17 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c3f8080683116c8463da58292d002399.pdf 348e916d1fd09d14068b8496d6b05233 PDF Text Text Development of the Sledge-Type Underwater Metal Detection System for Underwater Cultural Heritage Exploration Yong-Hwa Jung National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage pkm228@korea.kr Young-Hyun Lee National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage lyh2343@korea.kr Jin-Hoo Kim Dong-A University jkim@donga.ac.kr Sang-Hee Lee Dong-A University lsh3314@naver.com Hyun-Do Kim GeoView, LTD. geokim@geoview.co.kr Yeong-Hyun Kim GeoView, LTD. wave4003@geoview.co.kr Abstract The National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH) in Republic of Korea has promoted the 4-years ‘Development Project of Underwater Cultural Heritage Exploration Techniques’ from 2013 through 2016. During the project, the metallic cultural heritage made of bronze could not be detected with the magnetometer, but NRIMCH has developed the sledge-type underwater metal detection system suitable for exploring metallic material underwater cultural heritage including bronze. �A magnetometer or metal detectors are used to detect metallic objects exposed or buried in the seabed. In case of magnetometer, the depth of exploration is deep and exploration work is fast, but there is a disadvantage that non-ferrous metals except iron is not reacted. When using a metal detector, which is a type of electromagnetic exploration, there is a method using a portable metal detector and a method of towing an antenna in a vessel. In the case of a portable metal detector, since the diver is directly using it underwater, there is a time limitation and a disadvantage that it is difficult to know the position. In addition, when the antenna is towed at the vessel, the antenna is spaced at a considerable distance from the seabed, so that the buried metal cultural heritage may not be detected. To overcome these drawbacks, this system aims to develop an antenna platform as a method for bringing the antenna of the metal detector closer to the seabed. The antenna platform is made of metal-free PVC and designed as a caterpillar. The caterpillar shape allows easy passage of obstacles in the sea floor and allows the antenna to be wrapped and protected. In addition, software was developed to verify and store location information obtained using DGPS and response values for underwater metal cultural heritage obtained through the antenna platform in real time. Key words: UCH, Korea, magnetometer, survey Introduction Since ancient times, Korea has been active in trade, reverence, and cultural exchanges with neighboring countries; and there are many naval battles from the Joseon Dynasty to the modern times, so it is very likely that various artifacts are buried in the seabed. The artifacts that are buried in seabed are mainly porcelain, metallic artifacts, wooden artifacts, and life products on ships. It is important to find artifacts because buried artifacts are important as historical facts and evidence. Many studies have been conducted to find metal objects buried in underwater through physical exploration techniques. In Korea, Jung Hyun-Ki and others studied the electric and magnetic exploration used for underwater burial objects investigations (Jung Hyun-Ki et al., 2004), Park In-Seok and others studied the magnetic exploration method for �underwater artifacts (Park In-Seok et al., 2013). E. Weiss and others developed a system using magnetic exploration to detect and to accurately map metal objects buried beneath the shallow waters (Weiss et al., 2007). S. Tripati and others studied the material of a shipwreck through an underwater metal detector and an antenna dipstick metal detector (Tripati et al., 2004). As a result of these studies, the physical exploration technique to find metal objects buried in seabed using magnetic exploration or electromagnetic exploration has been developed. In the case of magnetic exploration, it is the most effective method of exploration for artifacts made of iron, but it does not respond to metals such as gold, silver, and copper. There are two methods of electromagnetic surveying using the metal detector; one is submerging and diving with the equipment, and the other is towing the antenna in underwater. The method of submerging and exploring divers with equipment is time consuming and has a disadvantage; it cannot precisely locate the position. And the disadvantages of the latter are that If the antenna is located at a considerable distance from the sea floor, it may not detect buried metal artifacts. To solve these problems, the authors developed the sledge-type underwater metal detection system that can be operated close to the sea floor to compensate for the disadvantages of magnetic and electromagnetic exploration. In addition, the performance of the metal detection system using the antenna platform was verified after the iron pot and the bronze canon were buried in the sea floor, 1m and 2m of the seabed in Geoje sea area, Taean sea area, and Nakdong river area. Method and Principle of Metal Detection In the physical exploration technique, metal detection methods include a magnetic exploration to detect magnetic metallic materials, and an �electromagnetic exploration to detect non-magnetic metallic objects such as gold, silver, and copper. Magnetic exploration is used to identify the geological structure of the geomagnetic field or its components generated by fluid motion in the outer core of the earth; and this technique is used for ground survey, soil exploration, and resource exploration. And a secondary electric field is generated due to the induction current flowing in the underground conductive body by the primary electric field. By detecting the characteristics of this secondary field, information on the location and shape of metal in the underground can be obtained. Configuration of the Sledge-Type Underwater Metal Detection System As shown in Fig. 1, the sledge-type metal detection system consists of a metal detector, DGPS, and an antenna platform for bringing the antenna into close contact with the sea floor. It includes software to monitor and store the positional information collected from DGPS and reaction values received from metal detector in real time on PC. Fig. 1(left): Schematic Diagram. �1. Metal detector The metal detector used in this study is a method of detecting metal objects by using time difference of transmission and reception by pulse induction method. Since the time of transmission and reception is different, it is possible to detect metal objects by using one antenna, and it can be used in seawater because it is not affected by medium between metal detector and metal objects. The original metal detector informs the metal response by sound through the instrument cluster and headset. We use DAQ (Data Acquisition) to convert analog signals such as instrument panel and sound into digital signals and to enable real-time monitoring and storage on the PC through software. In addition, it was supplemented with a buzzer so that the change of the reaction value can be immediately recognized (Fig. 2). Fig. 2: Metal Detector. 2. DGPS DGPS was used to identify the wake of the exploration vessel. The DGPS uses two or more GPS receivers to reduce positional errors. The location �information comes in the form of NMEA0183, which shows the wake of the exploration vessel through the software. 3. Sledge-type antenna platform The size of the antenna is 20cm x 110cm. A cable (about 30m long) is attached to the antenna. The resistance of the antenna is 1.75O and the inductance is 189μH. The antenna platform uses PVC which does not contain metal material. As shown in Fig. 3, the antenna platform is manufactured in a caterpillar shape so that it can be closely contacted to the sea floor. It is designed to overcome obstacles and protects the antenna. The rope was connected to both ends of the antenna platform, and the rope was knotted above the center of gravity to form a ring, and then a descending line was placed to secure land on the undersurface. In addition, it is possible to create a space in which an underwater camera can be placed at a position that does not affect the antenna, so that the sea floor can be confirmed as an image. In addition, a weight was produced to prevent the buoyancy caused by the cable during the survey. Fig. 3: Platform. 4. Software It is possible to monitor and record the incoming signal from the metal detector and the DGPS location information on the PC in real time. The software was built using Mathworks' MATLAB GUI. The software installs �a driver for National Instruments USB-6000, a data acquisition device connected to a metal detector, to receive data from MATLAB. The locational information of DGPS is output in the form of NMEA0183, and it is indicated by the latitude and the longitude through parsing. The software records the data in real time, ensuring that material acquired in a sudden emergency is protected. Also, there is a start button with or without DGPS for single use without DGPS. Acquisition and Processing Data 1. Field experiment The experimental research was conducted in 3 sites: Taean sea area, Geoje sea area, and Nakdong river area. In the Taean and Geoje sea areas, the size of the research area were 100m × 100m; and the size of the research area in the Nakdong river was 50m × 200m. Iron pots, ceramics and bronze cannons were used as experimental samples. They were intentional buried at 1m, 2m deep under the seabed and sea floor. A rubber boat was used to minimize the electromagnetic noise in the acquisition of data, and its operation speed of the exploration vessel was below 4km/h. The exploration vessels operated in the ‘east-west direction’ and the ‘north-south direction’ in the research areas. 2. Data processing Two kinds of processing were performed to process the data obtained from field experiments. The DGPS was installed on the exploration vessel and collected data of the antenna platform and position. Then, the raw data coming from the metal detector shows DC deflection, which uses a high-pass filter to remove the DC deflection. 3. Layback calibration �For layback calibration, the depth of the area where the survey is performed was required; and the length of the cable to lower the antenna platform was also required. For example, if one of the field test sites is 3m in depth with a 23m in cable length, the horizontal distance between the exploration vessel and the antenna platform is 22.5m. 4. DC deflection removal When data coming directly from the metal detector, DC deflection appeared in some sections and it can be removed through a high-pass filter. A high-pass filter is a filter that removes less than the specified cutoff frequency and passes the higher frequency band. In this study, a cutoff frequency of 0.1Hz was specified and the higher values were separated by passing only the higher frequency components. Results Taean sea area Fig. 4 is the profile of the electromotive force value obtained from the Taean sea area. (a) It is the survey line that goes through east-west upon 1 iron pot, 1 bronze cannon buried at 1m, and 2 iron pots, 2 bronze cannons buried at 1m. The electromotive force value is measured higher in the region of double numbered experimental sample areas. (b) It is the survey line that goes through east-west to 1 iron pot, 1 bronze cannon buried at 2m, and 1 iron pot, 1 bronze cannon on bottom. It shows that the electromotive force value is high near the iron pot, bronze cannon. (c) It is the survey line that goes through south-north to 3 iron pots, 1 bronze cannon buried at 1m, and 3 iron pots, 1 bronze cannon buried at 2m. Through the profile analysis, we could distinguish 3 iron pots buried at 2m which did not appear in electromotive force abnormality. (d) It is the survey line that goes through south-north upon 6 iron pots buried at 1m, and 3 �iron pots, 1 bronze cannon on the bottom. The electromotive force value was the highest in 3 iron pots on the bottom; and 6 iron pots buried at 1m showed higher electromotive force than 1 bronze cannon on the bottom. Fig. 4: Taean Results. Geoje sea area Fig. 5 is the profile of the electromotive force value obtained from the Geoje sea area. (a) It is the survey line that goes through east-west upon 1 iron pot, 1 bronze cannon, 2 iron pots, 2 bronze cannons buried at 1m. The electromotive force values in this region are high around the experimental sample. (b) It is the survey line that goes through east-west upon 1 iron pot, 1 bronze cannon buried at 2m, and 1 iron pot on the bottom. A signal that was observed between the iron pot and the bronze �cannon buried at 2m was not the experimental sample, and the value of the electromotive force value was measured high near the pot and the bronze cannon. (c) It is the survey line that goes through south-north upon 6 iron pots, 2 bronze cannons buried at 1m, and 3 iron pots, 1 bronze cannon on the bottom. It shows the largest electromotive force value at 3 pots on the bottom, and it has large values mainly around the experimental sample. (d) It is the survey line that goes through south-north upon 1 iron pot buried at 1m, and 1 iron pot buried at 2m. Based on the electromotive force value, anomalous signal in the marked area are detected nearby metal objects. Fig. 5: Geoje Results. Nakdong river area �Fig. 6 is the profile of the electromotive force value obtained from the Nakdong river area water bottom. (a) It is the survey line that goes through east-west upon 3 iron pots, 6 iron pots buried at 1m, 3 iron pots buried at 2m, and 1 iron pot on the bottom. At the place that 1 pot buried at 1m, the electromotive force value is 1.0V; and one that 1 pot buried at 2m, it has 0.8V. And when the antenna passes near the iron pot on the bottom, the electromotive force value measured by the metal detector is as high as about 2.3V. (b) It is the survey line that goes through east-west upon 1 iron pot, 1 bronze cannon, 2 iron pots, 2 bronze cannons buried at 1m, and 1 iron pot, 1 bronze cannon buried at 2m, and 3 iron pots, 1 bronze cannon on the bottom. The position is greatly deviated from the 2 pots buried at 1m. The electromotive force value of this time was not the iron pot but the value of other objects on the bottom, or it appears as a layback error due to water depth or obstacle on the bottom. Overall, we can see that there is less noise than in other areas. �Fig. 6: Nakdong River Results. Conclusion Most of the underwater cultural heritage in Korea are accidentally discovered during fishing activities; a systematic exploration of the regionhas not been done yet. The operation of metal detectors is necessary to find non-ferrous metals such as gold, silver, copper, and bronze, but the present operating method has many drawbacks. In this study, the sledge-type underwater metal detection system was developed and applied to the field to overcome these disadvantages. Then, the following results were obtained. First of all, it can identify iron pots and bronze cannons buried in various depths and numbers. Secondly, it can possibly identify bronze cannons; �this was impossible to be identified by conventional magnetic exploration. Thirdly, there is less noise in the Nakdong river area than in the Taean and Geoje sea areas. Unlike the Taean and Geoje sea areas, the Nakdong river area does not have any fishery activity/industry; consequently, this result might be caused by lack of iron abnormalities such as trapping on the bottom. Fourthly, there was a section where the metal reaction/position differed from the actual position of the buried experiment sample. This might be caused by the position error of the DGPS and the error of the layback correction. In conclusion, based on these results, the sledge-type underwater metal detection system will contribute to the discovery and protection of underwater cultural heritage if applied to underwater cultural heritage exploration. References Jung Hyun-Ki, Park Young-Su, Lim Tae-Taek and Lim Hyung-Rae, 2004. Electric and magnetic exploration applications for underwater buried object exploration. RAEG 2004, Kyoto. Park In-Seok, Kim Hyun-Do, Kim Jin-Hoo, Jung Yong-Hwa and Lee Young-Hyun, 2013. A study on the magnetic exploration method for underwater artifact investigation. ISMT 2013, Busan. Lee Kang-Won and Son Ho-Woong, 2016. Geospatial Information System Glossary. Gumi Ward, Gumi. Tripati, S., Gaur, A. S., Vora, S. and Vora, K. H., 2004. Shipwreck archaeology of Goa: evidence of maritime contacts with other countries. Current Science, Vol. 86(9): 1238-1245 Weiss, E., Ginzburg, B., Cohen, T. R., Zafrir, H., Alimi, R., Salomonski, N. and Sharvit, J., 2007. High resolution marine magnetic survey of shallow water littoral area. Sensor, Vol. 7(9): 1697-1712. Biographies �Yong-Hwa Jung is a Researcher & Conservator in the Underwater Excavation & Conservation Division of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage of South Korea. He earned his PhD in 2008 from Kongju National University. He has been involved in several maritime research projects including: Exploration Project of Underwater Cultural Heritage by the EOS3D-A (3D Seismic Survey System), Development Project of Underwater Cultural Heritage Research Technology Using Crabster CR200, Development Project of Underwater Cultural Heritage Exploration Techniques, Underwater Archaeology Vessel ‘NURIAN(G/T 290ton)’ Ship building, Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Policy in Korea, Analysis of Manufacturing Technology and Production Area of Underwater Excavations Pottery. Young-Hyun Lee majored the marine geophysical exploration at Dong-A University. He has been working in division of underwater excavation and conservation at the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage for 5 years. He had mainly participated in a research project, which is named "Development Project of Underwater Cultural Heritage Exploration Techniques". This project had been conducted by our division from 2013 to 2016. As a marine geophysical researcher, He is still doing my best to apply those developed exploration techniques, which are including utilization methods of equipment and development of equipment, into the underwater archaeology filed. Jin-Hoo Kim is Professor in Geophysical Engineering. Born in 1955, Seoul, Korea. B.S. from Seoul National University, Korea in 1978. Ph.D. in Geophysics from Colorado School of Mines, U. S. A. in 1986. Currently, he is the department head of Energy and Mineral Resources Engineering Department, and the director of Ocean Resources Research Institute, Dong-A University, Busan, Korea. He has participated in various geophysical exploration projects for in-land and off-shore site investigations, maritime archaeological surveys, and soil and petrophysical researches. �Sang-Hee Lee was born in 1989, Busan, Korea. He graduated from Dong-A University with a bachelor and master degree in Energy and Mineral Resources Engineering. Current, he is studying at Dong-A University to get his doctor’s degree. He has participated in geophysical exploration projects for in-land off-shore site investigations, maritime archaeological surveys, petrophysical researches. Hyun-Do Kim is a CEO at GeoView Co. Ltd., Republic of Korea since 2005, where he has been dealing with marine seismic and geophysical surveying business. He obtained Ph.D. in geophysical survey from department of ocean engineering, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea, in 2005. Dr. Kim’s research interests include marine geophysics and geotechnical survey in inshore and off-shore. Recently, 3D seismic survey system has been developed and applied to underwater archaeology. Yeong-Hyun Kim was born in 1979, Busan, Korea. He graduated from Dong-A University, Department of Civil Engineering. He studied river port engineering in Dong-A Graduate School. Currently, He is working at Geoview Corporation, a marine survey company and has been working for 8 years. He is a team leader of marine Survey department. He is charge of marine geophysical surveys and geotechnical surveys. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Development of the Sledge-Type Underwater Metal Detection System for Underwater Cultural Heritage Exploration Description An account of the resource The National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH) in Republic of Korea has promoted the 4-years ‘Development Project of Underwater Cultural Heritage Exploration Techniques’ from 2013 through 2016. During the project, the metallic cultural heritage made of bronze could not be detected with the magnetometer, but NRIMCH has developed the sledge-type underwater metal detection system suitable for exploring metallic material underwater cultural heritage including bronze. A magnetometer or metal detectors are used to detect metallic objects exposed or buried in the seabed. In case of magnetometer, the depth of exploration is deep and exploration work is fast, but there is a disadvantage that non-ferrous metals except iron is not reacted. When using a metal detector, which is a type of electromagnetic exploration, there is a method using a portable metal detector and a method of towing an antenna in a vessel. In the case of a portable metal detector, since the diver is directly using it underwater, there is a time limitation and a disadvantage that it is difficult to know the position. In addition, when the antenna is towed at the vessel, the antenna is spaced at a considerable distance from the seabed, so that the buried metal cultural heritage may not be detected. To overcome these drawbacks, this system aims to develop an antenna platform as a method for bringing the antenna of the metal detector closer to the seabed. The antenna platform is made of metal-free PVC and designed as a caterpillar. The caterpillar shape allows easy passage of obstacles in the sea floor and allows the antenna to be wrapped and protected. In addition, software was developed to verify and store location information obtained using DGPS and response values for underwater metal cultural heritage obtained through the antenna platform in real time. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yong-Hwa Jung Young-Hyun Lee Jin-Hoo Kim Sang-Hee Lee Hyun-Do Kim Yeong-Hyun Kim Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Yong-Hwa Jung Young-Hyun Lee Jin-Hoo Kim Sang-Hee Lee Hyun-Do Kim Yeong-Hyun Kim Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Developments in Southern Fukien under the T’ang and the Min Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kee Long So Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Kee Long So Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Issue 3 Pages 443-51 Publication Title Journal of African and Oriental Studies Title A name given to the resource Developments in Southern Fukien under the T’ang and the Min Volume 115 Korea Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Diary of Richard Cocks: Cape-merchant in the English Factory in Japan, 1615-1622, with Correspondence. Thompson, Edward Maunde,; Sir,; 1840-1929, ; Ed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Richard Cocks Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available New York, B. Franklin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964, 1883 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Richard Cocks Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964, 1883 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available New York, B. Franklin Series Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, 1st ser., no. 66-67; Variation: Works issued by the Hakluyt Society ;; 1st ser., no. 66-67. Short Title Diary of Richard Cocks Title A name given to the resource Diary of Richard Cocks: Cape-merchant in the English Factory in Japan, 1615-1622, with Correspondence. Thompson, Edward Maunde,; Sir,; 1840-1929, ; Ed. Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Did Zheng He Set Out to Colonize Southeast Asia? Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tan Sen Leo Suryadinata Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Zheng He Society ; Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Tan Sen Editor Leo Suryadinata Item Type Book Section ISBN 9789812303295 Book Title Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia Call Number DS753.6.Z47A365 2005 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Extra Portion of title: Admiral Zheng He and Southeast Asia Item info: Place Hold Portion of title: Admiral Zheng He and Southeast Asia Physical description: xviii, 168 p. : ill., maps ; 22 cm Bibliography note: Includes bibliographical references LCCN: 2005436826 Control Number: ocm61445159 Library Catalog lib-app3.usc.edu Library Catalog Place Singapore Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Zheng He Society ; Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Title A name given to the resource Did Zheng He Set Out to Colonize Southeast Asia? China Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/dc05f59769da8a205a6bd15e977fb4fc.pdf fef89f39ecc73f1f7ab55d1875be2b68 PDF Text Text Digital Reconstruction of Maritime Heritage in the Ajanta Murals Dr.Shreekant. S. Jadhav (Deccan College, Pune-411006) shreekantjadhav@hotmail.com / shreekantjadhav3@gmail.com ABSTRACT India's maritime heritage dates to around 4,500 years, since the Indus Valley Civilization. The impetus to revisit and re-develop maritime links was trade (primarily in cotton, pepper, and other spices), due to the monopoly of the Persians and, later, the Arabs over land-based caravan routes. Later maritime journeys spread the influence of ancient and medieval Indian civilization as far as the islands of Indonesia to the East, the islands of Japan to the north, and the east coast of Africa to the west. There are many representations of ships and boats in early Indian art. The earliest are those found among the Sanchi sculptures belonging to circa. 2nd century B.C. At the Ajanta caves, paintings from the 5th century C.E. reveal the life of the people of the time. The frescoes depict sea-going vessels conveying goods overseas, representing ships and boats from an era that witnessed India's expansion and the spread of Indian thought and culture over the more significant part of the Asiatic continent. The vitality and individuality of Indian civilization, fully developed during the era of Vakataka-Gupta imperialism, by the end of the 7th century transplanted itself to the farther East, affecting the cultures of Java, Cambodia, Siam, China, and at the most significant distance, even the to Korean peninsula and Japan. A painting on the wall of Cave No. 1 at Ajanta is still easily recognizable as a vivid representation of the Persian envoys' ceremonial presentation of their credentials. Griffiths rightly interprets the representations of ships and boats in the Ajanta paintings as a "vivid testimony to the ancient foreign trade of India." The present paper deals with the ships and boats depicted in the paintings of Ajanta. Several scholars have studied these images, more particularly from Cave Nos. 1, 2, 16 and 17. In continuation of the Magnum Opus work of Dieter Schlingloff, the author shall try to show the missing features depicted in the panels of ships and boats through newly reconstructive line drawings and photographs. Digital restoration utilizing photographs processed to adjust the brightness and contrast forms a significant step in studying the original painting and analyzing its remains and damage. This process allows digital reconstruction with line drawing and color using the original color palette. As a result of this detailed work, one may visualize the paintings and their use of ancient maritime activity as subject matter. ART HISTORY - GENERAL DESCRIPTION The caves of Ajanta (lat. 20 32’ N.; long.75 45’ E.; Dist. Aurangabad), occupies a unique position among the monuments in India by the superb symphony of architectural forms, sculpture, and above all the world-famous mural paintings. The caves are cut in a crescent-shaped bend of a steep rock overlooking the head of a narrow glen, and are completely shut off from the bustle of the mundane world. These caves are cut out of the amygdaloidal trap rock aligned 550 meters in a horseshoe form (Mitra 1971). . In all there are 30 caves of which five belong to the early period or phase (Hinayana) i.e. Nos. 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A, dated to circa. first century BCE - first century CE on a modest scale. The rock-cut excavation was revived on a more ambitious scale in the middle of the 5th century A.D. This phase of activity began during the supremacy of the Vakatakas (ascribed to the period of Harisena of the Vakataka dynasty who was ruling in this region in the last quarter of the fifth century CE) (Spink 1994). The second phase of Ajanta synchronized with the rule of the Vakatakas, with the high watermarked remains of the painter’s brush-work. Substantial remains of this phase have survived in Caves 1,2, 16 and 17., though originally all the finished caves. The paintings of this period throughout maintain an exalted height and enthrall the spectator by their rich beauty, superb expressiveness, color-scheme, balanced and effective composition, fine shading and highlight bringing into relief a plasticity, suppleness and sensitive modeling of the figures. Infact, the paintings have stood the test of the highest art-standard of mural paintings. The theme of the paintings on the walls is intensely religious in tone and mostly centers around Buddha, Bodhisattvas, incidents from the life of Buddha and the Jatakas (Mitra 2003, 10-11). 1 �The author shall briefly describe the boats and ships depicted in Cave Nos. 1, 2 and 17 with the help of newly made reproductions (line drawings and photographs), on the basis of previous work, more specifically that of Dieder Schlingloff”s Magnum Opus work on Ajanta paintings. There are three stories related to seafaring, the first, on the wall of the left aisle of the hall in Cave 1, depicts the sea voyage and shipwreck of prince Kalyanakarin. The second on the wall of the right aisle in Cave II, represents the experiences of the merchant seaman, Durukarnin: and the third, the shipwreck and oceanic crossing of the sea-traders, and later king Simhala appears on the wall of the right aisle in Cave XVII, (Schlingloff 1988, 195) Cave No. 1- Kalyanakarin/ Shipwreck: Mahajanaka Jataka Figure 1 This subject is delineated on the back wall of the left aisle above the door of the fourth cell. The fresco is considerably damaged (Yazdani 1930, 22). There are no less than ten known versions of the Kalyanakarin story: three in Sanskrit (KaDru, BAK 3I and BAK 45)," four in Chinese (T156, T202, TI428 and TI450), two in Tibetan, and one in Uighur. However, if we discount all those translations or adaptations which merely stem from earlier versions, I5 we are left with five versions from independent. (Schlingloff 1976, 6). The subject, as painted on the rock-wall, may be described thus we see a chief (merchant - prince?) sailing in a boat with several attendants. The gesture of his hands, which is rather conventional, denotes that he is faced with some dilemma. Behind the attendant to the left of the chief is an obliterated figure, overshadowed by a Canopy (chhatar). This figure seems to have been attired in a robe and may represent Mahäjanaka in plain costume, before his acquiring the kingdom of his Father, the canopy above him being emblematic of his divine personality. The boat appears to be of considerable size, and a pavilion, similar to those shown in the palace scenes: is erected in the middle of it. The hull is massively constructed and in its side four courses of planking are visible above the water. The bow and stern have carvings of animal heads at their ends. There are eyes painted on both the bow and stern. A large fish (shark?) is attacking the boat near the Stern; and a sailor has climbed up the ladder placed against the mast and he is steering the boat with a long pole or oar from there. Another sailor is at the helm, but as the fresco is damaged in this part, his action is not quite clear. To the right of this scene, the sinking of the boat has been painted. The stern only is visible, the rest of the boat being submerged nose downwards. A man is being attacked by fishes and a sea-monster. He has raised both his hands in alarm. Another person is shown being carried off by an alligator or shark, while to get free of its jaws he is trying to open its mouth. The wild stare and firmly closed lips of this man show that he is struggling with death itself. One sea-monster resembles a beaver, while another, which is painted white, has the head and ears of a cat (Yazdani 1930, 23). 2 �Significance of Eyes The eyes of Horus, the Egyptian Sun-god, plays an important part in mythology and superstition of the ancient Egyptians. They are called by Egyptologists ujas or mystic eyes on account of the mystic influence which they exercise on enemies of those whom they protect." He further says that this Eye of Horus or ujas “was worn as an amulet hanging down from the neck like a pendant; it also formed the decoration of a bracelet. These ujas acted as " protective amulets " and as such " were found on Egyptian mummies ' Even the Divinities of Egypt were " in danger or attacks from their enemies, the evil spirits," and so, " they are often placed under the protection of the eyes of Horus." They stand on guard in the heavens exactly over the prow and over the helm of the barque (Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient Classique page 93)". These ujas '' were excavated in recent years from the ruins of Susa, the Capital of ancient Elam " These ujas or " mystic eyes " of the ancient Egyptians, especially those found " over the prow and over the helm of the barque" remind us of the figures of eyes, which we see on some of our Asiatic boats (Unwala 1928). The custom of providing boats with eyes is very old. Ornamental eyes first appeared on the prows of Egyptian funeral boats and were then adopted by almost all the seafaring people in the Mediterranean area, and did not go out of fashion on larger vessels until the Middle ages. Even today they can still be seen on Indian, Indo-Chinese, and European fishing boats and other smaller craft (Quigley 1955, 191). Among the frescoes in the Ajanta caves, of about 600 CE there is depicted a three masted ship and a royal barge both provided with eyes on the brows (Mookerji 1912, 41) Cave 2: Purna Avadana Figure 2 The subject is painted between the second and third cell doors of the right corridor of Cave 2. The fresco represents some scenes of the Purna Avadana, which are painted with great vividness. The painter has shown in this scene the sea voyage of Bhavila, the elder brother of Purna, who has been caught by a storm raised by a Yaksha Mahesvara. The surf and deep blue water have been rather conventionally shown by curved black and white lines which however, are not displeasing to the eye. Among the fishes are the figures of two Naga spirits who have either come to rescue the boat, or like the traditional mermaids, have appeared on the scene. Their pose is striking, being suggestive of rapid movement. One has a halo of three serpent’s hoods above her head. We see another semi-human figure below the boat itself. We notice a large variety of fishes in the sea, many of them are obviously mythical, but some are real. (Yazdani 1933,46) The representations of ships and boats in the Ajanta paintings are therefore rightly interpreted by Griffiths as only a "vivid testimony to the ancient foreign trade of India." 3 �The sea-going vessel has a high stem and stern, with three oblong sails attached to as many upright masts. Each mast is surmounted by a truck, and there is a lug-sail. The jib is well filled with wind. A sort of bowsprit, projecting from a kind of gallows on deck, is indicated with the out-flying jib, square in form, like that borne till recent times by European vessels. The ship appears to be decked and has ports. Steering-oars hang in sockets or rowlocks on the quarter, and eyes are painted on the bows. There is also an oar behind; and under the awning are a number of jars, while two small platforms project fore and aft. The vessel is of the Agramandirā type as defined in the Yukti Kalpataru, our Sanskrit treatise on ships. (Mukhopadhya 2020, 12-13). Water is no less formally indicated, sometimes by markings like basket-work, in others by flowing wave scrolls; but fishes, tortoises and mermen are generally added to prevent mistakes (Griffiths 1983, 14). Under the awning are a number of jars, while two small platforms project fore and aft as on native boats of today. The sole occupant of the boat is a man with long hair, in the act of prayer to, or in adoration of, two two flying figures: one of whom may represent Chandra (the moon) as a crescent is seen behind him. (Griffiths 1983, 30) This representation is again a production of a special atelier of the Vakataka style painters at this site. The other interesting treatment in this panel is the emphasized and decorative-mat-type treatment of the turbulent sea. On the other hand, following the early Indian art tradition there is no sky; this is suggested by the hovering angel in the sky-region. (Rai 1991). Amphora or Torpedo Jars The pottery depicted in the Purna vadhana scene seems to be torpedo Jars (Balvally et. al. 2019). Similar type of pottery has been revealed in the excavation at Nagardhan, a village located in Ramtek Taluka of Nagpur district, 6 km south of Ramtek, the Taluka headquarter in the state of Maharashtra. The site has been excavated by a joint team from the Department of Archaeology (Nagpur Division, Maharashtra) and Deccan College, Pune since 2015 (Sontakke et al. 2016). Interestingly, images of a boat transporting jars are seen in a painting of the Purnavadana in Cave 2 at Ajanta. The implication of such a painting is of immense significance for the concept of trade (Brancaccio 2011, 307 fig. 114). Apart from Nagardhan, torpedo jars have been reported under the category of ‘Amphora’ from the excavations at Paunar (Dist. Wardha) from levels dated to around 2nd-3rd century CE. (Deo & Dhavalikar 1968, XXII, nos. 5-6) and have been described as jars with their ‘interior bearing ripple grooves and coated with black resin’ (Deo & Dhavalikar 1968, 48). Torpedo jars are also reported from Nevasa as amphora (Lal 1960). Apart from the Sasanians, the Axumites—of East Africa, acting as middle men for the Romans—were also depicted in the Ajanta paintings, thus showing the effect of trade on artistic designs of the period (Brancaccio 2011, 213). Some scholars state that the phase after the Satavahana period (i.e. the Vakatakas period) in Maharashtra is devoid of trade and shows a decline in trade networks (Thakuria 2017, 181-186). Others further claim that most early historic sites in Vidarbha were deserted after the Vakataka period, until the Medieval Period (Sawant 2006; 2010, 57). The excavations at Nagardhan and the finds of the torpedo jars within the Vakataka phase thus exhibit the continuation of trade/cultural contact well into the Vakatakas phase, in particular with the Sasanians. The context of the torpedo jar found at Nagardhan further strengthens the idea of ‘wine carriers’ of the later Sasanian 4 �period imported into western India. The period of Indo-Sasanian contact had both intellectual and economic dimensions, as proven by the textual and archaeological remains respectively. (Ritvik et. al. 2019). Simhala Avdana Cave 17 Figure 3. The story is painted on the entire wall of the right corridor and is continued to the upper part of the pilaster between this corridor and the one at the back of Cave 17. The portion of the fresco showing the shipwreck scene is much damaged, but the wreckage of the boats, caused either by the attack of the monsters or by the striking of the boats against a coral reef, can easily be made out. The coral growth and some sea-anemones with dentate leaves are shown at the bottom of the water. There are large fishes around the boat, two of which appear to be of colossal size; they may be sharks, which abound in the Indian Ocean. Two men may also be noticed holding ropes which would seem to have been thrown from the boats in an attempt at rescue. They are both near the bow of the boat, in the rear. Some men may be seen still in the wrecked boats; in the rear vessel, a tall strong man is visible at the end of the boat, and he is perhaps the steersman. Another stalwart figure is holding firmly to the rear mast near the stern. There is another figure, the head of which is now destroyed, who is clinging to the mizzenmast of the bait, with his arm around it. In the front boat there are also two men, and one of them, in the bows, holds in his hands a box tied with string. The box evidently contains some precious articles which the merchant does not want to lose, even when in peril of his life. The man behind this merchant holds a rope in his hands with a view to throwing a line to such passengers as have fallen into the sea and whose lives he is attempting to save (Yazdani 1955, 82-84). Acknowledgement The photographs and the digital reconstruction (Figs. 1A,2A, & 3A) in this study are by the author, however, in preparing the reconstructive copies the author has received immense help from Shri Devdatta Phule, Artist Deccan College, Pune. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Balvally R. et. al. “Sasanian Contacts with the Vakatakas’ Realm with Special Reference to Nagardhan.” Nameh, Afarin. “Essays on the Archaeology of Iran in the Honour of Mehdi Rahbar.” Edited by: YOUSEF MORADI With the assistance of Susan Cantan, Edward J. Keall and Rasoul Boroujeni Tehran The Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism (RICHT) 2019. Brancaccio, P. Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion. Leiden: Brill’s Ideological Library. 2011. Deo, S.B. and Dhavalikar, M. Paunar Excavation (1967), Nagpur: Nagpur University 1968. Griffiths, John “The Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta Khandesh.” Vol 1 Caxton Publications Delhi 1983. Lal, B.B., . “Report on the Black Deposit of the Inner Surface of a Sherd from Nevasa”, in: H.D. Sankalia, S.B.Deo, Z.D. Ansari, and S. Ehrhardt (eds.), From History to Pre-History at Nevasa (1954-56) (Department of Archaeology and Ancient Indian History, Deccan College Publication No 1), Poona: Department of Archaeology and Ancient Indian History, Deccan College, (1960):527. Mitra, Debala. Buddhist Monuments. Calcuttal Sahitya Samsad. 1971. Mitra. Debala. “Ajanta” Archaeological Survey of India. Bengal Offset Works, New Delhi 2003. Mookerji, Radha kumud “A History of the Sea Borne Trade And Maritime Activity of the Indians from Earliest Times.” Indian Shiping. Longmans, Green and CO 8, Hornby Road Bombay, 303, Bow bazar Street Calcutta, London and New York.1912. Mukhopadya, Radha Kumud. “A History of The Sea-Borne Trade And Maritime Activity of the Indians From The Earliest Times.” Indian Shipping Book 1 Part 1. Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers Ltd. New Delhi 2020. Quigley, C.Certain. “Considerations on the Origin and Diffusion of Oculi.” The Americian Neptune 15 (1955): 191. Rai Anand Krishna. “Certain Ateliers Sub-Schools and Allied Schools of the Vakataka Period Ajanta Paintings.” Edts: Ratan Parimoo Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Panikkar Jayaram Poduval Indramohan Sharma. New Perspective Vol 2. Books and Books New Delhi 1991. Sawant, R., Vidarbha: An Archaeo- Historical Approach, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Pune. 2006. Schlingloff, Dieder, “Studies in The Ajanta Paintings,” Identifications and Interpretations. Ajanta Publications, New Delhi, 1988. Schlingloff, Dieder. Kalyāṇakārin's Adventures. The Identification of an Ajanta Painting. Artibus Asiae 38, No. 1 (1976): 5-28 Artibus Asiae Publishers. Sontakke, V., S. Ganvir, S. Vaidya, and P.P. Joglekar. Excavation at Nagardhan.” Nagpur District, Maharashtra (2015-2016), History Today 17 (2016): 43-51. Spink, W.M. “Ajanta A Brief History and Guide.’’ Asian Art Archives of the University of Michigan. Bombay. 1994. Thakuria, T. “Society and Economy during Early Historic Period in Maharashtra: An Archaeological Perspective”, Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5 (2017):169-190. Unwala, Jamshed, Maneekji, “The Introduction. Eyes of Horus " read before the Anthropological Society of Bombay on the 4th January 1928. Yazdani, M.A. “The Colour And Monochrome Reproduction Of The Ajanta Frescoes Based On Photography With an Explanatory Text.” and an Appendix on Inscriptions By John Allan. PART II Text Published Under The Special Authority Of His Exalted Highness The Nizam. Oxford University Press London, Humprey Milford. 1933. Yazdani, M.A. “The Colour and Monochrome Reproduction Of The Ajanta Frescoes Based On Photography With an Explanatory Text.” and an introduction by Laurence Binyon. Part 1 text published under Special Authority Of His Exalted Highness The Nizam. Oxford University Press London, Humprey Milford. (1930): 23. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Digital Reconstruction of Maritime Heritage in the Ajanta Murals Description An account of the resource India's maritime heritage dates to around 4,500 years, since the Indus Valley Civilization. The impetus to revisit and re-develop maritime links was trade (primarily in cotton, pepper, and other spices), due to the monopoly of the Persians and, later, the Arabs over land-based caravan routes. Later maritime journeys spread the influence of ancient and medieval Indian civilization as far as the islands of Indonesia to the East, the islands of Japan to the north, and the east coast of Africa to the west. There are many representations of ships and boats in early Indian art. The earliest are those found among the Sanchi sculptures belonging to circa. 2nd century B.C. At the Ajanta caves, paintings from the 5th century C.E. reveal the life of the people of the time. The frescoes depict sea-going vessels conveying goods overseas, representing ships and boats from an era that witnessed India's expansion and the spread of Indian thought and culture over the more significant part of the Asiatic continent. The vitality and individuality of Indian civilization, fully developed during the era of Vakataka-Gupta imperialism, by the end of the 7th century transplanted itself to the farther East, affecting the cultures of Java, Cambodia, Siam, China, and at the most significant distance, even the to Korean peninsula and Japan. A painting on the wall of Cave No. 1 at Ajanta is still easily recognizable as a vivid representation of the Persian envoys' ceremonial presentation of their credentials. Griffiths rightly interprets the representations of ships and boats in the Ajanta paintings as a "vivid testimony to the ancient foreign trade of India." The present paper deals with the ships and boats depicted in the paintings of Ajanta. Several scholars have studied these images, more particularly from Cave Nos. 1, 2, 16 and 17. In continuation of the Magnum Opus work of Dieter Schlingloff, the author shall try to show the missing features depicted in the panels of ships and boats through newly reconstructive line drawings and photographs. Digital restoration utilizing photographs processed to adjust the brightness and contrast forms a significant step in studying the original painting and analyzing its remains and damage. This process allows digital reconstruction with line drawing and color using the original color palette. As a result of this detailed work, one may visualize the paintings and their use of ancient maritime activity as subject matter. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Shreekant. S. Jadhav Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jadhav, Shreekant S.. 2023. “Digital Reconstruction and Conservation of Maritime Heritage in the Ajanta Murals.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2024 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/33bcd27c2b5c242fa5efe32e95590868.pdf 95b9a3087a1b1e9a4b977d638c64d72f PDF Text Text Dimensions of Interactions: Bay of Bengal in the Wider Asia-Pacific Region: Archaeological and Historical Records from the Earliest Period till 1500 CE Kaushik Gangopadhyay1 1 Department of Archaeology, University of Calcutta, India. Corresponding Author- k.gongo@gmail.com ABSTRACT The paper explores the role played by the Northern Bay of Bengal Region in the cultural transmission throughout the Indo-Pacific region. The investigation begins in the protohistoric period and subsequently discusses the early historic and the historical period. In this paper, the author raises issues of mortuary practices, which are similar between South Asia and South-East Asia. Artefacts discussed in this paper include glass and stone beads, portable enough to be carried across long distances and their final deposition as grave goods point to the inherent value attached to these portable artefacts. The third issue is the findspots of these artefacts, particularly beads from the shipwreck sites from the Philippines. It is remarkable how such sites can provide the much needed in-situ data on portable and its dated values. All this evidence compels us to look at a neglected region in the discussion, primarily the Northern Bay of Bengal region. Keywords: NBBR, Mortuary practices, Glass beads, Submerged sites LIST OF ABBRIVIATIONS NBBR Northern Bay of Bengal Region KSK Khao Sam Khaeo LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Map showing sites discussed in the text 1. INTRODUCTION The paper attempts to understand the scales of interaction within the Asia-Pacific region by focusing on the Northern Bay of Bengal Region (NBBR) and its archaeological heritage to be part of interacting network in this vast region. The Bay of Bengal Region played a significant role in the Indian Ocean trade network from the prehistoric to modern periods and is well documented in the archaeological and historical records (Gupta 2005). The archaeological record of this interaction is indicated by common mortuary practices over a wide region of the Asia-Pacific region and also distribution of specific types of small portable objects like ceramics and glass beads known as IndoPacific glass beads (Francis 2002). The term itself is indicative of connectivity between Indian ocean and the Pacific region. Gleaning the available data, one is left with the idea that the geographical ambit of this distribution is largely limited in the southern part of the Bay of Bengal as the data from the NBBR is not easily available. In this paper, the author attempts to include data from the NBBR to understand the connection within the Asia-Pacific region. This is more important because majority of the sites from where these data can be properly gathered is either eroded coastal sites or facing threat due to coastal erosion. 2. PREHISTORIC PERIOD This section deals with research findings from the prehistoric period in the wide Indo-Pacific region. The earliest data on interaction comes from the study of the distribution of jar burials across the 1 �pacific and the Bay of Bengal region (Gupta 2005, 22-30). Jar burials are found in various Chalcolithic and Iron age contexts of South Asia. This included the well-known Deccan chalcolithic burials from western India (Dhavalikar et al. 1998). Jar burials are also known from South India, which was common cultural practice associated with the megalithic burial tradition during the Iron Age. In Northeast India, stone jar burials have been recently investigated, which is like sites in Laos and Vietnam (Thakuria et al. 2016, 44-51). Jar burials are known from the Yayoi period in Japan and from mainland South-East Asian sites, particularly from Thailand and Vietnam. In this context, the infant jar burials from the Samon valley in Myanmar show remarkable similarities to the jar burials of the India particularly the jar burials from Deccan chalcolithic phase. The jar burials have been described as large spherical vases with widened-out necks, staked together and lying flat in pairs, three or four touching each other by their openings. The jars were 25- 80 cm in height and 40 cm to 50 in maximum diameter (Coupey 2013, 84-91). Similar jar burials are found in the northern Thailand, although in an earlier context between 1800 and 600 BCE. One of the major factors in the connectivity between the urban culture of South-East Asia, the ‘Pyu’ culture of Myanmar (second century BCE to ninth Century CE) and South Asia was Buddhist networks. As noted by Stargardt (2005, 407-34), the late Iron age burial tradition of the ‘Pyu’ civilization was characterized by burial stone jars and ceramic urns, similar to the burial urns of South India, particularly Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu, which could have also influenced the Buddhist practices in both India and South-East Asia. Another region in East Asia where jar burials became very popular is Korea (Riotto 1995, 40-53). According to Riotto (Riotto 1995, 40-53) the burial tradition of the pre-Buddhist period in Korea may have been adopted by people who were accustomed with the tradition of jar burials elsewhere. Therefore, careful perusal of burial rites from South Asia to the far east could provide a nuanced position with relation to prehistoric connectivity in the prehistoric period involving sites in NBBR, particularly Myanmar. 2.1 Interactions through portable items The above discussions underscore the need for a more sustained investigations into the portable artefacts recovered from terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites and this section is largely devoted to an interpretation of the available data. There are portable artefacts such as pottery and beads recovered from sites nearer to maritime spaces and also from shipwrecks. In this section the author attempts to summarize the importance of portable artefacts such as glass beads circulating in the Bay of Bengal interaction sphere in the examining interactions in the Asia-Pacific region from the earliest times to the medieval. These glass beads are extensively documented from port sites like Arikamedu on the Coromandel coast; eroded coastal sites of Bengal, early urban sites of South and South-east Asia; shipwrecks from Philippines and also from Japan in the Yayoi period graves (Gupta 2005, 22-30). What is the connection between the burials and the small portable artefacts like beads? Gupta would argue that the demand for the second category of artefacts is indicative of socio-cultural practices as these small artefacts could have circulated largely as prestige good because the immediate contexts are graves (Gupta 2005, 22-30). To imagine that an artefact like bead travelled over a wide space to be deposited in funerary contexts also highlights the importance attached to death rituals in wider Asia-Pacific world. 2 �2.2 The circulation of glass and stone beads in the Asia-Pacific region: Chronological and cultural scope This section is a summation of glass and stone beads circulating in the Bay of Bengal region from fourth century BCE. The beads were commodified and distributed in the South-East Asian middle range societies (Basa 1992, 91-104). Stone beads, including etched alkaline carnelian and agate beads were thought to have been produced in South Asia (Belina and Glover 2001, 191-215) and made their way into different regions of South-East Asia and some of the techniques were adopted by the Iron Age communities in South-East Asia, where indigenous bead production techniques were locally adopted (Theunissen 2000, 84-105). The increasing role of sites in South-East Asia, particularly in the Thai-Peninsular region (Khao Sam Khaeo) were catalyst in not only interactions between South Asia and South-East Asia but within the trans-Asiatic networks (Bellina et al. 2006, 257-293). The trans-Asiatic networks relayed technological know-hows. For instance, it has been argued that craftsmen at early sites like Khao San Khaeo in the Isthmus of Kra adopted technological traditions of South Asia (Bellina et al. 2006). At Khao Sam Khaeo glass production, particularly the drawn glass beads production technique was adopted. The ceramics also reported Indian style ceramics (Bouvet 2011, 47-82) and Chinese style (Han) ceramics (Bellina et al. 2006, 257-293). Therefore, the site of KSK, located on the east of the Isthmus of Kra connected Bay of Bengal to the East Asia. Glass beads have great significance in pursuing research in the trans-Asiatic networks over long-time ranges. In East Asia Gupta (2005, 22-30) noted the presence of Indian drawn glass beads in Japan and Korea from late first Millennium BCE and continued in the late Yayoi period (300 BCE–300 CE) and Three Kingdoms period (220 to 280 CE). In more recent historical periods (fifteenth to seventeenth centuries) the research conducted by (Craig 2021) assumes importance as it draws on evidence from both terrestrial and underwater (shipwrecks) sites. Craig has listed out two important locales which could be investigated to document production, shipment, and distribution of portable objects like beads. These are sites of beach side communities who were likely the last to handle cargoes, coming in or going out into the sea and also the actual shipwreck sites. It is in this context that addressing underwater archaeological strategies becomes crucial. After having examined the available evidence from the Bay of Bengal region, it becomes clear that it is difficult to obtain shipwreck sites from the Bay of Bengal region, particularly where large rivers like the Ganges debouches and turns underwater excavation strategies a problem and extremely difficult to pursue. Perusal of historical sources and archaeological data makes it clear that the NBBR region witnessed urbanization and participated in the wide trans-Asiatic exchange systems from the end of the first millennium BCE. A wide varieties of objects including glass, stone beads and ceramics were locally produced or acquired from other regions of South Asia and could have been shipped to other regions including the South-East Asian regions like Myanmar. The early urbanized sites of Myanmar like Beikthano reveals existence of red glass beads made from the ‘drawn’ techniques along with decorated (possibly lime) carnelian and stone beads (author’s own observations). These objects have been found at sites in the coastal zone of West Bengal in the western part of the NBBR. Some of the well-known sites are Tamluk and Chandraketugarh, but there are few sites, discussed below, which have yielded glass beads from the archaeological contexts, but are under threat from coastal erosions. In summary, although early shipwreck sites are not available for the Bay of Bengal region, artefacts originating from the region are to be found in shipwreck sites. 3 �The history of production of certain categories of glass beads such as the ‘drawn’ glass beads, could also be reconstructed from these studies. Craig’s (2021) research on the fifteenth century CE shipwreck Pandanan, located in the Palawan region of Philippines, cargo consisted of drawn and wound glass beads. The red opaque drawn glass beads classified as ‘Indo-Pacific’ beads and mineral Soda-Alumina glass were possibly sourced from South Asia (Craig 2021). She emphasizes shipwrecks from Philippines are important to understand the shift in the bead trade in the entire Asia-Pacific region, while I add this research also aids historians in evaluating the relative importance of the different maritime spaces like Bay of Bengal region and its role in transferring technologies and objects towards the east. Further, I suggest the strategy to locate more sites along the eastern coast of India, to sample glass and also stone beads. Arikamedu is the only site at the centre of current discussion but more sites from the NBBR should be included. 2.4 The ports in the NBBR region: Western segment of Ganga-Brahmaputra delta (West Bengal). 2.4.1 Chandraketugarh The site is located on a defunct arm of the palaeo-channel of the Ganges. The site is about two sq km in extent and the most flourishing period of the site was between the third century BCE to the fourth century CE. The major artefactual component of the site consists of large number of terracotta plaques, ceramics, stone and glass beads. The site may correspond to one of the ports mentioned in the Periplus as Gange. Although, a large number of beads have been found from the site the only publication is that of (Chakraborty 1998, 32-54). Chakraborty has documented blue glass beads, green glass beads and Indo-Pacific beads in red, orange and yellow opaque have been documented. 2.4.2 Tamluk The site is identified with the port of Tamralipti. Excavations and explorations at the site (IAR, 195455; 1973-74) produced a large number of ceramics, terracotta plaques and figurines and glass beads. Several glass beads including green glass, blue glass, black oblate and ‘Indo-Pacific” beads have been documented from the site although from surface context. The chronology of the beads is between third century BCE to even ninth-twelfth centuries CE based on comparison of beads with sites in South India and also with sites in South-East Asia, such as Takua Pa (Gangopadhyay 2010, 171-181). The beads demonstrate wide geographical zone from North-West India, Northern India, Southern India and South-East Asia. The temporal zone is between third centuries BCE to twelfth centuries CE. 2.4.3. Harinarayanpur and Deulpota The other sites from coastal West Bengal are these two very interesting sites which has produced several coloured and opaque glass beads (Chakraborty 1998, 32-54), including the ‘Indo-Pacific’ types. These sites will be dealt with in our discussion on underwater archaeological heritage. 4 �Figure 1: Map showing sites discussed in the text (Courtesy: Snehadip Saha) 2.5 Glass beads and trade: coastal West Bengal Several sites in coastal zone West Bengal have evidence of glass beads from the early historic to the medieval period. However, these sites have not been studied in detail. It is unclear as to whether communities at these sites produced glass beads or acted as transportation nodes from Indian glass beads production centre or southern glass production centres. Also, one can raise the issue and debate if all the drawn red glass beads collected from the surface context from the sites mentioned above should be chronologically placed in the early historic period. The connection with South-East Asia is indicated by the blue ‘eye’ bead of glass, similar to the one from Takua Pa, referred above, although such beads have a long chronology in India going back to the third century BCE. The data of these small portable items belonging to the early medieval and medieval period is unsubstantial for any cogent argument. 5 �3. DISCUSSION The following points emerge out of the above discussion: a. The Bay of Bengal region connecting South and South-East Asia from the prehistoric times till the medieval period. The connectivity stretched towards east Asia and the Far east for which archaeological evidence of Jar burials can be put forward. b. The more tangible evidence of ceramics within the Bay of Bengal region and beads in the wider Asia-Pacific region appears at disparate localities within the region stretching from the Coromandel coast to Korea and Japan. c. Our data on Indo-Pacific glass beads from coastal West Bengal in NBBR, shows that littoral sites are presently being eroded and the archaeological layers lie below the high tidal mark therefore, it is important to survey the inter-tidal zone. Other coastal regions along in the NBBR, such as Myanmar, should also be surveyed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I acknowledge APCONF 2023 and the chairperson of the session for accepting this paper and for providing senior travel award to enable travelling to Korea. Some of the data used in the article was observed while the author travelled the Myanmar in 2019. The UGC-UPE-II (India Looking East) is acknowledged and also the University of Calcutta for facilitating the funding. BIBLIOGRAPHY Basa. K. K. “Early Glass Beads in India”, South Asian Studies 8 (1992): 91- 104. Belina Berinice, Ian Glover 2001. Alkaline Etched Beads East of India in the Late Prehistoric and Early Historic Periods, Bulletin De L Ecole Francoise D Extreme-Orient 88, 1 (2001): 191-215. Bellina Berince, Robert Pryce and Praon Silapanth. “Weaving cultural identities on trans-oceanic networks: Upper ThaiMalay Peninsula – an early socio-political landscape”, Bulletin De L Ecole Francoise D Extreme-Orient 93, (2006): 257293. Bouvet Phaedra 2011. “Preliminary Study of Indian and Indian Style wares from Khao Sam Kaeo (Chumphon, Peninsular Thailand) Fourth-Second Centuries BCE. In Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia, Reflections on CrossCultural Exchange, edited by In Pierre Yves Manguin, A. Mani and Geoff Wade, 47-82. Manohar, Singapore, Institute of South-East Asian Studies, New Delhi, 2011. Craig Jennifer. “Shipwrecks and Glass beads: Indian Ocean World connectivity across the historic maritime cultural landscape”. PhD diss., McGill University Canada, 2021. Coupey Anne-Sophie. “Infant Jar Burials in Upper Burma. Unearthing Southeast Asia” Selected Papers from the Twelfth International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists 1, (2013): 84- 90. Chakraborty, Sharmi. “Beads from Chandraketugarh”, Pratna Samiksha, 4-5 (1995-96): 32- 54. Dhavalikar, M.K, H.D. Sankalia and Z.D. Ansari, Excavations at Inamgaon, Vol 1. Part I, Pune: Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, 1989. 6 �Francis, Peter. Asia’s Maritime Bead Trade, 300 BC to the Present. Hawai: University of Hawai Press, 2002. Gangopadhyay K. Early Historic Archaeology of Coastal West Bengal with Special Reference to Medinipur District (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 2013). Utkal University, 2013. 171-181. Gupta, Sunil. “Bay of Bengal Interactions Sphere (1000 BCE-AD 500)”, Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin, 25 (2005): 22 -30. Glover, Ian and Berenice Bellina. “Alkaline Etched Beads East of India in the late Prehistoric and Early Historic period”, Bulletin De L Ecole Francoise D Extreme-Orient, 88 (2001): 191- 215. Indian Archaeology-A Review, 1954-55, 19 and 1973-74, 32. Riotto, M. “Jar-Burials in Korea and their possible social implications”, Korea Journal 35, 3 (1995): 40- 53. Stargardt, Janice. “Death Rituals of the late Iron age and Early Buddhism in Central Burma and South-East India- whose norms, whose practices?” In Im Dickicht der Gebote, 2005. 407- 434. Thakuria Tilok, T. Jamir and M.K. Chauley. “Stone jar Burials in North Cachar, Assam”, Man and Environment XLI, no. I (2016): 44-51. Theunissen, Robert, Peter Grave and Grahame Bailey. “Doubts on Diffusion: Challenging the Assumed Indian Origin of Iron Age Agate and Carnelian Beads in Southeast Asia”, World Archaeology - Archaeology in Southeast Asia, 32 (2000): 84-105. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dimensions of Interactions: Bay of Bengal in the Wider Asia-Pacific Region: Archaeological and Historical Records from the Earliest Period till 1500 CE Description An account of the resource The paper explores the role played by the Northern Bay of Bengal Region in the cultural transmission throughout the Indo-Pacific region. The investigation begins in the protohistoric period and subsequently discusses the early historic and the historical period. In this paper, the author raises issues of mortuary practices, which are similar between South Asia and South-East Asia. Artefacts discussed in this paper include glass and stone beads, portable enough to be carried across long distances and their final deposition as grave goods point to the inherent value attached to these portable artefacts. The third issue is the findspots of these artefacts, particularly beads from the shipwreck sites from the Philippines. It is remarkable how such sites can provide the much needed in-situ data on portable and its dated values. All this evidence compels us to look at a neglected region in the discussion, primarily the Northern Bay of Bengal region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kaushik Gangopadhyay Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Gangopadhyay, Kaushik . 2023. “Dimensions of interactions: Bay of Bengal in the wider Asia-Pacific region: Archaeological and historical records from the earliest period till 1500 CE.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, V. Selvakumar, and Wijerathne Bohingamuwa. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1950 Asia-Pac Session 8 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World 589-1276 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bielenstein, Hans Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brill Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Bielenstein, Hans Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Place Leiden Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brill Title A name given to the resource Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World 589-1276 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/dca92f83a85a0f01eb068d1bed1705b9.pdf 7e81fbe181c07bc4ddaddd46f6883ec3 PDF Text Text Disaster in the High Seas: The Spanish Expeditions in the Pacific in the Sixteenth Century Ma. Luisa De Leon-Bolinao, Ph.D. Associate Professor, History Department University of the Philippines-Diliman Quezon City, Philippines Email: loudeleon@rocketmail.com Abstract The Pacific Ocean is the largest body of water on earth, measuring more than 165 million square kilometers. Although the first European to spot it was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa in 1513, who named it Mar del Sur (South Sea) due to a miscalculation, it was Ferdinand Magellan who named it Pacifico after taking notice of its calm waters. This paper discusses the various disasters that sixteenth-century Spanish expeditions encountered during their trips to and from the Philippines while crossing the vast Pacific Ocean. It focuses on four events: (1) natural disasters like storms and gales; (2) health hazards like diseases and spoiled food provisions; (3) man-made hazards like mutinies and piracies; and, (4) other accidents like leaks and reef grounding. The study covers the period from Magellan’s voyage of 1519 up to the trips of the galleons until the end of the sixteenth century, and concludes with the lessons learned from a century of traversing the Pacific. Key words: disasters, Pacific Ocean, Spanish expeditions, galleon trade, Philippines I. Introduction A story on Walter McDougall’s (1993) book1 narrated the historic first eastward trip from the Philippines to Acapulco. Fray Andres de Urdaneta was on his way back to Acapulco from the Philippines. He set a course north by northeast in the hope of bypassing the trade winds and finding the westerlies back to the Americas. Forty-five years earlier, Magellan first crossed the Pacific westward, but since then no one has been able to make a tornaviaje (return trip) using the same route through the Pacific. After a month, Urdaneta’s crew reached 320 north latitude, 1590 east longitude, the same coordinates reached by Saavedra in 1528 but abandoned after a five-day storm 1 Walter A. McDougall (1993). Let the Sea Make a Noise: A History of the North Pacific from Magellan to MacArthur. Basic Books, p. 25. 1 �crippled his ship, with his crew weakened by the cold and scurvy. Urdaneta then prayed for the intercession of St. Peter, patron saint of his ship San Pedro, that the westerlies would carry them back to Acapulco. The westerlies did pick up, the ship sailed eastward until the California current caught them and carried them southward to Mexico. They reached Acapulco on October 8, 1565 after sailing over twelve thousand miles in 130 days. Urdaneta unwittingly discovered the Kuroshio current2 flowing off Japan, the North Pacific Current flowing towards California, and the tornaviaje route that eluded earlier Spanish explorers. Thus began Spain’s mastery of the Pacific Ocean. According to Greg Bankoff (2006), “The Spanish Empire in the Pacific may have been motivated by ‘God, gold, and glory’ but its realization, in particular its extent and its pulse, was largely determined by the Pacific wind system.”3 Spain may have built an empire, but it came with considerable loss of life and property. The Pacific, contrary to Magellan’s initial impression of this “Spanish lake”, was far from calm. It is the birthplace of numerous tropical storms, the home of the world’s most active volcanoes and tectonic plates, and the regular site of earthquakes and tsunamis. II. Initial Travels to the Philippines: From Ferdinand Magellan to Miguel Lopez De Legazpi, 1519-1565 Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan’s assistant and chronicler, kept a detailed account of the events of the 1519 expedition. The fleet began its voyage to the largely unknown waters in November 1520, with no clue as to direction or length of travel. Three months later, the food had deteriorated, and morale was low. He notes, “The tired crew only ate sea biscuits that were full of worms and smelled of the urine from the rats that had already eaten the good parts. Some men fought over old cowhides which they softened for four or five days in seawater 2 As described by Shirley Fish in her book, The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific. Author House (2011), p. 64: “The Kuroshio Current begins off the coast of Taiwan and flows in a circular, clock wise pattern as far north as Japan. The current then merges with the North Pacific Current (NPC) which flows in a westerly pattern taking the ship towards the coast of Northern California and Mendecino. The NPC is the Pacific’s counterpart of the Atlantic’s Gulf Stream. Once off the coast of California, the galleon sailed south to Baja California and then to Mexico’s Cape Corrientes and Acapulco.” 3 Greg Bankoff (2006). “Winds of Colonisation: The Meteorological Contours of Spain’s Imperium in the Pacific, 1521-1898”, Environment and History 12, p. 67. 2 �before cooking them over a charcoal fire. Others caught and sold rats…and the demand for this kind of fresh meat could not be met. Nineteen of them perished from scurvy…”4 Scurvy is a disease that occurs due to the lack of Vitamin C and usually accompanies malnutrition. Symptoms include pale skin, sunken eyes, and loss of teeth. It was a common illness among sailors since the 15th century due to the absence of fresh vegetables and fruits, especially citrus, in their diets. These foods are highly perishable and cannot last for the several months that the sailors spend in long-distance travel in ships. A second voyage led by Garcia Jofre de Loaisa, and assisted by Juan Sebastian Del Cano [Elcano], was mandated by Carlos I to colonize the Spice Islands for the Spanish Crown. Leaving Spain in 1525 with an impressive fleet of seven ships and crew of 450, the Loaisa expedition barely survived the Atlantic crossing. Even before they crossed the Pacific, they were already down to four ships. After the Pacific voyage, only one ship reached the Spice Islands as three more ships were lost in the storms, while Loaysa and Elcano both died 5 of scurvy in July 1526.The October 31, 1527 trip of Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron proved most favorable for the Spanish fleet. Not only were the northeast trade winds strong enough to push them across the vast ocean, thus making the trip faster, they also arrived in the Philippines after the typhoon season was over.6 Of course, it helped that one of the captains of the ships was a member of the earlier Elcano expedition and could have copies of the navigation charts. It was also the first time that a Spanish fleet originated from Mexico, instead of Spain, which means the food would remain fresher for a longer period of time during the Pacific crossing. However, Saavedra could not escape the curse of the Pacific. Only two weeks into the voyage, the crew discovered that the ship was leaking badly. Wright (1951) wrote,7 “…The water was pouring into the bread storeroom in the stern of the ship, in such quantities that the ship was settling rapidly. They hastened to lighten her by throwing overboard thirty quintales [equivalent to fifty days ration 4 Rodrigue Levesque (trans.) The Philippines: Pigafetta’s Story of Their Discovery by Magellan (n.d.). Levesque Publications, p. 14. 5 Ibid, p. 111. 6 Ione Stuessy Wright “Voyages of Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron” in R. S. Boggs (ed.) University of Miami Hispanic-American Studies (1951). University of Miami Press, p. 17. 7 Ibid. p. 19. 3 �for forty men] of bread and meat and other foods, and set to work to get rid of the water….” On December 15, 1527, another misfortune happened to the crew. They encountered a storm, developed rudder trouble, and were forced to wait out the bad weather in the middle of the sea. Two other ships of the convoy – the Santiago and Espiritu Santo -continued on their journey, but after the storm passed, these two vessels were never seen again.8 It was Saavedra who first attempted the tornaviaje in June 1528 by sailing northeastward, but was apparently unprepared for the extreme weather condition and more storms. He returned to the Moluccas and departed for a second attempt in May 1529, only to be attacked by the native islanders along the way. Saavedra himself fell ill and died on the return voyage (estimated around October 1529), but barely out of the western Pacific region. The crew returned to the Moluccas a second time, but was later captured by the Portuguese and taken to Malacca. After the Spaniards surrendered their arms to the Portuguese, they were sent to India and finally got back to Spain in Portuguese ships. By the time Ruy Lopez de Villalobos set sail in October 1542, a lot of things had been learned about the Pacific. Captains were further instructed to keep a very detailed log of each day’s journey, measured in leagues. Despite all the preparation and the knowledge that went into the Villalobos expedition, the usual problems surfaced – leaking boats, lack of drinking water, and the occasional storms and gales, one of which caused one ship, the San Cristobal, to disappear.9 It would later resurface in Mindanao and rendezvous with the rest of Villalobos’s fleet. After several months in Mindanao, one of the ships -- the San Juan – would attempt to return to Mexico via the Pacific Ocean. The Villalobos expedition may have been better prepared for the journey this time around, but with the persistent lack of adequate knowledge of wind direction and sea currents occurring in the Pacific, this attempt was destined to fail. It would take Spain two more decades to figure this out before the incredible feat of returning to Spain via the Pacific would be accomplished. Miguel 8 Ibid., p. 21. Andre Gschaedler, “Mexico and the Pacific, 1540-1565: The Voyages of Villalobos and Legazpi and the Preparations Made for Them”. PhD dissertation, Faculty of Political Science, Columbia University, p. 52. 9 4 �Lopez de Legazpi had one very distinct advantage as he set sail across the Pacific in November 1564 – he was assisted by Andres de Urdaneta, who, by this time, had been the foremost expert in navigation. He had been crossing the Pacific since the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions, and that his knowledge of cosmography and navigation was well known throughout the empire. He became an Augustinian friar in 1552, and stayed in Mexico where he was exposed to more studies on seafaring, particularly on the meteorological observations made along the coast of California.10 The November 21, 1564 departure of the Legazpi fleet would have spelled disaster had it not been for the instructions of Urdaneta who outlined different sea routes for (1) departures between Oct 1 to November 10; (2) departures between November 10 and January 20; and (3) departures after January which should not proceed until March.11 Simply put, for every Pacific voyage, timing is paramount; one cannot take for granted prevailing winds and the sea currents at different times of the year. Needless to say, the voyage proceeded without any incident, and Legazpi reached Guam on January 26, 1565, and Samar on February 13, 1565.12 Urdaneta left Cebu to return to Mexico on June 1, 1565 aboard the San Pedro. Although this was the voyage that discovered the eastward route back to Acapulco, we do know now that out of the original 200 people on board, only about 30 people were able to reach their destination after four months. This fact, however, does not diminish the significance of this return voyage, and it would serve as the route that the Manila galleons would follow for 250 years. III. The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Conquering the Pacific didn’t end the disasters accompanying the subsequent Spanish expeditions. According to Shirley Fish (2011):13 “After the arrival of the San Pablo in Mexico, it was followed by the San Geronimo, which arrived at Cebu in October 1566. This proved to be a difficult journey for all those aboard the vessel as a mutiny arose on the ship. The captain was murdered by the mutineers and it was a miracle that the ship arrived in the Philippines at all.” 10 Ibid., p. 84. Ibid. p. 115-16. 12 Ibid., p. 149, 152. 13 Shirley Fish (2011). The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific. Author House, p. 65. 11 5 �Aside from mutinies, captains also faced the possibility of encountering pirates and rival foreign ships when traveling over international waters. The galleons were part of the Spanish Crown Trade Route (SCTR), a larger network of traditional merchant ships that sailed -routes. As discussed by Ruescas and Wrana (2012),14 “Thus, two lengthy maritime routes operated across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans simultaneously for over two centuries. Both of these lines were in turn connected by an overland route between Acapulco and Veracruz via Mexico City…. Through this overland route, the Atlantic and Pacific lines were connected forming a single combined route that stretched from Manila to Seville, linking Asia, America, and Europe….” For both the Atlantic and Pacific fleets, the Spanish Government established a highly-regulated system of laws that governed everything from cargo and provisions to weaponry and crew. The schedule for the voyages had to be strictly followed. Sailing to the Americas had to commence in the months of April or May in order to arrive in Mexico before the hurricane season, while the Pacific fleets can only start their voyage in October, but not later than January, to be assured of calm waters and favorable winds. The Atlantic waters were likewise used by vessels from other countries such as the Dutch and British ships which were always hunting for Spanish galleons. That is why as early as 1526, the King of Spain had decreed that vessels traveling to the Americas would be escorted by war ships. In contrast, the Pacific galleons were not accompanied by these vessels, but instead were fitted with cannons to be able to protect themselves. 15 At times, an incoming Manila galleon was escorted from Baja California to the port of Acapulco by additional armed warships. Alas, such precautions proved far from foolproof. One such example was when the Santa Ana was captured by Thomas Cavendish in 1587 off the coast of Baja California.16 The Santa Ana was originally with the war ship San Francisco when they left Manila, but both encountered a typhoon off Japan which considerably wrecked the 14 Javier Ruescas and Javier Wrana, “The West Indies and the Manila Galleons: The First Global Trade Route” in Probing Philippine-Spanish Connections in History: Selected Papers, Philippine-Spanish Friendship Day 2011 (2012). National Historical Commission of the Philippines and the History Department, UP Diliman, p. 8. 15 Ibid., p. 28, 30 16 Ibid., p. 188. 6 �latter, leaving the Santa Ana to continue its voyage back to Acapulco alone and unarmed. In November 1587, the Cavendish fleet spotted the lone galleon sailing towards Baja California, chased it, and got control of the ship, the cargo, and the crew. After picking the best of the lot from the ship, Cavendish set the Santa Ana on fire and set off, leaving the burning ship which managed to drift to a nearby shore, eventually getting salvaged by the remaining crew and brought back to Acapulco.17 The Dutch were the more aggressive attackers of the galleons, who constantly dispatched ships to the Philippines. They had hoped to catch one of the incoming or outgoing galleons by blockading either Manila Bay or the San Bernardino Strait. One such encounter happened in December 1600 when Oliver van Noort led the attack in Cavite, which unfortunately resulted with the sinking of the San Diego.18 It was this San Diego that was later excavated by underwater archaeologists in 1993, and the artifacts are presently housed in the National Museum of the Philippines and the Museo Naval in Madrid (Spain). Let me end this study with an incident from the seventeenth century. One of the worst disasters for the Spanish flotilla was the tragedy that befell the Nuestra Señora de la Concepcion. The Concepcion had quite a reputation as the largest, most indestructible galleon of its time. It was built using the best tropical hardwoods in the Philippines and measured 160 feet long, 50 feet wide, with a carrying capacity of 2,000 tons. It was accompanied by the San Ambrosio, but had become separated from the Concepcion due to the strong winds they encountered. The San Ambrosio was able to stay the course and arrived in Acapulco safely; the Concepcion, however, did not. 17 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish#Capturing_a_Manila_galleon, Accessed October 5, 2013. 18 “Oliver van Noort’s Attack on Luzon” in Blair and Robertson, ‘Documents of 1600’, (Volume 11). The Philippine islands, 1493-1803 : explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the beginning of the nineteenth century / tr. from the originals, ed. and annotated by Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson, with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne. 55 Vols. URL: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.011/144?page=root;size=100;view=image;q1=blair. Accessed October 5, 2013. 20 Fish, p. 3. 21 Ibid, p. 3-4. 22 Ibid., p. 11-15. An annotated list of Transpacific Galleons, 1565-1815, can also be found in Fish, pp 492-523. 7 �Fish (2011) relates that on September 20, 1638, the Concepcion encountered bad weather and crashed into a reef off the southern coast of the Northern Marianas, where it eventually capsized and broke to pieces. An investigation conducted in 1644 concluded that the ship’s disaster: “…was brought about by a combination of bad weather and the lack of vigilance on the part of the pilots in charge of the ship’s navigation. Apparently, there was a disturbance on the galleon which had become so out of control that the navigation of the ship was completely forgotten. Perhaps there was a fight among the officers and crew or a mutiny was attempted with a planned takeover of the vessel. Whatever happened on the galleon, it appears that no one was paying attention to the ship’s course and the fact that it had been dangerously drifting towards the reef.” Eventually, the culpability was traced back to Manila and to the then Governor-General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, who was held responsible. Fifty-nine charges were brought against Corcuera, among which were (1) appointing his inexperienced nephew as Commander of the Concepcion which was probably one of the factors that led to a near-mutiny aboard the ship; (2) illegally-transporting personal cargo of jewelry, gold, and other items aboard the galleons back to Mexico, to be sold for profit; and, (3) numerous violations of Spanish trade laws. A recovery team was sent to Saipan by the Spanish government in Manila in 1684, to at least retrieve the ship’s cannons. But it was not until 1987 that an archaeological team led by William Mathers and his team of thirty men and women recovered the riches that the Nuestra Señora de la Concepcion buried off the waters of the Pacific for 375 years. Conclusion The Pacific Ocean had been the last frontier for the Spanish expeditions in the sixteenth century; their final obstacle to reaching the coveted Spice Islands. Erroneously named Pacifico by Magellan in 1520 which he based on its calm demeanor when he first saw the vast ocean, the Pacific is anything but peaceful. For it is the birthplace of numerous tropical storms, the home of the world’s most active volcanoes and tectonic plates, and the regular site of earthquakes and tsunamis. The first hazard they had to overcome was the weather and the ocean current. A ship captain must possess enough skills and navigation know-how to even begin to sail the large ocean to lands unknown. Initially a venture based on trial-and error, they had to 8 �leave Acapulco at a specific time of the year, and carefully keep a daily log of their latitudinal position to even have any hope of surviving the months-long journey or reaching an island to replenish supplies. Another challenge is rationing their food and water supply and combatting physical diseases like scurvy, or emotional distress like loneliness and boredom. A second hazard is the violent climate. The Pacific is the birthplace of tropical storms, a phenomena entirely new to citizens of an almost hurricane-free Europe. As such, coping with shipwrecks, leaks, storms, and gales had become regular struggles for the hapless sailors. A third form of challenge was finding the tornaviaje route back to Acapulco. For some reason, the Pacific waters behaved differently going back east than moving towards the west. Sixteenth-century navigation meant relying on wind and sea currents in the absence of modern instrumentation. It took Spain all of half a century before hitting the Kuroshio Current off Japan which finally gave them that coveted return trip to Acapulco with a shorter travel time. This historic discovery paved the way for Spain to master the Pacific Ocean, establish their empire, and build a lucrative trade route for the galleons for 250 years. Finally, Spain had one last hurdle to overcome – piracy and attacks in the high seas. Carrying untold fortune between Manila and Acapulco, the galleons are virtual magnets to every daring treasure hunter with a sea vessel. The Portuguese had staked their claim over the Spice Islands and its surrounding lands and waters, and had used this ruse to capture Spanish vessels which wandered inside its territory. Meanwhile, the Dutch and British ships lie in wait in pivotal water channels like the San Bernardino Strait, Manila Bay, and Baja California. Although Spanish galleons frequently carry cannons and firearms to protect themselves, the length of the travel time and distance sometimes leave them weak and vulnerable to pirates and bounty hunters who maintain close proximity to the shore and thus remain healthy and ready to pounce on weary sailors. The cost of conquering the Pacific may have been enormous for Spain in the sixteenth century. The payback, however, was their enduring legacy in structuring the earliest techniques for modern navigation and map-making, pioneering the methods to building 9 �a formidable, cross-continent empire, and ushering in the first global trade by linking the largest landmasses of the earth – Asia, the Americas, and Europe. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bankoff, Greg, 2006. Winds of Colonisation: The Meteorological Contours of Spain’s Imperium in thePacific, 1521-1898, Environment and History (12): 65-88. Blair, Emma Helen and Robertson, Alexander (eds.). ‘Documents of 1600’, (Volume 11). The Philippinne islands, 1493-1803: explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the beginning of the nineteenth century / trans. from the originals, ed. and annotated by Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson, with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne. 55 Vols. Fish, Shirley, 2011. The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific. Author House. Gschaedler, Andre,1953. Mexico and the Pacific, 1540-1565: The Voyages of Villalobos and Legazpi and the Preparations Made for Them. PhD dissertation, Faculty of Political Science, Columbia University. Levesque, Rodrigue (trans.), n.d. The Philippines: Pigafetta’s Story of Their Discovery by Magellan. Levesque Publications. McDougall, Walter A.,1993. Let the Sea Make a Noise: A History of the North Pacific from Magellan to MacArthur. Basic Books. Morga, Antonio de, 1962. Historical Events of the Philippine Islands. Writings of Jose Rizal Volume VI (Centennial Edition). Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission. Paige, Paula Spurlin (trans.),1969. The Voyage of Magellan: The Journal of Antonio Pigafetta. Prentice-Hall International. Ruescas, Javier and Wrana, Javier, 2012. The West Indies and the Manila Galleons: The First Global Trade Route. In Probing Philippine-Spanish Connections in 10 �History: Selected Papers, Philippine-Spanish Friendship Day 2011. National Historical Commission of the Philippines and the History Department, UP Diliman, 1-32. Wright, Ione Stuessy, 1951. Voyages of Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron. In R. S. Boggs (ed.) University of Miami Hispanic-American Studies. University of Miami Press. Online Sources: “The Philippine Islands, ” http://philhist.pbworks.com/w/page/16367055/ThePhilippineIslands “Thomas Cavendish”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish#Capturing_a_Manila_galleon Biography Maria Luisa de Leon Bolinao is an Associate professor at the University of Philippines Diliman. Her area of specialization is Asian History, particularly Southeast Asian History and West Asian History. She teaches the Contemporary Period (Post-War Philippine History), and her field of specialization is Environmental History. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Disaster in the High Seas: The Spanish Expeditions in the Pacific in the Sixteenth Century Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean is the largest body of water on earth, measuring more than 165 million square kilometers. Although the first European to spot it was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa in 1513, who named it Mar del Sur (South Sea) due to a miscalculation, it was Ferdinand Magellan who named it Pacifico after taking notice of its calm waters. This paper discusses the various disasters that sixteenth-century Spanish expeditions encountered during their trips to and from the Philippines while crossing the vast Pacific Ocean. It focuses on four events: (1) natural disasters like storms and gales; (2) health hazards like diseases and spoiled food provisions; (3) man-made hazards like mutinies and piracies; and, (4) other accidents like leaks and reef grounding. The study covers the period from Magellan’s voyage of 1519 up to the trips of the galleons until the end of the sixteenth century, and concludes with the lessons learned from a century of traversing the Pacific. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ma. Luisa De Leon-Bolinao, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/14/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d1a993f1a9d217b7bd84a7bd2f8399e7.pdf 05fc9bd8889d490439762f0d24267221 PDF Text Text DISCOVERY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE WRECK OF USS ALBACORE (SS-218) 1 Ivor Mollema (Naval History and Heritage Command, Archaeologist) Tamaki Ura, PhD (University of Tokyo, Professor Emeritus) 3 David Johnston (Naval History and Heritage Command, Naval Photographic Interpreter) 4 Stephen Katona (Naval History and Heritage Command, Independent Researcher) 2 ABSTRACT The wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218) was discovered on 25 May 2022 and resurveyed in October by Dr Tamaki Ura’s team of researchers at La Plongée Deep Sea Engineering Society. Following the initial discovery, volunteer researchers for the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) examined recorded footage of the wreckage to identify the wrecked boat. Key features identified the wreckage as belonging to an American submarine from the Second World War. Further investigation and archival research identified the submarine as the American Albacore, a Gato class submarine lost in action in Japanese waters on 7 November 1944. The U.S. Navy formally confirmed the identity of the wrecksite as the Albacore in February 2023. After an overview of the vessel’s history, this paper covers the initial search and discovery of Albacore during 2022. In particular, the use of a Remotely Operated Vehicle demonstrates the viability of this approach for initial identification assessments of deep wrecks. An outline of the identification process is provided that covers key features of Albacore observed on both the underwater footage and archival imagery. The identity confirmation process and media outreach efforts surrounding the discovery are covered, followed by a discussion on the continuing management and treatment of Albacore. Key Words: Submarine, Second World War, Japan, US Navy LIST OF IMAGES Figure 1. Albacore at the final stages of its final refit at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, completed in May, 1944 (USN Photograph 19-N-65354). Figure 2. The vent holes that allowed researchers to identify the wreck as Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, October 2022). Figure 3. The SJ Radar Mast that helped confirm the identity of Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, Oct. 2022). INTRODUCTION The USS Albacore (SS-218) is one of 52 American submarines lost during WWII. She served on ten war patrols and sank at least 10 enemy vessels, with a potential for three more unconfirmed sinkings. This includes six enemy combatant ships and ties Albacore for the most sinkings of enemy combatant ships by any American submarine during WWII. Reported lost at the end of 1944, Albacore was discovered by a team of researchers from the University of Tokyo in May 2022 (Johnston, Katona, and Iwasaki 2022). A team of researchers associated with the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) reviewed the collected footage and compared it with archival imagery and records to determine the identity of wreckage as belonging to Albacore. NHHC archaeologists verified the identity of the wrecksite and corroborated the initial assessment of the wreck’s identity. The discovery, investigation, and announcement (NHHC 2023) laid out a template for approaching wreck sites in the future, with particular relevance to contemporary submarines. HISTORY OF USS ALBACORE (SS-218) Albacore was laid down on 21 April 1941 at Groton, Connecticut by the Electric Boat Company (“Albacore II (SS-218)”). It was launched on 17 February 1942 and commissioned on 1 June of the same year. Following the submarine’s shakedown cruise, it crossed the Panama Canal and arrived in Pearl Harbor in mid-1942. She departed for her first of 11 war patrols on 28 August 1942 in the waters surrounding Truk. This patrol ended on 20 October 1942 with Albacore’s return to Midway for a refit. During her inaugural war patrol, Albacore experienced her first 1 combat actions when she �engaged two enemy cargo vessels on 13 September 1942 with damage to the leading vessel, but missed the second. She then proceeded to make a night surface attack on an enemy tanker on 1 October 1942, and heavily damaged it. On 9 October, three Japanese warships, including one Zuikaku class carrier, pursued Albacore for most of the day. The next day, Albacore crew sank an enemy freighter after shaking off pursuers. Two Japanese submarine chasers, supported from the air, encountered Albacore on 11 October but broke off the chase after seven hours of silent running by Albacore. She departed the area the next day and headed to Midway Atoll for the first refit. Departing Midway for her second war patrol on 11 November 1942, Albacore set out for the waters off New Britain and New Guinea. Rebuffed from her first assigned patrol area by Japanese destroyers, she started patrolling the area around Madang harbour in New Guinea. Two enemy vessels were spotted: one destroyer and one suspected transport. Releasing a salvo of torpedoes, the Albacore crew sank the transport on 18 December 1942. On her arrival in Brisbane on 30 December 1942 her crew learned they had sunk the Japanese light cruiser Tenyru of 3300 tons. This was only the second Japanese cruiser sunk by an American submarine during WWII, and succeeded in weakening the enemy hold on New Guinea. This engagement was certainly one of Albacore’s most significant. After receiving an overhaul on her main engines, Albacore departed for her third patrol on 20 January 1943. During this patrol, the crew sank one destroyer and one frigate, with suspected damage to another vessel. Her fourth patrol achieved no confirmed enemy sinkings, although she reportedly engaged several enemy convoys. The next war patrol, this time under the command of Lt. CmDr Oscar Hagberg, achieved similar results. Albacore’s crew sank the ship Heijo Maru on 4 September 1943. Her seventh patrol would see Albacore come close to destruction. She pursued a Japanese convoy, but was accidentally bombed by a plane from the US 5th Air Force on 6 November. Although she received no damage during this attack, Albacore did lose contact with her quarries. On 10 November 1943, she was once again the victim of friendly fire when she was bombed by an American aircraft and suffered significant damage. All auxiliary power was knocked out, and the main induction valve was broken. For two and a half hours, she continued to move between 30 and 400 feet before restoring her trim and returning to the surface. She completed her patrol and returned to Brisbane on 5 December 1943, where she also received a new commander in Lt. Cmdr. James Blanchard. She completed one more patrol, before setting sail for Pearl Harbor on 22 February 1944. Three days later, she sailed for Mare Island Navy Yard for her final overhaul. She arrived back in Pearl Harbor on 13 May and departed for her ninth war patrol on 29 May in waters west of the Marianas Islands. She engaged no enemy ships during this patrol. Albacore shifted her position to the south on 18 June to support the American landings on Saipan. Admiral Nimitz planned to get the submarine, along with several others, to intercept a Japanese relief force. Albacore encountered a large concentration of Japanese Navy ships, and torpedoed near the aviation gasoline tanks of the aircraft carrier Taiho. The loss of one of Japan’s largest and newest aircraft carriers, along with a second sunk by USS Cavalla that same morning, caused the rest of the Japanese fleet to retreat to the relative safety of Okinawa, facilitating the subsequent landing of the U.S. forces in Guam, Tinian, and Saipan. Albacore would go on to sink two more ships after this action. Albacore departed Midway Atoll for her final war patrol on 28 October 1944. This was the last time anyone received any communications from the submarine. A Japanese report, issued by the Japanese Ominato District Guard Unit, references an underwater explosion off of Hokkaido, Japan. Forces at Ezan Lighthouse and aboard Fukuei Maru #7, both reported an explosion a few miles off the coast on 7 November 1944. NHHC volunteer researchers Yutaka Iwasaki and Stephen Katona triangulated these two sightings to develop a predicted location for the wreckage. The same records reported details of surface debris found at the explosion site. One winter jacket or jumper was found with the marking “ALB-5” on the back. This is presumed to be an abbreviated form of Albacore and used to identify the clothing as belonging to the submarine. A pair of white shorts, labelled with “ASK,” was also found. These initials match those of Arthur Star Kruger, a Seaman 2 nd Class who was listed as a member of the crew of Albacore at the time of her demise. Associated with the clothing items were also large amounts of heavy oil, cork, bedding, and American food supplies. This evidence, coupled 2 �with later video evidence collected by Dr Ura and reviewed by David Johnston and Steve Katona, later confirmed the identity of this wreck as belonging to Albacore. With no outgoing communications received from Albacore, she was ultimately declared lost on 21 December 1944 and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 30 March 1945. Over her relatively short career, Albacore conducted 11 war patrols and is credited with 10 sinkings against enemy vessels, with another three not yet confirmed. She earned nine battle stars and four Presidential Unit Citations (PUC). The submarine received the PUC for her second, third, eighth, and ninth patrols. Six of her 10 sinkings were against enemy combatant ships, ranking her as one of the most successful submarines against enemy combatants during WWII. DISCOVERY OF SITE USS ALBACORE Following archival research and location data in Japanese records, Dr Tamaki Ura and his team developed a survey pattern covering the suspected area of Albacore’s sinking. They completed surveys in the Shiriyaski Sea between Honshu and Hokkaido, Japan (Johnston, Katona, and Iwasaki 2022). On 25 May 2022 two multibeam systems were used to develop a bathymetric map of the area, while a towed system equipped with side scan sonar was used to develop a clearer image of the seafloor and any wreckage still located there. Dr Ura’s team found a wreck, about 50 metres in length. After identifying a shipwreck site, Dr Ura’s team conducted underwater surveys using ROVs on 26 May and 2 October 2022 (Johnston, Katona, and Iwasaki 2022). All survey activity was broadcasted live via internet (Nico Nico News, May and October 2022). The initial survey attempts in May encountered difficulties brought on by the harsh underwater surroundings and poor visibility. The depth, over 200 metres, also complicated matters. Despite difficulties, several images suggested the discovery of an American submarine. The confirmed location of the shipwreck was within one nautical mile of the location of the underwater explosion reported by Japanese forces off Hokkaido on 7 November 1944. Dr Ura’s team returned with volunteer researchers and archaeologists from NHHC, in October 2022 with a larger and more powerful ROV to confirm the identity of the wreck as Albacore. The data collected on these two trips showed a shipwreck split, as the fore part was lost and the aft end was buried in the sand. The break occurred forward of the conning tower fairwater. The centre section, including the conning tower and its aft part, was surveyed by the ROV. The shipwreck is heeled over to starboard about 5 degrees. The bridge has been smashed down to the port side of the submarine. Many fishing nets and marine concretions cover the wreck. ANALYSIS OF ALBACORE FOOTAGE Unlike surface vessels, there are a number of challenges facing those attempting the identification of American submarine wrecks. WWII submarines typically had little to no markings to distinguish themselves. Surface vessels usually have their name and assigned numbers marked in several locations. In this case, only the visual modifications, outlined below, and some deductive reasoning guided NHHC researchers who relied heavily on historic photographs from the Mare Island Navy Shipyard. Volunteer researcher David Johnston reviewed the footage collected by Dr Ura’s team with location data derived from Japanese historical reports. As mentioned above, the official ship history provided by the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (DANFS) alongside archival material confirmed that Albacore underwent its last major refit at the Mare Island Navy Yard in California starting on 25 February 1944. She departed Mare Island Navy Yard on 5 May 1944. A collection of U.S. Navy photographs shows Albacore during its final overhaul at Mare Island Navy Yard. Figure 1 shows several modifications made to the submarine and highlights three as they relate to the video analysis 3 �Figure 1. Albacore at the final stages of its final refit at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, completed in May, 1944 (USN Photograph 19-N-65354). Figure 2. The vent holes that allowed researchers to identify the wreck as Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, October 2022). 4 �Figure 3. The SJ Radar Mast that helped confirm the identity of Albacore as captured during the 2022 survey led by Dr. Tamaki Ura (Niconico Live, Oct. 2022). (Katona and Johnston 2022). A watertight gun ammunition locker, containing rounds for the deck gun. This can be seen on the aft port side of the conning tower fairwater, shown as feature four in the accompanying photograph. It is likely that an identical locker existed on the starboard side as well. Second, NHHC researchers noticed the removal of steel plates on the upper edge of the fairwater. The removal revealed the structural I-beam ribs shown as feature six in the photograph. Finally, one of the most important aspects is labelled as feature seven in the image. A line of vent holes drilled along the upper corner of the superstructure on both sides of the submarine allowed air to escape the superstructure faster, speeding diving times (Figure 2). Another key identifying feature is the SJ Radar antenna mounted on Gato class submarines like Albacore. Based on the Mare Island overhaul photographs, the SJ radar mast was mounted forward of the periscope shears, and this is where it was found on the wreck (Figure 3). SJ Radar systems were installed on most USN submarines between 1942 and 1944. This system was key to differentiating Albacore from any submarines of different nationalities in the area. The SJ Radar dish was unique to American submarines in the Pacific theatre, and clearly differentiated it from British, Dutch, and Soviet submarines that could also have operated in the same area as Albacore. All of the aforementioned features were identified by co-author Johnston during his review of the footage collected by Dr Ura’s team. The most informative features included the SJ Radar system and the vent holes along the upper edge of the superstructure. Researchers also identified one of Albacore’s 20 mm anti-aircraft gun mounts, affixed during a previous refit, and the exposed ribs 5 �revealed in the conning tower during her final refit. Some additional features, including possible hatches and ladders, were also documented. These observed features, many which clearly differentiated Albacore from any other contemporary submarine lost in the area, provided sufficient evidence for archaeologists at NHHC to confirm the identity of Albacore’s remains. The SJ radar system established the remains as those of an American submarine, while features installed/opened during its final refit in early 1944 set it apart from any other American submarines lost in the area. The combination of archaeological documentation, historical records, and location data provided the necessary confidence for NHHC to assert the submarine wreck’s identity. ANNOUNCEMENT AND OUTREACH Coupled with the first press release (NHHC 2023) were announcements on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn. The total number of views in the first four days reached 269,657 across all NHHC platforms. The largest number of responses was on Twitter, followed by Facebook and Instagram. The press’ response to the NHHC announcement was also encouraging. Several domestic and international outlets, including NPR, CNN, Fox News, Popular Mechanics, and Science, ran features. Outside the United States, the story was picked up by Spanish, Hungarian, Polish, Italian, French, Japanese, and Vietnamese publications. NHHC’s volunteer researchers also coordinated with a number of organisations focused on research and preservation of the history of lost WWII submarines and their crewmen. In particular, those involved in the organisation On Eternal Patrol (OEP), website that records lost servicemen of American submarines, worked to find next of kin of Albacore’s crew members (OEP 2023). NHHC supported these efforts by issuing a letter on the discovery signed by the Command’s Director that could be forwarded to any next of kin on the website. Efforts are underway to organise a memorial event involving next of kin in the near future. MOVING FORWARD: WHAT’S NEXT? The NHHC’s experience with Albacore has illustrated the effectiveness of collaboration when addressing future submarine discoveries. Research partners, such as Dr Ura, spearheaded research efforts that led to the discovery of a wreck of interest, while he gained experience with submarine wreck investigations. NHHC volunteer researchers, lending their time and analytical skills, also gained valuable experience and insight into the methods used to identify submarines. Finally, NHHC archaeologists, historians and archivists lead to the wreck identity confirmation. In tandem with partners, NHHC then coordinated the associated public announcement. This collaborative approach allowed for a pooling of knowledge, expertise, time and resources that increased confidence in and accelerated the official confirmation of the identity of the wreck. Both of these facets are crucial, allowing for the public to be informed in a timely manner of the site’s importance, while at the same time ensuring protective measures can be applied, which now constitutes a sunken military craft under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Navy. Further disturbance must be sanctioned by NHHC. At present, NHHC has no plans to recover Albacore, or any part of it. The sea is considered a fit and final resting place for U.S. Navy sailors. The focus now shifts to the continued preservation of this war grave. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Naval History and Heritage Command. “Albacore II (SS-218).” Accessed https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/a/albacore-ss-218-ii.html. April 28, 2023. The Society La Plongee for Deep Sea Engineering. “Find US Submarine ‘Albacore’ Sunk off Hokkaido.” Academist. Accessed April 29, 2023. https://academist-cf.com/projects/187?lang=en. Johnston, David, and Steve Katona. 2022. “Addendum to the Report ‘Evaluation of the Wreckage of USS Albacore (SS218)’ Dated October 2022.” Washington DC. Johnston, David, Steve Katona, and Yutaka Iwasaki. 2022. “Evaluation of the Wreckage of the USS Albacore (SS-218).” Washington DC. Katona, Stephen J., and David L. Johnston. 2022. “Critical Features for Identification of USS Albacore (SS-218).” Washington DC. Nico Nico News. “Niconico Live: Finding the Lost Submarine “ALBACORE.” May 25-26, 2022. Accessed April 28, 2023. https://live.nicovideo.jp/watch/lv326919568. Nico Nico News. Niconico Live: Finding the Lost Submarine “ALBACORE.” October 2, 2022. Accessed April 28, 2023. https://live.nicovideo.jp/watch/lv336612796. OEP On Eternal Patrol. “On Eternal Patrol.” Accessed April 29, 2023. https://www.oneternalpatrol.com/. NHHC Naval History and Heritage Command. “Wreck Site Identified as WWII Submarine USS Albacore (SS 218).” Accessed April 28, 2023. https://www.history.navy.mil/news-and-events/news/2023/nhhc-identifies-albacore-wrecksite.html. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Discovery and Management of the Wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218) Description An account of the resource The wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218) was discovered on 25 May 2022 and resurveyed in October by Dr Tamaki Ura’s team of researchers at La Plongée Deep Sea Engineering Society. Following the initial discovery, volunteer researchers for the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) examined recorded footage of the wreckage to identify the wrecked boat. Key features identified the wreckage as belonging to an American submarine from the Second World War. Further investigation and archival research identified the submarine as the American Albacore, a Gato class submarine lost in action in Japanese waters on 7 November 1944. The U.S. Navy formally confirmed the identity of the wrecksite as the Albacore in February 2023. After an overview of the vessel’s history, this paper covers the initial search and discovery of Albacore during 2022. In particular, the use of a Remotely Operated Vehicle demonstrates the viability of this approach for initial identification assessments of deep wrecks. An outline of the identification process is provided that covers key features of Albacore observed on both the underwater footage and archival imagery. The identity confirmation process and media outreach efforts surrounding the discovery are covered, followed by a discussion on the continuing management and treatment of Albacore. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ivor Mollema Tamaki Ura David Johnston Stephen Katona Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Mollema, Ivor, Stephen Katona, David Johnston, and Tamaki Ura. 2023. “Discovery and Management of the wreck of USS Albacore (SS-218).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1893 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8d6bcbc8f46d9f25cfa7a83eb32ca618.pdf fbf56d842c6260969ff09f88aa9a870e PDF Text Text Discovery of Ceramics from the Koh Sdach Shipwreck, Koh Kong province, Cambodia Tep Sokha Royal University of Fine Arts, 72 str. 19 Phnom Penh, 1200 Cambodia Email: tepsokha81@yahoo.com Abstract In February 2006 fishermen discovered a shipwreck off the southwest coast of the Kiri Sakor district, Koh Kong province in 30 m of water approximately 20 km west from Koh Sdeach. Charred timber found at the shipwreck site and large irregular globs of melted metal which encase pottery pieces appear to indicate that the ship burned before sinking. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts and the Shipwreck Research and Salvage Committee obtained the collection, which includes cooking pots with lids, storage jars with four loop-handles of different sizes, basins, bottles, kendi, dishes, plates, mortars and porcelain and celadon bowls. During our examination of the collection we selected a representative sample of 88 pieces of ceramics. Among the recovered material we found two pieces of lacquered covered box. While the designs on the lacquered surfaces were quite faded, the basketry core was in perfect condition. The calibrated date was from 1428 to 1482 AD (95% probability). The preliminary analysis of ceramics indicates that they could originate from the Mae Nam Noi kilns in Singbori province and the Si Satchanalai kilns in Sukhothai province, both in Thailand. Furthermore, the same type of storage jars with four handles has been found in the Cardamom Mountain, in Cambodia, where they have been used for burials. In this presentation I will discuss the preliminary analysis of the material and the different ways in which the site is connected to maritime trade routes in the gulf of Thailand and mainland Southeast Asia. Key words: Cambodia, Post-Angkor, Cardamom, Maritime trade, Ceramics, Burial jars, Koh Sdach Introduction In February 2006 fishermen discovered a shipwreck off the southwest coast of the Kiri Sakar district, Koh Kong province in 30 m of water approximately 20 km west from Koh Sdach Island. Charred timber found at the shipwreck site and large irregular globs of melted metal which encase pottery pieces appear to indicate that the ship burned before sinking. His Excellency Ly Yong Phat funded the recovery of some 900 pieces of complete ceramics, various artifacts and a pile of broken ceramics. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts (MoCFA) and the Shipwreck Research and Salvage Committee 1 �obtained the collection, which includes cooking pots with lids, water jars, storage jars with four loop-handles of different sizes, basins, bottles, Kendi, bowls, plates, mortars, porcelain and celadon bowls. The material is currently stored at the Provincial Court in Koh Kong. During our examination of the collection we selected a representative sample of 88 pieces of ceramics. Among the recovered material we found two pieces of lacquered covered box. While the designs on the lacquered surfaces were quite faded, the basketry core was in perfect condition. The radiocarbon dating was done by Nancy Beavan and its calibrated date ranges between 1428 and 1482 AD (95% probability) (Beavan et al., 2012b). The preliminary analysis of ceramics indicates that they could be derived from two sources of ceramics kiln sites: Mae Nam Noi kilns or Bang Rachan kilns in Singburi province and Si Satchanalai kilns in Sukhothai province, Thailand. Furthermore, the same type of storage jars with four lug handles has been found in the Cardamom Mountain, in Cambodia, where they have been used for burials. In this presentation I will discuss the preliminary analysis of the material and the different ways in which the site is connected to maritime trade routes in the gulf of Thailand and mainland Southeast Asia. Collection of Ceramics from Shipwreck near Koh Sdach Island Discovery of Ship sunk near Koh Sdach Island so far only one shipwreck has been located in Cambodia. This ship sank near Koh Sdach Island. The main cargo was of Thai ceramic production and various artifacts. According to local villagers some of ceramics and valuable objects were looted though the extent of the looting has not been quantified. Additional researches of underwater archaeology suggest that there may be around 15 shipwrecks according to local people in Kompot, Sihanouk village, Kep and Koh Kong province (UNESCO, 2011), but no evidence of their location has been found yet, further work will be done in the future lead by UNSECO in Cambodia and Department of Underwater Archaeology under Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts. According to initial reports, the estimated ship dimension is 30 m long and 8 m wide (Chuch Phoeurn, 2006). The location of the shipwreck is between the mainland and Koh Sdach Island. The popular name of the closest harbor is the “Japanese Port”. This may indicate evidence of maritime trade around area near Koh Sdach Island between Cambodia and Japan. 2 �Transportation and Storage Ceramics, boards of ship, ivories, ingots, one small canon, bamboo lacquer cover boxes, and various artifacts were moved and lifted from the ship by Russian divers. At first, all the collection was stored in a Russian ship, but after the salvage operations ended, the collection was moved and stored in a room that belonged to H.E. Ly Yong Phat, who extended funding support for the operation. Cambodian Royal Government has no funds to lift the shipwreck, an operation that was estimated to cost around one million US dollars. Consequently, the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, and National Museum in Phnom Penh proceeded to make an inventory of the ceramics and various artifacts. These were labeled as “KK.2006.0001”, abbreviation of KK “Koh Kong”. In the project I am currently working on, there are plans to build storage, cabinets, and carry out ceramics conservation such as desalination of soluble salt, assembling of broken ceramics, writing the number in correct place, make description, photography for database, etc. We will classify the ceramics in groups of large storage jars, medium storage jars, small storage jars, cooking pots, water jars, bottles, stoves, motors, basins, and so on. Ceramics Conservation We are carrying out technical methods of ceramic conservation for conservation problems such as waterlogged ceramics in salt water, flaking glaze, powdery clay of earthenware, cracking lines and broken in pieces, problem of storage, numbering in the wrong place, and dirty.  Technical desalination: soak ceramics in fresh water for 24 hours, or three days, or one week. Test the salt in the water carried out by Conductivity Meter that will indicate its scale microsum (µ). Soak it in water time and again until measurement of soluble salt to degrees down around 100 µ. This process will stop the clay turn powdery and prevent further cracks in the ceramics.  Cleaning dirt and shells: at this point, we must learn how to work out a problem of pot stains dirt and shells attached with the ceramics. We can remove some part of shells attach on pot at any area is occurred the deteriorative issue and look conspicuously, we keep in mind that shell remains is on pot could help us to 3 �identify evidence of source where pots found. We can apply sponge, dental brushes, bamboo stick, and scalpel to clean the ceramics.  Consolidation of flaking glaze: adhesive Acryloid B-72 and B-48 dissolve in pure acetone about 5-10 percent to drop on the glaze flaking with painting brush for three or four times. Carrying out this method can help glaze strongly. Normally, the problem of glaze flaking also occurs with soluble salt which thins the glaze and cracks the glaze is getting weak and then it flicks off.  Consolidation of powdery clay: we can apply consolidation as glaze flaking, but this method could make clay to gain a dark color. In any case, desalination of salt may help pot clay in good condition. We know this problem often occurs with low fired pots.  Assembling of pots: use adhesive Acryloid B-72 and B-48 in pure acetone, these types of adhesive is adopted for the climate in Cambodia, the glass transition temperature change is higher than 400C. Before joining shards, we must consolidate the edge of shards three to four times, which strengthens the edge and makes it safer when we press it together. Apply adhesive on one edge of shard and press both shards together, and then pull it to see adhesive to fill in completed hole.  Previous numbering was in the wrong place and also the size of the letter used on small objects was too big. We will remove and number at the right place. Normally, when numbering the objects we must think about where we should write. We make a lined coat and remember not to write direct on pots since ink stains on the pot are difficult to clean. The technical method used for numbering on the pots, is by making a coat with thick liquid of adhesive Acryloid B-72 and then we write the number on the coat, last point, we cover on top with thick liquid adhesive Acryloid B-67, this method, it can protect from scratching of numbering. As for, large jars can write number at low part of body and high from base 5 cm, make layer or coat with Acryloid B-72, size of letter should be 1 cm high. Medium size of storage jars and small jars must number smaller and smaller. Furthermore, cooking pots, water jars, Kendi, basins and various objects should number at a side of flat base in a section that will not be suffering friction from the floor, board 4 �and storage compartment. We must make sure this area is not scratched when we move object.  Ceramics storage: It is really important for management of artifact collection in Museum and Gallery. All of the ceramics derived from the Koh Sdach shipwreck are currently not in a good condition of storage, as we can see from the pile of ceramics and fragments (Fig. 6). Examination of ceramics indicates that many pots were recently broken in pieces, scratched lines of the clay and glaze, and chipped the edge of the shard. This happened due to weight compression from material stored on top. In my project, this year I am working on complete ceramics and I am planning on moving them to the Department of Culture and Fine Arts. I have some funds allocated to build the storage in order to store ceramics on shelf. Conclusion The Koh Sdach shipwreck was transporting cargo following a coastal route but never managed to reach its destination, as it sunk off the coast of Cambodia and currently lies underwater at 32 m of depth. Various researchers have thought this was a Chinese junk, but this assertion requires further study of the planks. A proof of iron melting wrap around ceramics appears to indicate that the ship may have been burnt due to an act of piracy or by accident. This ship was found on February 2016 by fisherman. Ceramics and various archaeological artifacts were brought up from the sea by Russian divers supported by H. E. Ly Yong Phat. Most of the storage jars originated from Mae Nam Noi kilns in Thailand and Radiocarbon date suggest 1428-82 CE old. Furthermore, we found some Si Satchanalai celadon plates, Chinese blue and white porcelain plates, low fired wares such as cooking pots, water jars, stoves, kendis and basins. The discovery of Mae Nam Noi storage jars which highland people used for funerary practices in valley or on the hills of Cardamom Mountain in Thma Bang and Sre Ambel districts, Koh Kong province indicate that the trade routes taken by these materials was mainly coastal. The jar burial sites in the Cardamom Mountains show the common use of Mae Nam Noi Jars that have had the necks of the jars knocked off, and a hole was drilled on the bottom. These jars were used to store human bones in a secondary deposition. The jars were then placed in a natural rock ledge along the range of Cardamom Mountain (Beavan, 5 �2012a). We also found the celadon plates in this context; therefore it is possible that they were used for food offering during ceremonies. In my project have planned for three years of ceramics conservation and management, at first year, I am going to focus on earthenware which researchers have been focused on the stoneware in Southeast Asia; At second points, I am going to focus on the stoneware and third point, I am going to conserve all of broken ceramics in pieces. We are going to build storage for ceramics from the shipwreck and management. Therefore, we expect cultural heritage treasures in Cambodia, were derived from the shipwreck are going to conserved and preserved in good condition. In the near future, we hope UNESCO and other organization will help to build the museum for collection found in Koh Kong province. 6 �Catalogue Notification of ceramics is classified into 12 functions such as storage jars, bottles, jarlets, basins, Kendis, celadon bowls, blue and white Chinese porcelains, cooking pots, water jars, lids of cooking pots and water jars, stoves, and mortars. Additional point, they have slightly different dimensions and decoration. Radiocarbon dating on bamboo box with lacquer has provided the date between 1428 and 1482 CE. 1. Storage Jar (Fig. 1) with thick four lug handles, black and green glaze in the lower part of body, vertical neck, profile lip and flat base. Many jars found having dimension of H: 50-66 cm, Diam: 40-45 cm. Fig. 1 2. Jarlets (Fig. 2) with two handles and green glaze, reddish tan clay. These types of jarlet were produced in Si Satchanalai kiln around 15th -16th centuries. Jarlet was formed shape as gourd, they perhaps use for liquid container. Normal glaze is green glaze that we call Celadon ware to focus on clay object with green color, but soluble salt is made flake and changed color of glaze. Measurements: H: 10.5 cm, Diam: 7cm; and Cat: 13, H: 7 cm, Diam: 8cm Fig. 2 3. Si Satchanalai Celadon Bowls (Fig. 3) Some celadon bowls found in the pile of ceramics which stylistic data of celadon; they were produced in the late period of Si Satchanalai. Bowl Fig. 3: H: 6-7.5 cm, Diam: 23-25 cm Fig. 3 7 �4. Blue and White Porcelain Bowls (Figs. 4-5) with blue cloud design at exterior and Chinese letter “Fu” at center of bowl interior, ideogram for happiness. Dimension H: 7 cm, Diam: 14.5 cm; Bowl Fig. 5 with cobalt blue glaze at exterior and Chinese letter “Fu” but different style of writing than Fig. 4 Dimension H: 4.5 cm, Diam: 9.5 cm Fig. 4 Fig. 5 5. Cooking Pots (Fig. 6) has an ellipsoid shape, short neck, large mouth, and round base, impress design on entire body. This type of traditional cooking pot was made by paddle and anvil, it appears like Thai production and many storage jars of various sizes were exported. There are 30 complete pots we counted and some of them were broken. Dimension of cooking pot Fig. 6 H: 31 cm, Diam: 22 cm Fig. 6 6. Water Jars (Figs. 7-8) Based on the style of tradition of water jars in Cambodia, we call this type of pots “Water Jar” though it does not only refer to water container but it could also be used for various purposes. In this shipwreck, water jars are more in number than cooking pots. Many water jars are of the same dimension: H: 16-17cm, Diam: 20-22 cm; there is only a large water jar, dimension: H: 29.5 cm, Diam: 33 cm. Decoration of pots indicates impression of paddle pattern such as illustration of incised lines on the wood pattern Fig. 7; and pattern of X with fish eggs at upper part of water jar Fig. 8. Fig. 7 Fig. 8 8 �7. Group of lids (Figs. 9-10) with dome shape, handle at center, they may be lids for the water jars. Dimension H: 2-4 cm, Diam: 9 – 15 cm; Four lids with dome shape and unglazed cylindrical shape, Thai earthenware also found at Rang Kwein ceramics (Brown, 2009), H: 711cm, Diam: 23-33 cm Fig. 9 Fig. 10 8. Stove and Mortar (Fig. 11) there are several mortars amongst the items recovered from the ship; it seems under fired clay, this type of object is used for pounding hard foods for cooking. Mortar has ellipsoid shape, stamp foot, and reddish clay. The mortar has the following dimensions H: 10 cm, Diam: 17cm. A stove was also found amongst the material recovered. Fig. 11 Acknowledgements I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to the committee of the Asia-Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage who has supported me; Veronica Walker, and others of the publications committee who has assisted in the reviewing the article, Joyce Clark, and Helen Jessup from Friends of Khmer Culture (FOKCI), Lisa Sardegna, Dr. Nancy Beavan, Dr. Louise Cort, and Atthasit Sukkham. I would like to dedicate this article to Bonnie Baskin and late Roxanna Brown. 9 �References Beavan, N., Halcrow, S., McFadgen, B., Hamilton, D., Buckley, B., Sokha, T., Shewan, L., Sokha, O., Fallon, S., Miksic, J., Armstrong, R., O’Reilly, D., Domett, K., Chhem, K. R., 2012a. Radiocarbon dates from Jar and Coffin Burials of the Cardamom mountains reveal a unique mortuary ritual in Cambodia’s late to post-Angkor period (15th to 17th centuries AD). Radiocarbon, Vol. 54 (1): 1- 22. Beavan, N., et al. 2012b. Field note: A Radiocarbon date for the Koh S’dech Shipwreck, KohKong Province, Kingdom of Cambodia. Smithsonian Freer Sackler Gallery online resource. Site visited on the 26th March 2014, available at: https://www.academia.edu/2066819/Field_note_A_Radiocarbon_Date_for_the_Koh_Sd ech_Shipwreck_Koh_Kong_Province_Kingdom_of_Cambodia Brown, R., 2009. The Ming Gap and shipwreck ceramics in Southeast Asia: towards a chronology of Thai trade ware. River Books, Bangkok. Chuch, P., 2001. The Preliminary Cartography of Cultural Underwater Heritage in Cambodia. UNESCO, Phnom Penh. Tep Sokha is an archaeologist specialized in Southeast Asian ceramics and ceramic conservation. He graduated from the Royal University of Fine Arts (RUFA), where he established a small ceramics conservation workshop and was involved in student training in conservation and ceramic analysis. Tep has some ten years of experience on various ceramic conservation projects and organizing exhibitions including for the Khmer sites of Preah Vihear, Phum Sophy, and Kuk Patri. Tep is currently the Chief Ceramics Conservator for the Living in the Shadow of Angkor project for the jar burials of the Cardamom Mountains and the study of the ceramics from the Koh Sdach shipwreck. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 8: Ceramics from Shipwrecks, Harbours, Ports and Related Archaeological Sites Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 8 chair Atthasit Sukkham and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Trade ceramics have usually been found together with other evidence in many ancient shipwrecks, harbours, ports, trade centers, hinterlands and burials around the world which were linked to international maritime trade routes. These were specifically Chinese, Indian, Southeast Asian, Middle East and European trade routes over a long period of history. Trade ceramics are virtually indestructible. They are also one of the most important sources of information for maritime archaeological studies concerning the dating of ceramics and shipwrecks, origins of ceramics, points of departure and destinations of ships and shipments, for instance. This session aims to provide an opportunity for specialists to contribute their knowledge on trade ceramics in multi-disciplinary approaches and foster international collaboration for ceramic studies from the shipwrecks, harbours, ports and related archaeological sites in near future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atthasit Sukkham Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Discovery of Ceramics from the Koh Sdach Shipwreck, Koh Kong province, Cambodia Description An account of the resource In February 2006 fishermen discovered a shipwreck off the southwest coast of the Kiri Sakor district, Koh Kong province in 30 m of water approximately 20 km west from Koh Sdeach. Charred timber found at the shipwreck site and large irregular globs of melted metal which encase pottery pieces appear to indicate that the ship burned before sinking. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts and the Shipwreck Research and Salvage Committee obtained the collection, which includes cooking pots with lids, storage jars with four loop-handles of different sizes, basins, bottles, kendi, dishes, plates, mortars and porcelain and celadon bowls. During our examination of the collection we selected a representative sample of 88 pieces of ceramics. Among the recovered material we found two pieces of lacquered covered box. While the designs on the lacquered surfaces were quite faded, the basketry core was in perfect condition. The calibrated date was from 1428 to 1482 AD (95% probability). The preliminary analysis of ceramics indicates that they could originate from the Mae Nam Noi kilns in Singbori province and the Si Satchanalai kilns in Sukhothai province, both in Thailand. Furthermore, the same type of storage jars with four handles has been found in the Cardamom Mountain, in Cambodia, where they have been used for burials. In this presentation I will discuss the preliminary analysis of the material and the different ways in which the site is connected to maritime trade routes in the gulf of Thailand and mainland Southeast Asia. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tep Sokha, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 8 2014