched in 1929 and was sunk in combat by Japanese forces during the Battle of Sunda Strait on 1 March 1942. In 2014, following a series of reports of unauthorized salvaging of World War II-era shipwrecks in the region, a joint dive exercise of the U.S. Navy (USN) and the Indonesian Navy (IND) was undertaken on the site now confirmed to be the wreck of USS Houston (CA-30). The 2014 operation aimed to verify the identity of the site and ascertain the ship’s state of preservation. During the mission, a wreathlaying ceremony, presided over by the U.S. Deputy Chief of Mission to Indonesia, Ms. Kristen Bauer, commemorated the loss of life associated with the vessel’s sinking, which was among the heaviest in USN history (c. 645 sailors and Marines). Captain Albert H. Rooks, USN, killed in action, posthumously received the Medal of Honor for extraordinary heroism, while USS Houston was awarded two battle stars, as well as the Presidential Unit Citation for its service. Since 2014, the U.S. Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) has engaged extensively with peers and counterparts to ensure the continuing preservation of the USS Houston site. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND History of USS Houston (CA-30) On 7 September 1927, the second USN ship to carry the name of the city of Houston, TX, was launched by Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., in Newport News, VA. The 9,050-ton Northamptonclass heavy cruiser was first commissioned as CL-30 on 17 June 1930, though the vessel’s designation changed to CA-30 on 1 July 1931 (DON 2017). USS Houston traversed much of the world during the interwar period. After spending some time in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, she joined the fleet at Hampton Roads. With the outbreak of war between Japan and China in 1932, Houston moved on to Shanghai to protect American citizens and interests in the region. The following year she joined the Scouting Force in San Francisco, in which she participated in Fleet Problems and maneuvers in the Pacific. During this time, Houston celebrated the opening of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco on 28 May 1937. For brief periods, in 1938 and 1939, Houston became 1 the flagship of both the U.S. Fleet �and the Hawaiian Detachment. President Franklin D. Roosevelt claimed Houston as his favorite ship, and she made several special cruises carrying the President on a number of occasions in 1934, 1935, 1938, and 1939 (DON 2017; Hornfischer 2006, 14-19). As the fear of war began to spread around the world, Houston departed for the Philippine Islands on 3 November 1940 and arrived at Manila on 19 November. There she became the flagship of Admiral Hart, Commander of the Asiatic Fleet, and was readied for battle. Houston was undergoing some repairs at Cavite Naval Yard on 27 November 1941 in the Philippine Islands when her captain, Albert H. Rooks, received a Navy Department warning about an impending Japanese attack on the Asiatic Fleet (Winslow 1984, 37). In response, Houston set about anti-submarine patrols in the area (Winslow 1984, 38). On 8 December, the crew learned of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and Houston set out with fleet units for Darwin, Australia (DON 1943, 5). She traveled by way of Balikpapan and Surabaya and arrived on 28 December 1941. After completing patrol duty, she joined the multinational American-British-DutchAustralian (ABDA) naval force at Surabaya in January 1942. Finding herself in the midst of war, Houston saw her first battle against the Japanese at the Battle of Makassar Strait on 4 February 1942. During this engagement, Rear Admiral Karel Doorman of the Royal Netherlands Navy led the Dutch and American forces to the Bali Sea. After evading serious damage for over two hours (Baldwin 1946, 5-7), Houston was the target of an enemy bomb that put turret 3 out of commission, killing nearly 50 crewmembers and injuring 20 (DON 1943, 28). Houston subsequently sought refuge at Tjilatjap to work on repairs and to tend to wounded sailors (Hornfischer 2006, 12). The ship departed Tjilatjap for Darwin, Australia, on 10 February to escort a convoy delivering reinforcement troops to Dutch Timor (Holbrook 1981, 51). Houston, said to be “twisting in and out of that convoy like a mother hen protecting her chicks” (Schultz 1985, 126), successfully defended herself and the rest of the convoy when Japanese aircraft attacked in two waves on 15 and 16 February, shooting down 7 of the second wave’s 44 planes (DON 1943, 37; Holbrook 1981, 53). As the major Japanese invasion force approached Java, Houston was ordered to rejoin Rear Admiral Doorman’s strike force as soon as possible. At sunset on 26 February the fleet of the Combined Striking Force, consisting of 5 cruisers (USS Houston, HMAS Perth, HNMS De Ruyter, HMS Exeter, and HNMS Java) and 9 destroyers, set sail to engage the enemy (Hornfischer 2006, 69). Morning light the next day, 27 February, brought Japanese air raids and by that afternoon the Allied ships met the Japanese support force under Rear Admiral Takeo Takagi consisting of 4 cruisers and 13 destroyers. The resulting encounter became known as the Battle of the Java Sea. While Doorman’s advance had caught the Japanese off guard, the lack of air support, challenges in communication, and fatigue hindered the Combined Striking Force (van Oosten 1976, 42). As the battle got underway, cruisers of both fleets opened fire. Houston struck a Japanese cruiser and temporarily slowed it down, but was hit twice in return. The first shell passed through Houston without exploding, but the second exploded on the port side, rupturing an oil tank (DON 1945a, 2). By 5:10 pm, Exeter was hit and severely damaged (DON 1943, 64), while amidst frantic maneuvering Dutch destroyer Kortenaer took a torpedo meant for Houston and was sunk (Schultz 1985, 142); British destroyer HMS Electra was lost shortly thereafter. Doorman broke off contact and headed north in an attempt to attack the Japanese transports but was unable to determine their location (DON 1943, 70). The American destroyers, low on fuel and out of torpedoes, were sent back to Surabaya. At 9:25 pm British destroyer HMS Jupiter was sunk, either by mine or internal explosion; another destroyer, HMS Encounter, was detached to pick up survivors from Kortenaer, leaving the remaining four cruisers without destroyer protection (DON 1943, 74-75). Later that same night, around 11:00, the cruisers again sighted the Japanese surface group, and the opposing units opened fire. The Japanese launched a devastating torpedo attack 30 minutes later. Twelve of these torpedoes found their targets in De Ruyter and Java, exploding and sinking them, and carrying their captains and Rear Admiral Doorman down with 2 �the ships. Prior to sinking, Doorman managed to radio an order for the cruisers Perth and Houston to retire to Batavia (Jakarta) (Thomas 1968, 212-3). The Battle of the Java Sea marked the largest surface naval engagement since the Battle of Jutland in World War I (Weinberg 2005, 320). The Battle of Sunda Strait The following day, 28 February, the only two remaining Allied cruisers, Perth and Houston, departed from the port of Tanjung Priok, Batavia (Jakarta), with orders to report to Tjilatjap via Sunda Strait (DON 1945a, 3). The cruisers were to make their way out to the Java Sea, regroup, and then continue the resistance against the Japanese (DON 1943, 77). En route to Sunda Strait, Perth and Houston unexpectedly encountered the Japanese invasion force anchored vulnerably in Banten Bay (van Oosten 1976, 60). As the cruisers approached the bay, they swiftly evaded nine torpedoes launched by the destroyer Fubuki (Thomas 1968, 218). The cruisers returned fire, hitting four transports, one of which sank, leading the other three to beach themselves to avoid the same fate. Prospects were grim as Sunda Strait, the cruisers’ means of retreat, was blocked by a Japanese destroyer squadron, and Japanese large cruisers Mogami and Mikutna closed in from the north. Perth was first to come under fire at 11:36 pm and just after midnight went up in flames and sank, leaving Houston alone to face overwhelming odds (DON 2017). Houston battled bravely, holding the paradoxical advantage over the enemy fleet of being able to consider all other vessels in the dark of night targets; this advantage was lost when a hit on Houston’s forecastle started a fire that singled her out (DON 1945a, 5). Shortly after midnight on 1 March, the aft engine room was hit on the port side, presumably by a torpedo (DON 1945a, 6). Despite losing headway due to the torpedo hit, the vessel carried on the fight, guns blazing in all directions. Fires erupting near turrets 1 and 2 helped the enemy get their range and bearing on her, and a second torpedo hit soon followed (DON 1945a, 8, 12). Just prior to the order to abandon ship, another torpedo hit the starboard side abreast the foremast, while severe shelling and machine gunning of the ship was taking place from both the port and starboard side at close range (DON 1945a, 9, 13). A final torpedo struck the forward engine room from the port side (DON 1945a, 13). At 12:30 am, Captain Rooks was killed by shrapnel from an exploding shell (DON 2017). A few minutes later, with her ensign still flying, Houston sank into the waters of Banten Bay taking 645 crew members with her. The number of enemy ships sunk and the extent of damage to others is unknown because of the darkness and the smoke that enveloped the engagement; later reports suggested that Houston sank seven ships, including cruisers, destroyers, and a seaplane carrier (DON 1945a, 14). In questioning by the Japanese after capture, Houston officers were accused of lying when they stated that only two Allied ships were present during the battle; it was the firm belief of all the American officers that the Japanese had shot at several of their own ships (DON 1945a, 5, 14). The 367 Houston crew members who survived the sinking were taken by the Japanese as prisoners to the town of Serang. The prisoners were then moved to Batavia and placed in the “Bicycle Camp,” named for the Tenth Battalion Bicycle Force of the Netherlands East Indies Army it had previously housed (Hornfischer 2006, 187). Conditions at the camp, though still challenging, were less deplorable than in Serang (Schultz 1985, 228). From there, the men of Houston were dispersed to various camps around Asia, most of them heading to Singapore, forced into rusty freighters for days on end where they could hardly move and were given very little to eat; many suffered from dysentery on this journey (Hornfischer 2006, 224-227). Upon arrival at Changi Camp the men were transported to Burma where they became slave laborers on the Burma-Thai Railway (Winslow 1984, 180). When the war ended, after having spent three and a half years in captivity, the Houston prisoners were rescued by American OSS operatives and other Allied forces. The men were brought to Calcutta, India, and the Philippines before returning to the United States (DON 1945b). Of the 376 Houston survivors (including 9 who had been evacuated from the ship prior to her sinking), 299 sailors and Marines survived 3 �captivity and were able to return home. It was not until after the war had ended and Houston’s survivors were liberated from prison camps, that the full story of her courageous fight was told. Almost nine months passed after Houston’s sinking before the world first heard of its fate. When news of the ship’s sinking reached the citizens of the city of Houston, they raised money to build the light cruiser USS Houston (CL-81), as well as the light aircraft carrier USS San Jacinto (CVL-30). On Memorial Day 1942, one thousand men known as the “Houston Volunteers” were sworn in to the USN to symbolically replace Houston’s crew, who were all presumed dead at that time, in an effort to carry on their legacy (Life Magazine 1942). SITE DISCOVERY AND THE 2014 SURVEY Identifying the location of the wreck of Houston was the objective of repeated efforts in the late 1960s, and the quest continued into the early 1970s. Earlier reports suggested the potential salvaging of the vessel by the Japanese, while in 1966 President Johnson was reportedly presented with a bell from Houston by Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos. In June 1973, the Naval Historical Center (later the NHHC) was informed that an Indonesian SCUBA diving club sanctioned by the Government of Indonesia Department of Communications recovered the ship’s bell from Houston and offered it to the U.S. Naval Attaché, indicating the first confirmed identification of the site’s location. The bell was presented to U.S. Ambassador Francis Galbraith on 24 August 1973, along with a 30-caliber machine gun, a telescope, and other small items (DON n.d.). Since that time, the sites of both USS Houston and HMAS Perth have been repeatedly visited by divers and remain common fishing grounds. The 2014 mission represented the first formal site assessment by the USN of the remains of the vessel, producing baseline data that addressed the identity and state of preservation of the wreck. The 2014 operation resulted in a total of 14 dives conducted by USN MDSU-1 Company 1-5, along with several dives conducted by the Indonesian Navy team during the course of five dive excursions. Given the observed depths of 90-120 ft (c. 27.5-36.5 m), dives were limited to 15 minutes in order to conform to standard dive safety practices. Additionally, as a result of the periodic current (up to 1.7 knots) and compromised visibility on site, not all dives permitted for the systematic and provenience-based assessment of site features. Furthermore, early dives did not yet benefit from the subsequent placement of buoys on the extremities and midships of the site, therefore compromising the accuracy of positioning of observed features. In addition to diver reports, 15 of the 19 dives were also documented utilizing GoPro handheld video recorders producing the primary record subsequently analyzed by researchers. Furthermore, Remotely Operated Vehicle footage concentrating on a single feature in the vicinity of the bow, and moderate quality side-scan sonar data collected over the length of the hull enhanced the interpretation of the site and its identification. Finally, GPS coordinates obtained over the buoys affixed near the extremities of the site provided for a precise location and orientation. NHHC developed a comprehensive site plan based on features observed during review of video recordings and concurrent assessment of all other projectderived data such as diver logs and side-scan sonar records. The data collected during the 2014 mission indicated that the hull’s starboard side is lying on the seafloor, with the deck positioned perpendicular to the seafloor facing towards shore and the entire port side exposed. A notable break appears near the bow, approximately 40 ft (c. 12 m) aft of the damaged tip. Battle damage, damage associated with the wrecking event, and subsequent disturbance of the site appear to have severely disfigured the vessel. Fishing nets, strewn throughout the hull and particularly prominent in the vicinity of the stern and along amidships, obscure many of the vessel’s features. 4 �THE 2014 SURVEY FINDINGS Pursuant to a thorough review of available data, confirmation of the identity of the wrecked vessel as USS Houston followed multiple lines of evidence, taking into account historical records, eyewitness statements, construction drawings, overall site dimensions, and identifiable features. Some of the most prominent areas of the ship, such as the bow rake, stacks, masts, and gun turrets, were significantly damaged and/or dislocated during the battle and the ensuing wrecking event. Neither the mainmast, nor the ship’s one remaining scout observation seaplane were located during the dives. Furthermore, marine growth and an expansive array of various grades of fishing nets blanketed the site and concealed many of the finer identifying features. Complicating the assessment was the fact that the pressed operation timetable did not permit for the establishment of any form of reference grid that would allow for the precise positioning of identifying features. Nevertheless, a series of features proved consistent with the vessel’s identification; while no observed features appeared inconsistent, assisting in the confirmation of the vessel’s identity (Catsambis 2014). Of particular interest was that the wrecked vessel showed evidence of battle damage in the form of areas of deformed hull, as well as penetrations of the hull and decks that exhibited both inward-facing and outward-facing impacts. Additionally, the vessel clearly suffered damage as a consequence of its wrecking event, which resulted in all three main gun turrets, the foremast, associated superstructure, and both stacks being displaced. There is particular evidence of battle damage that corresponds directly with the action report filed in 1945 by former gunnery officer Arthur Maher (DON 1945a), the senior survivor of USS Houston, which also correlates with eyewitness accounts presented elsewhere (e.g., Holbrook 1981, 83-102). At the same time, the elevated degree of association between reported hits and battlerelated damage observed on site raised concern over expanses of significant hull deformation that could not be readily explained. This is particular the case near the aft port side of the hull where four adjacent but distinct areas appear impacted. Damage to this section of the hull could not be reasonably dismissed as related to the wrecking event, as is the case with the broken bow extremity, and raised the prospect of notable unauthorized recovery of portions of the hull. The concern over unauthorized and systematic disturbance of the site was confirmed by a series of additional observations. Rivets running along the edges of seams holding hull plates together had been methodically removed to allow for the plates to be maneuvered and lifted as part of unauthorized recovery operations. Elsewhere, what appears to be a water-dredge, used to remove sediment from an underwater environment, was protruding from a cavity resulting from a presumed torpedo hit, permitting access to the interior of the hull. A modern hollow hose, coiled near the stern on the exposed port side of the vessel, would have been used as part of a rudimentary surface-supplied diving system to support prolonged underwater operations. Of greatest perhaps concern was that divers observed an accumulation of shells and ordnance resting on the exposed port side of the hull alongside a secured bag, likely placed there in preparation for their recovery. SITE MANAGEMENT The 2014 survey of USS Houston was conducted as a joint exercise with the local Indonesian authorities, demonstrating the joint interest in the wreck’s management as part of both nations’ cultural heritage. The wreck, which serves as the final resting place for hundreds of sailors, contains potentially live ordnance, is seeping oil, and is suffering from unauthorized disturbance that could significantly impact public safety, the surrounding environment and the local fishing economy. Of great concern is that continuing unauthorized activities that intrude into or impact the integrity of the hull have the potential to disturb remains of those sailors who perished with the vessel. Since 2014, therefore, the USN has continuously engaged with Indonesian counterparts, local government authorities, along with partners from Australia and the United Kingdom, to enhance the preservation potential of USS Houston. These efforts have resulted in world-wide press, public exhibits, conferences, commemorative wreath-laying ceremonies, and additional site surveys. Most recently, a bilateral agreement is being negotiated that would lead the site of USS Houston to be deemed a marine protected area, helping to ensure its future preservation. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Baldwin, Hanson W. Saga of a Stout Ship – The Houston. New York Times Magazine, 3 March 1946. Catsambis, Alexis. Field Report: 2014 USS Houston (CA-30) DIVEX. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Naval History and Heritage Command, 2014. <https://www.history.navy.mil/content/dam/nhhc/research/underwaterarchaeology/PDF/2014%20USS%20Houston%20(CA-30)%20DIVEX%20Field%20Report%20(P).pdf> Accessed 25 May 2023. Department of the Navy (DON). The Java Sea Campaign: Combat Narratives. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Office of Naval Intelligence, USN Publications Branch, Navy Department Library, Naval History and Heritage Command1943. Department of the Navy (DON). Action Report: U.S.S. Houston CA-30 on the Battle of Sunda Strait, 28 February 1942, Account by Senior Surviving Officer Arthur L. Maher. College Park, MD: WWII Action and Operational Reports, Records Relating to Naval Activity During World War II, Box 1047, Record Group 38, National Archives II, 1945a. Department of the Navy (DON). Houston Survivors Liberated. Immediate Press Release, Press and Radio. September 1, 1945. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Archives, Naval History and Heritage Command. 1945b. Department of the Navy (DON). Houston-II. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, Naval History and Heritage Command, 1 March 2017 < https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/h/houstonii.html> Accessed 25 May 2023. Department of the Navy (DON). Communications regarding USS Houston (CA-30) 1967-1986. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Curator Branch, Naval History and Heritage Command. Accessed October 2014. N.D. Holbrook, Heber A. U.S.S. Houston: The Last Flagship of the Asiatic Fleet. Dixon, CA: Pacific Ship and Shore, 1981. Hornfischer, James D. Ship of Ghosts: The Story of the USS Houston, FDR’s Legendary Lost Cruiser, and the Epic Saga of Her Survivors. New York, NY: Bantam Books, 2006. Life Magazine. Houston Replaces “Houston’s” Losses. Life Magazine (12:24), June 15, 1942. Schultz, Duane. The Last Battle Station: The Story of the U.S.S. Houston. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Thomas, David A. The Battle of Java Sea. New York, NY: Stein and Day, 1968. van Oosten, F.C. The Battle of the Java Sea. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1976. Weinberg, Gerhard A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Winslow, Walter G. The Ghost of the Java Coast: Saga of the U.S.S. Houston. Florida: Coral Reef Publications, 1984. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Galloping Ghost of the Java Coast: Preserving the Story of WWII Era Heavy Cruiser USS Houston (CA-30) Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within the Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges session of the conference as it is directly relevant to the session’s theme. The paper presents a case study on the wreck site of USS Houston (CA-30), a heavy cruiser located in Banten Bay, Indonesia, sank in combat during the Battle of Sunda Strait in 1942. It is associated with one of the greatest losses of life tied to a single sinking event in U.S. Navy history. The wrecksite of USS Houston has been documented over the course of the last several years through the use of diving and remote-sensing based surveys. Collaborative management efforts between the Governments of Indonesia and the United States have recently focused on site preservation, a point of particular concern as nearby contemporary warships have suffered significantly at the hands of unauthorized salvage operations. The results presented will demonstrate what has been learned about the shipwreck over the course of the last decade, as well as highlight transnational approaches to the preservation of underwater cultural heritage sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Alexis Catsambis Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Catsambis, Alexis. 2023. “The Galloping Ghost of the Java Coast: Preserving the Story of WWII Era Heavy Cruiser USS Houston (CA-30).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1896 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e06e4fd464a4d509057fd6063039e4dd.pdf bbc38260110fc2b9dfcc0e1db533970a PDF Text Text Examining the World War II Underwater Cultural Heritage of Maui and Lānaʻi through 3D Photogrammetric Modeling 1 Dominic Bush (East Carolina University, PhD Candidate) Jason Raupp (East Carolina University, Assistant Professor) 2 3Justin Dunnavant (University of California at Los Angeles, Assistant Professor) ABSTRACT In October 2022, archaeologists from East Carolina University and the University of California at Los Angeles investigated underwater cultural heritage associated with World War II around the islands of Maui and Lānaʻi in Hawaiʻi. Working in partnership with the National Geographic Society and the Ocean Exploration Trust, the team surveyed the remains of lost or abandoned aircraft, amphibious assault vehicles, ships, and moorings associated with WWII training and staging exercises. In keeping with Session Four’s (Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region) focus on “discoveries, opportunities and challenges”, the maritime heritage research centered on assessing the physical state of these WWII wreck sites to evaluate preservation threats, while also contributing to the creation of educational resources and outreach tools. A total of eight WWII-era sites were surveyed using photogrammetric recording methods; these include the wrecks of two US Navy aircraft, five amphibious landing craft, a mooring station, and a semi-submerged gasoline tanker. Project members used the collected imagery to produce 3-dimensional photo models. The models proved not only to be effective visual aids for showcasing some of Hawaiʻi’s rich submerged maritime heritage, but also provided archaeologists with detailed site maps made in a fraction of the time generally required. This paper examines the indelible impact left by the war on Maui and Lānaʻi through the investigation of tangible remains of the island’s’ wartime cultural landscape. KEY WORDS: World War II, Photogrammetry, Hawaii, LVT, Aircraft LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Map of Maui survey area with site locations Figure 2. A 2011 photograph of the site (above) juxtaposed over 3D model of Makena LVT-4 (below); damage to pontoon and cab plating indicated in red (Top image courtesy of NOAA ONMS/UH MOP; bottom image courtesy of ECU/UCLA). Figure 3. 3D model of previously unrecorded LVT-2 wrecks in Māʻalaea Bay. Identifiable components are labeled (courtesy ECU/UCLA). Figure 4. 3D model of Helldiver site (right) compared with 2D site plan (left) (courtesy NOAA ONMS/UH MOP) Figure 5. 3D model of “3 Anchors”, a WWII era USN mooring (courtesy ECU/UCLA) Figure 6. Earlier photo of YOGN-42 (above) compared with 3D model of YOGN-42 (below) (Top image courtesy of R. and K. Brooke, n.d.; bottom image courtesy of ECU/UCLA). INTRODUCTION In October 2022, the Ocean Exploration Trust (OET), with funding from the National Geographic Society, launched the third of its three “Shore to the Abyss” expeditions focused on the Hawaiian marine environment (OET 2022). Bringing together researchers, educators, and story-tellers with diverse backgrounds, this third expedition targeted the islands’ World War II (WWII) maritime heritage, specifically around the southern coast of Maui and along Lānaʻi’s Shipwreck Beach. Rather than emphasizing discovery, the research plan called for condition assessments of previously-recorded underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites, many of which were subjected to prior archaeological investigation by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the University of Hawaiʻi, Mānoa (UH). The present study, however, diverges from previous efforts through its methodological focus on threedimensional (3D) photogrammetric site recording. Instead of relying on standard recording techniques to generate two-dimensional site maps, the research team conducted video surveys of each site. The thousands of still images extracted from videos were used to construct 3D digital models, which 1 �simultaneously serve as visual site assessments and powerful outreach tools. Photogrammetry is no longer a new concept in underwater archaeology and has been executed on a far more sophisticated level than presented here. That said, this study is intended to serve as an example of making this seemingly complex and expensive method of site documentation more accessible to management agencies and aspiring citizen scientists. In addition to providing site descriptions and analyses of notable changes, this paper highlights the maximization of time and budgetary resources in the creation of the ‘digital mosaic’ presented below. METHODOLOGY The initial Shore to the Abyss expedition plan called for the photogrammetric survey of three landing vehicles, tracked (LVT; two LVT(A)-4 and one LVT-4) and two aircraft (Grumman F6F-3 Hellcat and Curtiss SB2C-1C Helldiver) found in Māʻalaea Bay (Figure 1). After consultation with the diver operator, however, it was decided that survey efforts would also include a WWII naval mooring and two previously unrecorded LVTs, also located within the bay. At each site, one-meter (m) scales were placed on the surrounding seafloor prior to the video survey to assist with later archaeological analysis. Using a GoPro Hero 9 Black action camera ($299) situated within an underwater housing equipped with a fisheye-lens (Telesin Dome Port $68), divers followed predetermined swim patterns over the site of interest. This involved first swimming overlapping east-west transects, followed by a series of intersecting north-south transects. The vertical site profile was filmed by swimming ascending circles around the object. The 4k videos were then imported into Adobe Photoshop for the extraction of still images (2 frames per second) and color correction. The color corrected images were processed using Agisoft Metashape Professional v1.8 (Professional Edition, Educational License, $549) for the purpose of developing a 3D model. 2 �Figure 1. Map of Maui survey area with site locations Proximity to the island of Lānaʻi permitted the research team to conduct an aerial videographic survey of USS YOGN-42, a decommissioned gasoline barge scuttled off Shipwreck Beach. For the exposed portion of YOGN-42, a 5-minute test survey was carried out using a DJI Mavic Air drone (starting at 3 �$799) with video capabilities flown from the deck of the research vessel. The same process was followed for extracting still images from the video, which were also imported into Metashape for processing. Hazardous surf conditions hampered attempts to video survey the submerged section of the wreck. RESULTS The four-person team completed 36 dives and logged roughly 28 hours of time underwater between the sites. Video surveys resulted in the collection of nearly 300 minutes of footage and over 34,000 extracted images. The project results and 3D models were shared directly from the research vessel during numerous virtual events for the public. Summaries of the project have since been presented as a documentary short via YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iB0m-qu7bJU) and as a segment for Hawaii News Now. After the expedition, models were uploaded to the interactive 3D modelling website Sketchfab, and textured versions can be viewed on YouTube. Results were shared with the State of Hawaiʻi’s Historic Preservation Division and NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS). Previously, most of the following sites were archaeologically recorded through collaborations between ONMS and UH’s Maritime Option Program (MOP) (see NOAA Maritime Heritage Program 2017; ONMS 2011; Van Tilburg 2014). These earlier surveys and 2D site maps served as an invaluable baseline for assessing change at each of the known sites. Landing Vehicles An LVT-4 located off Makena Landing was the first site surveyed (Figure 2). It lies upright on the seafloor at a depth of 18 m, surrounded by a small debris field made up of structural elements and wiring. As was the case for all the LVTs surveyed, much of the vehicle is heavily encrusted in marine growth with pockets of coral concentrations, especially on engine parts. The driver’s compartment (cab) has collapsed, exposing the front-mounted engine. The floor of the rear compartment is mostly worn away, apart from a segment on the port side that is noticeably more deteriorated than it was in 2011. A section of the cab plating has also shifted and broken apart. The most significant change in site condition is the complete collapse of the starboard pontoon. Snapped along the bottom front corner, the bulk of this pontoon now lies within the rear compartment. 4 �Figure 2. A 2011 photograph of the site (above) juxtaposed over 3D model of Makena LVT-4 (below); damage to pontoon and cab plating indicated in red (Top image courtesy of NOAA ONMS/UH MOP; bottom image courtesy of ECU/UCLA). According to a local informant (P. Fiene pers. comm. 2022), the pontoon collapsed after the magnitude 6.9 earthquake, which impacted Hawaiʻi in 2018. This tectonic event and over a decade of storm events have affected the site by increasing debris strewn around it. The second site, an LVT(A)-4, is also located near Makena Landing. Unlike the previous site, the debris field is more expansive and diverse in its composition. Batteries, driving sprockets, hoses, and sections of track and grouser are amongst the scattered remains. The driver’s cab cowling can be 5 �clearly identified 4 m forward of the wreck. The only portions of the vehicle that remain upright and marginally intact are the diagnostic 75-milimeter (mm) howitzer barrel, turret, rear-mounted engine, and a rear starboard section of the hull. Beyond the shifting of smaller debris pieces, no appreciable changes were observed. The highly disarticulated nature of this site is attributed to the postwar detonation of the vehicle’s unexploded ordinance (ONMS 2011). In ʻAhihi Bay, lies a second LVT(A)-4 at a depth of 24 m. Though not as fragmented as the LVT(A)-4 at Makena Landing, this site is also characterized by significant deterioration and scattered debris. The rear deck plating has disappeared, exposing both the engine and two fuel tanks. Both driving sockets are resting on the seafloor, forward of the collapsed driver’s compartment. Hull support for the turret has weakened, causing it to collapse onto the wreck and slump towards the more deteriorated starboard side. In 2011, the portside hull and track are noted as “almost complete” (ONMS 2011). This is no longer the case, as the portside track has disintegrated and can now be found in segments both in and around the wreck. Given the less diffused debris field, this LVT(A)-4 likely represents natural deterioration brought on by corrosion and swell energy. It is possible the destruction of the portside track is a result of the same earthquake activity that collapsed the Makena Landing LVT(A)-4 pontoon. Project team members were alerted by a local consultant of the remains of an unrecorded site located within Māʻalaea Bay. As this site is not currently included in the state database, information related to its position is withheld until it can be properly assessed for management purposes. The site consists of two, abutting LVTs (Figure 3). Based on the rear engine configuration, dimensions, and presence of a small glass window (55 centimeter (cm) -x-40 cm), both vehicles are tentatively identified as being LVT-2 types (Mesko 1993; US War Department 1944). The first LVT-2 has its bow pointing west and sits upright. Its starboard pontoon has collapsed and lies on the seafloor, with some pieces of track still attached. The port pontoon remains intact and standing, though most of the track has broken off and is scattered around the wreck. The bottom third of this pontoon appears dug into the sediment. The coral encrusted rear-mounted engine is clearly visible and is connected to the front transmission via a propellor shaft. The midpoint of the shaft is connected to a power takeoff that leads to a buried bilge pump. The hull floor cannot be discerned as it is covered by sediment overlaid with debris. Near the engine, identifiable components, including both oil coolers, the portside battery, and fire extinguishers are evident. Toward the bow, in the vicinity of the transmission, appears to be the vehicle’s radio, side window, and possibly one of its guns. Forward of this area are the driving sockets, which have collapsed and remain partially buried. 6 �Figure 3. 3D model of previously unrecorded LVT-2 wrecks in Māʻalaea Bay. Identifiable components are labeled (courtesy ECU/UCLA). The other LVT-2, with its bow pointing east, is situated upside down. Listing towards its port side, the bow (driving socket and front hull plating) is propped up by the adjacent vehicle on its starboard side. The starboard pontoon has collapsed inwards, following the direction of the list. The track and grousers on both pontoons are in relatively good condition. Much of the floor hull plating, extending from the engine compartment, up to the driving sprockets has deteriorated. This has exposed the bottom of the engine compartment, though the top half of the engine itself remains buried. From the engine, various pipes and tubing, some of which are related to the bilge pump at the hull’s floor, run along the vehicle’s centerline and terminate just aft of the driving sockets. The debris fields for the Māʻalaea Bay LVT-2 wrecks are rather limited, suggesting that this site has been protected from natural and cultural transformations. Furthermore, the presence of removable gauges, knobs, and other salvageable parts is a clear indicator of the site’s lack of recreational visitation. The coincidence of two LVTs in such close alignment may represent an intentional dumping effort as opposed to an accidental loss. Aircraft The first aircraft survey of the Shore to the Abyss project centered on the partial remains of a Grumman F6F-3 Hellcat situated in 11 m of water near Māʻalaea Bay’s southeastern shore. The site is 7 �divided into two main components, with the first consisting of the plane’s midsection. Here, portions of both wings are still attached to the fuselage. This part of the aircraft is upside down, making visible the retracted landing gears. Some of the wing’s aluminum skin, especially on the portside, have deteriorated away, exposing frames. As the aircraft is upside down, it is not possible to discern if the cockpit is buried, or if it sheared off in the wrecking event. Around 23 m away, the radial engine (cowling missing), propellor, and nose ring are intact and standing upright. Just below the propellor hub, sediment covers two of the propellor blades and the bottom third of the engine. The third propellor blade is broken in half and extends vertically into the water column. Like most ferrous components in this environment, the engine is heavily encrusted in coral. During the photogrammetric survey, divers recognized what appears to be either the distal end of one of the wings or a portion of the tail stabilizer buried 5 m away. The only two observable changes to the site, when compared to the results of the 2011 survey, are a missing piece of the portside wing flap and increased sediment cover of the starboard wing. While the landing gear configuration, engine, and exhaust flaps all led to the identification of the site as an F6F-3 Hellcat (ONMS 2011), the specific identity of the plane is unknown. In the middle of Māʻalaea Bay lies an almost fully-intact Curtiss SB2C-1C Helldiver (Figure 4). The aircraft’s structural completeness made its identification fairly easy (ONMS 2011). Its engine has slightly broken off from the airframe and the cowling rests on the seafloor to the starboard side. The vertical tail stabilizer is also detached and partially buried aft of the wreck. Since 2011, the Helldiver has remained in relatively good condition. The most notable changes include the collapse of the port wing aileron, and the dislodgment of an aluminum panel on the starboard side of the nose, exposing the engine bearing struts. Minor damage has occurred to the plane’s tail, where part of the elevator’s portside framing is now missing. After its discovery in 2010 by a local dive operator, the Helldiver’s Bureau Number (184000) was identified on the detached vertical stabilizer. The ONMS (2011) website provides a description of the crash incident, which along with the subsequent rescue of the pilot and radioman, explain the missing rescue raft and the open position of both canopies. The aircraft’s story is now memorialized on an interpretive plaque that was recently placed at the site. Figure 4. 3D model of Helldiver site (right) compared with 2D site plan (left) (courtesy NOAA ONMS/UH MOP) 8 �The aluminum planes appear to have undergone less deterioration than the steel LVT sites, which is likely owed to the anti-corrosive properties of aluminum and the LVTs’ lack of cathodic protection due to their increased fragmentation (i.e. less components electronically connected) (e.g. Richards and Carpenter 2017). Naval Mooring Known locally as “Three Anchors”, a naval mooring is found 1 kilometer (km) off Lāʻie Beach, near the Māʻalaea Bay Hellcat site (Figure 5). This location has become a recreational diving destination, due to an abundance of marine life attracted to it. The site consists of two large admiralty anchors and one US Navy (USN) stockless anchor that are all chained to a central cement block. The block is chained to an octagonal, hollow concrete mooring buoy, which is thought to have supported a naval degaussing station (Settle-Chesser n.d.). The station itself was located 2 km to the northeast, currently the site of the ONMS Visitor Center in Kīhei (ONMS 2009). This site was not surveyed in 2011 or 2013, though it has been recorded by others and is featured prominently on dive operator websites. Figure 5. 3D model of “3 Anchors”, a WWII era USN mooring (courtesy ECU/UCLA) 9 �Shipwreck Beach Shipwreck Beach takes its name from the presence of YOGN-42 (Van Tilburg 2003), which lies stranded on the reef, 350 m from the shoreline. Launched in March 1943, this ferrocement (reinforced concrete) vessel served in the Pacific Theatre until the war’s end (NavSource 2015). Stricken from the USN Register in 1949, the ship was intentionally scuttled at Lānaʻi in 1950 (Van Tilburg 2003). YOGN-42 lies parallel to the coast, with its bow pointed east, causing the ship’s portside to absorb the waves. Most of its hull is above the waterline, making the 114 m vessel easily visible from the beach. While the ship’s ferrocement composition has helped maintain hull integrity, it is not free of deterioration as evidenced by the chunks of concrete and rebar that litter the surrounding seafloor. Corrosion of the ferrous structural elements, combined with over 70 years of exposure to the prevailing winds, rain, and swell energy, has slowly chipped away at the WWII vestige. Due to its size and fragility, traditional archaeological surveys are extremely difficult. To circumvent this problem, the research team worked with an aerial drone pilot to capture 4K video of the barge. The team obtained approximately 5-minutes of footage, which included several passes over the ship’s deck and around the sides of the hull. The resulting photogrammetric model was then compared with publicly-available photos of the ship (Figure 6). Figure 6. Earlier photo of YOGN-42 (above) compared with 3D model of YOGN-42 (below) (Top image courtesy of R. and K. Brooke n.d.; bottom image courtesy of ECU/UCLA). Immediately, it was apparent that the ship’s decks were becoming increasingly compromised. Deck plating on the starboard quarter of the main deck has disappeared, exposing underlying deck beams. A similar observation was made for the starboard side of the forecastle deck. More concerning is the near-total collapse of the ship’s quarterdeck. Deck plating in this area, beside the footprint of the former pilothouse, is almost non-existent. A large mechanical piece (perhaps a towing winch) once supported by the quarterdeck, has fallen through to the underlying hold and much of the deck’s concrete sides have broken off, exposing rooms and bulkheads. A large section of the forecastle deck on the portside has also weathered away, exposing support stanchions. This area is likely to further undergo collapse, as the ship’s windlass and anchor chain sit precariously on the crumbing deck. 10 �Changes such as these are important to monitor for safety reasons, as snorkelers and divers are drawn to both the wreck and the marine biota it supports. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The archaeological sites of the 2022 Shore to the Abyss expedition survey represent a snapshot of the islands’ WWII underwater heritage. The global conflict had a profound impact on Maui, in particular, where almost 200,000 servicemembers were hosted during the war’s duration (Maui Historical Society 1992). Training accidents were an inherent risk, and today the sunken remains of landing vehicles and aircraft wrecks attest to those hazards. Other physical manifestations of the US war effort, including moorings and intentionally scuttled vessels, speak to strategic and logistical considerations. Aside from the newly-documented LVT-2 wrecks, each of the sites possess both historical and socioeconomic significance given their status as dive and snorkel sites. Local and offisland stakeholders routinely visit these sites out of reverence, enthusiasm, and recreational motivations related to wreck diving and marine ecology. The Shore to the Abyss project results demonstrate the significant changes these sites experience within a relatively limited period of time (10-12 years). Environmental forces, such as corrosion, tectonic activity, and wave energy, are the most likely culprits, though the effects of improper site visitation (e.g. anchoring onsite) should not be discounted. To combat the former, rigorous scientific methods should be applied, including corrosion studies. Understanding the various corrosive pathways, as well as the way in which steel and aluminum react differently, will be key in formulating mitigation strategies. Climate change and its influence on corrosion poses another fruitful topic for further exploration. For direct human-induced threats, education remains an important resource. The hope is by presenting the physical layout and historical significance of these sites, they are seen as recognizable archaeological resources worthy of reverence and protection. Onsite interpretive plaques, such as the one installed at the Helldiver site, and the dissemination of dive guides generated from archaeological investigations are two immediate ways of spreading awareness to the diving community. Eventually, it may be desirable to establish a heritage dive trail, as done elsewhere in the Pacific (McKinnon 2013; Philippou and Staniforth 2003). At a broader level, projects that seek to bring the general public’s attention to Maui and Lānaʻi’s WWII heritage may help foster a new appreciation for a site category that remains ‘out-of-sight-out-of-mind’ for many. The photogrammetric surveys presented here were completed using small teams and inexpensive technology. The results helped identify significant alterations to several of the sites and aided in the interpretation of two unrecorded LVT-2 wrecks. Rather than spending days or weeks documenting a single wreck, 3D models for each site were produced within 24 hours. Additionally, the 3D models can provide detailed plan views and cross-sections of the sites with a greater degree of accuracy than traditional 2D methods. This form of rapid site evaluation is in no way intended to replace traditional archaeological recording methods, nor is this methodology a novel application of photogrammetry. Instead, this project represents a case study demonstrating the utility of periodic assessments that do not require significant resources in the form of time and money. The scalable 3D models are easily viewed from different combinations of distances and angles. Details not readily apparent to divers or easily captured in 2D photographs can now be identified when examining the 3D site representations. These photogrammetric surveys can be repeated (with higher quality photography equipment when possible) at scheduled intervals, to create a visual log of how a site is changing. Recognizing physical site alterations or areas of structural weakness could help site managers devise in situ preservation 11 �strategies. Furthermore, the visually stimulating digital 3D models produced have proven to be an effective and engaging way of presenting archeological sites to the public, especially amongst the youth. Online, these models can be compared with earlier iterations and site photos to illustrate the fact these are fragile, ‘living’ sites susceptible to further loss and destruction. By doing so, the preservation threats that site managers fret about are made real to current and future site stakeholders. BIBLIOGRAPHY Maui Historical Society. World War II's Impact on Maui County: A Social History. Maui: Lahaina Restoration Foundation, Hawaii Committee for the Humanities, Hāna Cultural Center, 1992. McKinnon, Jennifer. “Difficult Heritage: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites.” In Between the Devil and the Deep: Meeting Challenges in the Public Interpretation of Maritime Cultural Heritage, edited by Della Scott-Ireton, 173-187. New York: Springer, 2013. Mesko, Jim. AMTRACS in Action: Part One. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signals Publication, 1993. NavSource, “YOGN-42.” Online, http://www.navsource.org/archives/14/13042.htm, 2015. NOAA Maritime Heritage Program. The Unseen Landscape: Inventory and Assessment of Submerged Cultural Resources in Hawai`i. OCS Study BOEM 2017-021. Submitted to the US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Pacific OCS Region, Camarillo, CA, 2017. Ocean Exploration Trust. “From Shore To the Abyss: Exploration of Maritime Heritage and Microplastic Pollution in the Main Hawaiian Islands.” Online, https://nautiluslive.org/cruise/na146, 2022. Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. NOAA-ONMS Pacific Islands Region Facilities Master Plan. Honolulu: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2009. Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. “Maui’s World https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/maui/welcome.html, 2011. War II Legacy.” Online, Philippou, Cassandra, and Staniforth, Mark. “Maritime Heritage Trails in Australia: An Overview and Critique of the Interpretive Programs.” In Submerged Cultural Resource Management: Preserving and Interpreting Our Maritime Heritage, edited by James D. Spirek and Della A. Scott-Ireton, 135-149. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2003. Richards, Vicki, and Carpenter, Jon. Conservation Survey and Management Program: Saipan WWII Underwater Archaeological Wreck Sites. Corpus Christi, TX: Ships of Discovery and Exploration Research, 2017 Settle-Chesser, Scott. “Three Anchors.” scuba.com/wrecks/3anchors/3anchor.html, n.d. Online: Maui Scuba Diving, http://www.maui- United States War Department. TM 9-775: Landing Vehicle Tracked, LVT Mk.I and Mk. II Technical Manual. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1944. Van Tilburg, Hans. U.S. Navy Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: An Inventory of Submerged Naval Properties. Project No. 01121. Submitted to The Naval Historical Center Washington Navy Yard, Washington D.C., 2003. Van Tilburg, Hans. “The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime Heritage Resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands.” In Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference, edited by Hans Van Tilburg, Sila Tripati, Veronica Walker, Brian Fahy, and Jun Kimura, 1-14. Honolulu: 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Planning Committee, 2014. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Examining the World War II Underwater Cultural Heritage of Maui and Lānaʻi through 3D Photogrammetric Modeling Description An account of the resource In October 2022, archaeologists from East Carolina University and the University of California at Los Angeles investigated underwater cultural heritage associated with World War II around the islands of Maui and Lānaʻi in Hawaiʻi. Working in partnership with the National Geographic Society and the Ocean Exploration Trust, the team surveyed the remains of lost or abandoned aircraft, amphibious assault vehicles, ships, and moorings associated with WWII training and staging exercises. In keeping with Session Four’s (Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region) focus on “discoveries, opportunities and challenges”, the maritime heritage research centered on assessing the physical state of these WWII wreck sites to evaluate preservation threats, while also contributing to the creation of educational resources and outreach tools. A total of eight WWII-era sites were surveyed using photogrammetric recording methods; these include the wrecks of two US Navy aircraft, five amphibious landing craft, a mooring station, and a semi-submerged gasoline tanker. Project members used the collected imagery to produce 3-dimensional photo models. The models proved not only to be effective visual aids for showcasing some of Hawaiʻi’s rich submerged maritime heritage, but also provided archaeologists with detailed site maps made in a fraction of the time generally required. This paper examines the indelible impact left by the war on Maui and Lānaʻi through the investigation of tangible remains of the island’s’ wartime cultural landscape. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dominic Bush Jason Raupp Justin Dunnavant Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Bush, Dominic, Jason T. Raupp, and Justin Dunnavant. 2023. “Examining Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II around Maui and Lanai through Photogrammetric Modeling.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1895 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/31297f6f47ad018ceea9b6ef4d00d0e8.pdf 14329731c9b45b394babbd33cc25c18c PDF Text Text Back from Oblivion: Deep Water Wrecks of World War II, Commemoration and Protection 1 Blair Atcheson (Naval History and Heritage Command, Underwater Archaeology Branch Program Manager) 2 Frank Thompson (Naval History and Heritage Command, Deputy Director of Collection Management Division) ABSTRACT The paper as part of Session 4, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges, provides an overview of some of the recent high-profile, deep-water World War II shipwreck discoveries in the Pacific and how studying the data collected supports the Naval History and Heritage Command’s long-term management strategies, approaches to policy and protection, and commemorations. The case studies under consideration are the Battle of Midway Japanese aircraft carriers, USS Juneau, and USS Indianapolis. The resources available to conduct the work include the data from surveys conducted by Vulcan LLC and reviewed by the U.S. Navy’s cultural resource managers for sunken military craft. The data set provides a unique opportunity for research and scientific analysis of deep-water wrecks that are remarkably well-preserved and raises questions on how to address, through policy or practice, the new challenges facing submerged cultural resource managers. The results provide an overview of the information learned from reviewing the ROV footage of the wreck sites and how that informs the management approach for other and future deep water U.S. Navy wreck discoveries by third-party researchers. ABBREVIATIONS AUV – Autonomous Underwater Vehicle DON – Department of the Navy NHHC – Naval History and Heritage Command ROV – Remotely Operated Vehicle UA – Underwater Archaeology Branch U.S. – United States of America FIGURES Figure 1. Aerial photograph of the Midway Atoll, 24 November 1941. (Credit: U.S. Navy, 80-G-451086) Figure 2. Image of one of the eight 8inch guns on the wreck of the Japanese carrier Kaga. (Credit: Vulcan LLC) Figure 3. USS Indianapolis, 10 July 1945, with inset wreck images. (Credit: U.S. Navy, Vulcan LLC) Figure 4. A comparison between the ship plan for USS Juneau and the wreck. (Credit: NHHC, Vulcan LLC) 1 �INTRODUCTION In recent decades, the rapid advance and increased accessibility of ocean exploration technology have made public ship wreck discoveries, particularly in deep water environments, more common. One of the more successful groups was the ocean exploration team of Vulcan LLC, founded by Microsoft cofounder Paul Allen to locate and identify World War II ship wrecks. From 2015 to 2020, the team discovered some of the United States (U.S.) Navy’s most iconic ships, such as USS Indianapolis (CA35) and USS Lexington (CV-2). The Vulcan exploration team was forthcoming, cooperative, and responsible in their approach to locating WWII shipwrecks and provided the survey data to the responsible government agency or museum. For U.S. Navy wrecks, the data was provided to the Naval History and Heritage Command’s (NHHC) Underwater Archaeology Branch (UA) as the managers of the U.S. Navy’s sunken military craft. The mission of the NHHC UA is to manage, interpret, preserve, and protect the Department of the Navy’s (DON) sunken and terrestrial military craft, which includes over 3,000 shipwrecks and 15,000 aircraft wrecks located world-wide and which date from the American Revolution through to the Nuclear Age. In accordance with customary international policy and practice, the United States retains right, title, and interest in and to any U.S. sunken state vessel regardless of location or the passage of time. The U.S. government passed the Sunken Military Craft Act in 2004 to codify into law these existing principles and, primarily, to preserve and protect from unauthorized disturbance all sunken military craft that are owned by the United States, as well as foreign sunken military craft that lie within U.S. waters. U.S. Navy policy recognizes these wreck sites as fit and final resting places for its service members and, as such, prefers non-intrusive, in situ research on sunken military craft. However, the Navy recognizes that disturbance and/or artifact recovery may be justified or become necessary for archaeological, historical, or educational purposes. Therefore, the NHHC established a permitting program to allow for controlled site disturbance. Researchers are not required to obtain a permit from NHHC for non-intrusive, remote-sensing data collection, but are encouraged to coordinate such activities with NHHC. With such a large, global collection of submerged cultural resources, the NHHC is reliant on responsible divers and third-party researchers to provide invaluable information on these wreck sites. The data is closely reviewed to confirm the identity of a wreck, to document the state of preservation of a site, and/or to enhance our understanding and tell the story of the ship and its crew. The search and data reviews of the Japanese wrecks at Midway, USS Indianapolis, and USS Juneau have expanded our understanding of each site and continue to inform NHHC’s submerged resource management approach. MIDWAY In the remote reaches of the western Hawaiian Archipelago sits a small atoll consisting of two islands and a lagoon. The atoll gets its name, Midway, from its location roughly equidistant from North America and Asia. Given its central location, the atoll was an important U.S. Navy base for aircraft and ships traversing the Pacific, and would become the spot of one of the most important confrontations between the Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States Navy - the Battle of Midway. 2 �Figure 1. Aerial photograph, looking just south of west across the southern side of Midway atoll, 24 November 1941. Eastern Island, the site of Midway's airfield, is in the foreground. Sand Island, location of most other base facilities, is across the entrance channel. Official U.S. Navy Photograph, now in the collections of the U.S. National Archives. (US Navy Photograph #80-G-451086). In 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy wielded one of the most awesome instruments of warfare the world had ever seen, the Kido Butai - a strike force made up of six aircraft carriers and their air groups supported by escorts of battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. Under the command Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, the Kido Butai swept all enemies aside as it conducted operations across the Pacific and Indian Oceans (Fuchida and Okumiya 1955). Until 4 June 1942, when the Kido Butai, downed two carriers damaged at the Battle of the Coral Sea, faced an American force of three carriers and their escorts, plus land-based aircraft operating from Midway. By the end of the day, the U.S. Navy had won a major victory; all four of the Kido Butai’s aircraft carriers and their air groups were destroyed against the loss of one U.S. carrier and a destroyer. With this victory, the U.S. began to turn the tide of war in the Pacific. To the U.S. Navy, the Battle of Midway remains a pivotal moment in its history and is the subject of yearly commemorations. Only one carrier wreck, USS Yorktown (CV-5), had previously been located from the battle, alongside possible debris from the Japanese carrier Kaga (Ballard 1999). In 2019, Vulcan launched a survey to locate the Japanese wrecks of Kaga, Akagi, Soryu, and Hiryu. The expedition cast off on 31 August 2019 from Honolulu Harbor aboard the R/V Petrel, a 3400-ton vessel measuring 76.45 meters (m) in length with a 15 meter beam. Petrel deployed with a crew of twenty and ten project team members, which included a subject matter expert from the NHHC. The vessel embarked with an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), a REMUS 6000, and a custom built remotely operated vehicle (ROV), an ARGUS Bathysaurus XL79 equipped with two high-resolution forward-facing cameras and a forward-mounted Kongsberg MS 1171 scanning sonar unit to aid navigation. Both vehicles were rated for 6000 m. 3 �With records collected from years of archival research and study of secondary sources, the expedition team decided to concentrate the search on Akagi, Kaga, and Soryu. As they were disabled at the same time during the battle, it was possible that their wrecks would be close to each other. Here, the book “Shattered Sword” proved invaluable (Parshall and Tulley 2005). The authors provided accounts from surviving crewmen on each carrier during and after the air attacks. Soryu, the smallest carrier in the Kido Butai, was heavily hit by three bombs and left a drifting wreck. Kaga, the largest of the carriers, was hit by five bombs which destroyed the flight deck and hangars. However, there was evidence that the propulsion plan was able to maintain steam up to a speed of about four knots. Furthermore, the war patrol report from the submarine USS Nautilus (SS-168), which fired a torpedo at Kaga after the dive bombing attack, provided a location reference that was used to plot the search area (DON 1942). Akagi, the flagship, suffered one direct hit and a near miss that disabled the steering gear. The direct hit destroyed the carrier’s primary firefighting system, preventing her crew from quenching the growing conflagration in her hangars and flight deck. Later in the morning, the ship’s engines came back on, leaving the ship steaming in circles. Taking all of these factors into account, the search began on 7 September 2019. Figure 2. Video image of one of the eight inch guns on the wreck of the Japanese carrier Kaga. (Credit: Vulcan LLC). The AUV was programed to run a series of five tracks over 13 hours. Unfortunately, a software glitch created a vibration in the AUV that caused some distortion in the data readout. Despite updates from the manufacturer, the problem was never fully resolved, but the data remained decipherable. However, the seafloor ensonification proved deceptive. Instead of presenting a clear debris trail, the contacts in the data did not point in any one direction to follow (Paul Mayer pers comm 2023). On 13 September, after running a search of over 600 nautical square miles (nm2), a promising contact was noted on the bottom at about 5,500 m. A high resolution side-scan pass revealed the impression of a carrier. The dimensions of the contact eliminated Soryu as a candidate. The tethered ROV was deployed to investigate the target starting on the aft starboard side quarter of the wreck. The wreck had plowed into the bottom and buried itself up to the degaussing cable. One of the first noticeable features was the barrel of an eight-inch gun. That image confirmed that the wreck was either Akagi or Kaga. According to the ship’s data, Akagi had six such guns, mounted three on each side. Kaga, slightly larger, had 10 total, five on each side (Skwiot and Jarski 2015). Three eight-inch guns or associated empty barbette were noted on each side, which originally suggested the site was Akagi. However, what the video did not show, the side-scan sonar did; debris covered a couple of the mounts 4 �bringing the total guns to eight. The site was confirmed as the wreck of Kaga. Reviewing the plot, the team noted that Kaga was 16 kilometers (km) from the initial calculated search position. The condition of the site and battle damage, including the collapsed flight deck and superstructure, corroborated the survivor accounts published in “Shattered Sword” (Parshall and Tulley 2005). The search for Akagi and Soryu continued, but the survey was dogged by troubles with the AUV, while AUV missions that were successfully launched kept concluding without result. Finally, on 20 October, a large debris field lit the data screen at a depth of about 5,500 m. Unfortunately, the cable system on the ROV had failed and so no video data could be collected. However, the high resolution side-scan clearly indicated a carrier wreck and the dimensions matched the Kido Butai flagship, Akagi. The expedition ended before locating the wrecks of the Soryu and Hiryu. The atoll, now under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of the Interior, is slowly being restored to its pre-human habitation environment. While little will remain of the land side of the Midway battle, the wrecks of the American and Japanese carriers will stand in testament to the mighty clash of these two naval forces and as memorials to the service and sacrifice of the servicemen of both nations. INDIANAPOLIS Shortly after midnight on 30 July 1945, an explosion severed the bow of the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis (CA-35). Seconds later, another explosion rocked the starboard side of the ship and engulfed the superstructure in flames. The ship had been hit by two torpedoes from Japanese submarine I-58. The damage was catastrophic to ship and crew. In less than 15 minutes, the decorated warship would come to rest 3.5 miles (5,500 m) at the bottom of the Philippine Sea. The loss of Indianapolis would not be reported for another four days when the first of the survivors were spotted and pulled from the sea. An estimated 900 men of a crew of 1,195 went in to the water, but only 316 survived. The ship had a commendable record before and during WWII, but ‘the proud legacy of the ship would forever be marred by the controversial circumstances of her loss, the Navy’s failure to rescue her stranded crew in a timely manner, and the treatment of her skipper’ (Hulver and Atcheson 2019, 13). The wreck of Indianapolis was located by the Vulcan exploration team aboard R/V Petrel on 19 August 2017 utilizing their AUV and ROV systems. The side-scan sonar of the wreck site revealed the bow, broken and separated from the main hull by nearly 2 km. The speed at which the ship sank and landed keel-first on the seafloor is evidenced by the impact crater left in the sediment; a remarkable sight given the 72 years that had passed since its sinking. After the torpedo strikes, one engine kept running so the ship circled to port while going down at the bow with an increasing starboard list. At 12 minutes from impact, the ship almost completely capsized before going vertical and disappearing under the waves. The side-scan image of the wreck and the arrangement of the debris field confirmed the sinking event transpired just as described by survivors in the Navy’s 1945 report (DON 1945). Damage from the second torpedo is marked by a large hole in the shell plating on the starboard side at the top of the first platform; an exit blast is evident on the deck of the communication platform behind the barbette of Turret Two. The visible damage seems modest in comparison to survivor accounts of ruptured decks with flames coming through and scorching hot walls and floors that burned hands and feet. However, the 1945 report believed that the heavy longitudinal bulkhead likely deflected the force of the torpedo detonation upward into the crew’s spaces, something confirmed by the exit blast on the communication platform. The most striking feature of the wreck site is its remarkable preservation, highlighted through the clear paint and stenciling from the hull number 35 on the bow, a lone box in the debris field labelled “USS INDIANAPOLIS, PARTS AND TOOLS”, the 2-tone grey paint on the hull with the intact teak decking, or the bureau number visible on the tail of a Curtiss SC-1 Seahawk. 5 �Figure 3. Indianapolis off Mare Island, California, 10 July 1945, after her final overhaul and repair of combat damage, Bureau of Ships Collection, National Archives #19-N-86911. Inset images: 1) shell damage from the second torpedo hit, 2) exit blast damage on the deck of the communication platform, 3) bow hull number. (Credit: U.S. Navy, Vulcan LLC) The upright positioning of the wreck, and pristine condition of the site, allowed the Navy to reinvestigate the sinking and corroborate the historical records with the actual wreckage. In general, the Navy’s 1945 report on the loss (DON 1945), was remarkably accurate given the chaotic nature of Indianapolis’s last moments and trials of the survivors at sea. One of the more surprising results from each site reviewed thus far is the accuracy of survivor accounts, with a few discrepancies, which highlights the importance of collecting oral histories. JUNEAU USS Juneau (CL-52), a 6,000-ton Atlanta-class light cruiser commissioned on 14 February 1942 had a short, but notable career largely conducting carrier escort duty in the Pacific theater until the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. During an unexpected close-quarters engagement between an Allied task force and Japanese bombardment fleet shortly after midnight on 13 November 1942, Juneau was hit in the port forward fire room by a torpedo from a Japanese destroyer. The impact caused significant damage and Juneau withdrew from the skirmish to conduct emergency repairs. In the morning, the injured cruiser joined with the remainder of the Allied task force. At 11:01, Juneau was hit by a torpedo from the Japanese submarine I-26. The torpedo struck just forward of amidships on the port side very near the torpedo hit from the earlier night battle causing a catastrophic explosion that sank the ship in a minute. Eyewitnesses did not believe any of the crew survived the violent explosion or rapid sinking. However, an estimated 115 sailors of a crew of 693 survived the initial sinking only to endure seven days at sea. Only 14 of Juneau’s crew would ultimately survive. While loss of Juneau itself is haunting, the ship is most remembered for the death of the five Sullivan brothers; the story of service and sacrifice of one family resonated deeply with the Navy and the nation, then as it does today. Using positions from the war diaries of two ships near Juneau at the time of the sinking, the Vulcan research team aboard R/V Petrel developed a search grid and deployed their AUV to scan the seafloor for anomalies in March 2018. A high frequency side-scan target revealed a large hull-shaped object and a concentrated debris field. An ROV investigation confirmed the wreck as the remains of Juneau. Once the data was received, NHHC (2018) archaeologists conducted a close review of survivor 6 �accounts, official Navy records, and secondary sources to determine any lingering questions from the historical record. For Juneau, historical accounts of the sinking were generally consistent. The wreck of Juneau lies at a depth of over 4,000 m in the waters of the Solomon Sea southwest of the island of San Cristobal. The site is broken up in two sections: the intact main hull and a debris field which includes a portion of the bow and stern. The main hull section is approximately half of the 542 ft (165 m) long ship and is sitting proud on seafloor buried in sediment up to the bilge keel. Approximately 600 m to the southeast is the main debris field which includes, rather perplexingly, a portion of the bow resting on its port side with a portion of the stern (fantail) on top of the bow. The name plate on the stern with the letters “uneau” are visible confirming the wreck’s identity. The entire wreck site bears witness to the cataclysmic explosion that rocked the ship on the morning of 13 November 1942. The degree of destruction made it a challenge to grasp how much of the ship remained. Although the video was not collected systematically, NHHC archaeologists experimented with processing the video through photogrammetric software. While imperfect, the three-dimensional model that was produced provided significant insights into understanding the site. The scene is that of great violence. Half of the ship essentially evaporated upon impact; what little remains is because it was immersed so quickly that it did not have time to explode or burn. Figure 4. A comparison between the ship plan profile for USS Juneau and remaining wreckage. The 3D model, developed from Vulcan’s video data, shows the most intact portion of the main hull from the aft stack to the propellers, portside. (Credit: NHHC, Vulcan LLC) In the debris field, the detached rudder was the first indication of a possible second torpedo hit in the stern. Returning to the historical records, one survivor and one witness from a nearby ship believed a second torpedo from I-26 struck in the fantail (O’Neill 1942). The distinct shockwave damage on the rudder provides some credence to an adjacent external explosion, likely near the vessel’s propellers. While further, systematic, documentation of the wreck site, particularly near the rudder and stern, would help to interpret the damage, the level of destruction is so severe that even with further documentation it is unlikely that a conclusive determination could be made about the possible second torpedo strike. However, the ship’s official record has now been amended to indicate that Juneau was likely struck by three torpedoes in all, one during the night battle and two later the following morning. 7 �CONCLUSION The many discoveries by Vulcan LLC provide the Navy with a unique opportunity to study multiple well-preserved and undisturbed wreck sites of a similar age, type, and environment. While the data was not collected systematically nor with archaeological research in mind, NHHC has extracted substantial information from the data reviews, allowing archaeologists to compare historical records with the extant wrecks, providing baseline documentation for resource management purposes, informing future site visits and research questions, and supporting NHHC’s mission to preserve and present an accurate history of the U.S. Navy. Prior to the twenty-first century, the deep ocean, much like outer space, was explored mostly by governments and academia. There is now an ever-increasing interest in deep-water shipwreck visitation, spanning from the privately-funded researcher to individuals wishing to merely explore the seafloor with private submersibles. Based on the knowledge gained from analyzing the site data provided by Vulcan LLC and other partners, NHHC has been in a better position to develop policies to address deep-water wreck site visits, in particular those involving the use of submersibles. As wrecks continue to be found and depth becomes less of a protecting factor, the more knowledge gained on each site that is responsibly studied, the better positioned NHHC and other submerged cultural resource managers are to create best practices and policies that preserve these untouched resources and honor those lost onboard. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The NHHC Underwater Archaeology Branch is grateful to Vulcan LLC for many years of dedicated and responsible surveying and documenting of WWII shipwrecks and for subsequently providing this key data to the appropriate cultural resource managers. We anticipate the information will continue to produce significant findings as data analysis continues and be used to protect and commemorate these wreck sites for many decades. The authors would like to thank all the Navy researchers that contributed to the analysis of the wrecks sites addressed in this paper: Heather Brown, Ken Nahshon, Richard Hulver, Jason Griffin, and George Huss. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ballard, Robert D., Archbold, Rick. Return to Midway. Washington DC: National Geographic/Madison Press Books, 1999. Department of the Navy [DON]. Loss of USS Indianapolis, 2 October 1945, RG 19, Entry P1, Boxes 30-32, National Archives and Records Administration [NARA] II, College Park, MD. Department of the Navy [DON]. USS Nautilus First War Patrol Report, 1942, RG 19, NARA II, College Park, MD. Fuchida, Mitsuo and Okumiya, Masatake, Midway: The Battle that Doomed Japan, The Japanese Navy’s Story. Naval Institute Press, 1955 Hulver, Richard A. and Atcheson, Blair. “USS Indianapolis Discovered! Now What? – Analysis of a Wrecksite” Proceedings of Preserving U.S. Military Heritage: World War II to the Cold War, Fredericksburg, Texas, June 4-6, 2019. Naval History and Heritage Command [NHHC]. “Juneau I (CL-52).” United States: Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Accessed December 12, 2018. https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/j/juneau-i.html O’Neill, Rodger MC-V(G), U.S. Navy Reserve. Report of USS Juneau Activity from November 11 to 13, 1942, inclusive. PacFlt Conf. Ltr. 24CL-42. Textual Reference Branch, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD. Paul Mayer, Personal communication with Frank Thompson, NHHC, April 21, 2023. Parshall, Jonathan B., and Tully, Anthony P. Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. United States: Potomac Books, 2005. Skwiot, Miroslaw and Jarski, Adam. Kaga 1920-1942: The Japanese Aircraft Carrier. Poland: Kagero, 2015. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Back from Oblivion: Deep Water Wrecks of World War II, Commemoration and Protection Description An account of the resource The paper as part of Session 4, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges, provides an overview of some of the recent high-profile, deep-water World War II shipwreck discoveries in the Pacific and how studying the data collected supports the Naval History and Heritage Command’s long-term management strategies, approaches to policy and protection, and commemorations. The case studies under consideration are the Battle of Midway Japanese aircraft carriers, USS Juneau, and USS Indianapolis. The resources available to conduct the work include the data from surveys conducted by Vulcan LLC and reviewed by the U.S. Navy’s cultural resource managers for sunken military craft. The data set provides a unique opportunity for research and scientific analysis of deep-water wrecks that are remarkably well-preserved and raises questions on how to address, through policy or practice, the new challenges facing submerged cultural resource managers. The results provide an overview of the information learned from reviewing the ROV footage of the wreck sites and how that informs the management approach for other and future deep water U.S. Navy wreck discoveries by third-party researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Blair Atcheson Frank Thompson Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Atcheson, M. Blair and Frank Thompson. 2023. “Back from Oblivion - Deep Water Wrecks of World War II - Commemoration and Protection.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1894 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d1a993f1a9d217b7bd84a7bd2f8399e7.pdf 05fc9bd8889d490439762f0d24267221 PDF Text Text DISCOVERY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE WRECK OF USS ALBACORE (SS-218) 1 Ivor Mollema (Naval History and Heritage Command, Archaeologist) Tamaki Ura, PhD (University of Tokyo, Professor Emeritus) 3 David Johnston (Naval History and Heritage Command, Naval Photographic Interpreter) 4 Stephen Katona (Naval History and Heritage Command, Independent Researcher) 2 ABSTRACT The wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218) was discovered on 25 May 2022 and resurveyed in October by Dr Tamaki Ura’s team of researchers at La Plongée Deep Sea Engineering Society. Following the initial discovery, volunteer researchers for the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) examined recorded footage of the wreckage to identify the wrecked boat. Key features identified the wreckage as belonging to an American submarine from the Second World War. Further investigation and archival research identified the submarine as the American Albacore, a Gato class submarine lost in action in Japanese waters on 7 November 1944. The U.S. Navy formally confirmed the identity of the wrecksite as the Albacore in February 2023. After an overview of the vessel’s history, this paper covers the initial search and discovery of Albacore during 2022. In particular, the use of a Remotely Operated Vehicle demonstrates the viability of this approach for initial identification assessments of deep wrecks. An outline of the identification process is provided that covers key features of Albacore observed on both the underwater footage and archival imagery. The identity confirmation process and media outreach efforts surrounding the discovery are covered, followed by a discussion on the continuing management and treatment of Albacore. Key Words: Submarine, Second World War, Japan, US Navy LIST OF IMAGES Figure 1. Albacore at the final stages of its final refit at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, completed in May, 1944 (USN Photograph 19-N-65354). Figure 2. The vent holes that allowed researchers to identify the wreck as Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, October 2022). Figure 3. The SJ Radar Mast that helped confirm the identity of Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, Oct. 2022). INTRODUCTION The USS Albacore (SS-218) is one of 52 American submarines lost during WWII. She served on ten war patrols and sank at least 10 enemy vessels, with a potential for three more unconfirmed sinkings. This includes six enemy combatant ships and ties Albacore for the most sinkings of enemy combatant ships by any American submarine during WWII. Reported lost at the end of 1944, Albacore was discovered by a team of researchers from the University of Tokyo in May 2022 (Johnston, Katona, and Iwasaki 2022). A team of researchers associated with the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) reviewed the collected footage and compared it with archival imagery and records to determine the identity of wreckage as belonging to Albacore. NHHC archaeologists verified the identity of the wrecksite and corroborated the initial assessment of the wreck’s identity. The discovery, investigation, and announcement (NHHC 2023) laid out a template for approaching wreck sites in the future, with particular relevance to contemporary submarines. HISTORY OF USS ALBACORE (SS-218) Albacore was laid down on 21 April 1941 at Groton, Connecticut by the Electric Boat Company (“Albacore II (SS-218)”). It was launched on 17 February 1942 and commissioned on 1 June of the same year. Following the submarine’s shakedown cruise, it crossed the Panama Canal and arrived in Pearl Harbor in mid-1942. She departed for her first of 11 war patrols on 28 August 1942 in the waters surrounding Truk. This patrol ended on 20 October 1942 with Albacore’s return to Midway for a refit. During her inaugural war patrol, Albacore experienced her first 1 combat actions when she �engaged two enemy cargo vessels on 13 September 1942 with damage to the leading vessel, but missed the second. She then proceeded to make a night surface attack on an enemy tanker on 1 October 1942, and heavily damaged it. On 9 October, three Japanese warships, including one Zuikaku class carrier, pursued Albacore for most of the day. The next day, Albacore crew sank an enemy freighter after shaking off pursuers. Two Japanese submarine chasers, supported from the air, encountered Albacore on 11 October but broke off the chase after seven hours of silent running by Albacore. She departed the area the next day and headed to Midway Atoll for the first refit. Departing Midway for her second war patrol on 11 November 1942, Albacore set out for the waters off New Britain and New Guinea. Rebuffed from her first assigned patrol area by Japanese destroyers, she started patrolling the area around Madang harbour in New Guinea. Two enemy vessels were spotted: one destroyer and one suspected transport. Releasing a salvo of torpedoes, the Albacore crew sank the transport on 18 December 1942. On her arrival in Brisbane on 30 December 1942 her crew learned they had sunk the Japanese light cruiser Tenyru of 3300 tons. This was only the second Japanese cruiser sunk by an American submarine during WWII, and succeeded in weakening the enemy hold on New Guinea. This engagement was certainly one of Albacore’s most significant. After receiving an overhaul on her main engines, Albacore departed for her third patrol on 20 January 1943. During this patrol, the crew sank one destroyer and one frigate, with suspected damage to another vessel. Her fourth patrol achieved no confirmed enemy sinkings, although she reportedly engaged several enemy convoys. The next war patrol, this time under the command of Lt. CmDr Oscar Hagberg, achieved similar results. Albacore’s crew sank the ship Heijo Maru on 4 September 1943. Her seventh patrol would see Albacore come close to destruction. She pursued a Japanese convoy, but was accidentally bombed by a plane from the US 5th Air Force on 6 November. Although she received no damage during this attack, Albacore did lose contact with her quarries. On 10 November 1943, she was once again the victim of friendly fire when she was bombed by an American aircraft and suffered significant damage. All auxiliary power was knocked out, and the main induction valve was broken. For two and a half hours, she continued to move between 30 and 400 feet before restoring her trim and returning to the surface. She completed her patrol and returned to Brisbane on 5 December 1943, where she also received a new commander in Lt. Cmdr. James Blanchard. She completed one more patrol, before setting sail for Pearl Harbor on 22 February 1944. Three days later, she sailed for Mare Island Navy Yard for her final overhaul. She arrived back in Pearl Harbor on 13 May and departed for her ninth war patrol on 29 May in waters west of the Marianas Islands. She engaged no enemy ships during this patrol. Albacore shifted her position to the south on 18 June to support the American landings on Saipan. Admiral Nimitz planned to get the submarine, along with several others, to intercept a Japanese relief force. Albacore encountered a large concentration of Japanese Navy ships, and torpedoed near the aviation gasoline tanks of the aircraft carrier Taiho. The loss of one of Japan’s largest and newest aircraft carriers, along with a second sunk by USS Cavalla that same morning, caused the rest of the Japanese fleet to retreat to the relative safety of Okinawa, facilitating the subsequent landing of the U.S. forces in Guam, Tinian, and Saipan. Albacore would go on to sink two more ships after this action. Albacore departed Midway Atoll for her final war patrol on 28 October 1944. This was the last time anyone received any communications from the submarine. A Japanese report, issued by the Japanese Ominato District Guard Unit, references an underwater explosion off of Hokkaido, Japan. Forces at Ezan Lighthouse and aboard Fukuei Maru #7, both reported an explosion a few miles off the coast on 7 November 1944. NHHC volunteer researchers Yutaka Iwasaki and Stephen Katona triangulated these two sightings to develop a predicted location for the wreckage. The same records reported details of surface debris found at the explosion site. One winter jacket or jumper was found with the marking “ALB-5” on the back. This is presumed to be an abbreviated form of Albacore and used to identify the clothing as belonging to the submarine. A pair of white shorts, labelled with “ASK,” was also found. These initials match those of Arthur Star Kruger, a Seaman 2 nd Class who was listed as a member of the crew of Albacore at the time of her demise. Associated with the clothing items were also large amounts of heavy oil, cork, bedding, and American food supplies. This evidence, coupled 2 �with later video evidence collected by Dr Ura and reviewed by David Johnston and Steve Katona, later confirmed the identity of this wreck as belonging to Albacore. With no outgoing communications received from Albacore, she was ultimately declared lost on 21 December 1944 and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 30 March 1945. Over her relatively short career, Albacore conducted 11 war patrols and is credited with 10 sinkings against enemy vessels, with another three not yet confirmed. She earned nine battle stars and four Presidential Unit Citations (PUC). The submarine received the PUC for her second, third, eighth, and ninth patrols. Six of her 10 sinkings were against enemy combatant ships, ranking her as one of the most successful submarines against enemy combatants during WWII. DISCOVERY OF SITE USS ALBACORE Following archival research and location data in Japanese records, Dr Tamaki Ura and his team developed a survey pattern covering the suspected area of Albacore’s sinking. They completed surveys in the Shiriyaski Sea between Honshu and Hokkaido, Japan (Johnston, Katona, and Iwasaki 2022). On 25 May 2022 two multibeam systems were used to develop a bathymetric map of the area, while a towed system equipped with side scan sonar was used to develop a clearer image of the seafloor and any wreckage still located there. Dr Ura’s team found a wreck, about 50 metres in length. After identifying a shipwreck site, Dr Ura’s team conducted underwater surveys using ROVs on 26 May and 2 October 2022 (Johnston, Katona, and Iwasaki 2022). All survey activity was broadcasted live via internet (Nico Nico News, May and October 2022). The initial survey attempts in May encountered difficulties brought on by the harsh underwater surroundings and poor visibility. The depth, over 200 metres, also complicated matters. Despite difficulties, several images suggested the discovery of an American submarine. The confirmed location of the shipwreck was within one nautical mile of the location of the underwater explosion reported by Japanese forces off Hokkaido on 7 November 1944. Dr Ura’s team returned with volunteer researchers and archaeologists from NHHC, in October 2022 with a larger and more powerful ROV to confirm the identity of the wreck as Albacore. The data collected on these two trips showed a shipwreck split, as the fore part was lost and the aft end was buried in the sand. The break occurred forward of the conning tower fairwater. The centre section, including the conning tower and its aft part, was surveyed by the ROV. The shipwreck is heeled over to starboard about 5 degrees. The bridge has been smashed down to the port side of the submarine. Many fishing nets and marine concretions cover the wreck. ANALYSIS OF ALBACORE FOOTAGE Unlike surface vessels, there are a number of challenges facing those attempting the identification of American submarine wrecks. WWII submarines typically had little to no markings to distinguish themselves. Surface vessels usually have their name and assigned numbers marked in several locations. In this case, only the visual modifications, outlined below, and some deductive reasoning guided NHHC researchers who relied heavily on historic photographs from the Mare Island Navy Shipyard. Volunteer researcher David Johnston reviewed the footage collected by Dr Ura’s team with location data derived from Japanese historical reports. As mentioned above, the official ship history provided by the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (DANFS) alongside archival material confirmed that Albacore underwent its last major refit at the Mare Island Navy Yard in California starting on 25 February 1944. She departed Mare Island Navy Yard on 5 May 1944. A collection of U.S. Navy photographs shows Albacore during its final overhaul at Mare Island Navy Yard. Figure 1 shows several modifications made to the submarine and highlights three as they relate to the video analysis 3 �Figure 1. Albacore at the final stages of its final refit at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, completed in May, 1944 (USN Photograph 19-N-65354). Figure 2. The vent holes that allowed researchers to identify the wreck as Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, October 2022). 4 �Figure 3. The SJ Radar Mast that helped confirm the identity of Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, Oct. 2022). (Katona and Johnston 2022). A watertight gun ammunition locker, containing rounds for the deck gun. This can be seen on the aft port side of the conning tower fairwater, shown as feature four in the accompanying photograph. It is likely that an identical locker existed on the starboard side as well. Second, NHHC researchers noticed the removal of steel plates on the upper edge of the fairwater. The removal revealed the structural I-beam ribs shown as feature six in the photograph. Finally, one of the most important aspects is labelled as feature seven in the image. A line of vent holes drilled along the upper corner of the superstructure on both sides of the submarine allowed air to escape the superstructure faster, speeding diving times (Figure 2). Another key identifying feature is the SJ Radar antenna mounted on Gato class submarines like Albacore. Based on the Mare Island overhaul photographs, the SJ radar mast was mounted forward of the periscope shears, and this is where it was found on the wreck (Figure 3). SJ Radar systems were installed on most USN submarines between 1942 and 1944. This system was key to differentiating Albacore from any submarines of different nationalities in the area. The SJ Radar dish was unique to American submarines in the Pacific theatre, and clearly differentiated it from British, Dutch, and Soviet submarines that could also have operated in the same area as Albacore. All of the aforementioned features were identified by co-author Johnston during his review of the footage collected by Dr Ura’s team. The most informative features included the SJ Radar system and the vent holes along the upper edge of the superstructure. Researchers also identified one of Albacore’s 20 mm anti-aircraft gun mounts, affixed during a previous refit, and the exposed ribs 5 �revealed in the conning tower during her final refit. Some additional features, including possible hatches and ladders, were also documented. These observed features, many which clearly differentiated Albacore from any other contemporary submarine lost in the area, provided sufficient evidence for archaeologists at NHHC to confirm the identity of Albacore’s remains. The SJ radar system established the remains as those of an American submarine, while features installed/opened during its final refit in early 1944 set it apart from any other American submarines lost in the area. The combination of archaeological documentation, historical records, and location data provided the necessary confidence for NHHC to assert the submarine wreck’s identity. ANNOUNCEMENT AND OUTREACH Coupled with the first press release (NHHC 2023) were announcements on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn. The total number of views in the first four days reached 269,657 across all NHHC platforms. The largest number of responses was on Twitter, followed by Facebook and Instagram. The press’ response to the NHHC announcement was also encouraging. Several domestic and international outlets, including NPR, CNN, Fox News, Popular Mechanics, and Science, ran features. Outside the United States, the story was picked up by Spanish, Hungarian, Polish, Italian, French, Japanese, and Vietnamese publications. NHHC’s volunteer researchers also coordinated with a number of organisations focused on research and preservation of the history of lost WWII submarines and their crewmen. In particular, those involved in the organisation On Eternal Patrol (OEP), website that records lost servicemen of American submarines, worked to find next of kin of Albacore’s crew members (OEP 2023). NHHC supported these efforts by issuing a letter on the discovery signed by the Command’s Director that could be forwarded to any next of kin on the website. Efforts are underway to organise a memorial event involving next of kin in the near future. MOVING FORWARD: WHAT’S NEXT? The NHHC’s experience with Albacore has illustrated the effectiveness of collaboration when addressing future submarine discoveries. Research partners, such as Dr Ura, spearheaded research efforts that led to the discovery of a wreck of interest, while he gained experience with submarine wreck investigations. NHHC volunteer researchers, lending their time and analytical skills, also gained valuable experience and insight into the methods used to identify submarines. Finally, NHHC archaeologists, historians and archivists lead to the wreck identity confirmation. In tandem with partners, NHHC then coordinated the associated public announcement. This collaborative approach allowed for a pooling of knowledge, expertise, time and resources that increased confidence in and accelerated the official confirmation of the identity of the wreck. Both of these facets are crucial, allowing for the public to be informed in a timely manner of the site’s importance, while at the same time ensuring protective measures can be applied, which now constitutes a sunken military craft under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Navy. Further disturbance must be sanctioned by NHHC. At present, NHHC has no plans to recover Albacore, or any part of it. The sea is considered a fit and final resting place for U.S. Navy sailors. The focus now shifts to the continued preservation of this war grave. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Naval History and Heritage Command. “Albacore II (SS-218).” Accessed https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/a/albacore-ss-218-ii.html. April 28, 2023. The Society La Plongee for Deep Sea Engineering. “Find US Submarine ‘Albacore’ Sunk off Hokkaido.” Academist. Accessed April 29, 2023. https://academist-cf.com/projects/187?lang=en. Johnston, David, and Steve Katona. 2022. “Addendum to the Report ‘Evaluation of the Wreckage of USS Albacore (SS218)’ Dated October 2022.” Washington DC. Johnston, David, Steve Katona, and Yutaka Iwasaki. 2022. “Evaluation of the Wreckage of the USS Albacore (SS-218).” Washington DC. Katona, Stephen J., and David L. Johnston. 2022. “Critical Features for Identification of USS Albacore (SS-218).” Washington DC. Nico Nico News. “Niconico Live: Finding the Lost Submarine “ALBACORE.” May 25-26, 2022. Accessed April 28, 2023. https://live.nicovideo.jp/watch/lv326919568. Nico Nico News. Niconico Live: Finding the Lost Submarine “ALBACORE.” October 2, 2022. Accessed April 28, 2023. https://live.nicovideo.jp/watch/lv336612796. OEP On Eternal Patrol. “On Eternal Patrol.” Accessed April 29, 2023. https://www.oneternalpatrol.com/. NHHC Naval History and Heritage Command. “Wreck Site Identified as WWII Submarine USS Albacore (SS 218).” Accessed April 28, 2023. https://www.history.navy.mil/news-and-events/news/2023/nhhc-identifies-albacore-wrecksite.html. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Discovery and Management of the Wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218) Description An account of the resource The wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218) was discovered on 25 May 2022 and resurveyed in October by Dr Tamaki Ura’s team of researchers at La Plongée Deep Sea Engineering Society. Following the initial discovery, volunteer researchers for the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) examined recorded footage of the wreckage to identify the wrecked boat. Key features identified the wreckage as belonging to an American submarine from the Second World War. Further investigation and archival research identified the submarine as the American Albacore, a Gato class submarine lost in action in Japanese waters on 7 November 1944. The U.S. Navy formally confirmed the identity of the wrecksite as the Albacore in February 2023. After an overview of the vessel’s history, this paper covers the initial search and discovery of Albacore during 2022. In particular, the use of a Remotely Operated Vehicle demonstrates the viability of this approach for initial identification assessments of deep wrecks. An outline of the identification process is provided that covers key features of Albacore observed on both the underwater footage and archival imagery. The identity confirmation process and media outreach efforts surrounding the discovery are covered, followed by a discussion on the continuing management and treatment of Albacore. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ivor Mollema Tamaki Ura David Johnston Stephen Katona Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Mollema, Ivor, Stephen Katona, David Johnston, and Tamaki Ura. 2023. “Discovery and Management of the wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1893 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5ffbd46adae370b15fbecb5fcc917cb3.pdf 70cd0c78ca8b2c90e8bd855005e68d15 PDF Text Text Stone Tidal Weirs in Hainan Island, PRC Yishi Wang (Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, wangyishi_2020@163.com) ABSTRACT Around Danzhou City at the northern coast of Hainan Island, PRC, stone tidal weirs are widely distributed. Local history says that immigrants from the southern part of Fujian Province in mainland China came to this area to build many stone tidal weirs during the Ming Dynasty. Each patrilineal linage composed the construction unit of them. One stone tidal weir at the village of Wangzhai has the stone-circled catching trap at the tip of the stone wall, which looks similar to ones in the Penghu islands. On other stone tidal weirs at the village of Shenchong, there are openings between stone walls, which are usually closed by wooden sluice gates; when the openings are opened on the ebb, people set fishing nets just outside of the opened gates. Before the tide is out of stone tidal weirs completely, fishing nets are also used inside them. At night, fishermen light a fire on floats of fishing nets with coconut oil in order to drive fish into the nets. Although one stone tidal weir at the village of Changsha has been registered as a Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the Provincial Level by the Hainan Provincial People's Government, most stone tidal weirs in Hainan island have not been safeguarded properly by local people as well as by the government. Some weirs are abandoned, and others are transformed into fishing ports. As for the intangible aspect, villagers still remember ‘Tide Song’ in Hainanese, which narrates the dates of the spring tides and the commencement times of high tides according to lunar calendar. In former days, in addition, some families held special rituals during high tides so that a haul at stone tidal weirs might be good. INTRODUCTION The stone tidal weir is a large fixed fishing gear constructed by piling up rocks or coral limestone in a horseshoe, semi-circular, square, or linear shape from the intertidal zone towards the sea. Fish schools enter the stone weir during high tide, but they are trapped inside when the tide recedes, so the fish are easy to catch. The stone weir is considered a primitive fishing gear and method, relying solely on tidal changes, and is seen as an ancient fishing technique. Research on stone tidal weirs in China has been primarily focused on Taiwan and Fujian Province, with no existing studies on stone weirs in other regions. Based on the current state of research, this paper presents the first study on stone tidal weirs in regions other than Taiwan or Fujian Province. The study focuses on the stone tidal weirs of Hainan Island. Drawing on fieldwork conducted in autumn 2021 on Hainan Island, this study provides insights into the conservation of Hainan's stone tidal weirs and their potential utilization as cultural resources for tourism. Hainanese Stone Tidal Weirs Hainan Island, located in the southern part of the East China Sea, north of the South China Sea, belongs administratively to Hainan Province in China. Stone tidal weirs are distributed on Hainan Island, Danzhou City. Danzhou City is situated in the northwest of Hainan Island, facing the Beibu Gulf, at approximately 109.5 degrees east longitude and 19.5 degrees north latitude. According to the local dialect known as Danzhou dialect, ‘沖(chong)’ a pond surrounded by sandy beaches or reefs by the seaside, and when combined with ‘石 (shi)’ stone weirs. In the local dialect, however, ‘石沖 (shi chong)’ is also referred to as ‘冲篱 (chongli)’ or ‘魚沖 (yu chong)’. Unlike stone tidal weirs in other regions, the stone tidal weirs in Hainan Island do not have specific names or unique designations. In 2021, stone tidal weirs were surveyed in three villages in Danzhou City, Hainan Province, namely the villages of Wangzhai, Changsha, and Shenchong. Village of Wangzhai Four stone tidal weirs remain in Wangzhai. However, the practice of using these stone weirs for fishing activities has largely disappeared. During the 2021 survey, only two stone tidal weirs were identified. The first stone tidal weir is massive, with a total length of over 800 meters. The second stone weir is smaller, with a total length ranging from 200 to 300 meters. At the curved end of the second stone weir, there is a fishing area similar in the stone tidal weirs of the Penghu Islands. 1 �Village of Changsha Three stone weirs remain in the village of Changsha. Among them, one small-sized stone weir has already suffered significant collapse. Immediately adjacent to its west, however, the second stone weir has been completely preserved, and the village residents still use this stone weir for fishing activities. It is an extremely long stone weir, with a total length of approximately 1,000 meters and a height of around three to five meters. The third stone weir was designated as a ‘Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the Provincial Level’ by the Hainan Provincial People's Government on 24 November 2015, and the ‘Changsha Village Offshore Enclosure Site’ was established in October 2016. During the survey conducted in 2021, however, it was not possible to visually confirm the existence of this third stone weir. Even the nearby village residents have no information about this stone weir, and it cannot be ruled out that it has already completely collapsed due to the impact of wind and rain. Village of Shenchong Three stone weirs remain In the village of Shenchong. Part of the stone wall of the first stone weir has been destroyed intentionally by nearby village residents to facilitate the entry and exit of fishing boats. Therefore, this stone weir primarily serves as a refuge for fishing boats during typhoons. Located northeast of the first stone weir, the second stone tidal weir is perfectly preserved, and its original form is fully intact. It is still being used by the local villagers for fishing activities. The third stone tidal weir is damaged but still usable for fishing, and neighboring villagers come to it during low tide. The stone tidal weirs at the village of Shenchong are significantly different from those in other locations in Danzhou City. While they share the common feature of utilizing tidal variations to retain fish within the weirs, each stone tidal weir's stone walls have two openings. These openings are equipped with two wooden gates that regulate the speed of drainage during low tide. The gates consist of a large gate and a small gate, and depending on the drainage requirements, both gates can be opened simultaneously or only one. To prevent fish from escaping the stone weir during drainage, fishing nets are installed outside the gates to capture them. Inside the stone walls, there are artificial water pools or depressions excavated for the purpose of collecting fish. Before high tide, the villagers stack stones in these depressions. During high tide, when the fish enter the stone weir, many of them have a tendency to hide in the gaps between the stones or gather near the stones. These depressions serve to enhance fishing efficiency. Additionally, the villagers sometimes use fishing nets when fishing inside the stone weir, especially when the tide does not completely recede. Some fish species emit sounds, especially during spawning, and the villagers move the fishing nets towards the source of the sound. During nighttime fishing, the villagers light coconut oil-fueled lamps on the buoys of the fishing nets. The fish are attracted to the light and are led into the nets. Tangible Aspect According to the village residents, in Hainan Island, stone tidal weirs were privately owned by the clans that constructed them. Each branch of the clan would take turns in fishing and jointly repairing the stone tidal weirs. On any given day, only people belonging to the same branch were allowed to use the stone weirs. The usage rights for the stone tidal weirs would transfer between the different branches on a daily basis. Additionally, other village residents who did not belong to the clan could borrow the stone tidal weirs. By paying a suitable fee, these villagers would temporarily acquire the right to use the stone tidal weirs. Furthermore, some stone tidal weirs were not solely built by a single clan but rather through cooperation among several clans. As a result, these stone tidal weirs became co-owned by multiple clans. However, despite involving multiple branches from different clans, the fundamental process of transferring usage rights remained unchanged. These transfers of usage rights not only helped maintain relationships within the clans but also fostered connections between different clans, while simultaneously preserving the relationship between each clan and the village. Additionally, the importance of stone tidal weir repairs surpassed the significance of usage rights. Stone tidal weirs were susceptible to destruction from typhoons and high waves, making regular maintenance essential. Stone tidal weirs brought stable fishing yields to the village, this provided a means for the villagers to obtain wealth and sustain their livelihoods. Therefore, the obligation to repair the stone tidal weirs was considered more significant than the usage 2 �rights. As a result, the repair work for the stone tidal weirs was primarily led by the users themselves, with the respective clans overseeing the repair activities. The stone tidal weirs in Hainan Island are similar to those in Fujian Province and the Penghu Islands. The basic structure consists of arc-shaped stone walls, but in Hainan Island, there are also stone tidal weirs with fishing compartments at the ends of the arcs, similar to those found in the Penghu Islands. Additionally, there are features in the stone tidal weirs of Hainan Island that resemble drainage outlets found in the stone tidal weirs at other regions of mainland China. The construction and management of stone tidal weirs seem to be quite similar in these regions. The construction and maintenance of stone tidal weirs require a large amount of labour. The ownership clans had exclusivity over the usage rights of the stone tidal weirs, which were primarily treated as private property. In other areas such as southern Fujian Province and the Penghu Islands, communal ownership was also observed. The stone tidal weirs at the village of Wufeng of Huian County in Fujian Province had an alternating system where different branches of the Song clan would take turns overseeing the fishing activities in the stone tidal weirs, and the catches were distributed fairly. The distribution of catches in Hainan Island is similar, with usage and distribution alternating among different branches of the family. All this gives a sense that stone tidal weirs in Fujian, Taiwan, and Hainan were privately owned. Furthermore, just like in Fujian Province and the Penghu Islands, it was possible to buy, mortgage, rent, or give away stone weirs in Hainan Island. This indicates that the stone tidal weirs had a certain immovable property nature as a source of productive activity. Intangible Aspect Since the Ming Dynasty, three main religious beliefs have coexisted in Hainan Island: Mazu worship, Xifu Ren worship, and Shuiwei Shengniang worship. Among them, the Shuiwei Shengniang worship and Xifu Ren worship originated in Hainan Island, while Mazu worship entered Hainan Island with the immigrants from southern Fujian and has become the mainstream belief on the island today. Near each stone tidal weir in Danzhou City, Hainan Island, there are traces of religious rituals. According to the villagers, local people participate in formal ceremonies for Xi Furen, Mazu, and Shuiwei Shengniang. They also conduct clan-based ritual activities by building ritual platforms near the stone tidal weirs. In addition to the worship of these three major deities, however, many fishing communities also worship other deities. For example, villagers who worship ‘Ganling Zhenjun’, ‘Lingying Zhenjun’, or ‘Ganying Dijun’ go out to the sea on holidays, wedding days, and full moon days to conduct incense-burning ceremonies, praying for a bountiful catch in the stone weirs and seeking the blessings of these deities. According to the memories of villagers in the village of Changsha, they used to conduct ceremonies for ‘Ganling Zhenjun’ during high tide, praying for abundant tides and the entry of many fish and crustaceans into the stone tidal weirs. However, with the development of modern fisheries and the emergence of industrial zones, the stone tidal weirs are no longer the means of livelihood for most fishing communities. Many have become factory workers or have chosen modern fisheries, so there are now fewer villagers who conduct ritual activities specifically for praying for a bountiful catch in the stone weirs. According to the villagers at the village of Shenchong, they have a ‘Tide Song’ that has been passed down through generations, which describes the laws of tides related to the stone tidal weirs. Although there is no written record of the song, most of the villagers still remember it through oral tradition. Through this song, the villagers grasp the high tides of the spring tide and gather manpower earlier to increase the fishing efficiency in the stone tidal weirs. According to the villagers at the village of Shenchong, they have a ‘Tide Song’ that has passed down through generations, which describes the laws of tides related to the stone tidal weirs. Although there is no written record of the song, most of the villagers still remember it through oral tradition. Through this song, the villagers grasp the high tides of the spring tide and gather manpower earlier to increase the fishing efficiency in the stone tidal weirs. The ‘Tide Song’ is recorded as the following content in modern Chinese: 大正月初七二十一、将门出虎子；二月初四与十九、蟾宫玉兔走；三月初一又十六、龙女会柳 毅；四月初二十五二十九、银蛇走三周；同间切星五月十二二十五、天马行空来往独；六月初 3 �十二十三、苏武牧羊不知年；七月初八二十二、悟空闹天河；八月初五与十九、雄鸡一唱天地 久；九月初二又十六、杨戩纵天狗；十月初一十四二十七、八戒娶妻；效十一月十二ニ十五、 弥勒走失金飞鼠；十二月初九二十四、牛郎会织女甘 The English translation of the ‘Tide Song’ is: ‘In January, there are two spring tides, on 7 January and 21 January, with high tides starting from three AM to five AM. In February, there are two spring tides as well, on 4 February and 19 February, with high tides starting from five AM to seven AM. In March, there are two spring tides on 1 March and 16 March, with high tides starting from seven AM to nine AM. In April, there are three spring tides on 2 April, 15 April, and 29 April, with high tides starting from nine AM to 11 AM. In May, there are two spring tides on 12 May and 25 May, with high tides starting from 11 AM to one PM. In June, there are two spring tides on 10 June and 23 June, with high tides starting from one PM to three PM. In July, there are two spring tides on 8 July and 22 July, with high tides starting from three PM to five PM. In August, there are two spring tides on 5 August and 19 August, with high tides starting from five PM to seven PM. In September, there are two spring tides on 2 September and 16 September, with high tides starting from seven PM to nine PM. In October, there are three spring tides on 1 October, 14 October, and 27 October, with high tides starting from nine PM to 11 PM. In November, there are two spring tides on 12 November and 25 November, with high tides starting from nine PM to 11 PM. In December, there are two spring tides on 9 December and 24 December, with high tides starting from one AM to three AM.’ The ‘Tide Song’ was originally passed down orally among the local villagers in Hainan, who spoke the Hainan dialect. With the influence of urban civilization in modern China, there is now a written version of the Chaozhou song in Standard Mandarin. Hainanese belongs to the Min Nan language group, and the formation of the Hainan dialect is directly related to the large-scale migration of people from Fujian to Hainan. According to Fu Yuchuan's ‘Ancient Migration and Hainan Dialect’, it is believed that Hainanese evolved and developed from a certain dialect brought by the dominant number of Fujian immigrants, and later underwent further changes influenced by other local dialects. Similarly, Taiwanese Hokkien is also a variant of Min Nan language, which has been influenced by the significant influx of Fujian immigrants. CONCLUSIONS The outstanding difference stone tidal weirs in Hainan Island is the conversion of stone tidal weirs into fish ponds. While cases of such conversion, like those observed in the Hawaiian Islands, are known, some argue this should be viewed as a common development trend for stone tidal weirs to become fish farming areas (Nishimura 1981). Similar observed exist for Hong Kong Island. In the past, stone tidal weirs were used as a means of fishing activity in coastal areas, but they faced damage and destruction. In traditional societies, the repair of broken stone tidal weirs was commonly done by the community at the clan level. However, as the fishing catch in stone tidal weirs has decreased, such communal work has diminished. Rapid coastal development at a national scale has led to the abandonment and disappearance of stone tidal weirs, without thorough investigation, causing them to rapidly vanish worldwide. Furthermore, the impacts of recent ocean climate changes, such as sea-level rise and destructive storms, have become the greatest threats to stone tidal weirs. The situation is similar for stone weirs in Hainan Island. In the Penghu Islands located in the Taiwan Strait, conservation efforts are underway for stone tidal weirs as cultural heritage. Extensive surveys are continuously conducted, and the results and statistical data are being compiled into a database. Additionally, conservation of stone tidal weirs is supported, considering its direct connection to marine resource conservation. Restoration activities for stone weirs are sponsored, and linked to cultural and ecological tourism (Lee 2017). In Hainan Island it is necessary to transform the historical and cultural value of stone weirs into practical tourism value. With the development of tourism, the establishment of an economic foundation through the maintenance and conservation of stone tidal weirs becomes possible, thereby increasing awareness for the protection of marine resources. 4 �However, the following principles are essential. First of all, the use of stone tidal weirs must adhere to the fundamental principles of cultural heritage preservation. So development activities that would damage stone weirs as cultural assets are not allowed. Secondly, based on the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, not only the stone tidal weirs themselves but also the coastal landscapes where stone tidal weirs exist are maritime cultural landscapes or seascape and should be protected. It is not possible to isolate stone tidal weirs from their surrounding environment, and while ensuring the integrity of the archaeological site without interfering with the stone tidal weir remains, the good condition and integrity of the ecological environment around the stone weir site must be ensured. Improving the surrounding ecological environment in conjunction with stone weirs is necessary to maximize the preservation of their historical and cultural value. Thirdly, in terms of tourism, ‘experience’ is the keyword. The development of stone weirs as a tourism resource should go beyond mere observation or listening to guide explanations. It should involve excavating the essence of stone tidal weir culture, assimilating tourists into the stone tidal weir experience, enhancing the level of tourist participation, and increasing the attractiveness of stone tidal weirs as a tourism resource. Tourists can have unique experiences by participating in fishing activities and restoration work at stone tidal weirs, gaining special experiences not available in their daily lives. Many tourists seek distinctive experiences. Finally, while utilizing stone weirs as a tourism resource, it is necessary to protect the marine resources in the surrounding sea areas for the conservation of stone tidal weirs. Collaborating with local governments, marine protected areas should be established for the release of fish and shellfish larvae into these protected areas. This would open the path for the revival of stone tidal weirs as traditional fishing and allow tourists to actively participate in fishing activities. Stone tidal weirs in Hainan Island should transcend traditional fishing and be passed down to the next generation as cultural or tourism resources. Bibliography Lee, M. “Study, Survey and Historical Change of Stone Tidal Weirs in the Penghu Island.” In Chong-Wu Stone Fish Weir on Ming Dynasty, edited by J. Chen, 51-72. Quanzhou: Chinese Literature and Culture Studies Association at Hui An County and Villagers’ Committee of Fong-Hou Village at Chong-Wu Town, 2017. Nishimura A. “Maritime Counterpart to Megalithic Culture on Land. » Journal de la Société des Océanistes 3 (1981): 255-266. 5 �6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 1: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Conference presentation Date Available Date (often a range) that the resource became or will become available. November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Stone Tidal Weirs in Hainan Island, PRC Description An account of the resource Around Danzhou City at the northern coast of Hainan Island, PRC, stone tidal weirs are widely distributed. Local history says that immigrants from the southern part of Fujian Province in mainland China came to this area to build many stone tidal weirs during the Ming Dynasty. Each patrilineal linage composed the construction unit of them. One stone tidal weir at the village of Wangzhai has the stone-circled catching trap at the tip of the stone wall, which looks similar to ones in the Penghu islands. On other stone tidal weirs at the village of Shenchong, there are openings between stone walls, which are usually closed by wooden sluice gates; when the openings are opened on the ebb, people set fishing nets just outside of the opened gates. Before the tide is out of stone tidal weirs completely, fishing nets are also used inside them. At night, fishermen light a fire on floats of fishing nets with coconut oil in order to drive fish into the nets. Although one stone tidal weir at the village of Changsha has been registered as a Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the Provincial Level by the Hainan Provincial People's Government, most stone tidal weirs in Hainan island have not been safeguarded properly by local people as well as by the government. Some weirs are abandoned, and others are transformed into fishing ports. As for the intangible aspect, villagers still remember ‘Tide Song’ in Hainanese, which narrates the dates of the spring tides and the commencement times of high tides according to lunar calendar. In former days, in addition, some families held special rituals during high tides so that a haul at stone tidal weirs might be good. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yishi Wang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wang, Yishi. 2023. “Stone Tidal Weirs in Hainan Island, PRC.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Akifumi Iwabuchi, and Kotaro Yamafune. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1892 Asia-Pac Session 1 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f294dcc0ba93657da85daa853cc99eab.pdf ef2e1b13dc454fa2c151e26fd81a119d PDF Text Text Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan Daniele Petrella (IRIAE, daniele.petrella@iriae.com) Irene Ciulla (IRIAE, ciullairene@gmail.com) Diego M. Mezzapelle (IRIAE, halfskin@hotmail.it) Giuseppe Avola (IRIAE, peppeavola95@gmail.com) ABSTRACT Japanese neolithic, the so called Jōmon Period, represents a vast terrain in which to develop new and exciting research in the archaeological field. This is because there are still many questions that need to be answered to better clarify the evolutionary dynamics of the cultures that characterized it. The project Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan aims to study and understand the use of the sea and waterways during the Japanese Neolithic period, both in terms of movements within the archipelago and contacts with the surrounding territories. In its first phase, the project will focus on the analysis of the nature and dynamics behind the first relations with the Korean peninsula. For this reason, International Research Institute for Archaeology and Ethnology (IRIAE) has developed a new project of maritime archaeological investigation on land and underwater. The project identifys the island of Tsushima (Nagasaki Prefecture) as a crucial point. The activities will begin at the sites of Meotoishimae and Ongaura, both overlook the Korean coast and have geomorphological characteristics of possible landings and/or coastal settlements. Among these, those most under analysis are related to the origins of the Jōmon culture, a topic that cannot be separated from human environment interaction: the relationship with the Korean populations and that with the sea. What was the role of the sea in the life of the Jōmon People? How did they move and what boats did they use? What were kaizuka really and what did they mean? How did they adapt to the environmental changes at the advent of the Holocene? List of Figures Figure 1: Flowchart of the Adaptation Cycle Figure 2: Waniura Bay and Shishimi Bay Figure 3: Ongasaki / Ongaura Site Figure 4: ‘Meotoishimae’ Site INTRODUCTION The topic of this abstract fits best into the session ‘History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia’ because it aims to address the study of the relationships between Jōmon communities and the sea, its use and exploitation of resources, and the role it played in the relations between them and continental populations, not neglecting the importance of other waterways in internal movements and communications. All this through a new methodological proposal based on the simultaneous investigation of land and underwater sites with the aid of innovative technologies and computer systems. Our methodology is the study of coastal sites in relation to the adjacent seabed, in GIS, to bring together archaeological data from the various sites under investigation. This will open up new research perspectives in the complex field of movement and settlement choice during the Japanese Neolithic. As there are clear cultural differences in the archipelago during the Jōmon Period (14,000 BC and 9,500 BC and end around 1000 BC), we prefer to identify this period as the 'Japanese Neolithic’ and use the term jōmon to indicate the cultural faces that characterised it. The identification and 'development' of cultural faces is based on changes in the relationship between man and his environment and how he adapted to it. In the circular flowchart (Figure 1) the environment inevitably influences the lifestyle of human groups, which produces a 'material culture' that, in turn, favours and enables the adaptation necessary to survive climatic and environmental changes (Renfrew et al. 1991). 1 �Figure 1: Flowchart of the Adaptation Cycle The advent of the Holocene brought about great changes that conditioned and forced human groups in the area to modify their 'habits' (Barnes 2015). Climatic change characterised the Holocene. On the one hand, on land evergreens and deciduous broadleaf trees produced acorns and hard fruits (Teshigawa 2022; Williams et al. 1982) and the ecological process of insularisation led to an increase in the populations of smaller mammals such as wild boar and deer. This followed the extinction of larger animals that could not migrate to places with more suitable temperatures. All this allowed for a constant seasonal food supply for gathering and hunting (Habu 2022). On the other hand, in the water the sea level rise separated Japan from the continent. This led to the development of navigation, both for marine and terrestrial travel. On land the presence of the great mountains over the entire surface of the archipelago make overland travel extremely complex. Rivers represented the main inland communication routes, while lakes were an important source of supply for inland areas further from the coasts (Hornell 1946). Over the sea people performed cabotage and inter-island boating. Moreover, water products, such as molluscs, fish, and marine mammals, represented a new source of food supply that not only contributed to the general needs of the populations, but also compensated for seasonal food fluctuations (Habu et al. 2011; Koike 1980; Teshigawara 2021; Teshigawara 2022). Excavations conducted in various areas of Japan, related to the various phases of the Jōmon Period, have brought to light bones of large marine mammals and large fish, such as whales and tuna. Such animals require complex organisation, strategy, and technology of evolved societies (Hosoya et al. 2014). The waterways became the main communication routes for the 'flow of goods, people and information' (Mizoguchi 2013) not only within the archipelago itself, but also from outside. Japan, in fact, with the advent of the Holocene, became a territory with a temperate climate, rich in vegetation and raw materials and particularly suited to both fishing and hunting (Teshigawara 2016). This 'oasis' was a destination for migratory flows of foreign cultures that greatly influenced the development of local communities (Mizoguchi 2002). Namely, from the north populations of Siberia and the American territories; from the south-west populations of Korea; and from the south populations of the Southeast Asian Archipelago (Nakagome et al. 2020). The reconsideration of all these elements led to the project 'Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan' by the International Research Institute for Archaeology and Ethnology (IRIAE). The project is divided into three phases. Jōmon Sea 1 will focus on understanding the nature of early relations with Korea and how these influenced the evolution of Jōmon cultures. Jōmon Sea 2 will deal with relations with northern cultures. Jōmon Sea 3 will address the study of internal contacts within the country. 2 �The first phase will focus on relations with the Korean peninsula to investigate the island of Tsushima (Nagasaki Prefecture). The island is located in the centre of the Sea of Japan, on the route between Kyūshū and Korea, from whose coastline it is only 47 km away. It is likely that this island was intercepted by explorers from the peninsula in search of richer territories. Tsushima represents a veritable 'treasure chest' for archaeological research because since ancient times it has been the crossroads of all cultural dynamics between Japan and the surrounding cultures; just as Sicily, Italy is at the centre of the Mediterranean. Numerous investigations were conducted on the island in recent decades by Japanese scholars, which confirmed the strong Korean presence and exchanges with northern Kyūshū, but also the mutual influence between Korean and local populations (Shōbayashi 1995). The project is carried out in collaboration with Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology and the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA), which has been carrying out archaeological investigations on Tsushima Island for years. CASE STUDIES After analysing the reports of all the excavations and investigations conducted on the island, we chose to start with the north-western area, which faces Korea. Two extremely interesting sites can be found in this area (Figure 2). These are the Waniura Bay, located in the far north, and the Shishimi Bay area, slightly further south (Nagasaki 2019), which represent the case studies examined. Figure 2: Waniura Bay and Shishimi Bay The Ongasaki / Ongaura Site This is the first of the inlets, coming from the south, in Waniura Bay and facing the Korean coast. It is part of the Yabitsu area, which is being investigated by ARIUA; where the first, and so far, only, Jōmon landing site has been identified, as well as numerous Korean Neolithic evidence (Hayashida 2019). 3 �The investigations focused on the Ongasaki promontory that closes the inlet to the north (around 20 metres above sea level) and in the stretch of sea that bathes Ongaura (Figure 3). Figure 3: Ongasaki / Ongaura Site The surface survey of Ongasaki revealed the presence of three obsidian points and significant quantities of obsidian, quartz crystals and shell waste. Considering the particular purity of the obsidian found, the absence of quarrying pits on Tsushima Island and the morphological characteristics of the tips found, we assume that it came from the Koshidake quarry in northern Kyūshū. The shape and quality of these finds is absolutely superimposable to those found along the southern coast of Korea and, mainly, in the Busan area. The route of obsidian is likely: raw obsidian arrives on the island from northern Kyūshū reaching Ongasaki for processing, from there, the finished products are sent to the Korean coast. In addition, the presence of hundreds of quartz crystals, shell waste and numerous traces of charcoal make Ongasaki an important processing and sorting site for obsidian products and other valuable materials. We also found archaeological evidence related to later periods, such as fragments of iron swords (dated to the Late Yayoi and the Kofun Period), bronze-finished weapons and armour, a bronze coin from the Edo Period and some fragments of medieval pottery (including celadon) that testify to the long life of the Ongasaki site and the strategic importance of its location. The underwater survey carried out on the seabed of Ongaura Bay revealed the presence of fragments of amphorae, still to be chronologically framed, and three lithic anchors whose typology can be ascribed between the Jōmon and medieval periods. The 'Meotoishimae' Site The geomorphology of Meotoishimae and the documented importance of the bay were the elements that prompted us to investigate this inlet. This site is located opposite the important site of Meotoishi in Shishimi Bay (Figure 4), which has always been known to Koreans and mentioned in the text Haedong Jegukgi (Adachi 1999). It was excavated between the end of the 1970s and 1993 and brought to light a very large number of Neolithic Korean pottery of the Sugari type and only a few fragments of Ataka-style pottery dated to the Middle Jōmon (Kiyoura 1992). 4 �Figure 4: ‘Meotoishimae’ Site Our investigations on the Meotoishimae site revealed an interesting similarity with the structures in Koshitaka, which is located on the same side of the island only three kilometers to the north and currently being investigated by the Tsushima Museum team. If this structure similarity is confirmed by subsequent investigations, one could hypothesise their repeated pattern during the Neolithic period, as well as location choice of the island's bays overlooking the stretch of sea facing Korea. The archaeological excavations at the Koshitaka site uncovered 2461 fragments of Neolithic Korean pottery and only seven fragments of Maebira-style Jōmon pottery (Shōbayashi 1995), as well as a Korean-style kiln. This discrepancy between the amount of Korean and indigenous evidence leaves little doubt these were Korean settlements. We hypothesize groups from Korea sailed in search of richer territories and then settled in Tsushima. Over time, they influenced and merged with the small local populations, and, from this fusion developed a hybrid culture. During the Early/Middle Jōmon this hybrid culture looked further east, towards the Kyūshū coast, which they reached by cultural exchanges. RESOURCES The resources that will be deployed to implement the project will come, in addition to the specific skills and expertise present in IRIAE, from the collaboration with Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. They supply the technological approach to underwater investigations, and the ARIUA. Moreover, the project already enjoys the patronage of UNESCO Underwater Heritage and the financial support of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation. FRAMEWORK The project aims to answer a series of interconnected questions. These questions are based on the use and exploitation of the sea, waterways and coastal settlements in bays. First, in Jōmon Sea the aim is to understand the structure and location-choice of coastal settlements in bays. We aim to contextualize this with the seasonal cycle of food supply and storage methods. Second, we aim to collect data on the 5 �types and level of nautical knowledge of the Neolithic communities that exploited the bays, along with their transportation of raw materials, related trade and cultural exchange. The methodological approach is simultaneous archaeological investigation and comparison of data from land and underwater. Further, we will use both sonar equipment for scanning the seabed and high-resolution satellite reading software. The latter will be used to obtain a clearer visualisation of the geomorphology of the areas and the identification of anthropic evidence that might otherwise be difficult to identify. Of extreme importance, moreover, is the creation of a GIS platform that collects data from the sites we have investigated and from those investigated by other research groups. The GIS facilitates site comparison to obtain a more complete reading of the historical dynamics that characterised the area starting from the Neolithic period. The GIS platform georeferences elements necessary for the management and analysis of the survey results (reconnaissance, excavation, protection, etc.). The GIS can be used for the planning and design of subsequent excavation work. Within GIS, we plan to carry out distributional-typological analyses of finds and fragments characterised with different symbology on the basis of the type of material (stone, metal, wood, etc.) and the type of artefact (e.g., scrap, arrowhead, blade, etc.). In this way it is possible to visualise and interpret the dynamics of distribution, concentration, isolation and thinning of specific typological groups and compare them simultaneously. RESULTS The results obtained during the spring 2023 survey campaign were the identification that the Ongasaki site is a processing and sorting site for valuable materials, and what routes these raw materials took to reach Ongasaki and from there to Korea. The existence of the Ongasaki processing site suggests a settlement or logistical support site in its vicinity. Therefore, future investigations and excavations will aim to find and understand site organisation. Another important outcome the research team is aiming for is the identification of repeated patterns in bay structure and their location, so that these may serve as a proto-type for future identifications of other anthropized bays. Finally, it is our intention that the GIS platform created can be constantly implemented with data from other research in order to achieve a comparison of data that facilitates a broad and syncretic reading of the periods under analysis. The GIS would become a baseline tool available to the scientific community and all researchers. Acknowledgements We would like to thank our Japanese colleagues at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology and the ARIUA, whose input was essential to access Japan's difficult administrative mechanisms. As well as the Tsushima Board of Education and the Nagasaki Prefecture for granting us the necessary authorisations. In addition, we would like to thank the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation of the Italian Republic, which has supported all IRIAE projects with great enthusiasm for years. Finally, we would like to thank all the IRIAE team members without whose professionalism and dedication the project would not have been possible. 6 �Bibliography Adachi, H. Nihon no Fune. Tokyo: Fune no Kagakukan, 1999. Barnes, L. G. Vulnerable Japan: The Tectonic Life Setting of Life in the Archipelago. In P. C. Brown and B. L. 2015 Habu, J. “Jōmon Collectors and Foragers: Regional Interaction and Long-Term Changes in Settlement System among Prehistoric Hunter-gatherers in Japan.” In J. Habu and B. Fitzhugh (Eds.), Beyond Foraging and Collecting: Evolutionary Change in Hunter-gatherer Settlement Systems, New York: Kluwer-Plenum Publishing Corporation, (2002): 53-72. Habu, J., Matsui, A., Yamamoto, N. and Kanno, T. “Shell Midden Archaeology in Japan: Aquatic Food Acquisition and Long-term Change in the Jōmon Culture.” Quaternary International 239 (2011): 19-27. Hayashida, K. “2018 Nendo Yabitsu B Chiten Chōsa no Gaiyō.” ARIUA Newsletter 8 (2019): 27-33. Hornell, J. Water Transport, Origins and Early Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1946. Hosoya, L. A., Nakamura, O., Seguchi, S. and Shibutani, A. “What Did Jōmon People Eat in Fact? Jōmon Subsistence and Society Chronological Shifts in Japanese Jōmon Subsistence Strategies on the Basis of Local Characteristics of North Tohoku Area.” Proceeding of the 6th Worldwide Conference of the Society for East Asian Archaeology (2014): 6-10. Kiyoura, G. “Meotoishi Iseki.” Nagasaki-ken Maizō Bunkazai Chōsashūhō 15 (1992): 1-38. Koike, H. Seasonal Dating by Growth-line Counting of the Clam, Meretrix Lusoria: Toward a Reconstruction of Prehistoric Shell Collecting Activities in Japan. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. 1980 Mizoguchi, K. An Archaeological History of Japan, 30000 B.C. to A.D. 700. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002. Mizoguchi, K. The Archaeology of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013 Nagasaki, A.”Tsushima Hokubu no Iseki no Yōsō.” ARIUA Newsletter 8 (2019): 2-10. Nakagome, S., Gakuhari, T. and Rasmussen, S. “Ancient Jomon Genome Sequence Analysis Sheds Light on Migration Patterns of Early East Asian Populations.” Common Biol 3 (2020): 437-456. Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice. London: Thames and Hudson. 1991 Shōbayashi, M. Kōdai Kikō, Vol.1: Tsushima. Nagasaki: Town News-sha, 1995 Teshigawara, A. Jōmon Jidai-shi. Tokyo: Shinsenn sha, 2016 Teshigawara, A. Jōmon Jidai o Shiru Tame no 110 Mondai. Tokyo: Shinsen-sha, 2021 Teshigawara, A. Jōmon Jidai Gaido Bukku. Tokyo: Shinsen-sha, 2022 Williams, M. N. and Hunn, S. E. Resource Managers: North American and Australian Hunter-gatherers. Boulder: Westview Press. 1982 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 1: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Conference presentation Date Available Date (often a range) that the resource became or will become available. November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan Description An account of the resource Japanese neolithic, the so called Jōmon Period, represents a vast terrain in which to develop new and exciting research in the archaeological field. This is because there are still many questions that need to be answered to better clarify the evolutionary dynamics of the cultures that characterized it. The project Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan aims to study and understand the use of the sea and waterways during the Japanese Neolithic period, both in terms of movements within the archipelago and contacts with the surrounding territories. In its first phase, the project will focus on the analysis of the nature and dynamics behind the first relations with the Korean peninsula. For this reason, International Research Institute for Archaeology and Ethnology (IRIAE) has developed a new project of maritime archaeological investigation on land and underwater. The project identifys the island of Tsushima (Nagasaki Prefecture) as a crucial point. The activities will begin at the sites of Meotoishimae and Ongaura, both overlook the Korean coast and have geomorphological characteristics of possible landings and/or coastal settlements. Among these, those most under analysis are related to the origins of the Jōmon culture, a topic that cannot be separated from human environment interaction: the relationship with the Korean populations and that with the sea. What was the role of the sea in the life of the Jōmon People? How did they move and what boats did they use? What were kaizuka really and what did they mean? How did they adapt to the environmental changes at the advent of the Holocene? Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Daniele Petrella Irene Ciulla Diego M. Mezzapelle Giuseppe Avola Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Petrella, Daniele. 2023. “Jōmon Sea: Navigation in the Origins of Japan.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Akifumi Iwabuchi, and Kotaro Yamafune. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1891 Asia-Pac Session 1 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3cacc1206644f566da31e42fb62fd02a.pdf 68a8250897c98cf77e70e3dcea03ba61 PDF Text Text Ancient Seascape of Japan: Burial Mounds as Navigation Points Tomo Ishimura (Tokyo National research Institute for Cultural Properties, ishimura-t6y@nich.go.jp) ABSTRACT Research of landscape using GIS is progressing in archaeology in recent years, and the significance of the research of landscape from the sea or seascape is also being stressed. Seascape research has important implications for understanding how people perceive the sea and adapt to the sea environment and may contribute to the development of maritime archaeology. This study applies landscape research to Japanese archeology, so it fit in the session of ‘History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia’. This paper examines the sea scape of the Kofun period, from the third to sixth centuries, from the viewpoint of the location of the burial mounds and shows the possibility that some burial mounds were built as navigation points. GIS analysis and field surveys were conducted to investigate how the burial mounds located near the coast look from the sea and indicate that the burial mounds with good visibility from the sea were located at strategic points of marine routes, such as lagoons and straits. The survey also revealed that the most of these burial mounds were built in the specific period from the first to third quarters in the fourth century. This paper proposes that these burial mounds were built as navigation points to reflect the intention of the Yamato dynasty to control maritime traffics. List of Figures and Table: Figure 1: Map of Research Area and Locations of the Sites Figure 2: Photo of the Goshikizuka Burial Mound (https://www.feel-kobe.jp/); Topographic Map around Goshikizuka; Seascape around Goshikizuka Figure 3: Topographic Map around Yanai Chausuyama; Seascape around Yanai Chausuyama Figure 4: Topographic Map around Shinmeiyama; Seascape around Shinmeiyama Figure 5: Topographic Map around Amino Choshiyama; Seascape around Amino Choshiyama Table 1: A Chronology of the Kofun Period INTRODUCTION The Kofun period in Japanese history, spanning from the 3rd to 6th centuries, is characterized by the construction of tens of thousands of burial mounds throughout the Japanese archipelago. These burial mounds, known as Kofun, were monumental structures, with the most distinctive type being the keyhole-shaped plan view; the largest exceeds 500 meters in length. These colossal mounds served as symbols of power and were erected to commemorate kings and chiefs. The burial mounds were built in various locations, including hills, ridges, plains, and coasts. The coastal burial mounds, referred to as ‘seashore type burial mounds’, are believed to have been constructed by chiefs who were involved in maritime activities and trade (Hirose 2015). Others suggest the burial mounds served as navigation markers for seafarers (Mori 1986). Despite their historical significance, few studies have explored how these burial mounds appeared from a maritime perspective (Ishimura 2017). In this paper, GIS software is utilized to visualize the view of these burial mounds from the sea. The research reveals that the burial mounds were strategically situated at key points along maritime routes, such as ports and straits. Furthermore, the study indicates that these burial mounds were constructed within a relatively specific timeframe, from the first to the third quarter of the 4th century. The author proposes the construction of these burial mounds coincided with a historical event, namely the expansion of political power in the Kinai region and the exertion of control over maritime traffic in the Japanese archipelago. 1 �Method and Materials In this study, the researchers utilized GIS software called 'Kashimir 3D®' to recreate the visual representation of how the burial mounds appeared from the sea. This particular GIS software is capable of generating 3D landscapes from any chosen viewpoint and altitude. To simulate the view from the sea, the researchers set the altitude to 1 meter, taking into account the likely low height of the viewpoint from a boat during the Kofun period. The analysis focused on four specific sites of 'seashore type burial mounds': the Goshikizuka burial mound in Hyogo Prefecture, the Yanai Chausuyama burial mound in Yamaguchi Prefecture, the Shinmeiyama burial mound in Kyoto Prefecture, and the Amino Choshiyama burial mound, also located in Kyoto Prefecture (Figure 1). The first two sites are situated near waterways, while the latter two are near ports. Figure 1: Map of Research Area and Locations of the Sites In this paper, the Kofun period was divided into four distinct phases based on variations in burial structures and diagnostic burial goods. The four phases are: the first half of the Early Kofun period (approximately AD 250-300), the latter half of the Early Kofun period (approximately AD 300-375), the Middle Kofun period (AD 375-475), and the Later Kofun period (AD 475-575). Table 1 likely provides further details on the distinguishing features of each phase and the associated burial practices and artefacts. Table 1: A Chronology of the Kofun Period Phase Date Burial facility Diagnostic burial goods Early KofunPeriod (first half of) Early KofunPeriod (latter half of) Middle Kofun Period AD 250-300 Chinese bronze mirrors Later Kofun Period AD 475-575 Vertical stone chamber with wooden coffin Vertical stone chamber with wooden coffin Vertical stone chamber with stone coffin Horizontal stone chamber with stone coffin AD 300-375 AD 375-475 2 Variety of Japanese bronze mirrors Iron armors Decorated swords �CASE STUDY 1: Goshikizuka Burial Mound The Goshikizuka burial mound, which has a keyhole-shaped plan view and measures 194 meters in length (Figure 2), is believed to have been constructed during the latter half of the Early Kofun period (around AD 300-375). 3 �Figure 2: Photo of the Goshikizuka Burial Mound (https://www.feel-kobe.jp/); Topographic Map around Goshikizuka; Seascape around Goshikizuka It is situated along the coastline of Honshu, the main island of Japan, overlooking the Akashi Strait (Figure 2). The location of the Goshikizuka burial mound offers a clear view from the sea (Figure 2). The Akashi Strait serves as the gateway to Osaka Bay and is known for its turbulent waters and swift currents within the Seto Inland Sea. The positioning of the Goshikizuka burial mound holds significant strategic importance along the maritime route of the Seto Inland Sea. CASE STUDY 2: Yanai Chausuyama Burial Mound The Yanai Chausuyama burial mound is another keyhole-shaped mound, measuring 80 meters in length. Its construction is estimated to have taken place during the latter half of the Early Kofun period (around AD 300-375). 4 �Figure 3: Topographic Map around Yanai Chausuyama; Seascape around Yanai Chausuyama Situated near the entrance of a channel (Figure 3), this channel served as a shortcut for maritime traffic, allowing vessels to avoid circumnavigating the Murotsu peninsula. The channel held great significance as a crucial point along the maritime routes of the time. The Yanai Chausuyama burial mound is easily visible from the sea near the entrance of the channel (Figure 3). CASE STUDY 3: Shinmeiyama Burial Mound The Shinmeiyama burial mound is a keyhole-shaped mound measuring 190 meters in length. It is believed to have been constructed during the latter half of the Early Kofun period, around AD 300-375. 5 �Figure 4: Topographic Map around Shinmeiyama; Seascape around Shinmeiyama Situated near a lagoon (Figure 4), it is speculated that this lagoon served as a natural harbor in the past. The Shinmeiyama burial mound, being easily visible from offshore (Figure 4), is thought to have served as a navigational landmark, indicating the position of the port. CASE STUDY 4: Amino Choshiyama burial mound The Amino Choshiyama burial mound is a keyhole-shaped mound measuring 201 meters in length. It is believed to have been constructed during the latter half of the Early Kofun period, around AD 300-375. 6 �Figure 5: Topographic Map around Amino Choshiyama; Seascape around Amino Choshiyama Situated near a lagoon (Figure 5), it is believed that this lagoon also served as a natural harbor, similar to the Shinmeiyama mound. The Amino Choshiyama mound is easily visible from offshore (Figure 5). This suggests that it, too, served as a navigational marker, indicating the position of the nearby port. RESULT Based on the four case studies presented, several outcomes can be observed. Firstly, the seashore type burial mounds were clearly visible from the sea. Secondly, these burial mounds were located at significant points along sea routes, including waterways, ports, and entrances to channels. Thirdly, it is likely that these burial mounds served as navigational landmarks. Lastly, all four burial mounds were constructed during the latter half of the Early Kofun Period (AD 300-375). These outcomes collectively suggest the presence of a common factor behind the construction of these seashore type burial mounds. It is plausible to consider that the construction of these burial mounds was influenced by the political situation of the time. As monuments symbolizing the power and authority of chiefs, these burial mounds can be seen as political products. DISCUSSION The period when the seashore type burial mounds were constructed coincided with significant changes in maritime traffic, particularly the alteration of the route from the Japanese archipelago to the Korean Peninsula. The emergence of rituals on Okinoshima during this period provides valuable insights into these changes. Okinoshima, situated between Kyushu Island and the Korean Peninsula, was the site of ceremonies conducted from the latter half of the 4th century to the end of the 9th century. These rituals aimed to ensure safe voyages and involved the dedication of Chinese bronze mirrors and various treasures to the island's rocks and rock shelters. These artifacts resemble burial goods found in tombs and were primarily distributed in the Kinai region, the political center of that era. Based on this evidence, it is believed that the rituals on Okinoshima were led by an elite group from the Kinai region with the objective of establishing a new and more efficient route from the Japanese archipelago to the Korean Peninsula. The Okinoshima route offered a shortcut, compared to the previous island-hopping route via Iki Island and Tsushima Island. It is postulated that the changes occurring during this period were instigated by the political powers in 7 �the Kinai region, who sought to assert control over maritime routes. The construction of the seashore type burial mounds, as discussed in the paper, was likely undertaken by local chiefs with support from the Kinai powers. These burial mounds served to enhance and facilitate maritime routes within the Japanese archipelago. They not only acted as practical navigational markers but also visually demonstrated the control exerted over maritime traffic by the powers in the Kinai region. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hirose, K. (Ed.) The Period of Seashore Type Burial Mound. Tokyo: Doseisha, 2015. Ishimura, T. Reconstruction of Ancient Port: A Geoarchaeological Study. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2017. Mori, K. “Excavating Port and Lagoon.” In Ancient Japan 3: Interaction beyond the Sea, edited by T. Obayashi. Tokyo: Chuo Koron-sha, (1986): 39-82. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 1: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Conference presentation Date Available Date (often a range) that the resource became or will become available. November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ancient Seascape of Japan: Burial Mounds as Navigation Points Description An account of the resource Research of landscape using GIS is progressing in archaeology in recent years, and the significance of the research of landscape from the sea or seascape is also being stressed. Seascape research has important implications for understanding how people perceive the sea and adapt to the sea environment and may contribute to the development of maritime archaeology. This study applies landscape research to Japanese archeology, so it fit in the session of ‘History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia’. This paper examines the sea scape of the Kofun period, from the third to sixth centuries, from the viewpoint of the location of the burial mounds and shows the possibility that some burial mounds were built as navigation points. GIS analysis and field surveys were conducted to investigate how the burial mounds located near the coast look from the sea and indicate that the burial mounds with good visibility from the sea were located at strategic points of marine routes, such as lagoons and straits. The survey also revealed that the most of these burial mounds were built in the specific period from the first to third quarters in the fourth century. This paper proposes that these burial mounds were built as navigation points to reflect the intention of the Yamato dynasty to control maritime traffics. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tomo Ishimura Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ishimura, Tomo. 2023. “Ancient sea scape of Japan: Burial mounds as navigation points.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Akifumi Iwabuchi, and Kotaro Yamafune. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1890 Asia-Pac Session 1 2023