17 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Tantrism in China Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chou Yi-liang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Mar. 1945 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Chou Yi-liang Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Mar. 1945 Issue 3/4 Pages 241-332 Publication Title Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Title A name given to the resource Tantrism in China Volume 8 China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Two Parallel Naval Guides of the Tenth Century: Qudama's document and Leo VI's Naumachia: A Study on Byzantine and Moslem Naval Preparedness Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Christides, Vassilios Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1982 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Christides, Vassilios Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1982 Pages 51-103 Publication Title Graeco-Arabica Title A name given to the resource Two Parallel Naval Guides of the Tenth Century: Qudama's document and Leo VI's Naumachia: A Study on Byzantine and Moslem Naval Preparedness Volume 1 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a2d61e9895bb43aab704ef74a85f7214.pdf 6fe2bf1dfe0fde1aaa85c31569d1979d PDF Text Text Identification of export porcelains from early 17th Century VOC shipwrecks and the linkage to their cultural identification1 Christine Ketel2 Abstract Ceramics recovered from sunken vessels have drawn much attention in recent years. They are significant historical and aesthetic items but only a few reports have been made for scholarly purposes; many have been salvaged for commercial gain. Porcelain shards from underwater sites can be used as identification material for cultural heritage: porcelain was an important trade commodity of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and had an enormous impact on the cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Europe. The VOC trade routes included inter-Asian markets and the transport of porcelain to these ports also had an influence on the local cultural heritage. This paper will give an insight on the distribution routes by VOC ships with porcelain cargoes and the shards from some VOC shipwrecks as identification material of such porcelain. During a recent symposium in Hong Kong, it was evident that researchers in China and Taiwan consider the porcelain trade of export wares for the western market as part of their cultural heritage. For example, a certain type of export porcelain known as kraak ware has been found in several tombs in China. There was a discussion on the value and usage of this porcelain: was it used as a „gift‟ for the deceased? Or was it a show of being well-to-do? Other topics such as the influence of orders of porcelain for the western market on the inland markets and economy were also discussed. Another discussion was the value of ceramics discovered at underwater sites. Chinese researchers have done enormous work at sites on the maritime trade routes. Only token shards were salvaged for study purposes and shards have no value on the collectors market. Another issue discussed concerned the salvage of historic shipwrecks, a continuing debate between archaeologists, who value wrecks largely for their historical value, and profit-motivated salvage companies, who care only about their market value. We discussed how can we preserve shipwreck materials and documentation for future research in an ethical manner. The author suggested the following: In the past years there have been numerous archaeological researches, on land as well as from shipwrecks. The best way to preserve this knowledge is to put together all the results into one global Internet platform which would give the opportunity to leave and discuss drafts, ongoing research and reports. It could also host an agenda of events and links to useful websites. In this way researchers can keep in touch and keep each other updated. The Civilisation Centre of the City University of Hong Kong has agreed to cooperate and others will surely follow. Introduction The study of the cargos of the ships and shipwrecks of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) are an important asset to the history of maritime trade between Asia and Europe and within Asia itself. However, it is just as important to study archaeological excavations because these are also a time capsule. In the past ten years many young archaeologists have been able to undertake excavations in different countries in East and South East Asia. Conferences have been held where the results have been presented.3 1 This paper is part of the research for the PhD. Thesis at Leiden University. Phd. Candidate Leiden University, Independent researcher, Centre for International Heritage Activities, Leiden, Email: c.ketel@heritage-activities.nl 3 See papers given at conferences Singapore, March 2007, Hong Kong, June, 2007 and Taipei, November 2007. 2 1 �In order to achieve a view of the porcelain trade network it is therefore necessary to link together the research done by international maritime and landarchaeologists with historical data from documents. This paper will give an insight on the early years of the VOC trade in porcelain based on ceramics from three VOC shipwrecks, supported by archives of the VOC with information on the ships‟ movements, their cargoes, and destinations. As the Portuguese were the first Europeans to import products from Asia to Europe, Dutch merchants were dependant on the commodities of spices, silks and porcelain brought to Lisbon. After 1581 Portugal and Spain were at war with Holland and these became difficult to obtain (for details see Boxer 1965: chapters 1 and 2). From 1595, Dutch traders set up their own private trading companies which were incorporated into one single official company, in 1602, the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie -VOC). The main ambition of the VOC was to take over the monopoly of the Portuguese trade by taking over their trade routes and trade posts. At the start of the !7th century, porcelain was a scarce trade commodity but became very much in demand. In order to understand the growth of this trade commodity, (which has sadly been neglected in literature) the question rises: what were these porcelains? The lists on ships‟ invoices give amounts and indicate sorts such as plates, dishes, cups, bowls etc. but this does not give us a tangible identity. The finds from shipwrecks and land sites are essential to analyse the types, their usage and consumers. Therefore the following aspects are studied: 1. Identification of the shipwreck and its cargo: how much porcelain was part of the cargo (from VOC ships‟ invoices and salvage information). 2. Identification of the production area: where was this particular type of porcelain produced? (from archaeological finds at kiln sites) 3. Identification of the trade route: which transport routes were used to bring porcelain to the buyers? Where were the overhaul posts? What were the destinations? (VOC documents and site finds) 4. Identification of the consumer: who were the consumers? What did they use porcelain for? What are the cultural links? (Inventories /tomb finds in China) identification of the shipwrecks and its porcelain cargo As ceramics, especially porcelain is a material which can endure hundreds of years of sea water, these finds are often the only available tangible items remaining at a shipwreck site. In the case of these early 17th century VOC shipwrecks, the porcelains have given a great amount of information about the date of production, the variety in types (coarse or fine), and the consumers‟ demand. Three early 17th century shipwrecks containing ceramics and porcelain have been analyzed: the Mauritius, sunk in 1609, the Witte Leeuw, sunk in 1613 and the Banda, sunk in 16154 (see Table 1). 4 Other shipwrecks with kraak porcelain such as the so-called Wan-li shipwreck and the Hatcher cargo(1643-46?) have not been dated accurately as the salvage has not been documented correctly and are therefore unusable. 2 �Table 1. porcelain from VOC shipwrecks Types Plates with flat rim - 50 cms diam - 30-38 cms - 20-21 cms - 14 cms Dishes without rim-20cms. Diam. Klapmuts: - 17 cms. dia - 14cms diam Crowcups Bottles Kendi Betelboxes Other types: - teacups - winecups - rice bowls Plates with special design Zhangzhou martavaans other Grey pots Mauritius: 1609 WitteLeeuw 1613 Banda+Geuinieëerde Provinciëen:1615 20:unglazed base 5 29 38,of which 29x14cmsD. 30;unglazed base none 40 50 6-10 55-70 none none 17 70 15 50 5-10 30 4-6 10 2-3 Yes,same as WL. Also with stem several many yes 20-30 50 30 15x20cms.D. ? yes yes Various size Chinese bowls 5-10 pieces ? The Mauritius, sunk in 1609 in the Gulf of Guinée was excavated by Michel L‟Hour in 1985 (L‟Hour 1993). The ship contained various commodities from the East and only a small supply of porcelain, probably a private purchase or a private order. Of the about 215 pieces about 165 pieces are of the kraak-ware type. There are only 7 pieces of Zhangzhou ware and some typical Chinese type stem cups. The first salvaged shipwreck of the VOC with a substantial amount of porcelain is the Witte Leeuw, one of four ships that formed the return fleet from Bantam to Holland in 1613. During a stopover at Saint Helena Island to take in fresh water and goods, the fleet encountered several Portuguese ships. In the fight that followed, one of the cannons on the Witte Leeuw exploded and the ship sank. The Belgian marine archaeologist, Robert Sténuit discovered the wreck in 19765. The 200 – 300 kilos of shards, apart from the 290 complete pieces, as well as specific quantities of identical types and shapes, clearly point to a bulk cargo. There is however, no list of any porcelains on the invoice of the Witte Leeuw. This is rather a mystery as the records of the VOC are usually very accurate. However, on the invoice of the Vlissingen , another ship of the fleet of which the Witte Leeuw was also part, the amount of 38,641 pieces is listed, and it may very well have been possible that part of its cargo was transferred onto the Witte Leeuw before leaving Bantam. 5 A complete account of the salvage and the finds is published in Van der Pijl-Ketel (ed) 1982. 3 �The shapes mentioned on that list coincide with the shapes salvaged from the Witte Leeuw. There was clearly a mixture of Chinese (minyao) wares and kraak wares. The third case is that of the Banda, which was part of the fleet that left Bantam bound for Holland together with the Delft, the Geünieerde Provincieën and the Gelderland. The fleet arrived at the island of Mauritius beginning of March 1615 where an enormous hurricane shipwrecked the Banda. Documents show that the cargo contained cloves, nutmeg and a certain number of Chinese porcelains. These were sets of plates and dishes, and small shallow bowls, a „set‟ of tiny wine cups and a wine bottle, all identical to those from the Witte Leeuw. As one of the passengers was Governor Both, who was returning home, these porcelains were most probably his personal possession6. Types of porcelains From the finds of these three shipwrecks, it is possible to get an idea of what kinds of porcelains were available for sale at the trade post of Bantam around 1610-1615, a period when the V.O.C merchants did not yet place orders with the merchants on mainland China. The varieties in the types of porcelain also show what was produced and transported by the Chinese merchants to be sold to the western merchants at that time. (See Table 2) Table 2. Types of Porcelain from the Witte Leeuw Types of kraak ware Types of Chinese ware (minyao) Serving dishes: Large dishes/basins with a flattened rim(lampetschotel)(type.1.1.1 Witte Leeuw) Bowls: large or full-sized,small, half-sized,third and quarter-sized(groote/heel commen, cleijne commen, halve commen, drielinge commen,) (for example, types 3.2-3.6 and 3.9 and 3.10, Witte Leeuw) . Plates(schootels):plates with a flattened rim, (type 1.1.2-1.1.4 Witte Leeuw) Bowls with lids, (Type 3.8 of the Witte Leeuw) dishes (saucieren ): dishes without a flattened rim and moulded round medallions (type 1.2, Witte Leeuw) cups and cups for drinking brandy(pimpelkens). (Witte Leeuw, type 2.0) 6 the Gelderland and the Geunieerde Provincieen were also shipwrecked. The numerous porcelain shards washed on the shores of Mauritius clearly came from these ships. 4 �Klapmuts (Clapmuts):. (Type 1.3, Witte Leeuw) Wine pots (kannekens): small sized with covers (Witte Leeuw, type 3.11) Pots with lids: (potgens) (Witte Leeuw, type 3.12) Small jugs with spouts: (olie- en azijn kannetjes,/ tuytpottekens) for oil and vinegar (Witte Leeuw,type 3.17) Crow-cups: (kameelscop): Kendi‟s (kan, kannekens) Bottles for brandy:(Persiaensche fleeschen) (type 1.7.1 and 1.7.2 from the Witte Leeuw). Flatware:small saucers a. minyao: typical Chinese wares. Such porcelain items have been and are still used daily in China and other parts of Asia. They include : rice bowls, soup bowls, bowls with lids as well as small saucers (for pickles), small cups for wine/wine pots, small cups of various sizes, teapots, covered pots (for ginger or pickles). b. . western shapes especially made for the European market: kraak ware (figure 1). The term kraak ware has become a regular term to be applied to a specific type of export porcelain made in Jingdezhen kilns for the western market. 7 These include: plates, dishes, shallow bowls, bowls and bottles, all with a specific panel design. During the compilation of the catalogue of The Ceramic Load of the Witte Leeuw, it was decided to make a clearer definition of what should be depicted as kraak porcelain. There are still continuing discussions on this definition but most 7 the word was not applied to porcelain by the VOC but only to the Portuguese ships, whilst the Portuguese only used the word nao for their ships, not carracas. 5 �researchers now use the typology made at the Rijksmuseum in 1982 (Van der PijlKetel 1982). Figure 1. Kraak Ware c. Zhangzhou wares (figure 2): A variety of provincial types of wares were found the above mentioned VOC shipwrecks, an indication that not only fine export quality was included in their cargoes. Still, the relatively few pieces from the Witte Leeuw indicate that the pieces were probably either owned by crewmembers or used in the ship‟s galley (This ware being of a thicker type of porcelain, it would withstand a galley‟s daily usage.) Most originate from the kilns around Pinghe, Fujian province, and are now known as Zhangzhou wares (Tan 2007). This type of ware was not produced for the European market but was constantly in demand for the South East Asian and Japanese markets. Figure 2. Zhangzhou wares. d. Stone ware jars (martavans/martaban 8 ) have regularly been found amongst western shipwreck finds9. The majority of these types originate from kilns of Southern China; most are covered with a dark brown glaze, some having a stamped square mark with a Chinese character. Stoneware jars from Thai kilns are also known as martabans. These jars were used for fresh water, wine or preserving food on the long voyages. VOC documents regularly list them filled with ginger or pickled goods or even opium.10 Figure 3. Stone ware jars. 8 this term can be misleading as it has been associated with jars made in the vicinity of Martaban, which was an export port on the coast of what is now called Myanmar (Gulf of Siam, Burma). In the VOC archives there are numerous references to this port. However, stoneware jars were not produced there but were transported from Thai kilns overland to this port. 9 Nossa Senhora dos Martires(1600) and the Spanish trader, the San Diego (1600); the Witte Leeuw had several sizes and sorts. 10 Several documents mention martavan pots filled with opium (1610, invoice of the Griffoen from Bantan) 6 �Identification of production sites from porcelain finds As the production of Chinese porcelain has a long written history, it should not be difficult to identify the types of porcelains found in and around shipwreck sites. However, in the case of early VOC wrecks, the porcelains found were not always easy to analyse; in the 1980‟s not much archaeological research had been carried out in China. Kiln sites producing porcelain dating from early dynasties had the main attention of Chinese archaeologists at that time; plain minyao ceramics were not interesting. At the time of writing the catalogue of the Witte Leeuw., in 1980-82, several museums in China were asked whether they had any of this kraak type in their collections: their answer was that this was not Chinese porcelain as it had never been seen in China. Gradually some pieces came to light during the research at tombs and excavations at the porcelain production areas of Jingdezhen city and Chinese researchers, stimulated by the finds from the Witte Leeuw, became interested. From 1999 there have been several discoveries in and around Jingdezhen of this typical export porcelain (Cao Jianwen and Luo Yifei 2006:16-24). Even this year, in May, several papers were given on the subject of kraak ware. 11 Identification of the trade routes which transport routes were taken to bring porcelain to the buyers? Where were the overhaul posts? What were the destinations? In order to understand the flow of trade commodities, in this case export porcelains, it is important to know where the VOC set up their trade posts and which shipping routes were used. These can be divided according to specific regions. 12 The major aim of the VOC was to purchase pepper and spices for the home market, but there were also a limited amount of luxury items such as silk, precious stones and porcelains bought. It was also necessary for the VOC to partake in intraAsian trade in order to fund the operations in Asian and to purchase the return cargoes. Consequently ships had to sail inter regionally to trade and collect the requested cargoes but also trade commodities not meant for the European market. 13 11 International conference. May 28-30, 2011. The Eastern quarters: - between Batavia and the Indonesian Archipel;- from 1632-1658 TaiwanJapan-Batavia and back to Holland;- Siam(Thailand)/Vietnam The NW region: westerkwartieren:-West coast of India: Goa/Surat :as entrepot serving Persia and Arabia The NE region: Gulf of Bengal/East coast of India: Coromandel area/Ceylon (Galle: overhaul station 1640-1650‟s) ( Parthesius 2010) 13 Another trade route was along Patani and Siam towards Japan. From 1610 trade contacts with Quinam and Tonckin (in present day Vietnam) were held for inter-Asian trading purposes. From about 12 7 �The Director was responsible for dividing the cargoes between the ships of the specific VOC Chambers and ensure that they had the correct ratio for the internal distribution.14 Furthermore, the return fleets had to depart on time to avoid storms and to arrive at favourable auction times in Holland. During the first years of trade, there were as yet no specific orders for porcelain from Holland and invoices of the return ships show hap hazard amounts. (see Table 3). The VOC depended on what the Chinese junks brought to be sold to foreign merchants at Bantam or Patani and from 1612, Batavia, and what they could capture: as they were granted the right of booty the Dutch realised that a lucrative way to acquire Chinese merchandise was in fact to capture the vessels, sailing for the Spanish and Portuguese, carrying these goods.15 In this way, large profits were made from cargoes captured from the Chinese junks. Table 3. Invoices of Early VOC Ships Name of ship Invoice date Amount of porcelains Gouda Bantam Mauritius(sank 1609) Roode Leeuw met Pijlen Wapen van Amsterdam Vlissingen Witte Leeuw(sank 1613) Zwarte Leeuw+ter Veere Gelderland Banda(sank in 1615) Geuinieëerde Provinciëen 1608 1608 1 barrel with 8 large dishes 278 large porcelain dishes, two broken 1610 1612 1612 1612 1614 1614 1614 1614 9227 pieces 5 barrels, each with 5 dishes 38,641 pieces* Same fleet as above 4277 corgees (each=20 pieces) 69,057 Rotterdam Mauritius Dolphyn Hart Gouda. Leeuwinne van Jacarta Mauritius Walcheren 1616 1616 1616 1616 1622 1622 1623 1623 Together with the Banda shipwrecked at island of Mauritius 8014 + 27,997 23,023 7679 3730 17,500 6361 62,931 pieces 10,845 pieces Inter-insular trade As porcelain was not a primary commodity for inter-insular shipping, the VOC took sporadic amounts of porcelain just to fill their ships and make a sale whenever possible; these were mainly Zhangzhou wares. There were, however, some demands for specific „fine porcleians‟. 16 In 1637, a total of 161,419 pieces were shipped to various destinations in the archipelago, including gifts, "Sent to the regent of Tegal by the Company: 3 large dishes as gift" (Volker 1957:196). 1620, the VOC was able to establish trade posts at Suratte and Persia (Gamron) and Mocha. From Batavia, porcelain was also transported to these posts. 14 Porcelain was packed in bundles (of straw)/tubs (wooden barrels)/packages of 20 pieces (corgees) and often packed „lose in the pepper‟. 15 Hugo de Groot wrote a special law for „the right to booty‟: De Jure Praedae . 16 in 1636: King of Acheen orders: coarse porcelains: receives a total of 120,400 pieces! 1636:;each month porcelain, mainly coarse ware is sent from Batavia to Java/Bali/Sumatra/Borneo and Jambi 8 �Formosa The turning point in the porcelain trade started from 1624, when the Dutch started a steady trade from Formosa, where the trade post Fort Zeelandia was built. It took another ten years before a regular flow of porcelain took place: from the kilns of Jingdezhen to the merchants at the seaports of Fuzhou, Quanzhou and Guangzhou and from there by the junk trade to Formosa. The VOC needed extra vessels to transport goods to and from the trade post to the larger ships at the Pescadore islands as the roadstead at Zeelandia was too shallow to dock at and often had dangerous weather conditions. „Captured‟ Chinese junks were used for this and other transports. Many invoices with porcelains state …‟bought at the River of Chincheuw‟ or „ captured‟, again proof of the VOC‟s rigorous continuation of pirateering.17 Most of the shipments went to Batavia where it was transshipped onto homeward bounders. Other shipments went to Japan and, from 1638, directly to the Coromandel coast and Surat. The shipments to Japan had to coincide with the strict dates set by the Japanese authorities and the monsoon period. From Japan the shipments had to arrive on time at Batavia for the return fleets at Easter and Christmas. Japan The VOC established its first trade post in Japan at Hirado in 1609, ;from 1640, the Dutch were forced to trade from an enclosed island of Deshima in the bay of Nagasaki. Most export porcelain found in this area are Japanese copies of kraak ware but several original kraak pieces from China also have been found , including Zhangzhou ware (Kawaguchi 2007), but these were shipped to Japan by the Chinese junk trade as indicated by several VOC documents.18 IDENTIFICATION OF THE CONSUMER: links between the products and the consumers Holland VOC records show that between 1604-1657, VOC ships transported about 3 million pieces of porcelain to Holland. This would indicate a large offset market there. However, porcelain was considered a scarce, luxury good in the first half of the 17 th century and was certainly not possessed by the majority of the population, but limited to the upper classes. This is proven by archaeological finds from rubbish pits and inventories of nobility and VOC merchants who bought porcelain as private „trade”. As Mark Staniforth (1996:13-18) mentions porcelain had, "..an important role not only for utilitarian purposes but also as a means to display socio-economic-status (or class) to demonstrate good taste and allow people to negotiate and construct their place in society". The usage is a following puzzle.The names which are written in early 17 th c. Dutch on invoices with amounts and types are often difficult to link to the actual shapes, considering that there are numerous ways of indicating a plate( 17 examples: in 1626: the Shiedam has 12,814 porcelains „bought at the River of Chincheuw‟ (Quangzhou).Another list shows 75 corgees with porcelain dishes from a captured Portuguese ship the Nossa Sig.na d'Assencon.In 1627, it is noted that the Hollandia and the Frederich Hendrick have: ‟16 tubs of captured porcelain‟ and the „Wapen van Delft‟ has „ 9440 various porcelains partly captured, partly bought at the River Chincheuw‟. 18 1642:Chinese junks to Nagasaki from Fu Chou : 130 teapots;1643:Chinese junks to Nagasaki: 11 barrels of porc. + from Fu Chou teapots;1644:-Chinese junks from Fu Chou: teapots+porcelain+coarse porc.; 13 junks with 802 teapots,etc. 9 �schootels,saucieren), bowl (kop, kameelscop), shallow bowl (klapmuts). Only by comparing the shipwreck shards to the nomenclature, is it possible to decipher what is meant by a name. Due to typology made from the large amount of shards from the Witte Leeuw, it was possible to attempt an interpretation. Early 17th century Dutch and Flemish still life paintings depict porcelain pieces with butter, cheese, fruit, lobsters (see Table 4). So not only do these paintings give the aesthetic value but they also show in some way what the pieces were used for. Table 4. Consumption: Shapes linked to paintings. Types hele schotel: dish with a flattened rim. diamete r 50 cms. halve schotel :dish with a flattened rim. 29- 36 cms. een-derde( one third):dish with a flattened rim. 21-23 cms. Boterschootel (butter dish): saucer dish with moulded round medallions instead of straight panels. 10- 12 cms. Saucier:saucer dishes (singel and double) 14 -16 cms. 20-22 cms. Klapmuts clapmuts: Hele klapmuts: (whole) 20 – 24 cms. shapes 10 �Halve klapmuts:(half) 12- 14 cms. Cop, commekens: Bowls Hele (whole) 14-16 cms. Halve (half-sized) 12-14 cms. Japan Excavations at the Hirado trade post site have revealed Chinese minyao types such as bowls and cups, as well as western kraak type porcelain, 19 an indication that the export of kraak ware to Japan was a fact during this period. When the Chinese kilns stopped their production around 1650, the Japanese took over and used the kraak style for porcelain ordered by the VOC merchants. Since the 1970‟s around 1000 sites have been excavated in present day Tokyo, revealing a limited amount of Western artefacts( Beardman jars, glass and parts of clay pipes), as well as Chinese export porcelain. These were possibly gifts from VOC merchants to Japanese dignitaries but could also have been private trade goods (Horiuchi 2007). Besides requests for Chinese porcelain from the Japanese dignitaries, there were also demands for Dutch ceramics! 20 So this is a clear case of cultural links where the Japanese came to appreciate the daily ceramic ware used by the Dutch as well as using Chinese porcelain for producing their own kraak type of porcelain. China The increase in demand from western merchants resulted in higher production and output at the Jingdezhen kilns. Because of the closure of the imperial kilns after riots in 1608, many skilled workers went to the „common‟ workshops. This resulted in a mixture of very finely potted and finely painted pieces with a coarser type with sketchily drawn designs. Gradually kraak type became a mass-production with many pieces of lower quality.21 The establishment of the Formosa trade post also effected the production as can be seen from the increase in amounts on VOC invoices and stocks at Fort Zeelandia. 22 The numerous finds of kraak porcelain found in tombs in Jiangxi province led researchers in China to question the usage of these pieces (Bao Ping 19 Hirado Archaeology Department for example, in 1640, the Daimyo of Kaga requests pottery from Holland.(Volker 1954:122)/ Daimyo Arima orders 10-12 dishes of Dutch earthenware and fine Dutch white clay . 21 the so-called “Wan li” shipwreck and the „Hatcher cargo‟ has examples. 22 stocks at Zeelandia: 1636:212,144 pieces/1638:890,328 pieces/1645:163,716 pieces. 20 11 �2011). Most were misfired pieces but were discovered in tombs from commoners to provincial commissioners. One interpretation given ….they were probably sold, along the route of transporting from Jingdezhen to coastal ports for exporting, to local people for mere funeral purposes, at a much reduced price. This view is supported by a burial custom popular in Ming-Qing period Jiangxi, whereby porcelain plates may be placed under the head of the deceased as pillows, which are called shoupan or “longevity (i.e. afterlife or funeral) plates (Bao Ping, et al. 1993:3) The interest in the link of a western type of porcelain being used as a funerary object was discussed by several researchers at the Hong Kong symposium. Conclusion The change in the value of Chinese export porcelain. From the start of the 20th century, travels to the Far East were made and because China was struggling economically, uninterested in their cultural past, it was easy to buy and bring back all kinds of porcelains, from the early dynasties to the last, for next to nothing. During the period of about 1900-1950, porcelain collectors were able to buy precious porcelains from the country whose museums now have to buy them back at exorbitant prices at auctions. 17th century blue and white export ware, including kraak ware was labelled „provincial ware‟ by art historians and collectors looked down on these types. Art historians and collectors gradually became aware that porcelains from a dated shipwreck is the only guarantee for an end date as they are sealed in time capsules, and fairly precisely datable. As Richard Kilburn (Sheaf and Kilburn 1988:76) stated, “It is often difficult to be sure in which century ceramic wares were made, so that being able to associate specific pieces with a datable event such as a shipwreck is a valuable start towards establishing a chronology for them”. This was first done with the porcelain finds from the VOC ship the Witte Leeuw. The 200 kilos of shards were valueless and luckily the Rijksmuseum‟s department of history was willing to take them over for research purposes. A group was formed and the pieces were sorted out; for the first time a typology was made which resulted in the catalogue The Ceramic Load of the Witte Leeuw. This is still being used world wide for research purposes. However, shipwrecks also increased their value. The massive auctions at Christie‟s in 1984 and 1986 of undocumented and unethically salvaged Chinese porcelain caused a „hype‟ in collecting shipwreck porcelain.23 Even common export wares became unaffordable for research purposes. At the time of the auctions, China had begun to develop their maritime archaeology and just started in shipwreck salvages and salvaged items, because it is part of their cultural heritage. As a Chinese maritime archaeologist noted :‟ we were given 3000$ to buy some pieces but were unable to cope with the bidders at these auctions, and so returned emptyhanded‟. 23 As these salvages were not properly documented, there was protest from historians and a symposium was organised: Pillage or Enrichment of maritime history? There was much discussion on whether items which had been salvaged in an unethical way should be taken up in national museums as gifts( paying off?); how we can keep national heritage without pillage, and much more. 12 �=============================================================== EPILOGUE: HOW TO PRESERVE RESEARCH RESULTS. In the past years there have been numerous archaeological researches, on land as well as from shipwrecks. The best way to preserve this knowledge is to put together all the results into one global database. By forming a working group with participants from all countries taking part in this type of research, results can be kept. Each participant will be able to log into the website to place his research results and keep them updated. In this way we can keep in touch and keep each other updated. Bibliography Bao Ping, 2011 Bao Ping, Xue Qiao and Liu Jinfeng, 1993 Boxer, C.R., 1965 Cao Jianwen and Luo Yifei, 2006 Chen Lili, 2004 Desroches ,J.P., and Goddio, F., L‟Hour, M., Dupoizat, M.F., Pourvoyeur, P., 1994 Dumas, J., 1981 Exchange of material culture over the sea, 2007 Horiuchi, H., 2007 L‟Hour, M., 1989 International Conference Hong Kong 2011 Kawaguchi, Y., "Kraak porcelain from tombs and kiln sites in China", Paper at symposium Chinese Export Ceramics in the 16 and 17th centuries and the spread of civilisation, Hong Kong City university, Chinese Civilisation centre, may. "Cultural relics unearthed in south Jiangxi and the change in export routes of Jingdezhen porcelain during the transitional period of Ming and Qing dynasties", in Relics from The South, pp.3. The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800, Hutchinson and Co. London. "Kraak Porcelain discovered at some kiln sites in Jingdezhen City in recent years", in Oriental Art, Vol.I, nr. 4. "Kraak porcelain plates and burial customs", in Minsu yanjui (Folklore studies), 4. Le San Diego. Un trésor sous la mer, AFAA, RMN, Paris. Fortune de Mer a l’Ile Maurice, Atlas Films S.A., Paris. Exchange of material culture over the sea. Contacts between Europe and East and Southeast Asia in the 16 th to 18th centuries. Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, (to be published). "The Material Cultural Interaction from an Archaeological Point of View, the artefacts excavated from Edo sites focused on trade ceramics", Paper given at symposium: Exchange of Material culture over the Seas, Taipei, 2007 Le Mauritius. La mémoire engloutie, Grenoble. Cross the Sea: Chinese Export Ceramics in the 16th and 17th centuries and the spread of Material Civilisation, Chinese Civilisation Centre, City University Hong Kong, May, 2011 (to be published). "Archaeological results of Nagasaki in the 16-18th 13 �2006 National Archives Parthesius, R., 2010 Sheaf, C., and Kilburn, R., 1988 Seminar, 1991,1994 Staniforth, M., 1996 Symposium , Singapore, 2007 Tan, R., 2007 Van der PijlKetel,C.L., (ed.), 1982 Volker, T., 1954 centuries", in Trade Ceramics Studies, nr. 6.1987(in Japanese). National Archives of the VOC, The Hague. Dutch ships in Tropical Waters. Amsterdam University Press. The Hatcher Porcelain cargoes: the complete record, Oxford, p. 76. China and the Maritime Silk Road, Unesco Quanzhou International Seminar 1991. Maritime silk road studies Vol.1; Vol.2. "Tracing artefact trajectories- following Chinese export porcelain", in Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 20, 1, pp.13-18 Chinese Export Ceramic Trade in Southeast Asia, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore, (unpublished papers) Zhangzhou ware found in the Phillipines, Oriental Ceramic Society of the Philippines. The Ceramic Load of the Witte Leeuw (1613), Rijksmuseum. "Porcelain and the Dutch East India Company as recorded in the Dagregistes of Batavai Castle,those of Hirado and other contemporary Papers 1602-1682", in Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum van Volkenkunde, nr.11, Leiden. 14 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Identification of export porcelains from early 17th Century VOC shipwrecks and the linkage to their cultural identification Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource Ceramics recovered from sunken vessels have drawn much attention in recent years. They are significant historical and aesthetic items but only a few reports have been made for scholarly purposes; many have been salvaged for commercial gain. Porcelain shards from underwater sites can be used as identification material for cultural heritage: porcelain was an important trade commodity of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and had an enormous impact on the cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Europe. The VOC trade routes included inter-Asian markets and the transport of porcelain to these ports also had an influence on the local cultural heritage. This paper will give an insight on the distribution routes by VOC ships with porcelain cargoes and the shards from some VOC shipwrecks as identification material of such porcelain. During a recent symposium in Hong Kong, it was evident that researchers in China and Taiwan consider the porcelain trade of export wares for the western market as part of their cultural heritage. For example, a certain type of export porcelain known as kraak ware has been found in several tombs in China. There was a discussion on the value and usage of this porcelain: was it used as a ‘gift’ for the deceased? Or was it a show of being well-to-do? Other topics such as the influence of orders of porcelain for the western market on the inland markets and economy were also discussed. Another discussion was the value of ceramics discovered at underwater sites. Chinese researchers have done enormous work at sites on the maritime trade routes. Only token shards were salvaged for study purposes and shards have no value on the collectors market. Another issue discussed concerned the salvage of historic shipwrecks, a continuing debate between archaeologists, who value wrecks largely for their historical value, and profit-motivated salvage companies, who care only about their market value. We discussed how can we preserve shipwreck materials and documentation for future research in an ethical manner. The author suggested the following: In the past years there have been numerous archaeological researches, on land as well as from shipwrecks. The best way to preserve this knowledge is to put together all the results into one global Internet platform which would give the opportunity to leave and discuss drafts, ongoing research and reports. It could also host an agenda of events and links to useful websites. In this way researchers can keep in touch and keep each other updated. The Civilisation Centre of the City University of Hong Kong has agreed to cooperate and others will surely follow. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Christine Ketel Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/30555d26a7f90eef1e67f92fdb2e8ddb.pdf 9f849186d9f22f7904f4e4b483be583f PDF Text Text An Ethno-archaeological perspective of Maritime Cultural interaction between Southeast China and the West world during the 16th and 17th centuries Chunming Wu The Center of Maritime Archaeology Research, Xiamen University, China Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, USA E-mail: chunmingwu@fas.harvard.edu Abstract The Portuguese and Spanish navigation from Europe to East Asia and America opened the early globalization, one of the most important periods of cultural interaction in human history. The broad and deep maritime cultural exchange and conflict between Eastern Asia and the Western world resulted in this period after the arrival of the first European navigators. In the Southeast China region, a series of tangible and intangible cultural heritages as shipwreck with cargos’ content of different cultures, maritime trading remains, East-West mixed seaport building, and the exchange of agricultural goods have been identified and studied through archaeological and ethnographical methodology. The results show a significant cultural change in eastern Asia resulted from maritime cultural interaction and early globalization since the arrival of Spanish and Portugal ships to the region in the 16the and 17th centuries. Keywords: China, Spain, Portugal, Maritime Background: the early contact of Portuguese and Spanish with China The early contact between Portuguese and Chinese in the southeast coastal region of Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang was full of difficulties due to the policy of Ming Dynasty to ban commerce (Lin Rengchuan, 198: 32-50; Wu Chunming, 2003: 283-287) . After Vasco da Gama sailed pass the Cape of Good Hope好望角in 1498, Portugal quickly controlled the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean, replacing the Arabs. A series of Portuguese trading halls and military fortress were set up along the coasts of the Indian Ocean from 1501 to 1511, such as Cochin科钦, Cali Carter卡利卡特, Goa果阿, Colombo科伦坡, and Malacca马六甲. The Portuguese struggled to trade with the Ming Dynasty for all most a century. From 1515 to 1522, the governor of Malacca Jorge d'Alboquerque and F. P. de Andrade sent two ambassadors to the Ming court to no avail. They were relegated to desolate islands like Wuzhou浯屿 in Zhangzhou of Fujian, Shuangyu双屿 in Ningbo of Zhejiang where they traded with smugglers at risk of confronting imperial authority (Lin Rengchuan, 1987, P.131-175). The situation changed when the Portuguese were allowed to settle at Nakasaki长崎 (Japan) in 1543 and were permitted in 1557 to colonize Macau 澳门, which had connections to Manila马尼拉, 1 �Timor帝汶, Vietnam越南 and Siam暹罗. However, they were not permitted to dock in Canton (now Guangzhou广州) and Quanzhou泉州. The success of Portuguese colonies in Eastern Asia resulted in a long distance maritime trade route between Eastern Asia and Europe connecting Nagasaki, Macau, Malacca, Hormuz霍尔木兹海峡, Cape of Good Hope and Lisbon里斯本. The Spanish navigated to East Asia slightly later than the Portuguese, they arrived in East Asia from America and set up a permanent trading base in the Philippines. Their fleet tried to open another Europe-Asia maritime route across the Pacific between 1519 and 1522. During this period, the Portuguese Fernando de Magellan led a Spanish fleet that sailed across the Atlantic, and the Pacific to arrive in the Philippines. His ship sailed west to the Indian Ocean and back to Europe through the Cape of Good Hope and succeeded in the earliest circumnavigation of the world. This pan-Pacific experience set great benefit for the Spanish, but they met similar difficulties with the Ming ban. After their arrival in the Philippines, the Spanish took almost half a century to conquer the archipelago. They fought the Portuguese to control the Moluccas摩鹿加群岛 in 1529, they confronted Philippine aboriginals and established the pan-Pacific trade route to link Asia, America and Europe through the Manila Galleon马尼拉帆船 in 1565. They also sought to expand into Southeast China. Their requests to settle in Amoy (now Xiamen厦门) in 1574, and in Guangdong广东in 1598 were refused by the Ming Dynasty. In 1626, the Spanish fleet occupied Keelong鸡笼 in Taiwan from where they engaged in smuggling activities until they were defeated by Dutch colonists in 1642. After their unsuccessful colonizing experience in southeastern China, the Spanish carried out indirect maritime trade with Chinese merchants. The Spanish established the Manila Galleon, which sailed across the Pacific to Acapulco阿卡普尔科, the cargo was transferred to Veracruz维拉科鲁兹, and the goods were sailed to Europe. They developed a series of extension routes linking Manila to Amoy, Macau, Canton, Siam, Borneo婆罗洲 and other regional Eastern Asian seaports, connecting them with this early global maritime trade system. 2 �Shipwrecks and early international maritime trade in eastern Asia during 16 th and 17th centuries Although Spain and Portugal had to face the difficulties of the Ming ban, they nonetheless carried out trade with Southeast China. In the last 20 years, underwater archaeological investigation has yielded a series of shipwrecks dated to 16th to 18th centuries identified as the remains of private endeavors of maritime trade from Southeast China. (1) Nanao shipwreck The Nanao南澳 shipwreck is located at the south of Nanao Island (Sun Jian, 2012). The site was discovered in 30 m of water, and was surveyed and excavated in 2000-2013. The wooden wreck remains are 27 m by 7.8 m and had 23 compartments. The shape of hull was identified as local traditional shipbuilding technique of Fujian and Guangdong. More than 30,000 artifacts have been salvaged from the site, including export ceramics, bronze, iron, tin, stone, wooden, bone, lacquer, more than 10 species of vegetation dry food. These contents are dated to the late 16th century. 95% of the artifacts from the site are blue and white from the Zhangzhou and the Jingdezhen kilns. This blue and white porcelain are similar to Swatoware or Clark artifacts. The Zhangzhou kiln漳州窑 was located next to Wuyu (浯屿) and Moon seaport (月港), harbors famous for their smuggling activities. The Ming ban had forced private merchants to move away from local official harbors such as Canton and Quanzhou and carried out smuggling activities with the Portuguese and Spanish. They sailed out from Wuyu, Suangyu, Nanao or Zhangzhou Moon ports to meet European maritime traders at Macau, Malacca, Nagasaki and Manila. The Zhangzhou kiln which produced Clark ware had specialized in products for European consumption. Preliminary studies show that Clark ware from Nanao shipwreck share great similarities with material recovered from Portuguese, Spanish, and early Dutch shipwrecks like the San Diego and the San Felipe (Fujian Provincial Museum, 1997; Edward Von der Prrten, 2013). This appears to indicate that the Nanao wreck was involved in this type of illicit activities. Most of the content of Nanao was export goods, therefore the ship could have been in its outbound route. There does not seem to be European material on board, but there are artifacts of European influence (Fig.1). 3 �The presence of firearms in ships is probably of European influence, since pre-European era junks have not yielded this kind of material. (2) Donggu shipwreck Donggu冬古 is another island in the border region of south of Fujian province also involved in smuggling Fig.1: Iron Cannon from Nanao shipwreck. Its use in a activities during the Ming ban. The commercial ship points to European influence shipwreck was discovered in the small bay of Donggu, south of Dongshan, one of camp site of Zheng Chenggong troops during late Ming to early Qing Dynasty (Chen Liqun, 2001; Donggu Underwater Archaeology Team, 2003; Ao Jie and Zhao Jiabin, 2005; Li Bin and Sun Jian, 2005 ). The underwater survey and excavation on the site uncovered many artifacts as ceramic, bronze, iron, tin, stone and wooden. A coin with inscription of Yongli Tongbao 永历通宝was discovered, which had been casted and used during the regime of Zheng’s family in Taiwan and Fujian (1647-1683). Taking into account the weapons and armor found in the site, the boat could have been part of the military fleet of Zheng’s clan. The ceramic artifacts from the site include bowl, plate, dish and cup of blue and white porcelain, of which most are daily necessities. Most of this porcelain is from the local kilns of Zhangzhou, Dehua德化and others around Fujian. A few blue and white might be from the Izink kiln in Japan from the 17th century. This shows the close connection between Zheng’s clan with Japan (Li Jianan 2012). Some artifacts from the shipwreck are interesting for the understanding of maritime cultural contact between Zheng’s clan and European colonists. Many firearms including iron cannons and gunpowder have been identified as imitations from Portuguese or Spanish, some of clear Mediterranean or European influence (Fig.2). The arms trade of Zheng’s clan had been recorded in detail in European documents (William Campbell, 1903; Iwao Seiichi, 1959). The popularization of European firearms in China during 16th and 17th century could be a result of maritime cultural exchange. A bronze tobacco pipe 4 �from the site (Fig.2) –the oldest recorded in China– highlights this interaction, since tobacco originated from the Americas and was introduced in Asia by Europeans. (3) Other shipwrecks of 16-17 century in southeast China More than ten further wrecks from the 16th to 17th centuries have been identified in the seas of Southeast China. They are Baijiao 2白礁二号 and Longwenyu龙翁屿 (Zhao Jiabin and Wu Chunming, 2010), Laoniujiao老牛礁, Jiuliang九梁, Wanjiao 1 碗礁一号 (Zhou Chunshui 2013), Guangao 广澳, Baolinggang宝陵港 (Wu Chunming, 2003, P. 22-24), Yuzhuojiao 1玉琢礁一号, Langhuajiao 1浪花礁一号, Panshiyu 1盘石屿一号, Shiyu 3& 4石屿三号、四号, Huaguangjiao 4华光礁四号，in Xisha 西沙archipelagoes (Zhao Jiabin 2012), and etc. They were identified as the remains of local Junks. Fig. 2: Bronze Armor (left) and Bronze tobacco pipe (right) The Baijiao 2 shipwreck is located in Dinghai bay in the estuary of Minjiang. Dinghai had been the key fort defending the provincial capital Fuzhou in Ming and Ding dynasty. 5 �Most of the artifacts from the site are celadon and blue and white, these bowl, plate, pot were identified as products of Pingnan, Wuyishan, Pucheng in north of Fujian province, dated to middle of 17 century. Similar thing had been discovered in Akita, Aomori, Kumamoto counties of Japan, showing the possible maritime cultural contact in this region. Longwenyu locates 1000 m south of Baijiao 2. A Bronze cannon with inscription of “Guo Xing Fu” (国姓府) was collected from the site (Fig.3, left 1-2). The name Guo Xing is associated with Zheng (Chen Lijun, 2010). According to historical records, Zheng’s fleet sailed Dinghai bay in 1654-1657 and fought with the the Qing Dynasty (Yang Ying and Chen Bisheng, 1981,P. 7, 79, 138— 141, 158—160). The Guangao shipwreck is also related to Zheng’s family where the bronze seal of Zheng’s subordinate Zhongzhenbo and bronze canons with inscription of “Guo Xing Fu” were salvaged (Chen Lijun, 2010). (4) Private maritime business groups of Southeast China After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, the Chinese empire carried out maritime tributary trade朝贡贸易 and enforced the Ming ban that forbade maritime commercial activities. From the Ming and beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1368-1683), maritime trade was controlled by the government. Nevertheless, private merchants counteracted the ban with illicit trade, though facing grave reprieves should they be found. The arrival of the Europeans encouraged and favored the development of these activities. They organized themselves in family groups and armed their junks with firearms in European style to fight the government’s fleet. They were names as pirates by the officials of the Ming Dynasty, and they kept close connections to Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch traders (Lin Rengchuan, 1987, P. 183-200, 204-208; Wu Chunming, 2003, P.283-287). According to historical documents, more than 15 different families took part in smuggling activities in the Southeastern coast of China in the Ming and Qing dynasties (Lin Rengchuan, P.85-130). Zheng’s family was the largest and strongest; they had been active in the eastern Asian sea between Fujian, Guangdong, Vietnam, Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines. The first generation of this family is Zheng Zhilong 6 �(郑芝龙1604-1661) who was born in Shijin石井village in Fujian province. He was the adoptive son of a Portuguese wealthy business man in Macau. He migrated to Hirado平户in Japan and joined the local Chinese business family Li Dan李旦when he was eighteen years old (1622). Zheng Zhilong married a Japanese woman and strengthened his own maritime trading business with Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch traders. His son Zheng Chenggong (1624-1662) carried on and expanded this family business, controlling international maritime trade of eastern Asia for half century. Indeed, all of these private maritime business groups played a key important role in the process of cultural exchange between East Asia and western world when the Chinese government was absent from international trade. The shipwrecks as Nanao, Donggu and others appear to be the remains of these private endeavors. According to historical nautical guide’s Books as Sun Feng Xiang Song 顺风相送and Zhi Nan Zheng Fa指南正法 (Xiang Da, 1961) dated to late Ming and early Qing dynasties, these private merchants were concentrated on the Eastern and Southeastern Asian seas. Their smuggling routes connected the region with the outside world, to Europe and America. Maritime cultural heritages in Southeast China resulted from early globalization Apart from the shipwrecks, other factors attest to the cultural exchange that occurred from this early globalization, both tangible and intangible: architecture, maritime settlement pattern, plants, life style, trade, religion, culture, science, and so on. (1) European Architecture and change of settlement landscape of China The most significant cultural change after interaction of east and west in southeast China is the introduction of European-style architecture, which started with the Portuguese and Spanish. Their settlements in Macau, Wuyuan, Shuangyu and Keelong were rooted out by the official army of the Ming empire enforcing the Ming ban, except for Macau. But other buildings remain; in 2004, more than twelve European-style buildings were evaluated as UNESCO world heritage (Wang Guoqiang, 2004). The oldest European building in Macau is Sao Paulo Church which was built between 1555 and1562 by the Portuguese (Fig.4). St Dominic’s Church is another early building of Macau which was built in 1587 (Fig.5). Nossa Senhora da Guia church was built in 1622 at East Wangyang mount. The city library and town hall were built in 1656 and 1784, with the typical characteristic of 7 �Portuguese architecture. Further European influence from the 18 th and 20th century has conferred a distinctive Western landscape in many port cities in China, such as Amoy (Fig. 6). Fig.4: The front wall ruins of Sao Paulo Church of Macau (1595) The cultural dissemination of European architecture in the last 500 years has impacted local construction in Taiwan, south of Fujian, and east of Guangdong, which uses red brick of European influence. The red brick building in south of Fujian, east of Guangdong and Taiwan might have been the result of architecture cultural mix of east and west from the 16th century onwards. (2) Foreign plant species, change of agriculture and life-style The Portuguese and Spanish brought not only a large amount agricultural and industrial product as maritime cargo, but also introduced a series of foreign plant species directly or indirectly into China such as sweet potatoes, potatoes, corn, peppers, tomatoes, pumpkin, peanut, ipomoea, bitter and cigarette. This new products changed the Chinese agricultural system, the diet and their life style. 8 �Fig.5: St Dominic’s Church of Macau (1587) Fig. 6: The landscape of European architectures in Amoy, Fujian 9 �Fig. 7: The red brick house in South of Fujian Most of these foreign species were imported by the Portuguese and Spanish from South America to Southeast Asia (Philippines, Vietnam and Indonesia), and were introduced to China through maritime trade (Lin Rengchuan, 1987, P371-379). The name of sweet potato in China was Fan Shu (番薯) which means foreign (Fan) potato (Shu). It was first taken to Fujian and Guangdong in 1580, and then it spread to Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Anhui, Hubei, Hunan, Shandong, Henan, Hebei, Shanxi and Guizhou in the beginning of Qing Dynasty. The corn was another important crop introduced in Fujian and Guangdong in the middle of the 16 th century. The peanut was introduced to Haicheng 海澄county in Fujian in the beginning of the 16th century. It then spread to Zhengjiang and beyond at the end of 16 th century. Potatoes, peppers, tomatoes, pumpkin, ipomoea, and bitter were also introduced to China in the middle and late 16th century. The cultivation of all of these foreign crops enriched the Chinese diet. Tobacco was introduced from America to the Philippines via the Manila Galleon in the middle of 16th century. It was taken into China through the Moon sea port in Fujian at the end of 16th century. It spread to Southwest China and beyond in the middle of 17 th century. (3) Christian missionaries and change of religion, culture and science of modern China There were two waves of Christian missionaries prior to the maritime arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century. The two waves arrived through the land Silk Road during the Tang (618-907) and Yuan (1271-1368) Dynasties, respectively called Jing Jiao景教 and Yelikewen Jiao (也里可温教). The arrival of Spanish and Portuguese brought about a 10 �third wave that arrived with the Portuguese and Spanish maritime expansion. Religious beliefs were accompanied by other European knowledge of science and culture that had a effect on Chinese socio-cultural life (Lin Rengchuan, 1987, P. 414-418). The Catholic Diocese of Macau was established in 1576, which was the first and most important missionary center in the Far East. Matteo Ricci利玛窦 and Jules Aleni 艾儒略 were two of the most famous and most productive missionaries in China during 16th and 17th centuries. Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) was the pioneer missionary of the Jesuits in China (Zhang Xiping, 2002). He arrived at Macau in 1582 and was permitted to go to Guangzhou and Zhaoqing in 1583. He stayed in Zhaoqing for 20 years and then went north to Nanchang, Nanjing, and finally he arrived in Beijing in 1600. He studied Chinese and preached in that language, and he also learned Chinese traditional literature and culture. He preached by way of "reconciliation strategy,” making friends with Chinese scholars and officials. Jules Aleni (1582-1649) was another great missionary of Catholicism who arrived in Macau in 1610 (Jules Aleni, 2011; Pan Feng Chuan, 2006). He was sent to Beijing, Shanghai, Yangzhou and other places to preach, and was active in Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hangzhou and Fuzhou. He had stayed in Fujian for 23 years and set up dozens of churches before he died in 1649. Soon after the works of these missionaries, Catholicism developed quickly in China. There were more than a hundred thousand Catholics in China in the middle of 17th century, many of whom were senior officials of the imperial court of the Ming Dynasty. The dissemination of Catholicism influenced Chinese religious life and philosophy, complying with the original Confucian and Buddhism. The introduction of new knowledge by missionaries also had great influence in China. Matteo Ricci was the most famous academic missionary in China, who specialized on western mathematics, surveying, geography, and surveying. He published more than 10 different Chinese books as 6 volumes Geometry Theory《 几何原本》 , 8 volumes Mathematics Compare of East and West《 同文算指》 , Survey and Cartography Theory《 测量法义》, Pythagorean Theorem《 勾股义》, Similarities and Differences of Measurement《 测量异同》， Principles of Astronomy《 乾坤体义》. These publications were co-authored by his students Li Zhizao 李之藻and Xu Guangqi 徐光启who 11 �had been senior officials of Ming Dynasty (Zhang Xiping, 2002). Other missionaries like Jules Aleni also contributed to the spread of knowledge (Jules Aleni, 2011; Pan Feng Chuan, 2006; Alexander Wylie, 2011). All of these works greatly promoted the development of modern science in China, the mutual understanding of East and West, and advance in the progress of China and eastern Asia. 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Li Jian, 2012, Luetan Woguo Chenchuan Yizhi Chushui Taociqi ji Xiangguan Wenti, in Wu Chunming edited, Haiyang Yichan Yu Kaogu, Kexue Chubanshe.(A general study on ceramics from shipwreck sites of China, in Wu Chunming edited, Maritime Cultural Heritage and Archaeology in Seas Surrounding China, Science Press, Beijing.) 12 �Edward Von der Prrten,2013, Sixteenth-Century Manila Galleon Cargoes on the American West Coast and Kraak Plate Chronology, paper for “Early Navigation in the Asia-Pacific Region: A Maritime Archaeological Perspective”——An Academic Workshop at the Harvard-Yenching Institute ，June 21-23, 2013. Fujian Provincial Museum, 1997, Zhangzhou Yao, Fujian Renmin Chubanshe. (Zhangzhou Kiln, Fujian People Press, Fuzhou.) Chen Liqun, 2001, Dongshandao Donggu Chenchuan Yizhi Chutan, Fujian Wenbo. (A preliminary investigation on Donggu shipwreck in Dongshan island, Fujian Cultural Relics and Museology， No.1.) Donggu Underwater Archaeology Team, 2003, 2001 Niandu Dongshan Dongguwan Shuixia Kaogu Diaocha Baogao, Fujian Wenbo.(A underwater archaeological report of Donggu Bay in Dongshan in 2001, Fujian Cultural Relics and Museology, No.3) Ao Jie and Zhao Jiabin, 2005, 2004 Nian Dongshan Dongguwan Chenchuan Yizhi A-qu Fajue Jianbao, Fujian Wenbo. (A preliminary report of the excavation on region A of Donggu shipwreck site of Dongshan county in 2004, Fujian Cultural Relics and Museology, special issue) Li Bin and Sunjian, 2005, 2004 Nian Dongshan Dongguwan Chenchuan Yizhi B-qu Fajue Jianbao, Fujian Wenbo. (A preliminary report of the excavation on region B of Donggu shipwreck site of Dongshan county in 2004, Fujian Cultural Relics and Museology, special issue) Zhao Jiabin and Wu Chunming, 2010, Fujian Lianjiang Dinghaiwan Chenchuan Kaogu, Kexue Chubanshe. (The Shipwreck Archaeology of Dinghai Bay, Lianjiang County of Fujian, Science Press, Beijing) Chen Lijun, 2010, Minyue Yanhai Chutu “Guoxingfu” Ming Tongcong yu Zhengchenggong de Haiyang Huodong, in Dongnan Kaogu Yanjiu, Disiji, Xiamen Daxue Chubanshe. (A preliminary study on the bronze canons with inscription of “Guo Xing Fu” discovered in Fujian and Guangdong, in Wu Chunming edited, Archaeological Study on Southeast China, Vol.4, Xiamen University Press, Xiamen.) William Campbell, 1903, Formosa under the Dutch, Described from contemporary Records, Kegan Paul, Trench , Trubner, Lodon. 13 �Iwao Seiichi, 1959, Shiqi Shiji Taiwan Yingguo Maoyi Shiliao, Taiwan Yinhang. (Collection of Historical Data of Trade between Taiwan and England in 17 Century, Bank of Taiwan Press, Taipei ) Yang Ying and Chen Bisheng, 1981, Xianwang Shilu Jiaozhu, Fujian Renmin Chubanshe. (Notes and Explanation on the Record of Old King, Fujian People’s Press, Fuzhou.) Xiang Da, 1961, Liangzhong Haidao Zhenjing, Zhonghua Shuju. (Two Ancient Nautical Guides, Chinese Bookstore, Beijing. ) Wang Guoqiang edited in Chief, 2004, Aomen Lishi Wenhua Mingcheng Xueshu Yantaohui Lunwenji, Aomen Shehui Kexue Xuehui. (Papers Collection of Symposium on Macao Historical and Cultural City in 2004, Macau Society of Social Sciences .) Wang Zhijun, 2008, Jiyu Lulu Wenming he Hailu Wenming Shuangzhong Yingxiang de Minnan Hongzhuancuo, Jianzhushi. (A study of the resource of Red Brick House in South of Fujian on perspective of combination of mainland culture of maritime culture, Architect, No.1) Zhang Xiping, 2002, Limadou de Zhuzuo, Wenshi Zhishi.( An summary of academic works of Matteo Ricci, Literature and History Knowledge, No.12) Jules Aleni, 2011, Jules Aleni Hanwen Zhushu Quanji, Guuangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe. (Collections of Jules Aleni Chinese Academic Works, Guangxi Normal University Press, Guilin.) Pan Feng Chuan, 2006, Xilai Kongzi——Mingmo Yesu Huishi Jules Aleni Zaihua Shiji Kao.( Confucius from the West: The Jesuit, Guilio Aleni (1582-1649) in Late Ming China: A Biography, http://moon8512.blog.163.com/blog/static/158197322006112382444322/) Alexander Wylie edited, Ni Wenjun translated, 2011, 1867 Nian Yiqian Laihua Jidujiao Chuanjiaoshi Liechuan ji Zhuzuo Mulu, Guuangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe.(Memorials of Protestant missionaries to the Chinese : giving a list of their publications, and obituary notices of the deceased, Guangxi Normal University Press, Guilin.) 14 �Biography Wu Chunming is Professor of Archaeology and Museology, Department of History, Xiamen University. He is also Director of the Center for Maritime Archaeology and Director of the Anthropological Archaeology Laboratory Center at Xiamen University. His research focuses on archaeology and early aboriginal Yue ethnicities ( 百越), the history of Southeast China and the ethnology of minorities in Southern China, and maritime archaeology and cultural history in the seas surrounding China. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An Ethno-archaeological perspective of Maritime Cultural interaction between Southeast China and the West world during the 16th and 17th centuries Description An account of the resource The Portuguese and Spanish navigation from Europe to East Asia and America opened the early globalization, one of the most important periods of cultural interaction in human history. The broad and deep maritime cultural exchange and conflict between Eastern Asia and the Western world resulted in this period after the arrival of the first European navigators. In the Southeast China region, a series of tangible and intangible cultural heritages as shipwreck with cargos’ content of different cultures, maritime trading remains, East-West mixed seaport building, and the exchange of agricultural goods have been identified and studied through archaeological and ethnographical methodology. The results show a significant cultural change in eastern Asia resulted from maritime cultural interaction and early globalization since the arrival of Spanish and Portugal ships to the region in the 16the and 17th centuries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chunming Wu, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2e267aa8a94be98bd6fef9f6200dd39c.pdf e43a548d495d59b8fc278b77503c4833 PDF Text Text Protecting an Underwater Cultural Heritage through Visual Communication Skill Cipto Aji Gunawan Abstract The famous quotation, ―A picture speaks a thousand words‖ illustrates how effective visual communication is in delivering messages. If properly managed, visual communication tools may persuade public perception and inform audience opinion. In Indonesia, underwater heritage sites have limited range of visualization, so it is not a surprise that these sites are enjoyed by limited communities. In managing heritage, the involvement of the community and multiple stakeholders from different backgrounds are needed to enhance better management. This paper presents how to design a concept of visual communication such as video and still photography which can bridge the limited access between community and their heritage in order to build an understanding of the underwater cultural heritage protection and its historical value. Introduction Current forms of visual communication are scattered throughout our lives, from waking to sleeping, we are bombarded with a storm of visual communication through various media. Various forms of images, symbols, graphics are creating a billboard jungle that is slowly manipulating our subconscious to feel a "closeness" with the message conveyed by the billboard. Traffic signs, icons on the computer and compani‘s logos are a simple form of visual communication that is constantly affecting our awareness of the meaning of a symbol. "Seeing is believing" and "a picture speaks a thousand words", combine to create the first rank of visual communication that needs attention if we want to instill an awareness of an idea. Visual communication is done correctly and directed to the appropriate dose can be used to manipulate the masses. The development of audio visual media technology in particular is directly influencing the form of visual communication, graphic and other forms of moving images that can be combined with sound thus improving the model of visual communication into an audio visual communication that delivers far more intense impact, especially for the people of Indonesia. The most popular audio visual communication is video. Indonesian people are familiar with the concept of story telling, as it is used in delivering messages from generation to generation. This oral culture has very strong affects in Indonesia, however, development of audio technology immediately replaced oral culture. In 1960 Professor George Gerbner, a former Dean of the Annenberg School of Communication at the University of Pennsylvania, United States (U.S.), conducted a study of the impact of television on humans live and culturral change in society and pointed out "Cultivation Theory". This theory stated that a regular repetition on television show has influence on the mindset of an audience; the more often people exposed to a message, the more acceptable that message as a reality and truth. Believe on the television show could be �positive and also could be negative depending on the message that was delivered. One's initial interest in watching a show will determine how often people will continue watching the show and be re-exposed to the message that was delivered by the media. Here the role of design will determine the success of a show that will be implemented to influence the target audience. It has the potential to influence attitudes and change certain values, especially in the group ‗heavy viewers‘ (defined as people who watch television more or equal than four hours per day)1. A good design will certainly give a positive effect in accordance with the expectations of the institution that produces the message, but designing a bad audio-visual communication can have a negative effect on the messages delivered. Cultivation Theory is highly relevant in the endeavour to photograph the conditions of Indonesian society because it is very dependent on television as an entertainment center and a vast information network. Attainable television has an active role in the dissemination of entertainment and information with a relatively low cost. Although people have been exploring space, i.e. set foot on the moon and photographing the surface of mars, the underwater world is still somewhat of a mystery. Until now, many parts of the ocean floor have not been touched by human technology. The exploration of the ocean has lasted for centuries, but the seabed is still included as ‗the last frontier‘ (personal experience of over 5000 dives). For a small contingent of the community stories and underwater heritage can be easily seen but for most Indonesian people these stories and heritage will remain mysterious and unattainable. Indonesian society in particular often considers cultural remains as nothing more than a pile of junk expected to be sold as treasures. For most people the function of the underwater heritage is directly economic within a maximum extraction model (based on 10 years of personal experience). Historic function, aesthetics and science have not yet reached an understanding on the role of historical relics under water. Underwater heritage is very rarely seen by the public; even the majority of Indonesian people had never seen these sites, so that almost no attention and appreciation arises in the media. For years underwater heritage in Indonesia has been looted both legally and illegally. For some relics, it was indeed proper to lift and rescue on land, but retain greater value if left beneath the sea. For example, World War Two (WWII) relics scattered throughout the archipelago, including the remains of warships, aircraft and vehicles that were piled under the sea, have a historical, aesthetic, and sentimental value much larger than the value per kilogram of iron. It is more feasible to leave relics under the water where they can be used as historical and cultural sites that can bring economic value through the development of sustainable marine tourism. Study of the conditions and opportunities for restoration and conservation of underwater heritage is very important to support long-term planning of the visual utilization of sites and relics. 1 http://www.lombokpost.co.id/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=1708:hindari-efeknegatif-nonton-tv-pada-anak&Itemid=543 �Solutions In Indonesia where poverty rates are still very high; Sustainability concept in managing natural resources and cultural heritage is ―expensive‖ and often not affordable for local community. Instant benefits are more considerable for the locals than thinking about the future. The mindset is "there will be no next day if today cant be succeeded well". With these conditions there is a pattern of instant understanding of an economic object (relics underwater can be classified as one of economic objects). Changing the pattern of instant view of the outlook process is something that is not easy. The solution to this problem can be approached through three approaches namely Regulatory, Economic and Combined Regulatory and Economic., Regulatory approaches Regulations made by the government to restrict and regulate the use, including allowing or not allowing an activity that affected on utilization. The concept can apply on a heritage object under air. Included therein is the extraction and/or non-regulatory approaches. In this kind of rule approaches need strong control and strict law enforcement so that this rule can be run properly. Case study: Biak Establishment of Maritime Conservation Area (MCA) aims to restrict the activities at sites where there is a archaeological remain within. One of the suitable places for the application of MCA is Biak - Papua. WWII Catalina aircraft is situated near the beach. This site is tourist attaraction. The formation of the MCA has a relatively low conflict of interest, and could potentially provide economic benefits through the development of the site. This approach can be successful if:  There is strong government interest and regulatory action and limited public resistance.  If the location does not already entail (or little) activity contrary to the values of conservation.  Requires proper socialization, meaning the target-oriented rules that apply specifically to all stake holders have an interest, either directly or indirectly also to the wider community in general. Economic Approach Creating economic benefits of a heritage object which can be enjoyed directly by the public will voluntarily enact community conservation of underwater heritage. Case study: Tulamben - Bali Tulamben is a small village in Karangasem regency - Bali. This village is one of the poorest villages in Bali. On Tulamben beach there is a WWII shipwreck., In 1963 when Mount Agung erupted, the ship was dragged into the water about 50 metres from the beach and sunk under 18-30m water depth (based on personal �experience since 1991). Since the mid-1980s, small groups of recreational divers began diving at the wreck site (based on personal experience with the community since 1990). Slowly the name Liberty Ship Wreck Tulamben became increasingly popular. The local community then switched their professions from fisherman to the tourism service. The village of Tulamben is no longer poor, communities benefit directly from the existence of heritage. Several times outside forces have attempted to disturb the site but the people of Tulamben have defended the site, including violence when it needed (based on personal observation). The Liberty Ship Wreck Tulamben has become part of local people's livelihood, their economy depends on the presence of the ship; its condition, restoration and conservation efforts are very important,when Liberty Ship Wreck Tulamben became the most famous dive site in Indonesia and natural heritage conservation process has occurred in Tulamben. This approach can be successful if:  The locals have not made an extraction of these remains, or in the other words salvage does not occur as a result of the economic advantages which is opposed to the conservation values.  The community has minimal resistance especially if it is related to the existence of alternative livelihoods.  Educating the local community is intended to provide understanding the economic benefit of sustainable development of the underwater heritage objects. Regulatory approaches and economic In the location of underwater heritage that has been massively exploited, a combination of regulatory and economic approaches is the most sensible choice for rehabilitation and conservation. In this case the government must enact legislation on the protection and utilization of heritage objects and at the same time approach the public, especially related to ongoing negative utilization (salvage) by providing alternative income solutions that can replace the income earned from salvage of underwater heritage (see Ridwan this volume). Here, the role of socialization is continuous, consistent and needs to be designed and carefully follow the developmental stages of the application of the rules as well as offering alternative livelihood opportunities. Using audio-visual communication methods can accelerate this change in mindsets towards the desired concept. Case study: Morotai Morotai was an important part of the history during WW II. As a result, this island enriched WWII underwater cultural heritage such as aircraft, tanks, Armour Personnel Carrier (APCs) which have found on land and underwater. Unfortunately, from the 1980s until now there has been massive looting on the site. The remainder-war has a lot of cut and sold in kilograms by both local people and also immigrants who load the iron from the remaining-war to the wrought-smelting. Government awareness of these sites arose after Morotai became part of the new district of North Halmahera, Morotai, and later, an �independent district separated from the North Halmahera. This awareness is quite late, and very few cultural heritage sites remain intact. Remaining sites include WWII aircraft wreckage Bristol Beuford & B, an Australian-made fighter sitting at a depth of approximately 45m South of the island of Morotai. Wreckage was accompanied by several other scattered aircraft and also some vehicles that still leave the steering wheel. If economic regulatory approaches appropriately ran strictly, then rapid economic alternatives can be offered to the public. Those witness to this history of exploitation and use of heritage as part of a limited maritime tourist attraction can raise awareness of the wider community with conservation plans that have been targeted over a longer period of time. This approach can be successful if:  Local community needs a strong government to enforce the law in line with the education on an alternative livelihoods for the people affected from the consequences of these rules.  Options are almost immediately utilization, so if this could be idealized as principally conservation it will invite the attention of the wider society to help support.  Need a way of communication and socialization that are objective and oriented on the rules that apply specifically to all stake holders. This must be of interest, either directly or indirectly, to the wider community in general. An Example of a Case in utilization of audio-visual communication methods that have an impact on changing attitudes and values of the villagers in Les-Bali  Messages that need to be delivered is the use of non environmentally friendly equipment in catching fish.  Target audience: males, aged 15-40 years, public education, indigenous people bali  Language of delivery: low context  Involving stakeholders: the central character of local community  Communications media: posters, photos and movies  Range of communications: local - international  Frequency of submission: each occasion (a variety of media: posters, photos, movies)  Social value of culture: the culture of Bali Les is a village on the north coast of Bali. At first sight there is nothing special compared to other fishing villages along the north side of Bali. Only when you approach the coastal area, you will find the fish ponds and aquariums containing sea water ornamental fish. The livelihood in this village is fisherman for ornamental fish. Originally, they were using traditional fishing tools but later due to the increase of the demand of ornamental fish and also the trading pressure pushed them to switch by using potassium cyanide, which they usually called "potash" or "pushers". The use of significant potash has increased their ability to find fish and bring home a bucket of ornamental fish. �Gradually the use of potash has damaged the marine environment. Potash sprays can be potentially fatal to coral reefs covering an area of 1-2 m within two to three months. We can imagine if there were an average of 30 people working every day for years using cyanide what sort of impact this may cause. It is therefore no wonder in the early 2000s, the condition of coral reefs in Les are severely devastated. Nearly 70% of coral reefs around the village are dead and destroyed. In early 2000, several people from the archipelago's Ark Foundation and the Society palm visit the village. By experiencing handling "destructive fishing" in the Philippines, they offered an alternative way of catching ornamental fish, using barrier nets and small nets. The method used to educate and introduce the community is an audio visual communication through films and photographs. The first step was - every time the Non-Government Organization (NGO) Yayasan Bahtera Nusantara and Telapak visits Les they followed the fishermen to catch fish using potassium cyanide and documented all the activities. After that they published a video and invited all the fishermen to watch it. It aimed to show the fishermen the damage that they had done to the natural environment due to their use of potash. In 2002 the fishing village of Les consciously abandoned the potash method and switched to the net method. In that year the group that established an ornamental fish village in Les, a group of fishermen Mina Bhakti Soansari, warned others that if they continued using potash they would be punished by new village regulatory reforms (based on personal experience since 2000). Conclusion Three approaches above, we can draw a thread of thought and process that every stage of these steps need to be communicated with the community, both specific (narrow scope) and in the general (broader scope). From the description on the effectiveness of audio-visual communication as well as the condition of underwater remains that are often still mysterious it can be concluded that audio-visual communication is a vital bridge that is able to reach people in the delivery of messages of conservation-oriented utilization of long-term of underwater objects in Indonesia. Things that need to be considered in designing the pattern of effective audio-visual communication are:  Messages to be delivered (regulatory approaches, economic or regulatory and economic)  Target audience (gender, economic level, educational level, social conditions of culture, age)  Language of delivery (high or low context language, a high context language is the language conveyed not directly, often 'winged' and in a form of communicating that requires interpretation from the listener. Low context language is a language communicated directly and "to the point" without much swapped stale. The selection is tailored to the context of language habits, and social culture of the target communication) �     Involvement and role of stake holders (and surrounding communities), as a crew, talent, models) in the production process of communication media (photos, pictures, movies, etc.) is. The selection of communication media (media photos / images or movies (audio visual communication)) Distribution range communications (local, regional, national or international) Frequency of delivery (more often delivered more easily influence on the change of mindset, a note: avoid boredom by providing a variety of delivery methods, visual communication can also be interspersed in the forms of communication other) Note the values of social culture that can support the effective delivery of messages (eg. use of traditional dress in the visualization of people on guard to protect the conservation area, on Bali's people are called Pecalang). Bibliography Bell-Jordan, K.E., 2008 Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., and Signorielli, N., 1980 Squires, C., 2008 "Black, white, and a survivor of The Real World: Constructions of race on reality TV", in Critical Studies in Media Communication, 25, pp.353–372. "The mainstreaming of America: Violence profile no. 11", in Journal of Communication, pp.10-25. "Tryin' to make it real—but real compared to what?", Critical Studies in Media Communication, 25, pp.434–440. http://www.lombokpost.co.id/index.php?option=com_k2&vie w=item&id=1708:hindari-efek-negatif-nonton-tv-padaanak&Itemid=543, retrieved at 17 August 2011. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Protecting an Underwater Cultural Heritage through Visual Communication Skill Subject The topic of the resource Session 5 UCH in the Making… online session Description An account of the resource The famous quotation, ―A picture speaks a thousand words‖ illustrates how effective visual communication is in delivering messages. If properly managed, visual communication tools may persuade public perception and inform audience opinion. In Indonesia, underwater heritage sites have limited range of visualization, so it is not a surprise that these sites are enjoyed by limited communities. In managing heritage, the involvement of the community and multiple stakeholders from different backgrounds are needed to enhance better management. This paper presents how to design a concept of visual communication such as video and still photography which can bridge the limited access between community and their heritage in order to build an understanding of the underwater cultural heritage protection and its historical value. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cipto Aji Gunawan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Community, Trade and Networks: Southern Fujian from the 3rd to the 13th Centuries Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Clark, Hugh R. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1991 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Clark, Hugh R. Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1991 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Title A name given to the resource Community, Trade and Networks: Southern Fujian from the 3rd to the 13th Centuries China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/70e06a2fadf957264ddb70074d1735e7.pdf c9c088af0a367c72edf5b8d3efef08fc PDF Text Text � � � � � ) � � � � � � � � � 2 F E F � � F R � P M � � O P W � � T � N � � X � � � � \ � � F � W F Y � L � M R W Y � L � & � � " � " � # � � � � � � � � 0 � $ � � � � � � � ( � 9 # � " � " � � & 9 = � ( � " � : � � � " � � $ " � � � � � � � H M ] Z � S G F P R � i � R P � � � 4 � % R % � ( � � P � U W � � i R � N � � ( : 7 � � X � G � R X � � S � � � M N X c P � ( � � � � � # � � � � � " � " � $ 7 � � � � $ � � " 9 � % � � � � � ( � � � � " � 3 � � & � � $ 9 � ' � � � � � � � % � % $ � � " � � � � � � " " � � " � � " � % � " & � � � � � > X R � Y � � � � � � " � � � � � � b � L � � � � � � � H � d M % � � � P P � � � N X � R � � N � ( � � � " " 7 7 � / � " � � � � ( % " ( � � � � � � � � � � F � N � P � W P M G � � � � � � W � k � � W N P � S k N F Q � � N � � N � F ] � � � X F � � M M R M � T � � P � N X N � W � R P P � S F � M N F S � k F � W N F W M � T � R N � � � � � � U P R k M Q R p N � M G F k Q � G P R U ] ] 1 � R S " � � � � � � � � � � � � 2 � � O S � � N N F � � � � ' / � , � � � � � � � t � � % � � � � � � - � � � " ) * s � � R U � � R U N k \ ` W P Q X F F W � N � � ^ � X s � F G P � P � � � � � N � � � P � � � P M � R P M N � P � M � � � F N � R N � R M P W Q � M R N R S � � N _ N � U Q F P R � M � � O � X N M N N M R N P o � P P � P N � � � � S � N � � n k X R F R P W N P � F � � W X Q � M N f � X P � W U M Y � � ] N W N � � � � R M R N P R � L V d M U � Q P R N � � � ` W � N N Q � P P P F R R � � _ P � W � R � � [ Q M M � � Q W Y L M L Q � F G U N � G � � � R � $ � � � � E � � F R ] W F b L P N � ^ L l P � � b d � Q R P ] P F W F X M d F Q ` W � � � F R X j m � P � i U � _ W � W N P V U ] � N P � P M � P � F W P N R M � P � F � P \ R � P I � R N R ^ e � U Q h � � F W Q R M N � � N L P N � � N � X K � k F X c R L N � J � F N � � � � P � � � N U G � F P T � R R J � F P a L X W P e S � X Q P X � g � R � � Q F � Z S F F � � Q F � � U F � F � � � M N L Y � � F � � N � � � F P T F ^ � � Q Q � � � F R � F � � � � M � � ] F P S M N � G Q � P P � � � N F � P � e S � � � � P F Q � � F S " " M N R � � M � � R � � � W N � L Q b � N � R � ] � � � � Y P � T � S � � Q � � F Q P X � � f F M � P � R � c N � M � � � � U S � � � N L T P P � X S F � � � F � F � R Q � � R � N P � R � � Y � N P P e M � � P ^ L � F � � c � R N Q X R X � � Y P � P G R G F � � N W P � P N U � � � � � W N Q e � F � j R F � � � P � � T L U S � � � � R W k � � P � S P F R P U � \ � V F � � F F W � � � r � W � � e � S � Y � U W N P N q � L R � N P � � N � N U � H � X � � N P W N � R P W � V P e � R X R S � � S F i � P � P R W S W R R X � � R � � W R � P � P � Q Q U � � Q F F � F P F E � M e � E P R F N � � � � P � Q � P F � � � � � U W M � � U F W � Q W S � � N � F � � � F P S � � S � � � Y W U N k O � Q W N � � � % � � � � � � % � � ( � � � # " ) % � " � � ) � & � � � � � � 4 . � � � � 6 � � � � � " � � " � & � 3 � � � $ ' " ( � . � � � � " � - $ � � 8 � � � � � � � � � � � " � � � � � % � � � � � � � " � 1 � � � � � � � ( 2 % � � � " & � " � 8 2 � , 3 � � � � � ' � � / 2 � � � 7 $ " � � " $ 2 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � $ � � � � � � 1 � � � � � � � � � � � & � ( # � � � + � " � � � � # � ' � � � � � & % � $ � � � � � � # � � � " " � # � � ! � " " � � b Z � R � � R e � � Q M U L � � P � � i � N P � � � � � � R � F P R P Q � � � " ( 2 � � ` R � W � V R e G � Q � i � Q F � R � � % # � M N X P R � � R � P � � � P R N � R � R � � W U � P U F L W ( � " � � � � � � 2 P � _ � P W k W N � F Z � F R � F � P L M � T X � F � X F W < � 2 " � " � Q Q � Y F k � F � � M F M � R � � U � � b � � � � � � � " � 1 � � $ L � � N � Z � � " # � � * / � � � � � � � 2 � � � � , � � � � � # � K P � N � N � @ S P � � � � � � � � � � " A J � S R P � � � � � � � D � W N I W P U P ( � H R � S F N � � " � & � � � � � � G � � � - � M Q M W � � � � � � � � � ( C V N a N � � � � � � � � � � � B � � 9 � � � � & 2 � A � � � " � Q R � � � ; � � # � � � 2 � � � � % � : @ E � � � � � � � � � � � � ? 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P � � ² � X X R � ‘ � � � � � F T � � � N � � R F � U f � N � � � � ' 1 › ! ³ ³ ´ � - ± N � � � � R N � - � Q G F ¯ ! � � M M N � � � F R © R N � Q W N M N � � � P � � n M N � � L F b � � F � � N � E � F R P M R R � X � N N Q � Q L � N � F � k L N � M � R � � � � � L N � b � k R M N � S M F � � R M N � T Q � R � � ] � � F M e X F M E Q � � R U � F M N � � E � � P � � � W N � N S e � N � � O � � � � � U X W � F P N R P � P R N ^ F � F � Q � X M Q � � Ž � � � k R k � � F � Y � � � P � � � � � P F ^ � � P � N M N W N � Q c F � � P Q � � ] � � R � N ‘ P � � b Ž c Q � G W R F � Y � Y � N � N ] S ] L N R   R � ¡ X � � M N � R N F R N X � Q L � R N N � � M M M F X � N � � L Q M M N � � U a � F � Q N N T R F � R N R � U L N R � � � s � Q � k P R � � R � F M P � N Q R � M � P � � � � g F W � � Q F N X � P R L � � Q k S P M N S � Y � � F � U � Q � � � P � F � N R � � � P R L N � � N E � ] � N � R � � k � S Q � P � R M F R Q � X P � £ P N P � � � N � Q T � Q � P M \ F � M N O r � b F Y � G � R b k M � | R F S R P � � R d H R T F � � N Q P � � F � ¢ R X F P T � � � � T F � d � � X � P � � L N � F Q P N O � } � S N ] � R L � � � E F � W � N � e U � P � Q S � P � � � � � X F Y � � W P � � � � R M Q U W � � R Q W N N U F � Q � W N � � R F U � � F e R e � € � � F � M N � k � Q O � � P F N � � N � E � � M N � U P U M � F W F N � Ÿ M � � Q Ÿ L � M E ž P e F � � � P � G Q ž Q M � � � F F � L P � � F � � � P � � X � L � U S � T Q P � � i R � — F b R G � F ž � ] F N ‘ Q � X N M N e � R G i W � � W Q n � M F � � R P — N F � F – P � T � � � � R U ] G R P � e S � � � � W � \ N M � X R � � P � � X � � k P F � � W P P N M P � W • F � � � L N W E � � � G M N W U � M N � � � � F _ F � R [ � Z � G � [ � \ Q � V R U R � P Q G � � V � M N � � U W X L M [ � U M � b � F ” R � � “ U n � M N � ’ P F � M N V R ‘ N O R � r �  � F S � R K � U � O P q � W � F F N W W � ¦ Y R ] N F Q � � N X H M c � R Y U R Y � R F P � � N � P X Q N F T � P � N N e P Q U � � � M F � S � F � P M e � � � N F � P P U P } Q � � W M P � N P ¥ � N F � R � P F W M � U � F � � E W N � U X M M � W N � N N � € � W P � Q Z E � � � � R T N N � � � e i � M N �  R Q \ M � F � � F � � � � � U P � N S G � S � X � T � P N � Q P e N � � � � � R L F R � � N P M N S M N M � � � R N ^ P N �  � W P � R � € � � � � � S � � _ F � Y � � k � � � � � P X � X V R S � � U � � � P � R N � Ž R � Q S ] � Q F N F � � � � P e L R X R T R � � � � N ® � N N M b F ] Q � � � F � N P � � � � F \ M N � F � Q P N �� s � S � Q b � � k � � P P � � R � g � � � S � � � � µ Y � Q T } ] � R M N � m G N � � Q P � � F � N S P � M N � Y � W M N e � N � N P � � � � R E R € � R F � � R Q P � i R E � R � F � �  R Q i W N � � R W U � € � � � W N � � P � P _ F W U � � P G N X � � � � � � � � F � � N � 8 · . � � � � 1 " � � � � 1 2 � � � % � 2 " ( � � � 9 " � · " / 3 2 ¸ � ¸ � � ! . � � � " � � � � � � m � � M ´ � � F � � F � � P b M � _ � � Y X P S � � R W � R M � � � F M N S � � Y � R � � � � R W R P � P M � � S F X R R � S P G k � S R R c � W � P M M Œ � � W � � � d � � ] R � M N � F M N � F } � L Q � F M e � R € � N � � P P � � � � S k R R P � Y } G � � k � R Q � P � � F � Q F 1 � � P F P X � W N � � F ] É � � Q � Y � R � k � � X F � � � � M e F F � � 5 � " " � � � � � � � � � R � � M N m � W W S � X N S P ] � N � � F F � � U � Q � � " ( " " � � � � 2 ( � � � � " � & � � $ � � � � � � � � � � " � 2 9 � � � � " � � � � � L 2 � ( � � � � � � � � � � � � � " 2 � � " � : ( � � � � ^ � | H R F � � Z � � R R T R � Q X � � Q � F � � ž P ž H | � N ] � Q � � � U � � � � � N � � G F M � � ª � � � R P � R ( � 2 � % � 9 � � � � � ´ � � ´ � : � 2 � � � $ � � � " � � " � & # � � - � . ) � � � � : � " � 2 " � � � 2 v ( � ( � � � � � � ( � � � � � " � � � � 9 � � ( � � � R " P M � Á � # � S N � F R E � F Z Q � L � Q T E � P F � � ‘ � � P � G R L N � � U Á � � � F e « X R F R � Æ � � G € R F Y R N � M N \ � Y Å P F M Z W S R � T ” � � N M ^ ª N � Q F � � � T ‘ S � b � � � � � P L • R ] R R N M � P � Ÿ b P � � � � � Ä T T � R W ˜ s R M R } ” � � b � N S | � Q � ] � º F � W R P R ‘ � F � H V � � N G d F � � � � O F U L � � F F � R N � R M N P P Ÿ ^ � R N � F � n U È R � N M à P P Q � Ç P Q R � J R � W N � P g n � � b M N F c � ] � F S � S R  L R � � X P N � S X F � � F X P W F � � P M � Y X � � N � � R S P Ž W � L R L � W X s M q O P F X � F � S N Q � � F � � P M H � R S U " � P � F u � N S - $ � F R V � � N N ] Q N � � R � � M M N P P F R N R N � � � � U R Q R T R � Q � Y S � R P T P � Q P � � e � N s � \ � � Q N P k L N N � W � R P � � � � � � � � � m M � � R R T � � � R P R X � M � � � R P � F � G R M N M � � N � T � W P N X � � � P � W  S R M N ] � k � M � � M N F L F k F N � � N L L � � R M N � � N � � Q � R F � U P P W � F � N � N S � F � X � k M � L � � � R � � Q � N P P L W � � Q G � U R � F � \ F � P � X U � � � U S � M U Y L � N P � � R R � E � � P b � N � � � � � � � � � � � G L � F E X � Q � � � � e P ] � P � � P Y M � � R � F � R � U � X M N � X R N U � � Q Y � L N � � Q � � � � O W k � � P N � � � � U P S Q � � Q � � � U P � T M N � F � � � X M P Z R P X N � � ¹ � � � � ] R R � P U R N W � R P � � F � U � R N � W N � U M N � � N � � N R Q Q � � R � R � F � € Y W � ´ W R � N � � � � L N Q � N F � � N M F � M X F À � P U F N F E W F � � � Q X � ¶ � G U � � � X � N Y F � � G f � W � R e R R R P � � M Q E Q Y � � Q � P \ � F � � N � M X P R � T � M N R F � R F V M � � Z L G � � W � T X � � z Ë � Q ] R � N M T � � - � F � % � N � M - � � S N W � F T R M U � [ M X W N � X � M � � R P - � e X � ¶ ] � � � ³ � � # � Ê ) � ] G � H F M � L N � � � U L � T N F � � N ^ R P R F Q � � Y M W Y P � � Q R N � V W S G N M P � F U b M L � F P � G P N � N r N N � � � W F R W N P � � � F F � R W s Y � N R € Y � � M Q � U U � T � � Q � � R � œ P | � V W � N M � � R � M � W � X � � � U � N � � H F M � � � Q � � U N W N \ À � � � e � � X F F � X G F b W F m Y � ] ~ N T � � � R � M N O M Y F T X � U � S � � F � P � Q X M M P R Q � P N � � k ^ N M � U � L � N � � R R R P r ` U P P � U � � � � W Q M W � � R � N P W U M N � 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Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Luso-Asian influences in Macaronesia Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource In early 1607 when the East India Company was preparing to send its first fleet to India, four Asian men were already in London and requested work on these ships as a means to getting home. The men all had Portuguese names; Marcus, John Mendes, John Rodrigues and John Taro. Where did these men come from and what was their story? Through original interdisciplinary fieldwork in Macaronesia, as well as in South and Southeast Asia this paper is an investigative research into the origin of the earliest medieval seaborne Asians to arrive into the Atlantic Ocean from their homelands in the Indo-Pacific regions. Throwing light on a narrative that has been usually projected from the perspective of “European pioneers” from the opposing direction. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cliff Pereira Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/73e71ba1ab4a6726eca6924415885dcc.pdf b678cec074c5f4d3d0558b4a2087f53d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 14: In the Mind of the Boatbuilder: Asia Pacific studies in Maritime Ethno-archaeology Subject The topic of the resource Session 14 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract The study of contemporary maritime cultures and their materials through first hand observation, maritime ethnography is a ‘relatively’ new tool available to maritime archaeologists. By using ethnographic analogies, archaeologists can propose hypothetical reconstructions of incomplete objects or structures, suggest the possible use of enigmatic structural elements, and describe in detail how the object or structure was made. Ethno-archaeology can provide clues or suggest ways of thinking about past cultures, and serve as a launch pad for retrospective enquiry. Analogous applications of ethnography to archaeology allow us to breach temporal and spatial gaps by using information derived from one context (the present) to help explain data found in another (the past). In keeping with the Conference theme and proposed sub-theme (8), ‘Nautical Technology in Asia-Pacific’, this session is intended to provide a forum for researchers from ethnography, archaeology, anthropology, digital humanities and related disciplines, to exchange ideas, present new research and explore challenges in the collection, investigation, interpretation and dissemination of maritime ethno-archaeological data. The focus of ‘In the Mind of the Boatbuilder: Asia Pacific Studies in Maritime Ethno-archaeology’ will be on water transport technology in Asia-Pacific, including regional studies and collaborative projects, which employ innovative and emerging technologies, observe boatbuilding traditions and explore archeological evidence for traditional boats, social practices, maritime rituals and associated traditions. We invite researchers from across the Asia Pacific region to submit papers on topics including, but not limited to: ancient seafaring in Asia-Pacific; boat ethnography in Asia-Pacific; ethno-archaeological studies of water transport systems and practices, new and emerging technologies for recording traditional boats; and ethnographic studies of maritime rituals and traditions in boat construction. We particularly welcome submissions that provide new information about regional seafaring that is changing our understanding of human history and creating opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration beyond national boundaries. Session Organizers: Sarah Ward and Ying Ying Yan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Barbari-Habeshi crewmen and merchants – Uncovering an African maritime tradition in the Indian Ocean World Description An account of the resource Ancient Axum was a maritime trading empire based in present day Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea in the Horn of Africa from 400BCE to around 940CE and for a while the empire even extended across the Red Sea to Yemen. Historians have tended to neglect the story of free African movement across the Indian Ocean. However, a multidisciplinary approach to the evidence of Africans in Asia, demonstrates that the following the arrival of Islam in the Horn of Africa in the 8th century the legacy of Axumite maritime trading was passed successively to the states of Shoa, Ifat and Adal. This maritime tradition gave rise to Muslim African communities known as Habeshis or Habshis in the Indo-Pacific region from the Red Sea to the Straits of Malacca and possibly beyond into the South China Sea. Through images and archives this paper traces the growing presence of Habeshi communities in the Indo-Pacific world from the 8th to the 17th centuries and demonstrates how they were part of the mechanism that turned the Indian Ocean into an “Islamic lake” before the arrival of the Europeans and how these Habeshi’s adapted to the European naval presence and ventured further into the Asia-Pacific region. The paper suggests that the Habeshi were also responsible for the spread of live poritis coral exploitation from their homelands to the East African littoral and across the Indian Ocean. The last point is still being researched in Southeast Asia. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cliff Pereira Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Pereira, Cliff. 2021. “The Barbari-Habeshi crewmen and merchants – Uncovering an African maritime tradition in the Indian Ocean World.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/699 Asia-Pac Session 14 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7c0ccb1c1189faec8d0702f52c565177.pdf 93452adb14f3d1912b3121bd9fe95dc6 PDF Text Text East in the West : Investigating the Asian presence and influence in Brazil from the 16th to 18th centuries. Cliff Pereira Royal Geographical Society, London, ,SW7 2AR United Kingdom E-mail: cliffjpereira@hotmail.com Abstract This study is the second part of investigative research into early Asian presence in the Atlantic. The first investigation focused on the islands of Macaronesia (Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde Islands), and resulted in a better understanding of the motives, means and influences that defined Asian presence in some of these islands, and not in others. It identified the existence of a maritime “Lusitanian space” which provided the vehicle of culture contact, and conveyance of Luso-Asians into the Atlantic World primarily through maritime employment, the work of the Society of Jesus (commonly known as the Jesuits) and within the entourage of people in governance and social prominence. This initial multi-disciplinary investigation hinted at a connection between Portuguese Asia and Brazil, which forms the basis of this research study. Keywords: Iberia, Portugal, Brazil, Maritime trade, Networks, 16th, 18th, centuries, Asia, Roteiro Introduction The arrival of Columbus in the Bahamas in 1492 and Cabral in Brazil in 1500 were voyages associated with the discovery of “the Indies” (i.e. all regions east of the Cape of Good Hope), resulting in the terms Indians or “Indios” for the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas. To avoid confusion and respect the rights of the indigenous Americans this paper uses the term “indigenous Brazilians” when describing the aboriginal people of Brazil. Luso-Asians are Asians who came under the sway of Portuguese influence since Vasco Da Gama arrived in Calicut in 1498. From an archival perspective they were characteristically Catholic and had Portuguese names. Remnants of Luso-Asians still exist in Asia and in other parts of the world (Pereira, 2011). Luso-Asians shared aspects 1 �of culture, including maritime traditions, art, architecture, religion and cuisine that were reinforced by centuries of Iberian rule and the impact of Iberian-based Catholicism. Methodology. Preliminary research was conducted prior to the fieldwork. This shaped the study to focus on specific localities and disciplines within the limitations of time and funds. The resultant focus is on the period from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, concentrating on Northeast Brazil. The field work was concentrated in two areas in the state of Bahia; the state capital of Salvador in the north and the southern provincial capital of Ilhéus where tangible and intangible aspects of heritage were identified. This study aims to academically validate and interpret the multidisciplinary investigation in a discussion leading to a conclusion. Discussion. In the early sixteenth century Portuguese colonisation with European settlers only really existed in Macaronesia, where the islands were originally uninhabited, with the exception of the Canary Islands. Portuguese colonisation in Brazil was based on initially sending out degredados (petty criminals) and adventurers who were sentenced to the new lands in the hope that they would settle among the indigenous Brazilians, learn their language and culture and produce a mixed population who would later serve the Portuguese as translators, and allies against hostile local or foreign invaders (Bradford Burns, 1980). Between 1530 and 1535 the coast of Brazil was divided into 15 almost equal parts of around 50 leagues, each governed by a hereditary captain. Each captaincy extended inland from the coast to the longitudinal line established by the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal. The Brazilian state of Bahia was composed of the Baia, Ilhéus and Porto Seguro captaincies. Portuguese presence in the Indies focused on strategic coastal feitorias (Factories) that were protected by forts. In 1534 Francisco Pereira Coutinho (d.1547) who had been at the conquest of Goa in 1510 was offered the captaincy of Baia. A factory was established at Salvador, Baia, but Brazil at first offered little in comparison to the riches of the East Indies and Coutinho established a wooden fort (Russell-Woods, 1998). In the Ilheus captaincy the village of Ilheus was founded in 1536 (Vianna, 1893). Another Asia-hand Tomé de Sousa (1503 -1579) arrived in Salvador as first governor-general of 2 �Brazil in 1549 with the first Jesuit missionaries (Russell-Woods, 1968). He established a shipyard in Salvador and encouraged the escala (calling for victualling and repairs) of Portuguese East Indiamen. But Lisbon was keen to keep a tight control on the high value imports from Asia including those (e.g. pepper) that were under a royal monopoly (Bentley Duncan, 1972). In the East Indies, trade and fortification was followed by the church who effectively managed the spiritual life of the new lands, moving into agriculture, education and medicine. A Misericordia was established at Salvador in 1549, just forty-four years after the one in Cochin, India (Malekandathil, 2001). It probably initially administered to the sailors, slaves and indigenous Brazilians. Through works by Jesuits in India like Garcia d’Oterga (Dalby, 2002) the use of Asian spices and herbs in medicine, were passed to the Jesuits in South America, and Jesuit discoveries spread from Tropical America to Asia (Hobhouse, 1987).The Misericordia in Salvador still holds a collection of labelled drug containers called mangas de farmácia for the major spices; pepper (Piper nigrum), cloves (Sygium aromaticum), and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) and cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum). All of these came from Asia (Malekandathil, 2001). The Jesuit priest Manoel de Nóbrega described how the first bishop Dom Pedro Fernandes Sardinha (d.1556) who served in Goa arrived in Salvador “with all his attendants and crew in good health” in 1552 (Vianna, 1893) and pronounced Ilheus as town and separate parish. Since their arrival in the Ilheus captaincy the Jesuits controlled the extraction of timber for construction and the navy, especially in the Fundo das Doze Légaus (Dias, 2010). Fieldwork suggests that the original Portuguese settlement at Ilhéus was on the easily defensible quarter now known as the Alto de Vitoria, with a harbour frontage below it within the estuary along what is now Avenida Dois De Julho. On the hill was a wooden church that was later built into the stone church of São Jorge in 1556. The third governor of Brazil was Mem De Sá (c1500 -1572) who assumed the role in 1558. Labour shortages led the colonists to enslave the indigenous Brazilians who were under the patronage of the Jesuits missions. De Sá was retained long after his difficult term (Bradford Burns, 1980) which was marked by a reduction of the number of East India vessels arriving in Lisbon. But in the following decade the number of East India 3 �vessels reaching Lisbon would increase to levels unseen for seventy years with many calling at Salvador. The area around the bay or Baia de Todos Santos known as the Recõncavo contains many rivers, islands and promontories that offered routes and easily defensible sites for the establishment of sugar estates and engenhos (sugar mills). On the outskirts of Santo Amaro is the small cloistered convent at Praça Frei Bento that includes the Museu do Recolhimento dos Humildes. Unfortunately the museum was shut, however a sister of the convent acknowledged the existence of many items which displayed Asian influences. São Francisco was the third town of the Recõncavo to be settled by the Portuguese. After Mem de Sá had subjugated the indigenous Brazilians he gave his land to his son Francisco who paid for the construction of the convent of Santo Amaro and the church with the possible Asian religious artefacts. Felipa, the daughter of de Sa’ eventually inherited the land and married Fernando de Noronha Third Count of Linhares (1540-1608), who was the cousin of the viceroy of India between 1629 and 1645. In the Ilheus captaincy Mem de Sá founded the engenho (sugar mill) on the Santana River at the site of the Church of Nossa Senhora de Santana. This is one of three pre-1550 churches in Brazil and has some architectural similarities with churches in Goa. The mill, large estate and church became the property of the absentee Fernando de Noronha and passed into the possession of the Jesuits. By 1585 Brazil was the largest producer and exporter of sugar in the world (Sequeira Antony, 2004) and Salvador developed rapidly (RussellWoods, 1968). The first stone fort to be built in Brazil was the Fort of Santo Antonio de Barra Salvador constructed in 1583, which is now the Museu Náutico da Bahia. A vessel called the Saveiro was once common in the calm waters of the bay and the Recõncavo. Many of the features of this craft have similarities with Asian vessels, especially Arab dhows for inshore trade. In fact the Saveiro is constructed with the use of measurements based on the palm of the hand, and an instrument from India called the Graminho. Another craft was the coastal raft or Jangada whose name itself is from Malayam (the language of Kerala, India). It appears that the Jangada was once widespread along the coast of Brazil, but is now only found in the Northeast, especially Ceará. 4 �At the Museu da Gastronomia Baiana local cuisine featured as an intangible heritage and sensory experience. In Brazilian popular culture the African connection to Baiana cuisine is stressed. However there are many ingredients that are not of African origin. The coconut (cocos nucifera) appears to have been unknown in the Atlantic at the time of the Portuguese discoveries and work on plant distribution suggest that there were two centres of origin for the coconut in tropical Asia. The Portuguese first encountered the coconuts in Eastern Africa where they called them “Indian palm or nut trees” (Linschoten, 2005). But the importance of the coconut tree was highlighted in India where they described how the Indians produced books “written on leaves of some trees which appear to be palms on which they always write and of these trees and their fruit are made these things; sugar, honey, vinegar, fruit and cordage for ships and for all other purposes” (Roxburgh McClymont, 1914). The Portuguese subsequently introduced the coconut to tropical Atlantic. However, this is quite different to introducing the technology and knowledge to produce the “things” encountered in India, especially the production of coir for cordage. The Portuguese word cayro (coir) is a corruption of the Malayalam “Kayara” (Linschoten, 2005). The production of coconut milk (as opposed to coconut water) by scraping and shredding the hard white coconut meat is done on a metal scraper and the extraction of the milk is done on a grinding stone in India. The use of the milk is a characteristic of South Indian and Southeast Asian cuisine. But two specific Baiana recipes use coconut milk; the popular prawn or fish Moqueca, and the chicken Xinxim de Galinha. The chicken recipe is particularly interesting for its use of ginger (zingiberi), garlic and onions. This combination is termed the “Indian culinary trinity”. It also has cloves and black pepper. Ginger in its green form was rare in Europe until the late twentieth century and was imported since medieval times from Asia as a ginger preserve. Garcia d’Orta mentioned that the best quality of preserved ginger came from the Bay of Bengal (Dalby, 2002). Asian influence is strongest in Brazilian sweets. The grated coconut that produces coconut milk is used in Brazil to make Cocada (Coconut Ice). The Brazilian and Goan versions of this sweet have the same name and use lime as flavouring. In Asia the outer flesh of the nutmeg was also preserved in sugar (Dalby 2002). When the Portuguese took the Guava from Brazil to India they called it Pera (i.e. Pear). The Goans produced a preserve that they 5 �called Perada, and it is this recipe that returned to Northeast Brazil where it is known as Goiabada. The Mango was introduced to Bahia from India along with Mangada (Mango preserve). Another Brazilian sweet that demonstrates Indian influence is the steamed rice pudding known as Acaça. The joining of the Portuguese and Spanish crowns opened the Portuguese empire to English and Dutch attack, resulting in much reduced Portuguese shipping from Asia and attacks on Salvador in 1625 (Russell-Woods, 1968) and Ilheus in 1635 (Vianna, 1893). Asian administrators such as the Viceroy of Goa Vasco Mascarenhas (1605-1678) were appointed to Brazil and despite the prohibition on the escala for ships returning from the Indies in 1656 and further decrees (Sequeira Antony, 2004), ships calling at Salvador from Lisbon were carrying Asian wares as shown by the artefacts from the 1668 wreck of Santissimo Sacramento. This period was marked by the growing presence of the Jesuits who between 1657 and 1672 began construction on a Jesuit church in Salvador. In 1677 the Viceroy of India Dom Pedro de Almeida (d.1678) was ordered to send spice cultivators to Bahia and in 1682 two Canarin (Goan) spice cultivators were to be sent to Bahia (Sequeira Antony, 2004). In that year the Jesuits succeeded in growing pepper and cinnamon at their Quinta de Tanque or Casa Suburbana de São Christavão (Russell-Woods 1998). In 1690 under the governorship of Antonio Luiz Gonzalves de Camara Coutinho (1638-1702) two Canarins were sent to Bahia. Their names were Laurenço de Noronha and Salvador de Tavora, both aged 30 and from Bardez. These men were unable to accomplish their work as spice cultivators and were returned to Goa as they were unskilled at peeling cinnamon bark (Sequeira Antony, 2004). Coutinho ended his governorship in 1694 and went on to serve as viceroy of India. The Misericordia in Salvador holds a painting of Captain Francisco Fernandes de Sym that appears to have been executed at the end of the seventeenth century and is accredited to Laurenço Veloso (d.1708), a Goan-born painter, who was trained by the Jesuits in Goa. Veloso also painted the local merchant Coronal Domingas Pires Carvalho in the Igreja da Ordem Terceira de São Francisco in Salvador. It seems that Carvalho was responsible for funding the rebuilding of the church in 1702. Two other viceroys had served in India in the seventeenth century and were later to serve in Brazil; Viceroy Pedro António Meneses de Noronha de Alburquerque (1661-1731) was appointed as 6 �viceroy of Brazil between 1714 and 1718 and Vasco Fernandes Cesar de Noronha de Albuquerque (1673-1741) who served as Viceroy of Brazil between 1720 and 1735. In 1722 a Portuguese Dominican missionary Brother Gabriel Baptista arrived in Bahia from India and established the Dominican order in Brazil (Vianna, 1893). Bahia increasingly offered a market for European and Asian goods and the British East India Company bound to or from Bombay or Bengal would often put in at Salvador. (Sequeira Antony, 2004). In 1750 fresh orders were issued from the Royal Court for married couples, especially from Bengal and the Coromandel Coast of India who were weavers or dyers of cottons and “muslins”. In a reply the viceroy of India explained the reluctance of Indians to go to Brazil due to caste restrictions and there being few Catholic converts among the textile workers. In 1752 the viceroy sent six Canarins as paid workers to Bahia with a detailed report on the uses of the coconut tree in Goa. Two died of scurvy on the voyage. For the remaining four we have the names of three of them, Pedro Ventura Castilho, João Rebeiro and Laurenço Raposo. These Canarins found that the palm trees of Brazil were not suitable for the extraction and production of palm arrack (Sequeira Antony, 2004). When the captaincy of Ilhéus was incorporated into the captaincy of Bahia in 1761 the functions of the captaincy were replaced by the comarça (county). In 1763 Rio de Janeiro replaced Salvador as the capital of Brazil and in 1767 the Portuguese crown outlawed the escala (Sequeira-Antony, 2004). The plantation at Ilhéus was destroyed by ants in 1788 and in 1798 the Viceroy of India was asked to remit teak plants from Daman, and Sandalwood from Goa, Timor or Solor for transplanting in Brazil. It appears that the cultivation of teak had been undertaken in the Comarça dos Ilheus (Sequeira Antony, 2004). Conclusion. From 1502 to around 1650 the jewel in the Portuguese Crown was India with its connections to the Spice Islands. Toby Green (2007) argues that the inquisition was established earlier in Goa then in Brazil because that was simply where greater profits could be made. The suggestion is that the colonisation of Brazil was initially based on a “blue-print” used by the Portuguese in the Indies. It is interesting that the Portuguese chose to locate Ilhéus within a river estuary, on an easily defensible island which is a 7 �similar geography to Cochin and Goa in India. Evidence of transfer of experience and skills acquired in Asia to Brazil was considerable, even though the social conditions were different. The Indian historian Dr. Malekandathil (2001) has suggested that the lack of sufficient ships for the India run in the early sixteenth century forced the construction of vessels at Cochin, where initial plans for a shipyard were established in 1504-1505. With Indian Teak, the yard was capable of building large vessels such as the 800 tonne capacity carrack Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai launched in 1520. This ship became the flagship of Vasco da Gama on his third voyage to India in 1525. Malekandathil (2001) points out that the master shipwright was Portuguese, but essential carpenters and dockyard workers were Indian. These vessels were in contact with Brazil and the returning Portuguese East Indiamen were manned with a supplement of “East Indian” crew. It is proposed that these men introduced Asian constructional elements found in the production of the Saveiro around Salvador. These shipwrights may have also initially introduced or at the least modified the raft that they named the Jangada in Northeast Brazil. Interestingly it is the culinary historian Michael Krondl (2007) who states that “the little Iberian kingdom never produced enough sailors to man every spritsail and ratline in its navy, as a result it had long been common for other nationals to join up”. Though in this case Krondl was discussing the employment of Europeans and not Asians. Contrary to the view of John Ferguson (1923) that “little interest seems to have been taken in coconut planting by Portuguese”, it appears that the Portuguese were fully aware of the importance of the coconut tree for its safe water, and useful cordage and promoted its cultivation in the tropics. In the sixteenth century prominent administrators, clergy, soldiers and merchants were transplanted from Asia, accompanied by an entourage of followers, wives, concubines, servants and slaves. As pointed out by Bradford Burns (1980). Portuguese women were notably absent from the settlement pattern during the first century of Portuguese-Brazilian history and the Portuguese became increasingly attracted to indigenous Brazilian, Asian and African women, but we have no idea of the early movements of Luso-Asian women whose voices and original names are rarely recorded. However in the second half of the eighteenth century Goan women were definitely sent to Brazil (Da Silva Gracias, 2001). Women are repositories of culture and we can attribute the use of coconut in Baiana 8 �cuisine to Luso-Asian women, or possibly enslaved African women from India. They also introduced the use of key spices. Ginger arrived in Brazil from São Tomé in the sixteenth century. But Russell-Wood (1998) does not explain how ginger got to the West African islands. Transplanted ginger production in Brazil and Africa was so successful that in 1578 the King forbade exports from the Atlantic in order to protect Asian exports. In the seventeenth century sugar production required abundant labour by enslaved Africans. At the same time the rise of the Dutch forced the Portuguese to consider other sources for spices and Asian textiles leading to specific requests for Luso-Asians in attempt to transplant Asian agriculture and textile technology to Brazil (Russel-Woods, 1998). This was also a period when Asian influences and presence were linked with the Jesuits and their global organisation, which acted like a modern multinational corporation, where concepts, technologies and people are relocated depending on needs. Brazilian ports like Salvador were regarded by captains, crew and passengers returning from Asia as places to legally and illegally exchange Asian exotics for Brazilian sugar, tobacco and gold. Among the items imported from the Indian Ocean were Zimbo’s or Buzio de Costa (Cowrie shells). These shells were important for the Atlantic slave trade, where they served as a currency and were among the artefacts recovered from the Santissimo Sacramento that sank off the coast of Salvador on 5th May 1668. Also in the wreck were ceramics from Macau bearing the coat of arms of the Silva family, which connects the wreck to Francisco Correa da Silva who died during the incident (Pernambucano de Mello, 1979). The recovery of Nozeras (Nutmeg containers) from the wreck suggest Asian trade and Luso-Asian contact via Lisbon. In conclusion this paper suggests that Luso-Asians were not isolated in Asia, rather they were present in and influencing the Atlantic World in a variety of ways in the sixteenth century. Luso-Asians have left identifiable legacies from their contact with early colonial Brazil in a number of disciplines. It also appears that people from all sectors of LusoAsian society were transplanted into seventeenth century Brazil directly from Asia or through Lisbon. This research like the previous one in Macaronesia breaks new ground for merely considering Asian heritage in this region of South America (Pereira, 2011). It is not the only Luso-Asian heritage in the Americas that has been ignored and a similar 9 �and overlapping Hispano-Asian (Filipino) narrative in the Americas remains to be fully studied. This opens up the notion of Asians across the Pacific, thereby combining the distribution of peoples with that of trade and ideologies in a global Iberian network (Junco, 2011). Bibliography Bentley Duncan, B., 1972. Atlantic Islands. Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verdes in the Seventeenth-Century Commerce and Navigation. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago. Bradford Burns, E., 1980 A History of Brazil. Columbia University Press. Guildford. Dalby, A., 2002. Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. British Museum Press. London. Da Silva Gracias, F. 2001. Goan Women in other Lands. In Malekandathil, P and Mohammed, T.J. (Eds.), The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads. Tellicherry: 364-373. Dias, Marcelo Henrique (2010). The Mercantile Forest: timber exploration in the captaincy of Ilheus in the18th Century. Revista Brasileira de Historia, 30(59) 193-214. Retrieval December 27, 2013. From http://www.sceilo.br/sceilo.php?script=sci_artex&pid=S010201882010000100010&Ing=en&ting=en. Ferguson, J., 1923. Coconut Planter’s Manual. Ferguson’s “All About the Coconut Palm” (Cocos nucifera). Treating of the history and cultivation, chemistry and physiology of the palm, and about its commercial products. Ceylon Observer Press. Colombo. Green. T., 2007. Inquisition-The reign of fear. Pan Books. London. Hobhouse, H. 1987. Seeds of Change: Five Plants That Transformed Mankind. Harper & Row. New York. Junco, R., 2011. The Archaeology of Manila Galleons. In M. Stanforth, J. Craig, S.C. Jago-on, B. Orillaneda and L. Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. Manila: 877-886. Krondl, M., 2007. The Taste of Conquest: The Rise and Fall of the Three Great Cities of Spice. Ballantine Books. New York. 10 �Linschoten, H., 2005. The Voyage to The East Indies. Volume 1. Elibron Classics. London. Malekandathil, P. 2001. Portuguese Cochin and the Maritime Trade of India 1500-1663. Manohar Publishers and Distributers. New Delhi. Pereira, C., Luso-Asian influences in Macronesia. In M. Stanforth, J. Craig, S.C. Jagoon, B. Orillaneda and L. Lacsina (Eds.),Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. 2011. Manila: 981-990. Pernambuco De Mello. U., 1979. The shipwreck of the galleon Sacramento 1668 off Brazil. The International Journal of Archaeology and Underwater Exploration. Vol. 8(3) 211-223. Roxburgh McClymont, J., 1914. Pedralaurez Cabral (Pedro Alluarez de Gouvea). His Progenitors, his life, his voyage to and from America and the Indies. Forgotten Books. London. Sequeira Antony, P., 2004. The Goa-Bahia Intra-Colonial relations. 1675-1825. MESHAR. Tellicherry. Russell-Wood, A.J.R., 1968. Fidalgos and Philanthropists: the Santa Casa de Misericordia of Bahia. 1550-1755. Duke university Press. London. Russell-Wood, A.J.R., 1998. The Portuguese Empire 1415-1898. A world on the move. John Hopkins University Press. Baltimore. Vianna, F.V. 1893. Memoir of the State of Bahia. Bahia Print & Book Binding Office of the “Diario da Bahia”. Salvador. Biography: Cliff Pereira is a senior researcher specialised in bringing the strands of history and geography, community, heritage and academia together to create factual, colourful, strong, interwoven social narratives with equity and cultural sensitivity leading to personal and community empowerment with an emphasis on shared cultural spaces. He has broad experience consulting for development in the heritage sector, especially for small, medium-sized and large museums, sensitive narratives, diversity and inclusion and accessibility. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource East in the West : Investigating the Asian presence and influence in Brazil from the 16th to 18th centuries. Description An account of the resource This study is the second part of investigative research into early Asian presence in the Atlantic. The first investigation focused on the islands of Macaronesia (Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde Islands), and resulted in a better understanding of the motives, means and influences that defined Asian presence in some of these islands, and not in others. It identified the existence of a maritime “Lusitanian space” which provided the vehicle of culture contact, and conveyance of Luso-Asians into the Atlantic World primarily through maritime employment, the work of the Society of Jesus (commonly known as the Jesuits) and within the entourage of people in governance and social prominence. This initial multi-disciplinary investigation hinted at a connection between Portuguese Asia and Brazil, which forms the basis of this research study. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cliff Pereira, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4c7aa2c4667a55c47db6716188f8cade.pdf bc33b71c7117dee40f67e652799dd0c8 PDF Text Text Uncovering the Luso-Asian Sandalwood Trade Conducted by the Larantuqueiros of Flores Island 1500-1860 CE Clifford J Pereira1 1 African Studies Department, The University of Hong Kong Corresponding Author: cliffjpereira@hotmail.com ABSTRACT The elongated island of Flores in Indonesia stands at geological, zoological, cultural, and ethnic boundaries. But the area is also predominately Christian in the most populous Muslim country in the world, reflecting that this part of Indonesia was officially part of the Portuguese Empire until 1859 CE. This presentation attempts to explore the connection between the Luso-Portuguese Larantuqueiro community and the sandalwood trade between 1500 and 1860 CE. The trade essentially between the island of Timor and China has shaped the political geography of the region during the colonial period, resulting in the present curious exclave of Oecusse and the minor islands that are part of Timor-Leste. Keywords: Flores, Larantuqueiro, Portuguese, Sandalwood. LIST OF FIGURES AND MAPS Figure 1: Map of changes in The Portuguese Sandalwood Trade to Macau (Source: Clifford Pereira) Figure 2: Mount Ille Mandrini, Flores Island, seen from the hot springs at Obyek Wisata Wiaplatin (Source: Clifford Pereira). 1. INTRODUCTION Since 1975 CE and the end of fascist rule in Portugal, there has been a movement among academics in Portugal and its former colonies in Africa and Asia to investigate the Portuguese Empire. This postcolonial movement accepts that Portuguese imperialism existed and impacted vast areas of the world and that its basis was initially maritime in nature. Unlike the studies of the colonial past, studies now include the role of subalterns who were marginalised or even excluded from the prescribed colonial narrative. As a case study, this presentation attempts to explore the connection between the LusoPortuguese Larantuqueiro community and the Sandalwood trade between 1500 and 1860 CE. Archival-based secondary sources and maps and images from the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) have been used alongside first-hand observations in the region as the major resources for this study. The author accepts that further data is available in archives in Portugal, the Macau SAR, and possibly in the Netherlands that have yet to be investigated. The group of islands that the Portuguese referred to as ‘Flores’ are called the Lesser Sunda Islands. The largest of these islands is the Island of Flores, which is to the east of Komodo Island. Flores Island was originally called Pulau Nipa, or Snake Island, referring to its serpent-like shape, while Timor Island was said by locals to be the back of a crocodile. Long before the arrival of the Europeans in the sixteenth century, Southeast Asians had been trading among themselves. By the fifteenth century a system of local trade routes had developed that connected 1 �the region with China and Japan to the north, Malacca and on to India in the east and probably southwards beyond Timor to Northern Australia. The most precious exports of the region were cloves from the Islands of Ternate and Tidore, and nutmeg from the Banda Islands. But there were other valuable trading items, including Bird of Paradise feathers from the Aru Islands and New Guinea, Batik from Java, and Ikat textiles from Flores and Sumba. Rice and sago were extensively traded foods. But it is the trade in wood products that concerns us. 2. HISTORICAL INVESTIGATION Within a year of their capture of Malacca in 1511 CE, the Portuguese realized that most sandalwood prized by the Chinese came from islands somewhere to the southeast of Malacca and perhaps southwest of the ‘Spice Islands’ (Aritonang and Steenbrink 2008, 74). In 1512 CE, they arrived at Ternate, Tidore, and Banda. But did not initially establish either a factory or a castle. Over the next ten years, the Portuguese explored the region, giving the name Cabo das Flores (Cape of Flowers) to the eastern end of a long island. East of Flores Island was a narrow passage, the Strait of Flores, that allowed vessels to sail in an “S”- shaped route between the Flores Sea in the north to the Savu Sea in the south. To the east of Adonara Island the Portuguese became aware of the Island of Lembata. However, they initially merged the islands of Pantar and Alor into one island that they called Ombai. The name survives today as the Ombai Strait. The indigenous Kingdom of Larantuka, in the shadow of the volcano Ille Mandrini at the eastern tip of Flores, controlled the adjacent islands, including Solor. (Figure 1) Initially, around 1512 CE, the Portuguese were drawn to Lamakera, at the north-eastern end of Solor Island (Durand 2002, 50). Without doubt, the draw for the Portuguese was that this location was strategically located on an established trade route from Timor through the Lesser Sunda Islands to Makassar, the Malukus, and on to China. The hinterland of Solor was of little agricultural value, but the sea was rich in marine life, and the settlement was a producer of turtle shell, bêche de mer, and ambergris (Borschberg 2004, 12-13). The Island of Sumba to the west and the large island of Timor beyond the Savu Sea were particularly rich in sandalwood (Santalum album) and sappanwood (Caesalpinia sappan), which was used in dying in China (Souza 2004, 47). Between 1512 and 1558 CE, some Portuguese men and converted women from various Malay and Papuan ethnic groups settled at Lamakera on the eastern tip of Solor Island (Jarnagin 2011, 11). To this community were drawn people (often converts and slaves) from other Portuguese possessions, including Ambon, Malacca, Macau, India, and Mozambique Island. A form of creole Portuguese called simply ‘Portugis’ had developed in Malacca over the sixteenth century and became the lingua franca of this mixed population. At the time, this mixed Luso-Asian community was known by the Portuguese exonym ‘mestiço’ (Asian-European mixed) or ‘topaz’. The latter was a term from Portuguese India and suggested a community that was bilingual in Portuguese and another Asian language. But it also suggested some genetic mixture and Portuguese acculturation (Subrahmanyam 2 �2009, 25-26). The first arrival of Portuguese traders at Lifau in Timor in search of sandalwood was probably before 1550 CE. Figure 1: Changes in The Portuguese Sandalwood Trade to Macau (Source: Clifford Pereira) Figure 2: Mount Ille Mandrini, Flores Island, seen from the hot springs at Obyek Wisata Wiaplatin (Source: Clifford Pereira). 3 �In 1561 CE, four Dominican missionaries under the order of Brother António DaCruz left Malacca and arrived at Solor (Klamer 2010, 14). The Dominicans initially built a wooden fort at Lohayong on the north shore of the island facing Adonara in 1562 CE. The fort was burned down by a Javanese raid in 1563 CE. But the Dominicans continued their mission and reconstructed it in stone in 1566 CE. This became known as the O Forte de Solor. Within the fort, they built a dormitory, a seminary, and the church of Nossa Senhora de Piedade. Soon more Portuguese men with their Malay women arrived, and Lohayong became the primary Portuguese port for the sandalwood trade from Timor. By 1590 CE, the Christian population of Solor numbered 25,000. The Dominicans built the church of São João Evangelista (Saint John the Evangelist) at Lamakera, but it was destroyed in 1598 CE. In 1541 CE, a fleet from Makassar attacked and captured Larantuka on Flores Island, thereby extending the Buginese control over the valuable sandalwood trade from Timor to Makassar. Some Portuguese traders and their ‘mestiço’ agents from Solor decided to relocate to Larantuka, away from the control of the Portuguese state and the Dominican missionaries. But they were quickly followed by the Dominicans, and in 1596 CE, a seminary with an intake of 50 students was built at Larantuka (Andaya 2010, 403). The refugees and traders at Larantuka began to call themselves Larantuqueiros in the ‘Portugis’ creole that was now a lingua franca in the region, and the cosmopolitan settlement became increasingly influenced by the Portuguese. The Iberian Union between 1580 and 1640 CE brought all Portuguese settlements across the globe under Dutch attack, ousting the Portuguese from the spice trade (Van Zanden 1999, 8). Larantuka became the Portuguese trading centre for the region in 1613 CE (Boxer 1991, 143). Meanwhile, the fort on Solor was wrested back and forth between the Dutch and Portuguese from 1613 to 1648 CE. Each attack produces refugees at Larantuka, bringing with them their trading networks. Even the powerful Dutch merchant De Hornay relocated. The Dutch called the Luso-Asians ‘Zwarte Portugeesen’, or Black Portuguese. The Dutch conquest of Malacca in 1641 CE produced Portuguese refugees, some of whom arrived with their servants and slaves at Larantuka (Byrne 2011, 134). The demise of Solor increased Larantuqueiro sandalwood trading activities in Timor and resulted in clashes with the Timorese Kingdoms (Lewis 2012, 187). The Dominicans followed the Larantuqueiro traders and also concentrated their activities in Timor, especially at Lifau. By 1640 CE, Larantuka had become the centre of Portuguese influence in the entire region, including Kupang and Lifau on the island of Timor and this helped to consolidate the sandalwood trade to Macau. The Dominicans had followed the sandalwood traders to Lifau and converted the royal family of Ambeno in 1641 CE. Portuguese refugees from the Dutch attack on Makassar in 1660 CE added to Larantuka’s population (Byrne 2011, 134). The Luso-Dutch Treaty of 1661 CE formally consolidated Dutch rule over the bay at Kupang in Western Timor (Durand 2002, 50). In the following year, the Portuguese decided to make Lifau the capital of their interests in the region instead of Larantuka, which had held that position since 1613 CE (Boxer 1991, 1430). But it was not until 1681 CE that the Portuguese formally listed Timor and the Solor Archipelago as part of their Estado or Eastern Empire (Andaya 2010, 393). Theoretically, the Larantuqueiros were under the Portuguese crown, but in fact they were autonomous with the support of the Dominican clergy and did not pay tribute or taxes to Portugal. Letters sent to Lisbon by their kings were ignored. Locally, a power struggle between the da Costa and de Hornay clans ensued for many years until they agreed to share power. The Larantuqueiros established Portuguese as their official language. Though the languages of commerce remained Portugis Creole and Malay. 4 �Throughout the seventeenth century, a series of Catholic kings ruled over Larantuka, backed by the Dominicans, who provided instruction in Portuguese as well as literacy for the elite. In 1701 CE, King João V of Portugal decided to separate the roles of the state and the church. He legitimized Portugal’s role in the region by appointing a governor of the “Province of Solor and Timor” who would report to the Viceroy of the Indies in Goa. But with only about a hundred men at his disposal, the governor could only maintain indirect control, which allowed the Dom of Larantuka and the chiefs of Timor to manage their own affairs during his four-year term. The weakness of the Portuguese crown allowed the Larantuqueiros freedom to seek any markets of profit, and while the eighteenth century, the Larantuqueiros at Lifau began trading with the Dutch based at Batavia, who found new global markets for Sappanwood (Souza 2004, 54). When the Portuguese government tried to wrest control of the trade, it was resisted by the Larantuqueiros. In response, the Portuguese moved their capital in 1769 CE to Dili (Aritonang and Steenbrink 2008, 93-95). The Larantuqueiros continued to control the sandalwood trade into the nineteenth century, and when Portuguese tried to regain control of the sources at Timor, the Larantuqueios contested their presence even at Dili (Durand 2002, 50). When the Lucy Cleveland visited Dili in 1829, the town was a distant Portuguese colony. Lucy Cleveland had joined her husband William, an American trader who was looking to purchase sandalwood as part of the ‘China Trade’. Interestingly, they were unable to procure sandalwood in Kupang, but with the help of a Portuguese merchant, they did gain a cargo of sandalwood at Dili and sailed to Macau (Puga 2007, 3-33). This would suggest that the sandalwood trade in western Timor had already been oriented westward towards Batavia and Dutch control. While Portuguese Dili remained the source for direct trade with Macau (Figure 1). In 1844 CE, the Portuguese stopped administering the East Asian empire from Goa and shifted the administration of Larantuka and Timor to Macau. This reflected the strengthening of trading links in the region and attracted Cantonese traders. In 1851 CE, the Portuguese in Timor were in debt and sought any means to provide an income for their two remaining possessions in Southeast Asia, Timor and the Lesser Sundas. In 1854 CE, the year that naturalist Alfred Wallace sailed out to Southeast Asia, the Portuguese offered the Dutch the sovereign rights to the Lesser Sundas and the remaining half of western Timor, with the exception of Oecussi and the settlement of Lifau for 200,000 florins. The treaty also allowed the Dutch and Portuguese to swap some territory on Timor (Durand 2002, 51). The total area of the Portuguese territory that passed to the Netherlands was around 20,897 sq. kms which is about the same area as Wales. The Luso-Dutch Treaty of April 20, 1859, ratified the frontiers suggested in 1854, but there were still border issues in Timor to be resolved (Durand 2002, 52). By the time Albert Wallace left Southeast Asia in 1862, the Larantuqueios were no longer Portuguese nationals. During the course of the eighteenth century, some Larantuqueiros relocated to Kupang where, they married European sandalwood traders, combining the Larantuqueiro regional networks with international networks. Women played an important part in this process, and perhaps this is how we should view the wife of Captain Drysdale, painted by Thomas Baines in 1856 CE at Kupang. Albert Wallace describes Mrs. Drysdale as a person of “European and Chinese parentage”. 3. CONCLUSION The Portuguese did not create new trade routes but entrenched themselves in pre-existing profitable systems. Portuguese men certainly played a part. However, most political and religious decisions were 5 �made in Goa and later Macau, and the majority of the Dominican clergy that came to the region were of Luso-Asian or Christian Indian origins. Portuguese religious and political control followed the sandalwood traders. In the case of the sandalwood trade the Portuguese relied heavily on local brokers and their networks. Three distinct levels of ethnic interaction played their part in the sandalwood trade: On a macro level, Portuguese weaponry and maritime technology were applied against local competitors such as the Buginese and Javanese or against rival Europeans such as the Dutch, but always with the contribution of mixed-ethnic crewmen and soldiers. On a median level, Portuguese trade eventually relied on supportive networks established by cosmopolitan settlements like Solor, Laurantaka, Kupang, Lifau, and Dili, which were semiautonomous and often beyond the reach of either Lisbon or Goa and where the creole Portuguese language served as the trading lingua franca. On a micro level, individual Portuguese men entered mutually beneficial marital and extramarital relationships with local or migrant women resulting in competing clans of mixed-heritage Luso-Asian traders who, in many cases, represented the ‘Portuguese presence’ in the region. From the seventeenth century on, the Luso-Asian Larantuqueiros became the leading brokers in the sandalwood trade in the Lesser Sunda Islands and Timor. They held agency over the local Timorese kingdoms and chieftains who supplied the sandalwood. There needs to be a rewriting of history that takes into account local and subaltern brokerage and the roles of such people as the Larantuqueiros in the so-called Portuguese Empire. As the sandalwood source shifted to Timor and the Larantuqueiros sought to trade westward to the Dutch at Batavia. The Portuguese authorities moved eastward to Dili for their trade to Macau, and Larantuka itself was bypassed by the new trade route. The legacy of the sandalwood trade is that the island of Flores is predominately Christian in the most populous Muslim country in the world and that a curious TimorLeste exclave of Oeccusi exists on the northern coast of Indonesian West Timor. Acknowledgements Carvallo, Maria. Larantuka, Flores, Indonesia. Club Lusitano. Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China. Foster, Christopher (late). Larantuka, Flores, Indonesia. Kerry Stokes Foundation, Western Australia, Australia. Neil Williams, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China. Royal Geographical Society (with IBG), London, England. UK. Sabah State Museum, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia. Bibliography Andaya, Leonard Y. “The ‘Informal Portuguese Empire’ and the Topasses in the Solor archipelago and Timor in the Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries”. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. Vol. 41, 3 (2010): 390-420. Aritonang, Jan Sihar and Steenbrink, Karel. “The Solor-Timor Mission of the Dominicans, 1562-1800,” In A history of Christianity in Indonesia, edited by Jan Sihar Aritonang and Karel Steenbrink, 73-94. Leiden: BRILL. 2008. Borschberg, Peter. “O Commércio de âmbar cinzento asiático na época moderna (séculos XV a XVIII).” In Oriente No.8, edited by Carla Alferes Pinto. 3-25. Lisbon: Fundação Oriente, 2004. Boxer, Charles R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415-1825. Lisbon: Carcanet, 1991. 6 �Byrne, John. “The Luso-Asians and other Eurasians: Their Domestic and Diasporic Identities.” In The Making of the LusoAsian World: Intricacies of Engagement, edited by Laura Jarnagin. 131-154. Singapore: ISEAS. 2011. Durand, Frédéric. East Timor: A Country at the Crossroads of Asia and the Pacific. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2002. Jarnagin, Laura. “Introduction: Towards Clarity Through Complexity.” In The Making of the Luso-Asian World: Intricacies of Engagement, edited by Laura Jarnagin. 1-19. Singapore: ISEAS. 2011. Klamer, Marian. The Grammar of the Teiwa. New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2010. Lewis, Douglas. The Stranger Kings of Sikka. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2010. Puga, Rogério M. “Macau e Timor em 1829: O diário e os desenhos inédiis de Lucy Cleveland.” In Orient. No 18, 40-58. Lisbon: Fundação Oriente. 2007. Souza, Bryan. “Tingindo de Vermelho: O sapão do Sudeste Asiático nos séculos XVII e XVIII.” In Oriente. No 8, edited by Carla Alferes Pinto. 40-58. Lisbon: Fundação Oriente. 2004. Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. “Pulverized in Aceh: On Luís Monteiro Coutinho and his ‘Martyrdom’”. Archipel 78. (2009): 16-40. Van Zanden, Henry. 1606 Discovery of Australia. Perth: Rio Bay Enterprises, 1999. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Uncovering the Luso-Asian Sandalwood Trade Conducted by the Larantuqueiros of Flores Island 1500-1860 CE Description An account of the resource The elongated island of Flores in Indonesia stands at geological, zoological, cultural, and ethnic boundaries. But the area is also predominately Christian in the most populous Muslim country in the world, reflecting that this part of Indonesia was officially part of the Portuguese Empire until 1859 CE. This presentation attempts to explore the connection between the Luso-Portuguese Larantuqueiro community and the sandalwood trade between 1500 and 1860 CE. The trade essentially between the island of Timor and China has shaped the political geography of the region during the colonial period, resulting in the present curious exclave of Oecusse and the minor islands that are part of Timor-Leste. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Clifford J Pereira Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Pereira, Clifford J.. 2023. “Uncovering the Luso-Asian Sandalwood trade conducted by the Larantuqueiros of Flores Island 1500-1860.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Wijerathne Bohingamuwa. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1947 Zotero Author Clifford J Pereira Asia-Pac Session 8 2023