17 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8cb2358c19528ea076a5ca02c4832296.pdf 2dd5bc09eb01eb01409102a38ebd5571 PDF Text Text Antimicrobial hydrogel patches for deacidification and conservation of waterlogged archaeological wood Xiaohang Suna, Junjie Chena, Xuanwei Zhangb, Qiang Chena* a School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai Campus, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, China 519082 b Marinetime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong, HVFF+3H3, Jiangcheng District, Yangjiang, Guangdong Province, China, 529536 *E-mail: chenqiang3@mail.sysu.edu.cn ABSTRACT The Nanhai No. 1 hull, a Chinese merchant ship sank during the Southern Song dynasty and excavated from the South China Sea, is an example of underwater cultural heritage waterlogged wood that has been preserved in situ for centuries. Although the overall structure of the wooden artifacts is still intact they are severely degraded and acidified. It is now urgent to explore effective approaches for its conservation, we explore the feasibility of antimicrobial hydrogel patches. Antimicrobial hydrogel patches dispersed with antibacterial and deacidification nanoparticles simultaneously deacidify, moisturize, and reinforce both antibacterial and mechanical aspects of waterlogged wood. In the construction of the antimicrobial hydrogel patches, the double network hydrogel was used to prepare the hydrogel substrate with stretch and mechanical strength. We have successfully applied the antimicrobial hydrogel patches to the waterlogged wood from Nanhai No. 1, with the support of the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. We demonstrate here the advantages of hydrogel patches to protect waterlogged wood with testing in deacidification, compression and antimicrobial. KEYWORDS: Underwater cultural heritage waterlogged wood; Antibacterial (preserve); Nanhai No. 1; Deacidification; Antimicrobial (preventative); Mechanical support (protect against the harsh external conditions) INTRODUCTION In 2007, the 800-year-old Nanhai No.1 shipwreck hull was raised from the seabed and moved to the Marine Silk Road Museum, where it was conserved (Z. Liu et al. 2018). Early studies of the wood at the museum showed that the structural damage of the underwater cultural heritage (henceforth UCH) waterlogged wood, composed of softwoods, was severe to not withstand long-term spray deacidification and moisture retention (Huang et al. 2021; R. Li et al. 2022; Z. Liu et al. 2018; Yin et al. 2019). As the archaeological excavation continues on the Nanhai No. 1, like other conservation efforts the severe acidification and salt deposition on the surface is an important challenge for the protection of the UCH (Amornkitbamrung et al. 2015; Babiński et al. 2017; Baglioni and Giorgi 2006; Cavallaro et al. 2017; Chelazzi, Giorgi, and Baglioni 2006; Dong et al. 2010; Durán et al. 2016; Eriksen, Gregory, and Matthiesen 2017; Giorgi, Chelazzi, and Baglioni 2005; Giorgi et al. 2002; L. Liu et al. 2019; Mahltig et al. 2008; Majka, Babiński, and Olek 2017; Piotrowska and Konieczny 2015; Poggi et al. 2016; Sandström, Fors, and Persson 2003; Sandström et al. 2002; Schofield et al. 2011; Walsh-Korb 2022; Walsh-Korbs and Avérous 2019; Y. Li et al. 2022; Zelinka 2014; Zhou, Wang, and Hu 2021). Temperature, salinity, fungi, and bacteria are the cause of the severe cell wall decay (Capretti et al. 2008; Colombini et al. 2009; Hoffmann and Jones 1989. To neutralize the sulfuric acid and add antimicrobial protection for UCH waterlogged wood we prepared and applied an antimicrobial hydrogel patch. Antimicrobial hydrogel patches dispersed with antibacterial and deacidification nanoparticles simultaneously deacidify, moisturize, and reinforce both antibacterial and mechanical aspects of waterlogged wood (Gong 2014; Gong et al. 2003). This antimicrobial hydrogel patch served as mechanical support, deacidification, and antibacterial functions, during post-excavation conservation and prior to the addition of consolidates (Bai et al. 2019). We conducted 1 �a thorough literature review of shipwreck conservation of waterlogged woods; here we demonstrate in collaboration with the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong the advantages of antimicrobial hydrogel patches to protect waterlogged wood on the Nanhai No. 1 hull with testing in deacidification, compression, and antimicrobial. EXPERIMENTS Materials The UCH waterlogged wood from the Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck was generously provided by the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong with a maximum moisture content of around 529%. The UCH waterlogged wood was stored in 0.5wt% isothiazolinone solution and washed with excess amount of water three times prior to conservation. The following chemicals were purchased: Acrylamide (AR, 99.0%) and sodium citrate (98%) from Aladdin; Potassium persulfate (GR, 99.9%), potassium bicarbonate (AR, 99.5%), and N,N,N',N'-Tetramethylethylenediamine (99%) from Macklin; N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA,98%) from Maya Reagent; Silver nitrate (99%) from Alfa Aesar; Calcium Sulfate (97%) from Rhawn; and sodium alginate (AR, 98%) from RYON. All chemicals were used directly without additional purification. Method We prepared the antimicrobial hydrogel patches and performed three tests: deacidification, compression and antimicrobial. Preparation of antimicrobial hydrogel patches 12.44grams (g) of acrylamide and 1.56g of sodium alginate were dissolved in deionized water to form an acrylamide solution with a water content of 60-80 per cent by weight (wt%). After degassing the solution for one day, we added 0.0018g and 0.0036g of silver nitrate and 0.2g sodium citrate. Then we added 0.5g potassium persulfate, 0.0074g MBAA, 0.031g tetramethylethylenediamine and potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) at 1.5g, 2.5g, and 3.5g. The solution was transferred to a transparent mold and exposed to UV light (254nanometers (nm), 8 watts (W) power output) for one hour. The resulting hydrogel was carefully removed from the molded and immersed in calcium sulfate solution for 20-40 minutes. Deacidification test The Nanhai No. 1 UCH waterlogged wood was wrapped for three hours with the antimicrobial hydrogel patch (see recipe above). The pH of the UCH waterlogged wood was measured by soaking 1g in 30g of deionized water for 30 minutes and measuring the pH of the soaking water (Mettler Toledo, FE28). The pH meter was calibrated with a standard solution before use. Compression test A compression test was conducted using a universal tensile tester (Haida Instrument, HD-A513). The displacement as a function of force was measured for the synthesized hydrogels with the KHCO3 concentration at 1.5g, 2.5g, and 3.5g and compression speed of 116 millimeters per minute (mm/min). Antimicrobial test The antimicrobial performance of the hydrogels was measured via disk diffusion test based on Oxford cup method. Briefly, the prepared agar medium was sterilized at 121°C for 15 minutes, and cooled to about 55-50°C before pouring into a petri dish to form the bottom layer of agar gel. Then, E. coli culture grown in sterilized lysogeny broth (LB) media was applied on the surface of the agar media. 2 �After one day when the E. coli culture completely covers the agar media, the prepared hydrogel was grinded into a flowable state and added dropwise into an Oxford cup. With 37°C and one day incubation, the antimicrobial performance was evaluated based on the zone of inhibition around the Oxford cup. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this paper, an antimicrobial hydrogel patch used in the early stages of UCH waterlogged wood conservation was prepared using weak alkaline compounds. Fig. 1a shows a sample of the waterlogged wood. Water was sprayed routinely to maintain the water content of the waterlogged wood. Waterlogged wood, on the hull of Nanhai No.1 shipwreck, in some areas show heavy precipitation and bacterial decomposition (Fig. 1b 1c and 1d). Figure 1 waterlogged wood (a) with precipitation cleaned; (b) on the hull of Nanhai No.1 shipwreck; (c) and (d) with severe bacterial decomposition. Another advantage of the hydrogel deacidification material is that it is soft and easily stretches to change shape. The tensile and compression properties were measured. Fig. 2a and 2b are photographs of released and stretched hydrogel, respectively. More than 1000% elongation was achieved with the polyacrylamide/alginate hydrogel with silver nanoparticles dispersed. 3 �Figure 2 polyacrylamide/alginate hydrogel (a) at rest; (b) tensioned and elongated; (c) graph of compression with different KHCO3 concentrations. The hydrogels with 0.5% and 2.5% KHCO3 are close in Young’s modulus, while the hydrogel with 2.5% KHCO3 has higher Young’s modulus (Fig 2c), which might be caused by the difference in ionic crosslinking of silver and potassium ions. The hydrogel with potassium percarbonate was used to wrap the waterlogged wood (Fig. 3a-c). The weak alkaline KHCO3 neutralized the sulfuric acid in the waterlogged wood, which resulted in a pH increase from 4.0 to 7.2 (Fig 3d). It was also confirmed that above 0.5% KHCO3 concentration, the increase in KHCO3 did not contribute to the pH increase remarkably. Gentle adhesion of the hydrogel to the wood neutralization occurs immediately, which lead to fast and significant pH increase. We suspect this is due to the large water content of the hydrogel, while also performing the adhesion underwater, is homogeneous. Figure 3 antimicrobial hydrogel (a) patch (b) patch and waterlogged wood (c) wrapped around waterlogged wood; (d) bar graph of pH test with different KHCO3 concentrations. The results of hydrogel antibacterial experiments proved it can protect waterlogged wood from bacterial degradation. When 30 μg/mL silver nitrate in the hydrogel was converted to silver nanoparticles, the antimicrobial properties of the hydrogels became sufficient to prevent bacterial degradation. Comparing Fig 4b and 4c, we see the increase of the silver nanoparticles from 30 μg/mL 4 �silver nitrate converted to silver nanoparticles to 60 μg/mL silver nitrate converted to silver nanoparticles had less effect on the increase in antimicrobial properties. Figure 4 antimicrobial hydrogel with silver nitrate converted to silver nanoparticles (a) control sample without;(b) zones of inhibition caused by 30 μg/mL; (c) zones of inhibition caused by 60 μg/mL. CONCLUSIONS In this paper, we explore the feasibility of using antimicrobial hydrogel patches with excellent mechanical strength for conservation of waterlogged wood. We focused our testing on antimicrobial hydrogels deacidification and antibacterial properties. We noted the prepared hydrogel patches match well with weak alkaline and high water content properties to carry out ion exchange to reduce the acidity. Double network polymer structure was utilized to increase the stretch of the hydrogel, which provides mechanical support to the highly decayed softwood. These antimicrobial hydrogel patches can perform targeted restoration and preservation as indicated by our research and testing of UCH waterlogged wood from Nanhai No.1 with the help of the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. AUTHOR INFORMATION Mailing address: School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University Zhuhai, Guangdong Province 519082 China; Email: chenqiang3@mail.sysu.edu.cn Xiaohang Sun, Junjie Chen, Xuanwei Zhang, Qiang Chen* contributed equally to this work. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript. 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Zhou, Yihang, Kai Wang, and Dongbo Hu. “An Aqueous Approach to Functionalize Waterlogged Archaeological Wood Followed by Improved Surface-Initiated ARGET ATRP for Maintaining Dimensional Stability.” Cellulose 28, no. 4 (2021): 2433–2443. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 14: Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 14 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 14 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Antimicrobial hydrogel patches for deacidification and conservation of waterlogged archaeological wood Description An account of the resource The Nanhai No. 1 hull, a Chinese merchant ship sank during the Southern Song dynasty and excavated from the South China Sea, is an example of underwater cultural heritage waterlogged wood that has been preserved in situ for centuries. Although the overall structure of the wooden artifacts is still intact they are severely degraded and acidified. It is now urgent to explore effective approaches for its conservation, we explore the feasibility of antimicrobial hydrogel patches. Antimicrobial hydrogel patches dispersed with antibacterial and deacidification nanoparticles simultaneously deacidify, moisturize, and reinforce both antibacterial and mechanical aspects of waterlogged wood. In the construction of the antimicrobial hydrogel patches, the double network hydrogel was used to prepare the hydrogel substrate with stretch and mechanical strength. We have successfully applied the antimicrobial hydrogel patches to the waterlogged wood from Nanhai No. 1, with the support of the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. We demonstrate here the advantages of hydrogel patches to protect waterlogged wood with testing in deacidification, compression and antimicrobial. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xiaohang Sun Junjie Chen Xuanwei Zhang Qiang Chen Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Sun, Xiaohang , Junjie Chena, Xuanwei Zhangb, and Qiang Chena. 2023. “Antimicrobial hydrogel patches for deacidification and conservation of waterlogged archaeological wood.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1909 Asia-Pac Session 14 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/eed1593b3e75fedc02c5fbd4b3478c8c.pdf 0d57e324a1194ea90d132c64c15915b2 PDF Text Text Conserving Ropes from the Phanom-Surin Shipwreck in Thailand: Case Study on Storage and Exhibition at the National Museum of Thailand Natchaya Pattanasuttirata , Kunthida Chimmab , Puangporn Srisomboon, and Monchalus Pitisinchoochai Conservation Science Division, Office of National Museum, The Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, Thailand a Natchaya.peary@gmail.com, bChimma.kun@hotmail.com ABSTRACT There are several important factors to consider when studying appropriate conservation methods for fibers in museum exhibitions or storage. This research focused on investigating the potential of using Trehalose and polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG4000) as treatments for shipwreck rope fibers in Thailand's museums. The efficacy of these treatments was evaluated by using a twisted fiber thread to tie the torpedo jar. The initial desalinated fibers were subjected to three groups: untreated rope was dried at room temperature, ropes conserved with Trehalose, and ropes conserved with PEG4000. Identical concentrations of both the Trehalose and PEG4000 solutions started at a concentration of 25 percent brix then increased progressively to 40 percent and 60 percent brix. We employed four different analyses. We used scanning electron microscopy to study morphological properties. Prior to treatment and after treatment we compared numerical evaluation of the colour change using ΔE* values (CIE L*a*b* system). We recorded reflectance using wavelengths of white light ranges (380-780 nm). We used differential scanning calorimetry technique for thermal properties. The results indicate the Trehalose fibers had a melting temperature of 192.8°C and exhibited less change in colour and reflectance compared to the others. The PEG4000 fibers had a melting temperature at 59.3°C. Trehalose had higher thermal properties compared to PEG4000. Thus, Trehalose is an appropriate conservation material for ropes and other fiber-based materials that are stored or displayed in environments with high humidity and temperature, such as the case in Thailand. Keywords Phanom-Surin Shipwreck, conservation of rope (fiber), Trehalose, PEG4000 List of Figure Figure 1 The twisted fiber used for tie Torpedo jars Figure 2. Untreated fiber. a) Cross-sectional, b) Cross-sectional lumen, c) Longitudinal Figure 3. PEG4000 fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal Figure 4. Trehalose fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal Figure 5. Fresh sugar palm fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal Figure 6. Twisted rope. (a) Untreated rope, (b) Trehalose-treated rope, (c) PEG4000-treated rope Figure 7. Graph of reflectance comparison results between untreated fiber, Trehalose fiber, and PEG4000 fiber. Figure 8. DSC thermogram of untreated fibers (a), pure Trehalose (b), pure PEG4000 (c), Trehalose fibers (d), and PEG4000 fibers (e): 1st Heating. 3 5 5 5 6 6 6 8 List of Table Table 1 shows the results of the L*a*b* colour space data for untreated rope, rope treated with Trehalose, and rope treated with PEG4000 7 1 �1. INTRODUCTION The Phanom-Surin shipwreck was discovered at Samut Sakhon, Thailand in September 2013. The shipwreck is dated to the 9th century CE (1stROFAD 2016). We narrow our discussion to the excavated rope fibers. Our literature review on rope fiber or “Tao” fibers identified them as Arenga pinnata, commonly known as the sugar palm or Arenga palm (Mahaphol 2013). For centuries sugar palm fibers were used as ropes for ships due to their exceptional strength, durability, and resistance to saltwater (Ishak et al. 2012, 700). Our study expands from this literature review to focus on the conservation of twisted rope/fiber, used to tie Torpedo jars (Figure 2), with a specific emphasis on museum exhibition and storage purposes. In this study, we compared conservation of fresh sugar palm fibers in PEG4000 and Trehalose, which demonstrated superior properties compared to the non-treated fibers. We examined moisture absorption, which the fibers treated with Trehalose (henceforth Trehalose fiber) showed lower moisture absorption than the fibers treated with PEG4000 (henceforth PEG4000 fiber). We compare the physical characteristics of the fibers that underwent conservation treatment (in either PEG4000 or Trehalose) by the changes in reflectance, colour and heat resistance. Our results are intended for use to design a conservation plan for the appropriate environment for museum display, storage, and conservation. Figure 1 The twisted fiber used to tie Torpedo jars 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Materials On the Phanom-Surin shipwreck ropes were used to tie Torpedo jars. PEG4000 (M w ≈ 3500 - 4000) was purchased from Loba ChemieTM, India. Trehalose (TREHA®) was purchased from Hayashibara Co.Ltd., Japan. 2.2 Samples preparation We prepared the fiber samples by flushing with deionized water until the electrical conductivity (EC) of the solution was below 100 μS. The fibers were divided into three groups, dry at room temperature, soaked with Trehalose or PEG4000. We tightly covered the fibers while soaking to prevent water evaporation. i. ii. Untreated - The untreated fibers were dried at room temperature. Soaked with Trehalose - The fibers were immersed in Trehalose starting with 20 percent brix at room temperature (34°C). The solution was heated, while the Trehalose concentration increased from 40 percent to 60 percent brix. The controlled temperature did not exceed 80°C, and the fibers were immersed for 24 hours. Once the fibers reached the (20, 40, 60) percent brix constants the fibers were dried with an electric-fan until completely dried. The fibers were cleaned with warm water to remove any residual Trehalose and dried until a constant weight is obtained. 2 �iii. 2.3 Soaked with PEG4000 - The immersion process in PEG4000 follows the same procedure as immersion in the Trehalose solution, but the fibers were left to dry at room temperature. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) After sample preparation (see above for details) all fibers were immersed in liquid nitrogen, broken up and stored in a desiccator to absorb moisture for one day. Each were coated with gold (Au-Coating) through an auto fine coater (Smart Coater, DII-29030SCTR) for 4 minutes. Analysis was conducted with a benchtop scanning electron microscope (JCM-7000, JEOL) at 5 kilovolts (kV). 2.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) After sample preparation and SEM all fibers underwent thermal analysis with the Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) technique (Mettler Toledo brand). Five milligrams (mg) of sample were sealed hermetically in the aluminium crucible. Nitrogen gas was purged at a flow rate of 20 millilitres per minute (mL/min). At a heating rate of 10 °C/min across a range from -20 to 200°C to 50 to 230°C. 2.5 Spectroradiometer After sample preparation, SEM and DSC all fibers underwent spectroradiometer (Konica Minolta CS2000), with wavelengths from 380 to 780 nanometers (nm) range. The samples were prepared by twining and thickening the ropes, three random points were selected for spectroradiometer at a 0.2 aperture in the (CIELAB) (Commission Internationale de l´Eclairage, L*, a* and b* represent each of the three values the CIELAB color space uses to measure objective color and calculate color differences. L* represents lightness from black to white on a scale of zero to 100, while a* and b* represent chromaticity with no specific numeric limits. Negative a* corresponds with green, positive a* corresponds with red, negative b* corresponds with blue and positive b* corresponds with yellow). Under the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) commonly used D65 - D series of illuminants portray standard illumination conditions at open-air in different parts of the world measurements were taken and the reflectance values were averaged. The data was then analyzed for colour variability. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Our study focuses on the conservation of waterlogged fiber in Trehalose and PEG4000 that was used to tie Torpedo jars in the Phanom-Surin shipwreck (Figure 2), for the purpose of museum exhibition and storage. 3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy Microscopic examinations of fibers treated with Trehalose and PEG4000 show structural differences compared to untreated rope samples. Untreated rope displayed severe degradation, collapse of cells, and the longitudinal section had a hole where the silica had come off (Figure 4-c). Fresh sugar palm fibers retain silica (Figure 7-c). Cross-sections of PEG4000-treated and Trehalose-treated ropes appeared similar to each other. PEG4000-treated rope had a smoother longitudinal surface (Figure 5c), while Trehalose-treated rope exhibited an orthorhombic crystal form (Figure 6-c). These differences indicate distinct effects of the different immersive treatments of conserved fibers. Trehalose and PEG4000 conserved fibers of twisted rope show surface cracks due to SEM sample preparation. The micrograph of these twisted fibers (Figure 8) show reduced bend and twist resistance. Specifically, Trehalose exhibits lower twist resistance than PEG4000. In previous research the conserved fibers improved tensile strength (Mahaphol 2013). Trehalose, with its rigid crystalline structure, demonstrates higher tensile strength than PEG4000 and untreated rope. 3 �Silica Body (a) (b) Hole of Silica Body (c) Figure 2. Untreated fiber. a) Cross-sectional, b) Cross-sectional lumen, c) Longitudinal (a) (b) (c) Figure 3. PEG4000 fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal (a) (b) (c) Figure 4. Trehalose fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal Silica Body (a) (b) (c) Figure 5. Fresh sugar palm fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal (a) (b) (c) Figure 6. Twisted rope. (a) Untreated rope, (b) Trehalose-treated rope, (c) PEG4000-treated rope 4 �3.2 Reflectance (percent) Figure 7. Graph of reflectance comparison results between untreated fiber, Trehalose fiber, and PEG4000 fiber. The results of the reflectance (percent) measurements indicate that both PEG4000 and Trehalose conserved fibers increased reflectance compared to the non-treated fiber. Pointedly, the PEG4000 fiber exhibited higher reflectance percentage than the Trehalose fiber. This suggests that PEG4000 treatment may have more significant impact on enhancing the fiber's reflective properties. PEG4000 fiber (Figure 5-c) surfaces were coated with a layer of silica so the longitudinal surface reflection was smoother and more uniform, which resulted in regular reflection of incident light. In contrast, the Trehalose fiber (Figure 6-c) have rough surfaces with irregularly shaped rectangular features and thickness varies, which leads to scattered reflection of incident light. The diffused light in multiple directions is disordered and does not exhibit regular reflection. This causes a decrease in the detected signal. 3.3 Colour measurement ΔE* Table 1 shows the results of the L*a*b* colour space data for untreated fiber, Trehalose fiber, and PEG4000 fiber. L* ± SD a* ± SD b* ± SD ΔE* No-treatment (PSF ) 14.17±2.20 0.66±0.21 2.20±0.23 - PSF/PEG4000 15.85±3.05 0.56±0.77 1.03±0.44 2.05 PSF/Trehalose 14.12±4.49 0.98±0.53 2.03±0.98 0.37 No-treatment (Currently) 23.53±4.59 1.89±0.60 7.33±0.45 10.74 Treatment a Note: a PSF refers to Phanom-Surin fiber The untreated fiber has a low L* value of 14.17, indicating a relatively dark colour. The positive a* value of 0.66 and positive b* value of 2.20 suggests the colour of the untreated fiber has a slightly reddish-yellow hue. The PEG4000 fiber increased the L* value to 15.85, indicating a brighter colour. The a* value decreased slightly to 0.56, indicating a slightly greener hue, while the b* value decreased significantly to 1.03, indicating a more blueish hue. The Trehalose fiber resulted in a similar L* value as the untreated fiber at 14.12, but a higher positive a* value of 0.98 and a higher positive b* value of 2.03. This suggests that the Trehalose fiber colour has a more reddish-yellow hue than the untreated fiber. The CIE L*a*b* colour system allowed us to evaluate the colour change of the fiber. The colour difference (ΔE*) was calculated by comparing the colour values of the treated and non-treated fibers. ΔE* value greater than one was considered visually detectable. 5 �The results of the colour measurement ΔE* for PEG4000 fiber (2.05) and Trehalose fiber (0.37) (non-treated fiber so there is no ΔE* value) indicate that the addition of PEG4000 to the fiber caused a significant colour change, while Trehalose fiber minimally changed. These findings suggest that the Trehalose treatment more effectively preserves the colour stability of the sugar palm fiber than PEG4000. The cause of colour change requires further investigation. 3.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Figure 8. DSC thermogram of untreated fibers (a), pure Trehalose (b), pure PEG4000 (c), Trehalose fibers (d), and PEG4000 fibers (e): 1st Heating. We investigated the thermal properties of fibers following preservation with Trehalose and PEG4000 treatment, which resulted in changes in the thermogram characteristics of the fibers. Figure 10 (a) and (d) show the relationship between Fiber and Fiber/Trehalose. DSC thermogram: peaks at 96.11°C and 139.73°C for Fiber, and 92.27°C and 149.44°C for Fiber/Trehalose. The first peak corresponds to water evaporation. Fiber/Trehalose has more easily evaporated water due to the attributed hydroxyl groups in the cellulose structure, which make it difficult to bond with water. The presence of a hydroxyl group of Trehalose in Fiber/Trehalose also binds to the cellulose of the fiber, causing a decrease in the amount of bonding between water and cellulose. At 149.44°C, the melting temperature (Tm) of Fiber or Fiber/Trehalose occurs. In fact, Trehalose's melting temperature is at 192.80°C, which causes the crystals of the Trehalose chain to fold into lamellae this absorbs heat energy from surroundings and causes vibrations until the intermolecular attraction is overcome. As a result, the crystals dissociate into randomly spaced Trehalose chain molecules. The second peak of Fiber/Trehalose (Figure 10 (b)) covers Trehalose's melting peak and has a wide range. The temperature transition from glassy state to rubbery state (T g) occurs at 106.50 °C, where Trehalose chains in the amorphous region absorb heat energy, which increase distance between chains and free up space for volume. Comparison of the DSC of Fiber and Fiber/Trehalose, Trehalose treatment raised the second peak temperature, this indicates higher melting temperature and improved high-temperature resistance. Figure 10 (a) and (c) show the relationship between Fiber and Fiber/ PEG4000. From and (c), the first peak observed at 54.36°C (Figure 10e) corresponds to the melting temperature (T m) of PEG4000. A lower melting point than Trehalose. PEG4000 is composed of repeated units of ethylene glycol, which 6 �enable it to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. In comparison, Trehalose is composed of a cyclic glucose disaccharide that forms strong hydrogen bonds due to the two glucose molecules being linked by an α,α-1,1-glycosidic bond. These structures when compared result in Trehalose’s higher melting temperature than PEG4000. Based on the thermal investigation, Trehalose-treated rope showed superior thermal stability and less moisture absorption than PEG4000. 4. CONCLUSION We demonstrated the use of Trehalose and PEG4000 in the conservation of twisted fiber used to tie the torpedo jars on the Phanom-Surin shipwreck. The results showed the Trehalose fibers had less change in colour, reflectance and higher thermal properties compared to the PEG4000 fibers. We conclude Trehalose is an effective conservation material for fibers in high humidity and temperature environments. The use of Trehalose as a conservation treatment for sugar palm fibers created a barrier between the cellulose structure and water, which reduced the amount of water that can evaporate from the fibers. The experiments in this study are informative and favour Trehalose as the preferred fiber treatment for museum display and storage in high humidity and heat environments, such as Thailand. Acknowledgements The authors sincerely thank Mr.Sanae Mahaphol and Ms.Sopit Panyakhan, Scientists from conservation science division, and The Fine Arts Department of Thailand for their help and constant encouragement. Thanks Ms.Sirin Yuanyaidee, Director of Kanchanaphisek National Museum and staff. Thank you Assoc.Prof.Dr.Mantana Opaprakasit and Dr.Intatch Hongrattanavichit from Faculty of Science Chulalongkorn University for their support with the analysis instruments and their advice. Moreover, we’re grateful to the Sumitomo Foundation, Japan and Ms.Umaporn Kruekamwang, Director of Office of National Science Museum Thailand for the support. Bibliography Ishak, M.R., S.M. Sapuan, Z. Leman, M.Z.A. Rahman, U.M.K Anwar, and J.P. Siregar. "Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata): Its fibres, polymers and composites." ELSEVIER (2012): 700. Mahaphol, Saneh. "The conservation of ropes from the Phanom-Surin Shipwreck Site, Thailand." Academia (2013): 1-16. The 1st Regional Office of Fine Arts Department, Ratchaburi Fine Arts Department (1stROFRD). Study of Phanom-Surin Shipwreck, Phanthai Norasing Sub-district, Meuang District, Samut Sakhon Province (2013-2015). Bangkok: Bangkok in House, co., 2016. 7 �8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 14: Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 14 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 14 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Conserving Ropes from the Phanom-Surin Shipwreck in Thailand: Case Study on Storage and Exhibition at the National Museum of Thailand Description An account of the resource There are several important factors to consider when studying appropriate conservation methods for fibers in museum exhibitions or storage. This research focused on investigating the potential of using Trehalose and polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG4000) as treatments for shipwreck rope fibers in Thailand's museums. The efficacy of these treatments was evaluated by using a twisted fiber thread to tie the torpedo jar. The initial desalinated fibers were subjected to three groups: untreated rope was dried at room temperature, ropes conserved with Trehalose, and ropes conserved with PEG4000. Identical concentrations of both the Trehalose and PEG4000 solutions started at a concentration of 25 percent brix then increased progressively to 40 percent and 60 percent brix. We employed four different analyses. We used scanning electron microscopy to study morphological properties. Prior to treatment and after treatment we compared numerical evaluation of the colour change using ΔE* values (CIE L*a*b* system). We recorded reflectance using wavelengths of white light ranges (380-780 nm). We used differential scanning calorimetry technique for thermal properties. The results indicate the Trehalose fibers had a melting temperature of 192.8°C and exhibited less change in colour and reflectance compared to the others. The PEG4000 fibers had a melting temperature at 59.3°C. Trehalose had higher thermal properties compared to PEG4000. Thus, Trehalose is an appropriate conservation material for ropes and other fiber-based materials that are stored or displayed in environments with high humidity and temperature, such as the case in Thailand. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Natchaya Pattanasuttirat Kunthida Chimma Puangporn Srisomboon Monchalus Pitisinchoochai Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Pattanasuttirata, Natchaya, Kunthida Chimmab, Puangporn Srisomboon, and Monchalus Pitisinchoochai. 2023. “Conserving Ropes from the Phanom-Surin Shipwreck in Thailand: Case Study on Storage and Exhibition at the National Museum of Thailand.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1908 Asia-Pac Session 14 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6f710367be2dd8879f532536b8b11c33.pdf 8b5454b707b65a9555e4cbfe91a12faf PDF Text Text Impact Assessment of Current and Future Sea-Level Rises on Coastal and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Indonesia Ulung J. Wisha1,2, Wisnu A. Gemilang3, & Nia N. H. Ridwan3 1 Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara-Japan 2 Research Center for Oceanography, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jakarta-Indonesia 3 Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV), Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Padang-Indonesia ABSTRACT Despite the indirect impact of sea level rises on underwater archaeological sites, identifying future conditions is imperative to support conservation planning to minimise the possible effects that may occur. This study aims to identify the sea level trends in several important archaeological sites in Indonesia and estimate the future change due to sea level rises. Altimetry satellite data were employed to determine the sea level anomaly (SLA) of three chosen sites: Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore, where significant historical objects were recently discovered. Hydrodynamic-based modelling was also used to estimate the water properties alteration in 2100 as predicted by IPCC AR6, with a projection of about 0.68-0.70 meters (m) sea level increase. Under the sea level rise scenario, the current magnitude will increase significantly by about 33-35per cent in 2100. It is followed by an increase in sediment transport of 18 – 37 per cent. As sedimentation is the primary issue in these three sites, sea level rises will induce sufficiently high sedimentation on archaeological remains, and artefact shifting position is also possible due to the more robust current regimes. Therefore, regular monitoring is an effort to protect the archaeological remains. If possible, excavations are also recommended to conserve the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Indonesia since it faces an upward sea level trend. Keywords: UCH, shipwreck, artefacts, sea level trends, sea level projections INTRODUCTION Sea level rise has become a growing concern in recent years as it threatens coastal areas and poses a significant threat to the preservation of underwater archaeological sites (Wetsley et al. 2023, 251-253). Indonesia with its vast coastline and rich cultural history is no exception to this issue. The rising sea level in Indonesia is gradually eroding coastal areas and threatening to submerge many ancient underwater archaeological sites, which are essential for scientific research but also for the cultural heritage of the country (Adhityatama and Yarista 2019, 55-56). Understanding the relationship between sea level rise and underwater archaeological sites in Indonesia is crucial for preserving the country's cultural heritage and preventing the loss of valuable historical information. Several shipwrecks and underwater archaeological sites in Indonesia are threatened by sea level rise, including those in the waters of Java and Sumatra. These sites would be a significant loss for scientific research and destroy Indonesia's cultural heritage. Therefore, preserving these sites and preventing them from being lost to the sea is essential. Historical shipwrecks are diving sites and the object of research in Indonesia (Dillenia et al. 2021, 2-3; Ridwan 2011, 5-6). To date, no studies assess the relationship of sea level trends with archaeological remains in the coastal and terrestrial zones. Some examples of well-known archaeological remains that may be threatened by sea level rise are: MV Boelongan Nederland, Gosong Nambi Shiwreck, and Ceramic findings in Sungai Nyalo, situated in the West Sumatra, USS Houston and HMAS Perth in 1 �Banten Bay, and Tonguwai and Soasio archaeological sites in Tidore Island, North Moluccas Province. This study will compare the status of sea level trends in these sites and their possible influence on the UCH. Estimating the future state concerning sea level projection established by The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) can be approached using hydrodynamic modelling and statistical-based analysis. Therefore, this study describes the possible impact of sea level rises on underwater archaeological remains in Indonesia. This study is expected to become a basis for future decision-making regarding UCH preservation for local and central authorities. CASE STUDIES As mentioned earlier, this study will assess the possible impact of sea level rise on UCH in Indonesia. Therefore, in this section, we want to introduce several essential sites threatened by sea level rise. There are many significant archaeological sites in the West Sumatra Province. However, in this stage, we will introduce the latest identified sites surrounding Mandeh Bay, namely MV Boelongan Nederland and Gosong Nambi Shipwreck underwater sites and Sungai Nyalo terrestrial site. In 2017, RICRV discovered plenty of artefacts in the terrestrial area of Mandeh Bay called Sunyai Nyalo Village, close to the MV Boelongan Nederland shipwreck. Of 654 fragments were conserved, consisting of ceramic pieces, green-glass bottles, and earthenware bottles with European, East Asian, and Southeast Asian motifs (Figure 1a and b). This finding is an example of the incredible impact of sea level rise since the upward trend of sea level induces significant erosion in the coastal area. Therefore, these artefacts could be discovered at a one-meter depth. Thus, analysing sea level anomalies in the West Sumatra region, particularly in the surrounding Mandeh Bay, is significant in understanding its impact on shipwreck future conditions and the faith of undiscovered terrestrial remains that may still exist in the West Sumatra Province. Figure 1. The documentation of archaeological remains in the Indonesia waters; Sungai Nyalo artifact (a and b); Gosong Nambi wreck (c and d); MV Boelongan Nederland (e and f); HMAS Perth (g and h); USS Houston (i and j); Artefact findings in Tidore (k and l) A shipwreck discovered by local fishers in 2015 and initially established in 2020 is the Gosong Nambi wreck (Wisha et al. 2020, 63-65). Despite the lack of historical context for these remains, the shipwreck is the centre of biodiversity since it is trapped within an atoll formation (Figure 1c and d). Recently, locals reported that the position of this wreck is lowered due to the rubble avalanches induced by extreme weather and tides. Therefore, since the remains are vulnerable, the long-term sea 2 �level rise could cause a more lowering position of this wreck and even be buried by rubble and sediment. On the other hand, MV Boelongan Nederland was a cargo ship built in the 1920s by the Dutch shipping company Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij (KPM). The ship was used for transporting goods and passengers in and around Indonesia and Southeast Asia. During WWII, the ship was taken over by the Dutch and used to aid the war effort. However, in 1942, the Dutch scuttled the ship to prevent it from falling into the hands of the advancing Japanese forces (Ridwan et al. 2015, 84-87). The remains of MV Boelongan Nederland now lie in the waters off Mandeh Bay, West Sumatra, Indonesia, and have become a popular recreation dive site. The shipwreck is also of historical significance as it provides insights into the maritime history of Indonesia and the role played by shipping companies like KPM in the region. This site is threatened by massive sedimentation, which frequently hampers the diving activity due to the high sediment supply from the Mandeh Estuary right in front of the shipwreck position (Figures 1e and f). The shipwreck lies at a depth of about 20 m, and under the scenario of sea level rises, it is hypothesised that the sediment issue will get worse with increasing sea levels. The other case studies considered in this study are USS Houston and HMAS Perth shipwreck sites. The USS Houston and HMAS Perth were two naval warships that were heavily damaged during the battle and eventually sank during WWII in the Battle of Sunda Strait, which took place on 28 February 1942. Today, the USS Houston and HMAS Perth wrecks are popular dive sites in Indonesia and are located near the island of Java. The wrecks are historically and culturally significant and essential for scientific research and a reminder of the sacrifices made by those who fought in WWII. Efforts have been made to preserve and protect the wrecks, including establishing a protected zone around the sites and conducting ongoing monitoring and research to document changes in the condition of the wrecks over time (Figure 1g−j) (Shaw 2017, 2-7). Based on the recent documentation and field identification conducted by RICRV in 2018, HMAS Perth is positioned at 19-34 m depth, while the USS Houston is at a depth of 16-30 m, both located in the northern Panjang Island. The main problem in these sites is high sedimentation, with almost zero visibility (Ridwan 2019, 1626-1627). Moreover, the shipwrecks are surrounded by mining and industrial activities; they are located in the fishing zone; and are degraded by marine debris pollution (Wisha et al. 2022a, 106009). Therefore, the increase in sea level could worsen the shipwreck conditions in terms of greater sedimentation and degradation. In east Indonesia Tidore Island, was the location to witness the first circumnavigation of the Earth by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastian Elcano. There are many remains on Tidore Island as evidence of Portuguese and Spanish colonialism over spice resources in this area. The most reachable sites are Tongwai and Soasio, where many artefact fragments, such as cannon, ceramics, earthenware, and metals, are scattered on the surrounding coral reef ecosystem, increasing the attractiveness of these sites to recreation (Figure 1k and l) (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 173-174). Since it is directly connected to the Pacific Ocean, the sea level rise may deteriorate the site conditions. RESOURCES To review the sea level trend in the study sites, we used the ~27-year sea level data (1992-2019) from altimetry satellites, The Sea Level Explorer established by the University of Colorado Boulder, the University of Hawaii Sea Level Center, and NASA Jet Propulsion Lab, (see https://ccar.colorado.edu/altimetry/ ). The altimetry data were sourced from the Propulsion Lab’s Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PODAAC). The sampled altimetry coordinates (Table 1) are in Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore Island. On the other hand, to estimate the possible future alteration due to sea level rises, we employed a sea level projection data provided by the NASA Sea Level Projection Tool allowing users to visualize and 3 �download the sea level projection data from the IPCC 6th Assessment Report (AR6) (see https://sealevel.nasa.gov/ipcc-ar6-sea-level-projection-tool). It is estimated that in 2100 CE the sea level will increase by 0.68 m for Mandeh and Banten Bay and 0.70 m for Tidore Island. The archaeological and environmental data were obtained from RICRV reports of field surveys in Mandeh and Banten Bay in 2018 and in Tidore in 2019. The field survey consisted of diving activity to the shipwreck sites, mini excavation, oceanographic parameters measurements, sediment sampling, local social-economy, interviews, acoustic-based measurements, and many others. Table 1. Coordinates of the sampled sea level data Location Mandeh Bay Banten Bay Southern Tidore Island Longitude 100.2500oE 106.0833oE 127.4167oE Latitude 1.2500oS 5.9167oS 0.5833oN FRAMEWORK The sea level anomaly (SLA) data was gained from yielded deviation between sea level at a specific time and the mean sea level. Then, a future linear trend was used to calculate the sea level trend, the annual amplitude, and the semi-annual amplitudes of each archaeological site. As for estimating the future changes based on sea level projection, we employed a coupled model of MIKE21 with flexible mesh to simulate the mutual interaction between waves and currents using a dynamic coupling between the hydrodynamic and spectral wave models (Wisha et al. 2022b, 78). We sampled the result from the coupled model developed according to site locations. The sediment transport model is based on the hydrodynamic models previously simulated (Wisha et al. 2022b, 78). The following equation defines the correlation between the wave energy flux component and the sediment transport: 𝑊𝑒𝑓 = 𝜌𝑔 8 𝐻𝑏2 𝐶𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑏 (1) Where: 𝑊𝑒𝑓 = Wave energy flux component along the coast at the time of wave breaking kilogram-meter per second (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚. 𝑠 −1 ) 𝜌 = Specific gravity (seawater) kilogram per cubic meter (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 ) 𝑔 = Gravity acceleration (9.81 meter per second squared(𝑚. 𝑠 −2 ) 𝐻𝑏 = Wave Height at the time of breaking (𝑚) 𝐶𝑏 = Breaking wave celerity meters per second (𝑚. 𝑠 −1 ) 𝛼𝑏 = Breaking wave angle A formula established by Triatmodjo (2012) was used to estimate the annum sediment transport. The formula is defined as follows: 𝑄𝑠 = 𝐾 𝑊 (𝜌𝑠 −𝜌)𝑔(1−𝑛) 𝑒𝑓 (2) Where: 𝑄𝑠 = Sediment transport along the coast cubic meter per second (𝑚3 . 𝑠 −1 ) 𝐾 = 0.39 𝜌𝑠 = Specific gravity (sand) (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 ) 𝑛 = Porosity (𝑛 ≈ 0.4) 4 �RESULT Sea Level Trend Over the Archaeological Sites in Indonesia The altimetry data show upward trends of sea level over the sampled sites, at 0.39 centimetres per year (cm/year), 0.40 cm/year, and 0.52 cm/year for Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore (Figure 2 and Table 2). Over 27 years of observed data (1992-2019), different patterns were observed in the three parts of the Indonesian region. In Mandeh Bay, the sea level has increased since 2004 and peaked in 2017 with an SLA magnitude of about 38 cm. Similar to Mandeh Bay, the SLA in Banten Bay rose significantly in 2007, where the lowest sea level was observed in the next year, reaching -30 cm. The maximum sea level over 27 years was identified in 2018, reaching 26 cm. Figure 2. Sea level trend over Indonesia region (a) derived from Altimetry data; (b) SLA in southern Tidore island; (c) SLA in Mandeh Bay; (d) SLA in Banten Bay In Tidore Island, the recorded sea level is arbitrarily erratic (Figure 2b). The sufficiently high sea level trend in this area is due to the influence and circulation of the Pacific Ocean, where El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) plays a significant role in shaping sea level (Moon et al. 2015, 8229). The lowest sea level ever recorded was observed in 1998, reaching -28 cm, while the peak levels were observed several times, such as in 2012 and 2018, reaching 25 cm. Overall, all those sampled archaeological sites face an upward trend in sea level (Table 2), so future estimation of coastal dynamics due to sea level rises is imperative. Table 2. Sea level trend over 27 years of observation Parameter Mandeh Bay Banten Bay Southern Tidore Island Trend (cm/year) Annual Amplitude (cm) Semi-Annual Amplitude (cm) 0.39 1.66 4.56 0.40 3.03 3.21 0.52 3.63 0.53 5 �The Possible Impact of Sea-Level Rises on Archaeological Remains Sea level rises significantly impact shipwreck sites, particularly those located in coastal regions or underwater. As sea levels rise it can lead to increased erosion, flooding, and sedimentation causing damage to shipwrecks and their associated artefacts. Additionally, changes in ocean currents and weather patterns can contribute to shipwreck deterioration. One of the primary concerns with rising sea levels is the potential for loss of archaeological information. As shipwrecks are exposed to increased water pressure and changing environmental conditions, they can be subject to accelerated decay and destruction. This can result in losing valuable historical and cultural information these sites contain. Moreover, sea level rise can make it difficult for archaeologists and researchers to access shipwreck sites. As water levels increase, locating and exploring these sites, particularly submerged ones, can become more challenging. This can limit the ability of researchers to conduct surveys and excavations and potentially delay or prevent the recovery of artefacts and other historical evidence. Overall, sea level rise significantly threatens shipwrecks and their associated cultural heritage. Archaeologists and policymakers must work together to mitigate the impact of rising sea levels and ensure the preservation of these valuable historical resources for future generations. Future Projection of SLR and its Influence on Coastal and Underwater Cultural Heritages In 2100 CE the IPCC sea level projection, with a scenario of high gas emission (SSP3-7.0) is that it will increase by ~0.68 m for Mandeh and Baten Bay, while in Tidore, the sea level is projected to increase by ~0.70 m (Figure 3). From these values, we simulated a model predicting the changes in water properties in the three sampled archaeological sites that have been validated using fieldmeasured data provided by RICRV. Overall, the increase in sea level contributes to higher sedimentation (Figure 4). Figure 3. Sea level projection estimated by IPCC AR6 in 2100 CE in Indonesia: Mandeh Bay (a); Banten Bay (b); and Tidore Island (c) In Banten Bay, the strongest current magnitude was approximately 0.66 m/s observed in August, and the lowest was in April with a magnitude of 0.54 m/s. Under the sea level rise scenario, the current 6 �magnitude will increase by about 33.52 per cent ranging from 0.08 to 0.096 m/s (Figure 4a). A weaker current profile was identified in Mandeh Bay, ranging from 0.042 to 0.059 m/s. With the estimated sea level rise of 0.68 m in 2100, the current magnitude will increase by approximately 34.78 per cent, reaching 0.079 m/s (Figure 4b). In Tidore, the current profile ranged from 0.047 to 0.062 m/s, and the value will increase by about 35.73per cent in 2100 CE, ranging from 0.079 to 0.09 m/s (Figure 4c). Similar to the current features, sediment transport will also increase under sea level rise. Percentagewise, the increase in sediment transport in Banten Bay, Mandeh Bay and Tidore was approximately 34.86, 18.54, and 37.07 per cent, respectively. Generally, the highest sediment transport was observed during the southwest monsoon and vice versa for the northeast monsoon (Figure 4d-f). Figure 4. Monthly average of current magnitude in the surrounding site; Banten Bay (a); Mandeh Bay (b); Tidore Island (c); and the estimated sediment transport sediment in the Banten Bay (d); Mandeh Bay (e); and Tidore Island (f). The negative values denote the left-ward transport, and the positive values denote the right-ward transport. Overall, the sea level rise potentially changes the water properties of the three sampled archaeological sites. The increase in current velocity relates to the potency of coastal erosion and sedimentation. Since sedimentation is the most crucial issue in these sites, the sea level rise will significantly impact the archaeological remains by inducing higher suspended sediment and sedimentation. In some cases, aside from making the remains more submerged, the shifting in the position of the shipwreck and artefacts due to the robust current profile is possible. Therefore, regular monitoring is required to protect the remains from the impact of sea level rise. However, archaeological excavation is also recommended if possible. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV) for the basis data provided. Gratitude is also given to University Colorado Boulder for providing the sea level data and to those who have helped in the completion of this study. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Westley, K., Andreou, G., El Safadi, C., Huigens, H. O., Nikolaus, J., Ortiz-Vazquez, R., Ray, N., Smith, A., Tews, S., Blue, L., Breen, C. “Climate change and coastal archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa: assessing past impacts and future threats”. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 18, no. 2 (2023): 251-283. Adhityatama, S., & Yarista, A. S. “Potential of submerged landscape archaeology in Indonesia.” KALPATARU 28, no.1 (2019): 55–71. Dillenia, I., Troa, R. A., Triarso, E., Johan, O., Widati, N. A. R. S., Kusuma, L. P. A. S. C. H., Rustam, A., Pranowo, W. S., Heriati, A. & Adhityatama, S. “Study of the Historic Shipwreck Sites Area Development for Marine Ecotourism in Thousand Islands.” In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 925, No. 1, p. 012028). IOP Publishing, 2021. Moon, J. H., Song, Y. T., & Lee, H. “PDO and ENSO modulations intensified decadal sea level variability in the tropical Pacific.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 120, no.12(2015): 8229-8237. Rahmawan, G. A., Ridwan, N. N. H., Wisha, U. J., Ilham, I., Gemilang, W. A., Andriani, F. W., Sudaryadi, A. & Irwansyah, I. “Ekowisata Terintegrasi Situs Kapal Tenggelam di Tidore Kepulauan, Maluku Utara.” Jurnal Kelautan Nasional 16, no.3 (2021): 169-184. (In Indonesian). Ridwan, N. N. H. “The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi.” In Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila, The Philippines, 2011. Ridwan, N. N. H., Kusumah, G., Husrin, S., & Kepel, T. L. “Kapal Karam MV. Boelongan di Kawasan Mandeh, Lingkungan Laut Sekitarnya, dan Kemungkinan Pengembangannya.” Karakteristik Sumber daya Laut dan Pesisir (2015): 84-133. (In Indoensian). Ridwan, N. N. H. “Vulnerability of shipwreck sites in Indonesian waters.” Current Science 117, no.10 (2019): 1623-1628. Shaw, L. “Guardians of Sunda Strait: remembering HMAS Perth and USS Houston.” Signals, no.119(2017): 2-7. Wisha, U. J., Ridwan, N. N. H., Dhiauddin, R., Rahmawan, G. A., & Kusumah, G. “Upaya Konservasi Kapal Karam Gosong Nambi Sebagai Bukti Adanya Jalur Perdangan Maritim Masa Lalu Di Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan, Sumatra Barat.” AMERTA 38, no.1 (2020): 63-76. (In Indonesian). Wisha, U. J., Gemilang, W. A., Wijaya, Y. J., & Purwanto, A. D. “Model-based estimation of plastic debris accumulation in Banten Bay, Indonesia, using particle tracking-Flow model hydrodynamics approach.” Ocean & Coastal Management, 217 (2022a): 106009. Wisha, U. J., Dhiauddin, R., Ondara, K., Gemilang, W. A., & Rahmawan, G. A. “Assessing Urban Development Impacts in the Padang Coastline City, West Sumatra Indonesia; Coastline Changes and Coastal Vulnerability.” Geoplanning: Journal of Geomatics and Planning 9, no.2 (2022b): 73-88. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Impact Assessment of Current and Future Sea-Level Rises on Coastal and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Indonesia Description An account of the resource Despite the indirect impact of sea level rises on underwater archaeological sites, identifying future conditions is imperative to support conservation planning to minimise the possible effects that may occur. This study aims to identify the sea level trends in several important archaeological sites in Indonesia and estimate the future change due to sea level rises. Altimetry satellite data were employed to determine the sea level anomaly (SLA) of three chosen sites: Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore, where significant historical objects were recently discovered. Hydrodynamic-based modelling was also used to estimate the water properties alteration in 2100 as predicted by IPCC AR6, with a projection of about 0.68-0.70 meters (m) sea level increase. Under the sea level rise scenario, the current magnitude will increase significantly by about 33-35per cent in 2100. It is followed by an increase in sediment transport of 18 – 37 per cent. As sedimentation is the primary issue in these three sites, sea level rises will induce sufficiently high sedimentation on archaeological remains, and artefact shifting position is also possible due to the more robust current regimes. Therefore, regular monitoring is an effort to protect the archaeological remains. If possible, excavations are also recommended to conserve the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Indonesia since it faces an upward sea level trend. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ulung J. Wisha Wisnu A. Gemilang Nia N. H. Ridwan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wisha, Ulung J., Wisnu A. Gemilang, and Nia N. H. Ridwan. 2023. “Impact Assessment of Current and Future Sea-Level Rises on Coastal and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Indonesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Perez-Alvaro. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1907 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f31415b65dceef876ae2c0a993eaabd4.pdf 29974ada26d8271ca5de40a507901f90 PDF Text Text The Duty to Protect Our Ocean Heritage from Potentially Polluting Wrecks Ole Varmer (The Ocean Foundation) Mariano Aznar (ICUCH, University Jaume I) ABSTRACT The importance of conserving our ocean heritage is well recognised and was codified in international law in the 1972 World Heritage Convention. The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) recognises a duty to protect ‘objects of an archaeological or historical nature’ but is devoid of details for implementation. The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage provides sorely needed details in the various maritime zones in accordance with the LOSC and well accepted international standards of archaeology and conservation. This paper summarises the relevant international law to help address the major threats to UCH from Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs). Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage; Natural Heritage, Law of the Sea; 2001 Convention List of abbreviations Continental Shelf (CS) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs) Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within Session 13 Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) because it summarises the relevant international law and provides the context and legal foundation for the development of measures to address the threats and conserve our ocean heritage as discussed in other papers in this session. The paper starts with an overview of the international law relevant to these threats and the measures to address them. This will also provide examples addressing the major threats to UCH, the resources available to tackle these threats under the law, the framework or approach to address these threats, and the result that we seek: a moratorium on activities that are major threats to UCH until the ocean science has been conducted to ensure that these activities are truly sustainable developments. In the context of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development that means if it is not safe for life, property, the marine environment, and UCH, then it is not sustainable development. The case studies under consideration in this session include major threats to UCH from Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs), fishing, mining, energy development, climate change and the related threat from sea level rise. This paper looks at the legal duty to protect our ocean heritage from the threats presented by PPWs, however, the duty is relevant to all the threats particularly those involving activities that directly affect UCH, such as salvage, and those that may indirectly affect UCH, such as fishing and mining. CASE STUDIES The case under consideration is the law related to the threat to our ocean heritage (natural and cultural) from PPWs. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), ‘marine pollution from sunken vessels is predicted to reach its highest level this decade, with over 8,500 shipwrecks at risk of leaking approximately 6 billion gallons of oil’ (IUCN 2023). The vast 1 �majority of PPWs are from World War I and II (WWI and WWII). They contain hazardous materials including chemicals, unexploded ordinances, and an estimated six billion gallons of heavy fuel oil. ‘This is 545 times more oil than the Exxon Valdez leak in 1989 and 30 times that of the Deepwater Horizon spill in 2010, both of which had severe and long-lasting environmental consequences’ (IUCN 2023). There are several legal questions that may arise under international and domestic law in addressing the threats presented by a sunken vessel that is a potential threat to the marine environment. This paper briefly summarises those international laws and discusses the legal issues and context that are of particular interest in not only addressing the threats to the marine environment but also in the preservation and conservation of PPWs which may be objects of an archaeological or historical nature under the 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) if not UCH under the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (henceforth 2001 Convention). As many PPWs are sunken state craft, there are also issues of ownership, sovereign immunity, and the fact that many sites are also wartime graves. This paper is not intended to be a comprehensive analysis and a case-by-case basis analysis will be necessary and will often include the flag State, coastal State, and other States with an interest in the ship, cargo, or personnel. RESOURCES The resources needed to address the threats from PPWs are surveys to identify their location, document heritage information and environmental assessments on how to sustainably develop and manage to conserve the heritage and livelihood dependent upon a healthy ocean. There are some legal resources relevant to address the threats from PPWs including the 1982 LOSC, and the duties to protect the marine environment and objects of an archaeological and historical nature. This will be followed by discussion of the 2001 Convention that was developed to address the very brief and vague LOSC articles 149 and 303 but in a manner consistent with the balance of interests of coastal States and flag States. The evolution of the international duty to protect and conserve our ocean heritage can be traced to the Stockholm Declaration and the 1972 World Heritage Convention— where the wisdom of integrating the conservation of both natural and cultural heritage became international law. The international law to protect marine life can be traced to agreements trying to address the over exploitation that arose from technological advances in the industrial revolution as discussed by Charlotte Jarvis’ paper on bottom trawling in the same session and volume as this paper. The environmental movement that followed WWII sparked the development of laws to address the threats to our natural and cultural heritage for present and future generations. For example, the 1946 Convention for the Regulation of Whaling to conserve these overexploited creatures and the founding of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in 1948. 1972 Stockholm Declaration The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment met in Stockholm, Sweden and resulted in the Stockholm Declaration. It codified the customary practice of nations in balancing of development and protecting the environment so that it may be inherited by future generations in a healthy state (heritage). It contains principles that document and delineate the duty to protect and to cooperate for that purpose under customary international law, including that we bear ‘a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations’ (Principle 1). A ‘special responsibility to safeguard and wisely manage the heritage of wildlife and its habitat, which are now gravely imperilled by a combination of adverse factors. Nature conservation, including wildlife, must therefore receive importance in planning for economic development’ (Principle 4). ‘States should adopt an integrated and coordinated approach to their development planning to ensure that development is compatible with the need to protect and improve environment for the benefit of their population (Principle 13)’. ‘In exercising the sovereign right to exploit their own resources, there 2 �is the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction’ (Principle 21). While there is no express reference to cultural heritage, the duty to protect the environment should be interpreted to include cultural heritage as well as natural. This view is also supported using ‘integrated and coordinated approach’ to development planning in Principle 4. This is reinforced by the integration of natural and cultural resources to be conserved in UNESCO’s 1972 World Heritage Convention. 1972 World Heritage Convention: Integrating the conservation of natural and cultural heritage While the focus in Stockholm was on the environment and sustainable development; at UNESCO headquarters in Paris the focus was an agreement to protect natural and cultural heritage. With 193 State parties, it remains one of the most widely accepted treaties. While it started with recognising terrestrial sites and traditional cultural structures, it has evolved to recognise heritage in the marine environment beyond the territorial sea into the EEZ/CS. For example, the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in Hawai’i was inscribed on the World Heritage ‘mixed list’ for its ‘outstanding universal value’ as both a natural and cultural heritage site. Of note, is that some of the natural heritage, like coral, were also recognised as cultural heritage of the native Hawaiian people and some of their practices were recognised as intangible cultural heritage. This move seaward continues as there are now calls for recognition of heritage in the high seas (UNESCO 2016), including wreck sites such as Titanic. The challenges involve ensuring consistency with the LOSC, more specifically, implementing the duty to protect and cooperate through reliance of flag State jurisdiction, and Port State jurisdiction for enforcement of activities directed at cultural heritage under the high seas. The legal context for all activities in the ocean starts with the international legal framework of the LOSC including potentially polluting wrecks. The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (the legal framework for activities at sea) The LOSC is well recognised as a codification and progressive development of the law of the sea. It provides the legal framework for the use and protection of the marine environment, including natural and cultural heritage resources. It balances the flag State rights of navigation, fishing and other uses with the coastal State jurisdiction and authority in various maritime zones including a 12 nm territorial sea, a 24 nm contiguous zone, a 200 nm EEZ, the continental shelf, the high seas and Area beyond national jurisdiction. Under Article 303(1), applicable to archaeological and historical objects found in any part of the sea, recalls the general obligation whereby ‘States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea and shall cooperate for this purpose.’ Specifically, regarding the Area, under Article 149, ‘[a]ll objects of an archaeological and historical nature found in the Area shall be preserved or disposed of for the benefit of mankind, particular regard being paid to the preferential rights of the State or country of origin, or the State of cultural origin, or the State of historical and archaeological origin.’ While it is not always clear which nations have preferential rights, it would include the flag States of the sunken ship and nation from which the cargo came. While it is expressly limited to the Area, the consideration of preferential rights provides some guidance for cooperation on UCH found in other maritime zones, particularly the portion of the continental shelf beyond the 24-mile limit of coastal State jurisdiction under Article 303(2). The LOSC is now recognised as customary international law, and it may therefore be argued that its duty to cooperate to protect objects of an archaeological or historical nature should also be recognised as customary international law, as evidence by the practice of nations including non-parties like the USA. While there is little guidance or detail on how to fulfil the duty to protect under this Article, other Articles and laws are helpful in guiding parties as they fulfil the duty to protect including the duty to protect natural heritage and the marine environment to which it is inextricably linked. Under Articles 192 and 194 there is the general obligation of States to protect and preserve the marine environment. This general principle may be applied both to wrecks that become artificial reefs, 3 �deserving protection as part of the marine environment, and to wrecks that are potentially (or actually) endangering this environment because of their deteriorating structure or polluting cargo still aboard. Specifically, Art. 194(3)(b) deals with the measures to be taken by States, including those designed to fully minimise ‘pollution from vessels, in particular measures for preventing accidents and dealing with emergencies, ensuring the safety of operations at sea, preventing intentional and unintentional discharges, and regulating the design, construction, equipment, operation, and manning of vessels’ (Aznar 2015). Note how this duty to protect the marine environment is like the very general duty to protect cultural heritage under Articles 303 and 149. Thus, the obligation under Part XII may provide guidance on how to implement the duties under Articles 303 and 149, as the 2001 Convention does. The LOSC does not explicitly address the issue of the protection of maritime graves in international waters (Aznar 2015). The 1992 Rio Declaration Ten years after the LOSC and twenty years after the Stockholm conference, the United Nations convened another Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This 1992 Rio Conference resulted in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, including Agenda 21, which provides that there is a duty to protect the marine environment and to cooperate for that purpose—expressly flowing from the 1982 LOSC. Chapter 17.1 highlights how the LOSC ‘sets forth rights and obligations of States and provides the international basis upon which to pursue the protection and sustainable development of the marine and coastal environment and its resources.’ It then identifies approaches to implement this duty and specifically calls for integrated management and a precautionary approach in the sustainable development and protection of the marine environment. Precautionary approach A precautionary approach to addressing threats to the environment can be traced back to domestic German law in the 1970s. It was first used in an international agreement in the 1980 regarding the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. However, it was the Rio Declaration that is received wide international recognition. ‘In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall be not used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation’ Principle 15, Rio Declaration. It has been incorporated into several international treaties including: 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the 1995 WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement, the 1996 Protocol to the 1972 London Convention on the Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, the 1997 Protocol to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, the 1998 Agreement on the International Dolphin Conservation Program, the 1998 Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) Persistent Organic Pollutants Protocol, the 1998 LRTAP Heavy Metals Protocol, the 1999 LRTAP Acidification Protocol, the 2000 Convention on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean, the 2001 International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems, and the 2001 Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses. It should be applied to PPWs particularly those that are historic or UCH. The precautionary approach is particularly appropriate in the management of PPWs because they are ticking time bombs and if historic, are also time capsules of our heritage. If so, the 2001 Convention is particularly relevant. 4 �2001 Convention To address the threat of looting and unwanted salvage, and the details sorely needed to implement the LOSC, UNESCO convened a meeting to negotiate an agreement to protect UCH. Consensus was reached quickly on a clear definition of UCH, and a ban against the law of finds and salvage. There was also consensus on four principles: 1) to protect and preserve UCH; 2) the preferred first policy option of in situ preservation, and adherence to the Annex Rules when a party decides not to preserve in situ and recovery is in the public interest ; 3) no ‘commercial exploitation’ of UCH; and 4) cooperation among States to protect UCH, particularly for training, education, and outreach. Consensus was not reached on the regime for cooperation in the protection of UCH in the EEZ/CS as some delegations had concerns about ‘creeping jurisdiction’ of coastal States and the treatment of foreign sunken craft within the territorial sea (Dromgoole 2013). That many PPWs are historic heritage resources calls for a precautionary approach. The fact that most PPWs are wrecks from the World Wars and are thus maritime graves also calls for a precautionary approach through a temporary moratorium against salvage (Varmer 1999). ‘This precaution is even stronger when there are human remains in the sunken wreck, which, according to Article 2(9) of the 2001 Convention, must be given proper respect’ (Aznar 2018). FRAMEWORK The legal duties to protect our ocean heritage under international law, and the goals of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, show that the best way to address the threats from PPWs is a precautionary approach including a moratorium against activities that may trigger these ticking time bombs until the proper science and assessments are done to make sure such activities are truly sustainable. A temporary moratorium could be, and limited to, activities directed at PPWs such as salvage and certain indirect activities that could result in irreparable harm and destruction to UCH and marine life such as bottom trawling, or Deep Seabed Mining until after surveys have been conducted to ensure that no PPWs are in planned exploitation areas, proper Environmental Impact Assessments have been conducted, and significant natural and cultural heritage are Marine Protected Areas. RESULTS The IUCN has called for the development of international standards to determine the best practices for addressing this threat including the classification of PPWs according to potential environmental, social, and economic impacts (IUCN 2023). If this precautionary approach is respected, and the standards are developed and followed, the results would be a healthier ocean which is so important for those lives and livelihoods dependent upon a healthy ocean. The duties for protection would be addressed, and the economic development would clearly be sustainable. 5 �Acknowledgements Thank you to Mark Spalding, The Ocean Foundation, and Louise Sanger, Lloyd’s Register Foundation Heritage, and Education Centre, for their support of this paper and the Threats to Our Ocean Heritage project. Thank you to, Charlotte Jarvis, Michael Brennan, Jim Delgado, and Ben Ferrari for their help developing the ideas that are reflected here. Bibliography (Aznar 2015) Aznar, M. J.” Sensitive Wrecks, Protecting Them and Protecting from Them.” Revue Belge de Droit International 1-2. Bruxelles: Éditions Bruyant, 2015. (Aznar 2018) Aznar, Mariano, “In Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage as an International Legal Principle.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 13, no. 1 (2018): 67-81. DOI: 10.1007/s11457-018-9192-4, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3164159 (2001 Convention) UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Adopted 2 November 2001, entered into force 2 January 2009 (2562 UNTS 1) (Dromgoole 2013) Dromgoole, S. “Reflections on the Position of the Major Maritime Powers with Respect to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001.”, Marine Policy 38, (2013): 116-123. (IUCN2023) IUCN Issues Brief, Marine Po;;utopm From Sunken Vessels (2023) see https://www.iucn.org/resources/issuesbrief/marine-pollution-sunken-vessels#:~:text=There%20are%20an%20estimated%203,as%20'potentially %20polluting%20wrecks'. see also https://majorprojects.org.au/ppw/ (IUCN 2020) IUCN Resolution on Sunken Vessels WCC-2020-Res-026-EN International cooperation on marine pollution from sunken vessels (LOSC) Law of the Sea Convention, Adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994 (1833 UNTS 397) (NOAA 2013) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013. Risk Assessment for Potentially Polluting Wrecks in U.S. Waters. Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, U.N. Doc. A/ CONF.48/14/Rev.1 (1973), p. 3; U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14 (1972), pp. 2-65. and Corr. 1 available at http://www.un-documents.net/unchedec.htm (UNESCO 2016) Freestone, D. Laffoley, D., Douvere, F. and Badman, T., World Heritage in the High Seas: An Idea Whose Time Has Come, See also World Heritage Centre World Heritage Marine Program at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/marine-programme.Hampi+World+Heritage+Site+KarnatakaHampi (Varmer 1999) Varmer, Ole. “The Case Against the ‘Salvage’ of the Cultural Heritage.” Journal of Maritime Law, and Commerce 30, no. 2 (1999): 279-302. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Duty to Protect Our Ocean Heritage from Potentially Polluting Wrecks Description An account of the resource The importance of conserving our ocean heritage is well recognised and was codified in international law in the 1972 World Heritage Convention. The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) recognises a duty to protect ‘objects of an archaeological or historical nature’ but is devoid of details for implementation. The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage provides sorely needed details in the various maritime zones in accordance with the LOSC and well accepted international standards of archaeology and conservation. This paper summarises the relevant international law to help address the major threats to UCH from Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ole Varmer Mariano Aznar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Varmer, Ole. 2023. “The Duty to Protect Our Ocean Heritage from Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Perez-Alvaro. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1906 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/07b31d71e8d6e8e23c99940899e32be7.pdf 1a066cd4f1803116f0a381b68edefd8c PDF Text Text Decommissioning Offshore Structures: A Threat or an Underwater Cultural Heritage Opportunity Dr Elena Perez-Alvaro¹ and Dr James Delgado² ¹Professor Master in Cultural and Natural Heritage UNIR, España ICOMOS International Committee on the Underwater Cultural Heritage ²Senior Vice President SEARCH, Inc., United States of America ABSTRACT This article focuses on the possibility of recycling, removing, and leaving on-site offshore structures, such as wind turbines and oil platforms. It also looks at the environmental consequences of these structures recycling mostly carried out in southern Asian countries with limited work and environmental regulations. The construction of some of these offshore structures does not provide ‘end-of-life’ considerations, so, if left in situ they will become underwater cultural heritage in the future. This article will look at the benefits of a collaboration between offshore and maritime industries and underwater cultural heritage practitioners. It will also highlight the importance of including as underwater cultural heritage less “attractive” sites which may not be as popular, but can still be of importance. If forgotten, we may lose a significant part of humanity’s history. List of tables Table 1. SWOT analysis: Strengths/Opportunities/Weaknesses/Threats (created by authors). INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within the session on Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage at the Fifth Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage because the actions that are being taken now in relation to the decommissioning of offshore structures will have a potential impact on the future scope of and management of underwater cultural heritage. The decommissioning of offshore structures is still in a legal vacuum, and, if left untouched on the ocean, they will become underwater cultural heritage in the future. New offshore energy and developments in the oceans are a growing but still completely unexplored industry. Oil and gas platforms have been developed for longer, but it is in the current and future decades when they will stop working. A new issue for ocean users is that offshore oil, gas reserves and wind farms trigger one of the largest decommissioning operations undertaken in the marine environment (Ross 1978). When offshore structures reach the end of their productive life, they are decommissioned and then dismantled, recycled, or disposed of. However, construction of these elements does not provide ‘end of life’ considerations. Over the next several decades, more than 7,500 oil and gas platforms in the waters of 53 countries will become obsolete (Fowler et al. 2018), including platforms that sit on the seabed, floating production systems, and other offshore storage and loading units (Simpson 1998). Their decommissioning will cause many issues because, due to their size and weight, the removal of platforms is a complex engineering process that will require some of the heaviest lifting operations ever attempted at sea. This dismantling, recycling, or preservation in situ of those platforms will have an impact on the underwater cultural heritage because, for the first time, underwater cultural heritage experts can anticipate what is going to become – or not become – submerged heritage in the future. In addition, the removal of these structures of which many have become habitats may have a detrimental impact on the local natural environment. 1 �Underwater cultural heritage can and does include sites or resources that reflect threats to the environment. This takes place on land with sites associated with extractive mining, as well as industrial sites where past processing or manufacturing have left a legacy that is both archaeological and detrimental to the ecosystem and/or human health. However, this negative aspect does not diminish the potential significance of the site(s) nor their potential to yield pertinent archaeological evidence. For example, the oil boom in the United States started with the commercial success of the Drake Well drilled in 1859 in Pennsylvania along the banks of Oil Creek, it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966 and subsequently listed on the National Register of Historic Places (Drake Well Museum, n.d.). The query here is - if we should preserve sites that only speak to what we see as positive aspects, or if we should embrace the preservation and study of sites that speak to all aspects of the human experience and the consequences of human activities? This paper argues that underwater cultural heritage practitioners and the new energy industry can mutually benefit from sharing knowledge and working together. Underwater cultural heritage, like that on land, reflects all aspects of human behaviour. A Panamanian historical and archaeological site, the American-built submersible Sub Marine Explorer, represents mid-nineteenth century over-fishing and despoliation of Panama’s oyster beds (Delgado 2012). There is a strong potential for extensive archaeological remains from the centuries-long Middle Passage of the transatlantic African slave trade (Turner et al. 2020) as well as individual shipwrecks (Delgado et al. 2022). Other pertinent examples include historic and archaeological sites related to gold dredging, sites associated with the global wars of the twentieth century, and perhaps the most pertinent, the World Heritage Site at Bikini Atoll, which include nuclear test structures, sunken ships, craters, and radioactive isotopes (Brown 2013). CASE STUDY According to Offshore Wind, there are 162 offshore wind arms at the moment. There are also 2,011 offshore oil rigs. In recent years, the first few offshore wind projects are now dismantled (Smith and Lamont 2017), but the decommissioning projects are small relative to current installations. In fact, most of these decommissioning projects were demonstration or research projects. However, according to IHS Markit (2016), 2,000 offshore projects will be decommissioned between 2021 and 2014. Due to the novelty of the situation, the impacts of decommissioning practices on structures related to oil and gas development from the oceans are unknown. This article will look at how the decommissioning of these offshore structures will have an impact on how underwater cultural heritage is currently understood. The resources for this work include the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (hereinafter 2001 UNESCO Convention) and practice of nations. RESOURCES The 2001 UNESCO Convention defines underwater cultural heritage as […] all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical, or archaeological character which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years. It should be noted that pipelines and cables placed on the seabed are explicitly excluded from the definition of underwater cultural heritage. In addition, “[i]nstallations other than pipelines and cables, placed on the seabed and still in use, shall not be considered as underwater cultural heritage.” However, when those installations, such as platforms, are no longer in use then they may become 2 �underwater cultural heritage if they are also of an archaeological or historical interest and have been under water for more than 100 years. However, not all countries have ratified the 2001 UNESCO Convention, and not all national legislations require a time limit (as in the case of 100 years under water) for an offshore structure to become of importance. Some countries, such as France, Croatia, and Estonia, do not have a temporal limit in their definition of underwater cultural heritage, and submerged remains are protected based on historical interest. In Greece, ‘cultural’ objects are protected 50 years after their sinking. Furthermore, it is a wise practice to assess the potential of sites that are more recent as being significant and worthy of recognition, study, and preservation. In the United States of America (USA), for instance, like Greece the 50-year rule is applied, exceptions are made for events that occurred and which have attained recognition of significance; World War II sites were granted this designation by the USA in the 1980s, less than fifty years after the start and end of that war. It is beyond the scope of this paper to get entangled with the definition of underwater cultural heritage, which has been broadly debated in the literature (see bibliography). However, this demonstrates that offshore structures that function for some years now can become underwater cultural heritage according to much legislation, and in 100 years, they will be under the umbrella of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. In fact, existing platforms and wind turbines have a constructionoperation-decommission cycle of 20 to 30 years (Smyth et al. 2015). However, the regulation of the disposal of offshore installations is not a clear nor regulated legal process (Forte 1998), so many decisions are on a case-by-case basis. Until now, none of these decisions have taken into consideration the possibility for these structures to become underwater cultural heritage for the future benefit of humankind. There are a number of sites that are highly significant because they represent industries or activities that reflect environmental despoilation and damage such as whaling ships, for example, which can be found as floating ships, shipwrecks, and shore-based sites. Such is the case with South Georgia Island (USA), the British Columbia (Canada) coast, and the various sites in Australia and in Chile’s portion of the Estrecho de Magallanes. There are also early sites associated with the extractive petroleum industry listed in the United States National Register of Historic Places, the Canadian National Historic Sites, and deemed significant in Saudi Arabia and other countries (Symons et al. 2014). FRAMEWORK There are three main approaches when decommissioning offshore structures: 1. Dismantling and recycling: Globally, over 40 platforms each year reach the end of their useful life, which equates to around 40,000 tonnes of potentially recyclable materials (Choi et al. 2016). However, the most profitable shipbreaking methods are also the most dangerous to both worker safety and the environment (Choi et al. 2016), since many of the structures have been constructed with materials that are now known to be both toxic and highly pollutant. The materials that are recycled usually employ some dangerous methods. For instance beaching, which are carried out in southern Asian countries with a lack of enforced environmental legislation and welfare working regulations. The practice of beaching these platforms means to ground them in order for them to be scrapped. Although in some countries of the world there are strict regulations for platforms to be dismantled and recycled, in other countries, such as Bangladesh, India and Pakistan, there are facilities where the safety and well-being of the workers and the environmental impacts are ignored (Choi et al. 2016). In 2022, at least 10 workers lost their lives when breaking apart platforms on a particular coast of Bangladesh (NGO Shipwrecking Platform, n.d.). Some of the accidents were on platforms owned by wellknown companies. There are fatal consequences of recycling these structures: necessary diving activities that can result in injury or fatalities or helicopter trips necessary for the 3 �workforce and supervisory staff. It is necessary to take into consideration that in shallower waters, platforms typically weigh around 5,000 tonnes, although some deep-water steel platforms weigh over 200,000 tonnes when in-service and around 40,000 tonnes when stripped to its skeletal frame. The scrap resulting from this recycling process is often auctioned off to scrap dealers or sold to cash buyers (NGO Shipwreck Platform, n.d.). 2. Leaving them totally intact: There are two main reasons to leave the platforms untouched after decommissioned or sinking them to the bottom of the oceans. The first reason is economical. It has been estimated that the global cost of removal of platforms is US$210 billion (IHS Markit 2016). However, there is also an environmental reason. After some years, underwater remains become, in most cases, artificial reefs, housing thousands of fish species. The disturbance of these ecosystems and the impacts of removing these can have a negative impact on the marine environment. Some researchers (Fowler 2018) have looked at the environmental impacts of the decommissioning practices and the removal of offshore wind turbines. The authors consider that complete removal of the structures have a negative impact on biodiversity, provision of reef habitat and protection from bottom trawling because of the reopening of areas of fishing. In addition, as explained, there are some chemical-contaminated sections of the structures, and bringing them to shore can also be a controversial issue. In fact, dealing with hazards are one of the main issues that arises when offshore structures are left in the oceans, including the release of toxic, flammable, or explosive materials, or failure consequences that can result in environmental disasters (Baker 1998). The reality is that, in 100 years, the platform will become underwater cultural heritage according to the 2001 UNESCO Convention. 3. For some authors, partial removal options are better options, which still means these structures will become underwater cultural heritage in the future and be under the umbrella of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. It is argued that just some of the most toxic parts of the structures could be dismantled or those parts that can imply a navigation hazard. As discuss below, over 500 energy platforms previously installed on the USA Outer Continental Shelf have been partially removed and made into artificial reefs in the Gulf of Mexico in coordination with USA coastal states and other stakeholders including fisherman. According to Jordan and Bennie (1998), one of the most important controversies over the decommissioning of offshore structures is the relationship between the public and private interest. In the case of the Brent Spar, a North Sea oil storage operated by Shell UK, the company shared that deep sea sinking was the safest option for disposal from an environmental and safety point of view. However, Greenpeace occupied the platform for more than three weeks and provoked a media scandal that damaged Shell’s reputation, arguing that sinking the platform was just to cut costs and not for scientific reasons. Finally, Shell decided to reuse much of the main structure of the platform for a new harbour facility (Jordan and Bennie 1998). The legislation at the moment requires complete removal of offshore installations, but it allows exceptions that fulfil technical criteria (Forte 1998). Although the main objective of this paper is not to evaluate the best option for the decommissioning of offshore structures, it is pertinent to value the impact that leaving these structures under water would have to the construction of a new kind of underwater cultural heritage. Table 1 shows a SWOT analysis in order to understand the strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats of leaving these structures as underwater cultural heritage. 4 �Table 1. SWOT analysis: Strengths/Opportunities/Weaknesses/Threats (created by authors). STRENGTHS Cultural heritage for the future of mankind Low economical cost Avoid occupational safety of dismantling Avoid noise of dismantling OPPORTUNITIES Environmental aspects such as fish reefs Learn from the future Public and private initiatives such as diving Future uses WEAKNESSES Non-natural bodies in the oceans Uncertainty in public acceptance Changed visual landscape impact Possible overlap with other ocean actors THREATS How many? Some? All of them? Maintenance issues Oil and gas spills Safety navigation hazards For instance, the Gulf of Mexico is an example of possible preservation as a maritime landscape whose 20th century underwater cultural heritage includes not only oil tankers wrecks, but the evolving landscape of oil wells that are progressively shifted from shallow to deep water, as well as the technology and changes in offshore oil well rigs. Such a maritime landscape would also include the extensive deep-sea infrastructure of not only wells but pipelines, and the onshore infrastructure such as the Houston Ship Channel and refineries (BOEM 2021). Ironically, perhaps, the provision under federal laws in the USA to assess the potential impacts to cultural resources has led to an extensive and well documented range of underwater cultural heritage in the Gulf as a result of compliance with those laws and regulations. RESULTS Offshore structures are products of modern civilizations; additionally, harbours and caravels were developments of past civilizations. Today, we aim to preserve the tangible remains of those past developments, and, as we preserve lighthouses and Viking longships, future civilizations may want to protect offshore structures as proof of progress and blossom of energy construction in the 21st century. The research approach of this paper is focused on calling for a collaborative partnership between the new energy industry and underwater cultural heritage experts. It is one of the first opportunities in history where underwater cultural heritage practitioners can foresee what is going to become underwater cultural heritage in the future. It is a unique opportunity to decide how important this heritage will become for humanity and to establish a dialogue with these companies on aspects such as preservation of metal under water, oil spills control or the dichotomy between cultural and natural tangible remains in the oceans, all of which underwater cultural heritage practitioners have experience with (Perez-Alvaro 2019). Popularity of beautiful underwater cultural heritage sites does not always equate significance, and some of the offshore infrastructures addressed in this article may also need to be considered, recognized, designated as heritage, and preserved. It is also important to highlight the benefits of the construction and dismantling of these offshore structures to underwater cultural heritage because prior to any offshore construction, research must reveal that no underwater archaeological sites are located in the planned location and new archaeological sites can be discovered. However, there is still a lot to do regarding policies and procedures in offshore energy extraction. The archaeological education for 5 �energy farm construction companies and workers is essential to respecting underwater cultural heritage. Clarification of best practices in the development sectors of the oceans will need to emerge in the next years, and underwater cultural heritage managers should be part of the conversations not only for the opportunity to share their knowledge on underwater remains but also to decide which structures can become underwater cultural heritage due to any particular characteristics that can benefit both the knowledge of humankind and the environment. This will also provide a new way to deal with heritage: it will offer the opportunity to decide in the present what we want to remember about this century that is worth preserving for the future. Acknowledgements This research has been supported by the Honor Frost Foundation through the British Academy/Leverhulme Research Grants Scheme. The authors would like to thank Ole Varmer and Chris Underwood for their valuable comments on this article. 6 �Bibliography Baker, Michael. “Safety and Reliability of Decommissioning Offshore Structures.” In Decommissioning Offshore Structures, edited by David Gorman and Joyce Neilson, 57–78. Springer, 1998. BOEM. “Wakes Across the Gulf: Historic Sea Lanes and Shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico”. Technical Report, 2021. Available at: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAIQw7AJahcKEwi4o6 CKn_fAhUAAAAAHQAAAAAQAw&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boem.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fr egions%2Fgulf-mexico-ocs-region%2Foffice-environment%2FTR-BOEM-2021057.pdf&psig=AOvVaw2IM4rH96eLjFMlai4u161h&ust=1684237318775965 Brown, Steve, “Poetics and politics: Bikini Atoll and World Heritage Listing,” in Transcending the Culture–Nature Divide in Cultural Heritage: Views from the Asia–Pacific region, edited by Sally Brockwell, Sue OʹConnor and Denis Byrne, 2013, ANU Press. 35-52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5hgz2n.7 Choi, Jun-Ki, Daniel Kelley, Sean Murphy, and Dillip Thangamani. “Economic and environmental perspectives of end-oflife ship management.” Resources, Conservation and Recycling 107 (2016): 82–91. Delgado, James P., Misadventures of a Civil War Submarine: Iron, Guns, and Pearls. Texas A&M University Press, 2012. Delgado, James P., Deborah E. Marx, Kyle Lent, Joseph Grinnan and Alexander DeCaro, Clotilda: The History and Archaeology of the Last Slave Ship. University of Alabama Press, 2022. Drake Well Museum (n.d.). Available at: https://www.drakewell.org/ Forte, Angelo. “Legal Aspects of Decommissioning Offshore Structures.” In Decommissioning Offshore Structures, edited by David Gorman and Joyce Neilson, 125–140. Springer, 1998. Fowler, Ashley, Anne‐Mette Jørgensen, Jon C. Svendsen, Peter I. Macreadie, Daniel OB Jones, Arjen R. Boon, David J. Booth et al. “Environmental benefits of leaving offshore infrastructure in the ocean.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 16, no. 10 (2018): 571–578. IHS Markit. Offshore decommissioning study report. London: IHS Markit, 2016. Jordan, Grant, and Bennie. Lynn. “Political Aspects of Decommissioning.” In Decommissioning Offshore Structures, edited by David Gorman and Joyce Neilson, 141–160. Springer, 1998. NGO Shipwrecking Platform (n.d.). Available at: https://shipbreakingplatform.org/tag/beaching/ Perez-Alvaro, Elena. Underwater Cultural Heritage. Ethical concepts and practical challenges. London: Routledge. 2019. Ross, David. Opportunities and Uses of the Ocean. New York: Springer, 1978. Simpson, Graeme. “The Environmental Management Aspects of Decommissioning Offshore Structures.” In Decommissioning Offshore Structures, edited by David Gorman and Joyce Neilson, 1–22. Springer, 1998. Smith, Gillian, and Graeme Lamont. “Decommissioning of Offshore Wind Installations–What we can Learn.” Offshore Wind Energy (2017): 6–8. Smyth, Katie, Nikki Christie, Daryl Burdon, Jonathan P. Atkins, Richard Barnes, and Michael Elliott. “Renewables-toreefs?–Decommissioning options for the offshore wind power industry.” Marine pollution bulletin 90, no. 1–2 (2015): 247– 258. Symons, Lisa J., James P., Delgado, Deborah Marx, and Erika Seibert), “A Means to Streamline Historic and Cultural Resources Consultation and Compliance for Pollution Assessment and Recovery Activities on Shipwrecks,” International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings, Volume 2014, Issue 1: 2024-2036. Turner, Philip J. , Sophie Cannon, Sarah DeLand, James P. Delgado, David Eltis, Patrick N. Halpin, Michael I. Kanu, Charlotte S. Sussman, Ole Varmer, and Cindy L. Van Dover), “Memorializing the Middle Passage on the Atlantic Seabed in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction,” Marine Policy, CXXII, December 2020. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Decommissioning Offshore Structures: A Threat or an Underwater Cultural Heritage Opportunity Description An account of the resource This article focuses on the possibility of recycling, removing, and leaving on-site offshore structures, such as wind turbines and oil platforms. It also looks at the environmental consequences of these structures recycling mostly carried out in southern Asian countries with limited work and environmental regulations. The construction of some of these offshore structures does not provide ‘end-of-life’ considerations, so, if left in situ they will become underwater cultural heritage in the future. This article will look at the benefits of a collaboration between offshore and maritime industries and underwater cultural heritage practitioners. It will also highlight the importance of including as underwater cultural heritage less “attractive” sites which may not be as popular, but can still be of importance. If forgotten, we may lose a significant part of humanity’s history. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro James Delgado Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Perez-Alvaro, Elena and James Delgado. 2023. “Decommissioning Offshore Structures: A Threat or an Underwater Cultural Heritage Opportunity.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl and Ole Varmer. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1905 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f922292752e79d078ebe19de938e1369.pdf 4e1024ff4569424e1760c102dc03a31f PDF Text Text Bottom Trawling and the Damage to Underwater Cultural Heritage: An Overview of the Destruction and Possible Steps Forward Charlotte Jarvis (The Ocean Foundation, Threats to Our Ocean Heritage Project Leader) ABSTRACT Trawling has long been regarded as a damaging practice and marine ecologists have lobbied for restrictions. The damage to Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH), however, has received less attention, though it is just as consequential. This paper looks at UCH damage case studies and the impacts of heritage loss and then suggests steps forward. The case studies in the paper will include the damage to UCH across the ocean and in the Mediterranean and Black seas. Shipwrecks are as much part of the marine landscape, and thus of importance to ecologists, as they are to the cultural, historical landscape. Yet nothing has been done to seriously limit trawling and protect the underwater cultural landscape and archaeological impacts and data are missing from biological reports on the process. No underwater policies based on cultural preservation have been formulated to manage offshore fishing. There is a preferred policy for in situ preservation in the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and some practical measures for site managers to address the threats from bottom trawling but if in situ preservation is to be supported, more needs to be done. Moorings can be added and shipwrecks, if left in place, can become artificial reefs and places for more artisanal, sustainable hook-and-line fishing. However, what is needed most is for states and international fishing organisations to ban bottom trawling at and around identified UCH sites, as has been done for some seamounts. This work is part of the Threats to Our Ocean Heritage project, a UN Decade for Ocean Science approved Action discussing this issue of Trawling, Deep Seabed Mining, and Potentially Polluting Wrecks. The expected results include ocean literacy that increases awareness of the issue to a wider range of stakeholders including international organisations, states, and institutions with the authority to effectuate change. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage; Bottom Trawling; Maritime Archaeology List of abbreviations Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) National Research Council (NRC) Nautical Miles (nm) Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) List of figures Figure 1: A beam trawler and an otter trawler. Figure 2: A diver examining fishing debris on a shipwreck. Figure 3: The intensity of trawling around the globe, focused in coastal regions in tonnes per kilometres squared. Figure 4: Evidence of fishermen respecting prohibited zones in Southwest Turkey. INTRODUCTION Trawling has been recognised as a catastrophically damaging practice with lasting negative consequences on seabed ecology and marine life. Less well known though are the dramatic effects trawling has also had on maritime archaeology sites. Although legislation limiting trawling may help biological communities rebound, the archaeological material lost can never be recovered. Restrictions must be passed as soon as possible to prevent further material and heritage destruction. 1 �Bottom, or beam, trawling refers to the practice of pulling a net behind a boat to catch fish. Trawling grew from a need to keep up with declining fish stocks and developed further with technological changes and increased demands, though fishermen constantly complained about the problems in overfishing it created. All three trawling revolutions—invention, mechanisation, and later deep-water expansion—have been met with controversy and pushback from the public and conservationists alike (Roberts 2008, 133). Yet nothing has been done to seriously limit the practice and protect the submerged cultural landscape. Crucially, archaeological impacts and data are also missing from biological reports and published articles on the practice. Trawling developed from the practice of fishing with a net, but that older style was more controlled. Fishermen knew what they were going to pull up each time and rarely had surprises. With bottom trawling, nets are weighted to keep them low along the sea floor and a large beam on deck spread the nets wide to increase catch. This practice of dragging nets along the bottom of the sea, according to historian Jeffery Bolster (2012), redefined the fisherman’s relationship with the fish and it became an exploitative relationship. The practice has enabled humans to both exploit the sea and destroy their own history at the same time. There is no doubt that trawling has decimated fish stocks globally and brought hardship on fishing communities. Today’s boats must work an estimated 17 times harder than in the past because there are literally fewer fish in the sea (Roberts 2012, 44). With one pass by a trawler, boulders can be displaced, large epifaunal invertebrates removed and damaged, and sediment re-suspended (Freese et al. 1999, 119). Structural components of fish habitats are removed, and biodiversity is lost. The effects have been likened to clear cutting a forest, or strip mining. This paper serves as a call for action to address the threats to our ocean heritage from the long history of the destructive activities of bottom trawling. Calum Roberts (2012, 6) writes that the ‘impacts [of trawling] are discussed in isolation and different meetings and by different people who never quite see the picture’. He is referring to different people within the marine scientific fields such as those focused on fishery sciences or pollution. His point holds true, though, with a group of people many do not consider to be ocean heritage professionals: maritime archaeologists or underwater cultural heritage professionals. Although efforts to illustrate sustainability in seafood, such as the Marine Stewardship Council stamp, may attempt to show safe fishing practices, one can never be sure of the wider harm being done, especially to UCH. Some conservationists, including Roberts (2008, 348), argue that trawling should be limited to locations where it does not harm the ecological landscape. Maritime archaeologists and marine ecologists need to communicate and work together to lobby for moratoria on trawling. Shipwrecks are as much part of the marine landscape, and thus of importance to ecologists, as they are to the cultural and historical landscape. History of Trawling First Revolution As far back as 1376, the English parliament was already worried about the destructive nature of trawling to fish populations and habitats, noting that trawling ‘runs so heavily and hardly over the ground when fishing that it destroys the flowers of the land’ and takes so many fish ‘to the great damage of the commons and the destruction of the fisheries’ (Petition by the Commons to King Edward III, 1376 seen in Bolster 2012, 235). Trawling in Europe continued sporadically through the medieval and early modern periods until the early nineteenth century when the industrial revolution pushed trawling technology further. 2 �Second Revolution By 1840, fishermen, using sail power, were already noticing depleted stocks, so changes developed out of a necessity to compensate for a declining catch. Enter steam-powered vessels, which could gather four times more fish per catch than a sailing vessel (Bolster 2012, 237). These vessels were not limited by weather and had the strength to power nets with chain reinforcements on the seafloor. This, by the end of the nineteenth century, enabled the transition to the otter trawl, where two ‘doors’ are used to open the nets easily, accommodating larger nets (NRC 2002, 14). Figure 1: A beam trawl (top) and otter trawl (bottom). (Source: Ecomare, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International) Third Revolution Arguably the most detrimental technological advance came after World War II. Factory-sized, freezer-equipped trawlers appeared and changed fishing practices. These vessels had stern ramps to accommodate larger nets and brought quick-freeze facilities, storage, and fishmeal processing machines onboard. Trawling spread to the deep sea, spearheaded by the Soviet Union but quickly growing into a global industry. The 1950s and 1960s saw the rise of echo sounders and access to areas beyond the reach of shallow trawls. But these new fishing grounds often had rough seafloors that shredded the nets. In response, an innovation was born that significantly increased the destructive power of the trawls. ‘Rockhopper gears’, up to one metre in diametre and weighing hundreds of kilos, are massive steel rubber rollers and chains attached to trawl nets, enabling them to grate flat over the seafloor, destroying everything in their path (Atkinson 2012, 16) 3 �Commercial fishermen now had the technology to send their boats out for longer, fish further away, and fish faster with larger nets (NRC 2002, 12). Eastern European nations took this to a new level, creating ‘floating towns built for the sole purpose of processing marine life into food’ (Roberts 2008, 189). Biologically productive deep seamounts became the new targets and using sonar, vessels could trawl through a large group of fish taking in 50 to 60 tons in a few minutes (Roberts 2008, 291). Today, trawling has grown to previously unimaginable rates. The nets used cut paths through the seafloor at least 100 metres wide and four stories tall, pulling in fish at staggering and unsustainable rates. Many nets are made of synthetic materials which do not break easily when snagged, allowing for higher powered vessels (Brennan 2016, 158). These nets also make up the largest portion of marine debris and plastic pollution in the ocean. With improved gear and electronics, vessels can map the seafloor, fish very close to bottom features, drag nets over rougher seafloor than before (Dorsey 1998, 2), and decimate fish populations and UCH sites across the ocean. This destruction of natural heritage has been well documented and there are some promising studies in UCH damage from trawling that will be explored next. Figure 2: A diver examines debris left from fishing gear in the Stellwagen Bank Marine Sanctuary, a nationally protected area in the United States that allows trawling and fishing within its borders. Almost all wrecks in this protected area have been impacted by trawling (Marx 2010) (Image source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, https://stellwagen.noaa.gov/protect/shipwrecks.html). 4 �CASE STUDIES Coastal Trawling and the Continental Shelf Coastal seas are some of the most ecologically productive areas with delicate plants and marine life and complex ecological systems. A 2021 report found that trawling is the most intense in the territorial (12 nautical miles (nm) offshore) seas of coastal states (Steadman et al. 2021, 5; Pauly, Zeller, and Palomares 2020) and is illustrated in figure 3. Figure 3: The intensity of trawling around the globe, focused in coastal regions in tonnes per kilometre squared (Source: Pauly, Zeller, Palomares 2020, printed under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International License). Coastal trawling is also particularly destructive to UCH, since it is where most known wrecks are located (Atkinson 2012, 11). For example, of the more than 100 shipwrecks in Turkish waters, 16 were observed within trawling boundaries in the Aegean Sea to quantify damage. Researchers found these wrecks with trawl scars running across the site (Brennan et al. 2012). Off the coast of Northern Italy, the Mercure wreck was discovered after historic material was found in a trawl net, and further research showed that trawling nets had spread the vessel and is artefacts across an area of 100 meters (Atkinson 2012, 53). Many wrecks in the Asia Pacific region lie in areas of heavy trawling activity and the wreck timbers have already been damaged. For example, Sten Sjostrand identified 15th- and 16th-century wrecks off the coast of Malaysia, and both were damaged by the time he returned even though the 15th-century wreck once stood 1.8 metres off the seabed (Atkinson 2012, 49). Three kilometres west of Ko Si Chang, Thailand, the Chang I wreck was found when trawl nets stuck to it during a survey in 1981, and archaeological survey markers were left behind. By the time archaeologists revisited the site in 1983, the markers were missing, likely sheared off by trawl gear (Green et al. 1986, 108). Off the coast of New South Wales, Australia, many wrecks have been impacted by scallop dredgers including the City of Launceston, Euralba, Eleutheria, the Isis, and the Lady Darling (Atkinson 2012, 53). 5 �It is not just shipwrecks being destroyed, though. Rising sea levels have put many prehistoric landscapes under coastal waters today. Among the sites worst affected by trawlers is Doggerland, a 30,000-square-kilometre area inhabited during the Mesolithic period (8,000 years ago), which is now under the waters of the North Sea. Hundreds of stone tools have been dragged up over the centuries as it has been bulldozed by trawlers (Atkinson 2012, 68). This area is a valuable example of a site that is both a paleo seascape as well as a site of past human inhabitation. Also in the North Sea, near Brown Bank, Dutch fishermen found items dating to 7200-6000 BC and near Colijnsplaat, Netherlands, when Roman alter stones were dragged up. Even a Neanderthal skull fragment has been found in this area. Off the coast of England, a Saxon period longshore post was visible at low tide, with trawl damage obvious. There are many examples of this in North America too. As a result of deglaciation and isostatic uplift, many sites of the First Americans are now covered by water. Fishermen off the coast of New England have reported findings of tools from the Middle Archaic period and off Virginia a mastodon skull and a stone biface were discovered (Atkinson 2012, 55, 56, 64, 66). Submersible surveys have also discovered shipwrecks that have already been damaged by trawlers on the Continental Shelves (12nm to 200nm from the coast and >200 m deep). In the Bulgarian Black Sea, trawling methods reach down about 100 m on the shelf (limit of trawling depth here) to catch sea snails, clams, and other benthic species and have been a significant practice for decades, unregulated by the government (Prahov et al. 2021, 748 and 749). Since 2010, surveys have been conducted to monitor the damage to wrecks, but no adequate prevention measures have been taken (Prahov 2021, 749). The issue of heritage destruction by trawling is also important to the Asia-Pacific Region because traditionally, trawling studies with UCH have focused on European and North American waters, even though roughly 50 per cent (over the last decade of available data) of all bottom trawled fish come from the continental shelf/EEZs of Asian nations or the foreign fleets of Asian countries (Steadman et al. 2021, 5). Deep Sea Trawling and The High Seas As technology improved and moved further out to the seamounts in the deep sea, more UCH sites must be protected from trawling. The deep-water sites are further from anthropocentric damage and valuable resources due to their in-accessibility. Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) technology has allowed previously impossible deep-sea (more than 200 m deep) exploration and has revealed beautiful, complex habitats. Stunning corals and rich communities are now visible, yet most already showed trawl scars and broken fishing gear. Today’s trawls can reach depths of 2000 m and everywhere scientists look they see evidence of trawling destruction and no evidence of recovery (Victorero et al 2018, 2). There is also evidence of trawl damage on deep-water wrecks off the coast of Turkey along its Mediterranean, Aegean, and Black Sea shores (Brennan et al 2016). Michael Brennan’s (et al 2012, 55) work in studying wrecks in Aegean Turkish waters below diving depth, showcases the damage trawling can do and the high stakes of what is being lost. The studied sites range in depth from 82410 m deep and cover centuries of history (Brennan et al 2012, 64). In the Black Sea, Ereğli E, one of the oldest deep-water wrecks yet discovered, could have been one of the most significant wrecks ever found in the area, but by the time it was found in 2011, it had already been nearly destroyed by trawling (Brennan et al 2016, 84). In the Pacific, though New Zealand is the only main participant of deep-water trawling over seamounts in the high seas of the South Pacific, there are a handful of active vessels in the North and the existing and potential future damage done must be discussed (Thomas 2022). There are hundreds of years of history preserved on the Pacific seafloor and immeasurable quantities of intangible cultural heritage that need to be protected. 6 �FRAMEWORK The case studies and research show how bottom trawling is not only a threat to our natural heritage but are clearly a major threat to UCH. The stories of our societies and our ancestors are wrapped in intangible connection with the ocean and captured on the seafloor as artefacts, shipwrecks, and remains of those lost or buried at sea. Marine global heritage has largely been based on natural heritage. However, UCH is also ocean heritage and must be respected in the same way. Cultural heritage and natural heritage are intertwined when it comes to the ocean. UCH can support ecological marine biodiversity and helps boost sea connectivity. Natali Pearson and Benjamin Thompson (2023, 3) argue that it is beneficial for sites with high UCH and high natural heritage to cooccur and be used strategically together. Over time, shipwrecks come into equilibrium with the marine environment around them and become part of the benthic topography (Brennan 2016, 172). Trawling rapidly destroys this equilibrium, which often has been balanced for centuries (Brennan et al. 2013, 99). Shipwrecks often function as artificial reefs providing habitats, shelter, and adding hard materials to an otherwise soft seafloor. Michael Brennan’s (2016, 172 ; Krumholz and Brennan 2015) research on the Knidos shipwrecks along the Aegean coast of Turkey indicates that lightly trawled ancient wrecks with structures on the seafloor still exhibit more fish population and biomass than heavily trawled wreck sites with little or no structure remaining. Through this process of ‘spill over’, protected shipwrecks can help increase the strength of surrounding fish stocks. Shipwrecks can be as indispensable to the seafloor ecology as a natural coral reef or seamount. Thus, shipwrecks should not be viewed solely in a cultural significance context; they are part of the natural ocean landscape as well as our cultural history. RESULTS The results of this paper are a suggestion of steps forward. Underwater policies formulated to manage offshore fishing based on cultural preservation are lacking. Some trawling restrictions were placed after backlash in the 1990s when ecologists and fisheries experts, well aware of the dangers of trawling, lobbied for more restrictions. This research and advocacy for regulation are a good start. There is a preferred policy for in situ preservation by archaeologists and historians codified in the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage but some practical measures for site managers to address the threats from bottom trawling are needed. If in situ preservation is to be supported, moorings should be added for shipwrecks that are destinations for ecocultural tourism. As artificial reefs they may be appropriate places for more artisanal, sustainable hook-and-line fishing. However, what is needed most is for states and international fishing organisations to ban bottom trawling at and around identified UCH sites, as has already been done for some seamounts. Most importantly, trawling damage should not be allowed as a justification for salvage. The author recognises that these results cannot be achieved without the voice and support of the fishing community. Wrecks, however, also present problems to fishermen. When nets snag, gear is lost or ruined and can be costly to replace. Shipwrecks can also endanger the lives of those onboard vessels. In Britain from 1976 to 2005 around 16 vessels capsized after gear was snagged on obstructions and many lives were lost (Atkinson 2012, 3). Although some shipwreck sites have only been found because of fishermen’s reports, there is no requirement for fishermen to do so. Collaboration and partnership between archaeologist and fisherman is needed and archaeologists must understand the context fishermen operate in to communicate effectively (Brennan et al. 2012, 62; see Figure 4). 7 �Figure 4: Evidence of fishermen respecting prohibited zones in Southwest Turkey: dark grey area shows a zone where trawling is prohibited, dots show visible trawl scars on the seabed (Source: Brennan et al. 2012, 62 reprinted with permission). What we do with trawling can pave the way for other important ocean exploitation. Climate change will continue to threaten our oceans (for example, sea-level-rise sinking previously terrestrial sites) and we know ecologically why it is important to protect the ocean. While there are many unknowns in deep sea biodiversity and ecosystem services, what we do know clearly points to vast and far-reaching damage. In other words, we know enough from existing trawling damage that tells us we should stop similar practices, like seabed mining. We cannot predict undiscovered historical significance. Trawling is a clear and present threat not only to fish populations and habitats, but also to submerged cultural landscapes. There should not be a choice between humans and the natural world. Restrictions such as the options above, must be passed as soon as possible to prevent further material and heritage destruction. Acknowledgements Thank you to The Ocean Foundation, The Lloyd’s Register Foundation Heritage and Education Centre, ICOMOS-ICUCH, and Ocean Decade Heritage Network for their support of this paper and the Threats to Our Ocean Heritage project. Thank you to Mark Spalding, Ole Varmer, Alexandra Refosco, Michael Brennan, Jim Delgado, Louise Sanger, and Ben Ferrari for their help developing the ideas that are reflected here. Thank you to Claire Zak and Sheri Kapahnke for hosting a session and a dynamic discussion on Coastal UCH sites at the EAA meeting in 2022 that sparked the idea to pursue this research. 8 �Bibliography Atkinson, Christopher Michael. “Impacts of Bottom Trawling on Underwater Cultural Heritage”. Master’s Thesis, Texas A&M University, (2012). Bolster, W. Jeffrey. The Mortal Sea: Fishing the Atlantic in the Age of Sail. Cambridge, Mass. London: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2012. Brennan, Michael L., Robert D. Ballard, Chris Roman, Katherine L.C. Bell, Bridget Buxton, Dwight F. Coleman, Gabrielle Inglis, Orkan Köyağasıoğlu, and Tufan Turanlı. “Evaluation of the Modern Submarine Landscape off Southwestern Turkey through the Documentation of Ancient Shipwreck Sites.” Continental Shelf Research 43 (2012): 55–70. Brennan, Michael L., Dan Davis, Chris Roman, Ilya Buynevich, Alexis Catsambis, Meko Kofahl, Derya Ürkmez, J. Ian Vaughn, Maureen Merrigan, and Muhammet Duman. “Ocean Dynamics and Anthropogenic Impacts along the Southern Black Sea Shelf Examined through the Preservation of Pre-Modern Shipwrecks.” Continental Shelf Research 53 (2013): 89–101. Brennan, Michael L. “Quantifying Impacts of Trawling to Shipwrecks.” In Site Formation Processes of Submerged Shipwrecks, edited by Mathew E. Keith, 157-178. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2016. Brennan, Michael L., Dan Davis, Robert D. Ballard, Arthur C. Trembanis, J. Ian Vaughn, Jason S. Krumholz, James P. Delgado, et al. “Quantification of Bottom Trawl Fishing Damage to Ancient Shipwreck Sites.” Marine Geology 371 (2016): 82–88. Freese, Lincoln, Peter J. Auster, Johnathan Heifetz, and Bruce L. Wing. “Effects of Trawling on Seafloor Habitat and Associated Invertebrate Taxa in the Gulf of Alaska.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 182 (1999): 119–26. Green, Jeremy, Rosemary Harper, and Vidya Intakosi. “The Ko Si Chang One Shipwreck Excavation 1983-1985. A Progress Report.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 15, no. 2 (1986): 105–22. Krumholz, Jason S., and Michael L. Brennan. “Fishing for Common Ground: Investigations of the Impact of Trawling on Ancient Shipwreck Sites Uncovers a Potential for Management Synergy.” Marine Policy 61 (2015): 127–33. Marx, Deborah. “Fishing Threatens Historic Shipwrecks.” INA Quarterly 36(4) (2010): 8. National Research Council (U.S.) (NRC), ed. Effects of Trawling and Dredging on Seafloor Habitat. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press, 2002. Pauly, Daniel, Zeller, Dirk, Palomares, Deng. Editors. Sea Around Us Concepts, Design and Data, 2020. seaaroundus.org. Pearson, Natali, and Benjamin S. Thompson. “Saving Two Fish with One Wreck: Maximizing Synergies in Marine Biodiversity Conservation and Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection.” Marine Policy 152 (2023): 105613. Prahov, Nayden, Bogdan Prodanov, Kalin Dimitrov, and Kiril Velkovsky. “The Negative Impact of Human Activities on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Case Studies from the Bulgarian Black Sea Littoral.” (2021): 743-750. Roberts, Callum. The Unnatural History of the Sea. Washington: Island Press, 2008. Roberts, Callum. The Ocean of Life: The Fate of Man and the Sea. New York: Viking, 2012. Steadman, Daniel, John Thomas, Vanessa Villanueva, Forrest Lewis, Daniel Pauly, M.L. Palomares, Nicolas Bailly, et al. New Perspectives on an Old Fishing Practice: Scale, Context and Impacts of Bottom Trawling, 2021. Thomas, Karli. “New Zealand’s Bottom Trawling Isolation Continues in the South Pacific.” Deep Sea Conservation Coalition, September 29, 2022. https://savethehighseas.org/2022/09/29/new-zealands-bottom-trawling-isolationcontinues-in-the-south-pacific/. Victorero, Lissette, Les Watling, Maria L. Deng Palomares, and Claire Nouvian. “Out of Sight, But Within Reach: A Global History of Bottom-Trawled Deep-Sea Fisheries From >400 m Depth.” Frontiers in Marine Science 5 (2018). 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Bottom Trawling and the Damage to Underwater Cultural Heritage: An Overview of the Destruction and Possible Steps Forward Description An account of the resource Trawling has long been regarded as a damaging practice and marine ecologists have lobbied for restrictions. The damage to Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH), however, has received less attention, though it is just as consequential. This paper looks at UCH damage case studies and the impacts of heritage loss and then suggests steps forward. The case studies in the paper will include the damage to UCH across the ocean and in the Mediterranean and Black seas. Shipwrecks are as much part of the marine landscape, and thus of importance to ecologists, as they are to the cultural, historical landscape. Yet nothing has been done to seriously limit trawling and protect the underwater cultural landscape and archaeological impacts and data are missing from biological reports on the process. No underwater policies based on cultural preservation have been formulated to manage offshore fishing. There is a preferred policy for in situ preservation in the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and some practical measures for site managers to address the threats from bottom trawling but if in situ preservation is to be supported, more needs to be done. Moorings can be added and shipwrecks, if left in place, can become artificial reefs and places for more artisanal, sustainable hook-and-line fishing. However, what is needed most is for states and international fishing organisations to ban bottom trawling at and around identified UCH sites, as has been done for some seamounts. This work is part of the Threats to Our Ocean Heritage project, a UN Decade for Ocean Science approved Action discussing this issue of Trawling, Deep Seabed Mining, and Potentially Polluting Wrecks. The expected results include ocean literacy that increases awareness of the issue to a wider range of stakeholders including international organizations, states, and institutions with the authority to effectuate change. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Charlotte Jarvis Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jarvis, Charlotte . 2023. “Bottom Trawling and the Damage to Underwater Cultural Heritage: An Overview of the Destruction and Possible Steps Forward.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Ole Varmer. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1904 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4a7edba3b2da138bda2e045999964d04.pdf b6106d02afdf2015792221e5cc9a6113 PDF Text Text Underwater Cultural Heritage and Fishing Communities: safeguarding heritage and safeguarding fishermen Ben Ferrari (Lloyd’s Register Foundation Heritage Education Centre, Senior Advisor) Antony Firth (Historic England, Head of Marine Heritage Strategy) David Gregory (National Museum of Denmark, Senior Researcher and Honorary Professor) Louise Sanger (Lloyd’s Register Foundation Heritage Education Centre, Head of Research, Interpretation & Engagement) ABSTRACT This paper proposes that development of a fit-for purpose management to protect underwater cultural heritage from negative impacts caused by fishing gear requires three elements; evidence-based characterisation of impacts; understanding of the pressures and constraints acting upon fishing communities; commitment to engagement with fishermen and industry associations. A new study is introduced, ENDURE, that will help to characterise and quantify damage caused by fishing gear to archaeological material as part of a broader study of site formation and preservation in situ. The work of Lloyd’s Registry Foundation on fishing safety is presented as a contribution to the design of appropriate management regimes – it is emphasised that fishing is already inherently dangerous and that dislocation from traditional fishing grounds caused by exclusion or limitation of fishing in certain areas can exacerbate occupation safety challenges; the work of Historic England in is described as a case study of liaison with fishermen to safeguard heritage and the need for broad. The need for commitment to a broad programme of engagement with fishermen, industry associations and responsible agencies is illustrated. The paper concludes that the vital role of fishing in maintaining the stability of coastal communities must be recognised while seeking arrangements that minimise risk to heritage on the seabed. Key Words: Impact , Preservation in situ, Safety, Engagement Abbreviations ALDFG - Abandoned, Lost and Discarded Fishing Gear CFP - Common Fisheries Policy DEFRA - the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs FIPAD - Fishing Industry Protocol for Archaeological Discoveries FMP – Fisheries Management Plans HAZ - Heritage Action Zone / High Street Action Zone HE - Historic England HPMA – Highly Protected Marine Area IFCA - Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority LRF Lloyd’s Register Foundation MPA – Marine Protected Area MMO - Marine Management Organisation (MMO) UCH – Underwater cultural heritage UKMA – UK Marine Area 1 �INTRODUCTION This paper addresses three areas of endeavour central to managing the impact of fishing activity on Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH). There are more than three million shipwrecks estimated worldwide according to UNESCO (Croome 1999, 49-52). The UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage encourages in-situ preservation and states that wrecks older than 100 years count as a cultural heritage site. This encompasses many metal shipwrecks, including World War 1 casualties and gives rise to significant conflicts of interest (Firth 2018, 8-9). They are habitats for marine life, enhancing biodiversity and biomass (Bałazy et al. 2019, 1-2). They can also pose environmental pollution threats, especially if they contain hazardous substances such as oil, chemicals, or munitions (Ndungu et al. 2017; Szafrańska et al. 2021). Marine spatial planning issues often arise as wrecks interfere with the ever-increasing offshore sub-sea engineering efforts, such as the installation of cables, pipelines, or wind farms (Papageorgiou 2018, 195-196). Shipwrecks are also treated as geohazards and obstacles to marine engineering, posing risks to navigation or safety through unexploded ordnance. The impact of fishing activity must therefore be considered in the context of a complex marine management and stewardship environment. The first section deals with the need for evidence-based characterisation of the impact of fishing that is integrated into wider consideration of site formation dynamics. A major European Research Council research programme, ENDURE, is introduced. Based at the National Museum of Denmark, ENDURE aims to disentangle natural and anthropogenic decay processes and determine their cumulative effects on UCH. The aim is to validate the efficacy of in situ preservation.1 The following sections develop the proposition that the application of such foundational work on new management regimes will be compromised in the absence of full appreciation of the pressures operating on the fishing industry and without concerted effort committed to close engagement with fishermen. Not all fishing activity poses an equal threat to UCH, and it is critical that an understanding of material differences in impact shapes management solutions. The second section introduces the work of Lloyd’s Register Foundation (LRF) - shaping a future for the fishing industry that is safe for all fishers working in a sustainable ocean economy. Today’s fisheries are part of a highly stressed marine system, and the human cost of fishing is appallingly high. LRF’s work will help inform proposals for protection of UCH that avoid exacerbating occupational safety challenges. The third section presents work undertaken by Historic England (HE) to engage with fishermen to mitigate damage to UCH and develop fit-for-purpose management regimes. It emphasises the need for broad engagement with agencies as well as industry bodies and communities. CASE STUDIES Out of sight but not out of mind - Sustainable preservation of underwater archaeological sites Given the scale of the heritage management challenge – a wide range of site types in complex, dynamic environments - a desk-based approach for assessment of the most significant site formation processes is urgently needed. Rapidly progressing marine remote sensing techniques allow effective non-intrusive detection, characterisation, and monitoring of underwater sites (Plets et al. 2011, 87-88; Westley et al. 2019, 3629-3632). The remote characterisation and monitoring of change at individual sites (Quinn & Boland 2010, 2938-2940; Brennan et al. 2016, 82-84) includes environmental factors to understand physical formation processes in control of site preservation (Smyth & Quinn 2014, 221223; Fernández-Montblanc et al. 2016, 240-242; Quinn & Smyth 2018, 1429-1432; Geraga et al. 2020, 1210-1215; Majcher et al. 2021, 1-4). Gregory and Manders (2015, 7-10) formed a baseline process-based approach to control, assess and achieve in-situ preservation, and one of its central points is the assessment of the most significant chemical, biological and physical threats to the site. Understanding the formation of underwater sites also enables more accurate archaeological interpretation. Assessing environmental factors can not only 1 Project ENDURE https://www.endureerc.com. 2 �lead to better understanding of events that caused the sinking of the vessel but it also helps to predict pathways of future deterioration. This enhances understanding of potential pollution and fishing hazards and address UCH management needs. In ongoing work (Gregory et al, forthcoming) baseline post-depositional site formation processes for more than 500 shipwreck sites located in the North and Baltic Seas are being examined. Multi-beam bathymetry data supplied by the marine survey company (JD-Contractor A/S) are integrated with multiple environmental and anthropogenic influenced data layers sourced from open-data portals. The sites were manually classified using a revised form of Muckelroy’s (1977) approach and subsequently, statistical correlation analysis was used to determine the most significant variables. Fishing activity was assessed through inclusion of variables representing fishing efforts. EMODnet (2023)2 provides a variety of quantified fishing activities in the Baltic and North Seas. Only the fishing methods entailing direct contact of the fishing gear with the seabed were relevant. Bottom seiner, beam and otter trawler fishing data were downloaded from the EMODnet portal, representing fishing intensities averaged across three years. However, caution is required as there is on-going research into the footprint and actual impact of fishing on seabed habitats (McConnaughey et al. 2020, 325-30). Although the study presents a simplified, preliminary approach it serves as a big-data-driven attempt to assess the predominant basin-scale post-depositional site formation factors acting at UCH sites. Water depth, bottom fishing intensity and oceanographic variables like salinity have significant influence as well as the expected correlation between the age of a wreck site (sinking date) and its current preservation state. These aspects are being further developed in the ENDURE project addressing the following key knowledge gaps: 1) the efficacy and long term sustainability of ‘in-situ preservation’; 2) what to preserve and why; 3) a comprehensive understanding of decay processes (including their rates) and how and in what circumstances these can be mitigated for; 4) the invisible and inaccessible nature of these sites and how such a large resource can be effectively monitored; 5) the increasingly dynamic and changing nature of the marine environment due to both natural and anthropogenic drivers; and 6) the lack of integration of UCH management with other disciplines and end users of the marine environment. RESOURCES The world’s most dangerous industry The damage caused to UCH by trawling activity cannot be ignored by responsible Government agencies and Lloyd’s Register Foundation3 (LRF) is committed to supporting the safe and effective management of UCH. However, attempts to develop better management regimes for UCH located on or near fishing grounds will be compromised without a high-level of awareness of challenges faced by the fishing community. Accordingly, LRF Heritage Education Centre has launched the Learning from the Past4 programme to help generate insights that contribute to fisher safety. It will also help archaeologists and historians to communicate with fishermen and policy makers to limit harm to both the natural and historic marine environments. Illegal fishing, climate change, weak governance, poverty, and reduced fish stocks all contribute to make fishing one of the world’s most dangerous professions. Recent work by the FISH Safety Foundation indicates that over 100,000 fishing-related fatalities occur annually with the majority in the developing world.5 Negative health effects on industry participants in general and fatalities greatly 2 https://emodnet.ec.europa.eu/en/fishing-intensity-data-set-extended-additional-sea-regions https://www.lrfoundation.org.uk/en/ 4 https://hec.lrfoundation.org.uk/get-involved/introducing-learning-from-the-past-236 5 https://www.the-human-cost-of-fishing.org/ 3 3 �exceed those in the wider shipping sector.6 In Bangladesh, over 1,350 fishermen die at sea every year, often in boats without the most basic safety equipment.7 LRF has launched several initiatives, such as FishSafe2025, to help assure fisher safety through training and awareness.8 The highly influential Insight Report on Safety in the Fishing Industry (Attwood 2018) stressed the need to improve safety in ways that are appropriate for local communities. The Foundation has also supported development of new safety technology—for example SeaWise®, a tablet-sized device that monitors the stability of smaller fishing vessels.9 These outputs contain many insights that may be valuable in designing new UCH management regimes—especially in inshore waters. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and latterly, Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs), will be a key tool in both marine nature and heritage conservation but displacement of fishers from familiar grounds, whether through creation of MPAs or other processes, can carry a cost that must be recognised and addressed in planning stages. The LRF funded film Two Kinds of Water10 tells the story of fishers in Africa’s most vulnerable fishing communities. Displaced from their traditional fishing grounds into stormier waters, fishers are forced to venture further and stay at sea longer in poorly adapted vessels. Larger, mechanised fishing vessels now compete with artisanal fishers for fish and pose a safety threat to their more fragile, smaller craft. Fishing communities also face disruption around the UK. Fishers have been moved from traditional shore facilities due to redevelopment. The UK Government plans for new, HPMAs,11 may also deny fishers access to traditional inshore grounds. UK sea fisheries associations have warned of a looming displacement crisis with lasting harm to coastal communities.12 The UK Government has consulted extensively on proposed HPMAs and eventually refused two of the proposed designations. The needs of fishing communities were prominent in the published rationale for rejection.13 For Lindisfarne, reasons included residents’ concerns about losing their heritage, community, and cultural identity through losing fishing and their health and safety concerns, including mental health. The Inner Silver Pit South designation was refused on the basis that the relatively high costs to fishermen would not be offset by the potential benefits from its designation as a HPMA. FRAMEWORK Protecting England’s Maritime Heritage and fishing community engagement Fishing in English waters, using both mobile and static gear, involves a variety of complex interactions with UCH. Fishing has given rise to important heritage both underwater and along our coastlines, but fishing can also cause damage to UCH. Fishing is often a source of information about UCH – in the form of new discoveries – even where those discoveries are a consequence of fishing impacts. 6 https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/mi/research-analysis/seafarer-fatalities-shows-shipping-mustdo-more.html 7 https://www.fishsafety.org 8 https://www.lrfoundation.org.uk/en/impact-stories/saving-lives-of-the-worlds-poorest-fishermen/ 9 https://www.lrfoundation.org.uk/en/impact-stories/hook-marine 10 https://www.lrfoundation.org.uk/en/news/keeping-fishers-safe-at-sea/ 11 https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/highly-protected-marine-areas-hpmas-review-2019 12 https://www.nffo.org.uk/spatial-squeeze-report-parliamentary-launch/ 13 https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/highly-protected-marine-areas/highly-protected-marine-areashpmas#an-overview-of-the-pilot-hpma-selection-process 4 �Historic England (HE) is the government’s advisor on the historic environment in England, including in the UK Marine Area (UKMA) off England14, encompassing the territorial sea to 12 nautical miles (nm), and the UK Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone to median lines with neighbouring countries or to the boundary of national jurisdiction (200 nm) in the southwest. HE’s capacity to designate sites under heritage legislation is limited to the territorial sea but HE advises government on a range of other powers relating to resource use, the environment and fishing that apply to the full extent of national jurisdiction. For fisheries management, another key boundary lies at six nm, which is the outer limit of areas administered by Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authorities (IFCAs). Beyond six nm, fisheries management is subject to the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) of the European Union (EU). Since the UK left the EU, fisheries off England beyond six nm are now administered by the Marine Management Organisation (MMO), one of the family of public bodies sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). HE, including through its precursor English Heritage, has been engaging with fisheries for many years. It commissioned a wide-ranging examination of fishing and the historic environment that encompassed the contribution of fishing to the historic environment as well as direct and indirect interactions, both positive and negative (Firth et al. 2013). The report spurred further investigations and continues to provide evidence to support advice to government. In the 1990s, ‘fishermen’s fasteners’ were included among the core data recorded in the national inventory, now known as the National Marine Heritage Record. Fasteners are places where fishermen have noted snags to their gear which, in several cases, proved to be historic wrecks. Whilst fasteners indicate potential UCH, their actual character is unknown. This and several other ambiguities prompted a project led by Sussex IFCA to better understand fasteners and their heritage implications, including testing whether the survey methods used by IFCAs for fisheries and habitat mapping could also be used to examine fasteners. The project, which included dialogue and joint fieldwork with fishermen, confirmed the continued importance of fishermen’s fasteners as a source of information (Firth & Dapling 2020). The project also flagged the safety issues presented by cultural heritage to fishing insofar as some fishing vessels, and fishermen’s lives,15 have been lost from snagging obstructions and other historic material such as ordnance.16 The potential for IFCAs to use habitat survey methods to examine UCH was further explored in a project led by Isles of Scilly IFCA with the University of Plymouth (Firth et al. 2020). In 2012-13, HE funded a pilot project to encourage fishermen to report their discoveries of UCH through a Fishing Industry Protocol for Archaeological Discoveries (FIPAD) (Davidson 2013). FIPAD was further developed with the support of the National Lottery Heritage Fund and Sussex IFCA in 2016-18.17 Notwithstanding these positive instances of collaboration, fishing is still a cause of impacts to UCH, including to highly significant historic wrecks designated under heritage legislation. Several instances of documented damage are currently being investigated as heritage crimes and in other instances, fieldwork has been commissioned to remove Abandoned, Lost and Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) that is obscuring designated sites and presenting a hazard to licensed divers. Whilst damage is a criminal offence, fishing as an activity is not restricted on these sites. Consequently, and in addition to pursuing criminal damage, HE efforts are twofold: working with the fishing sector to discourage the use of potentially damaging methods in the vicinity of important sites; whilst also exploring the use of fisheries management measures to formally restrict fishing. New fisheries legislation, the Fisheries Act 2020, was introduced to accompany the UK leaving the EU and encompasses ‘features of archaeological or historic interest’ within the scope of the marine and aquatic environment that can be conserved, enhanced, and restored through financial assistance, regulations, or conditions on sea fishing licences. It was confirmed by the Minister in Parliament that regulations for conservation 14 Cultural heritage and fisheries in the UK are both devolved matters: distinct arrangements apply in England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. 15 https://www.gov.uk/maib-reports/capsize-and-sinking-of-beam-trawler-noordster-off-beachy-head-englandwith-loss-of-3-lives. 16 https://www.gov.uk/government/news/galwad-y-mor-report-published. 17 https://fipad.org/ 5 �purposes may be used to amend or introduce legislation to protect features of archaeological or historic interest individually or collectively.18 Exclusion of fishing activity from limited areas around specific heritage sites is a residual option if the risk of impact cannot be reduced through other means, but it is not the starting point. As noted earlier, fishing is a valued part of our heritage, contributing to the character and sense of place of coastal communities, including people who work in them or visit. Often, UCH is itself the heritage of fishing generally but also of the fishermen themselves: numerous fishing vessels lie wrecked in English waters, not least from the First and Second World Wars when fishing vessels and fishing crews served in the hazardous role of minesweeping. HE has supported the contribution of fishing heritage to regeneration of coastal communities through Heritage Action Zones (HAZs) and High Street Action Zones (HAZs). Examples of this include the ‘Kasbah’ at the heart of Grimsby’s historic fishing industry,19 and the Whapload Road area of North Lowestoft (Bristow 2019). HE is carrying out a thematic assessment of heritage relating to steam fishing, encompassing heritage assets on land and at sea. HE continues to explore how heritage contributes to the sustainability of fishing, reducing impacts to UCH but potentially contributing to the wider sustainability of our continued use and enjoyment of our seas. HE is supporting and co-supervising a new PhD starting in October 2023 on using cultural heritage proactively to help manage UK marine fisheries in conjunction with Heriot Watt University and the University of Exeter as part of the Centre for Doctoral Training in in Sustainable Management of UK Marine Resources (CDT SuMMeR). The research will examine how the legacy of cultural heritage embedded in the practice of small-scale fishing – traditional ecological knowledge, maritime landscapes, historic landing places, traditional vessels, and all their associated skills and material culture – can be used to drive greater sustainability within fisheries management. Historic England continues to engage with Defra and the MMO on major changes to fisheries management introduced by the Fisheries Act 2020. The new Joint Fisheries Statement (JFS)20 – which sets out the overall direction of fisheries management across the UK –acknowledges that the seafood sector is an important part of the economy of coastal communities and has a rich cultural heritage from which many of those communities draw a sense of place and identity. There is work to do, however, on detailing how this rich cultural heritage is to be conserved and enhanced through the JFS. Historic England is engaged on the practical implications of the Fisheries Management Plans (FMPs) that support the JFS through binding obligations and identified measures for dealing with individual fish stocks, types of fishing and geographic areas. The introduction and implementation of FMPs provides a key opportunity to flag the impacts of specific fisheries and how they can be reduced, but also the positive contribution that heritage can make to the long-term sustainability of fishing and coastal communities. CONCLUSION Unhelpfully, some commercial salvage companies have used the threat of trawl damage to justify the commercial salvage and sale of valuable materials from historic wreck sites—a line of argument that must be refuted through evidence led approach to the actual nature and scale of impacts created by different types of fishing gear in different locations. Fishing is also an inherently hazardous occupation and the fact fishing communities represent intangible cultural heritage values is increasingly recognised in consultations21 and programmes supporting the regional socio-economic 18 https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2020-09-15/debates/a7b42ae4-819e-45c7-a0d6fc32b494aacf/FisheriesBill(Lords)(FifthSitting)#contribution-FCA4B1FA-E107-4602-B34C-E9AF6F80A30F 19 https://historicengland.org.uk/services-skills/heritage-action-zones/greater-grimsby/ 20 https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/joint-fisheries-statement-jfs 21 https://www.theheritagealliance.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Heritage-in-the-Marine-Environmentpaper.pdf 6 �role of fisheries.22 Heritage agencies have worked successfully with fishing communities to explore collaborative management approaches. Indeed, examples exist of fishing communities recruited and trained specifically to assist with monitoring and conservation of UCH. 23 However, much more effort is needed to develop ways to balance the needs of fishers with preservation of nature and heritage. Lloyd’s Register Foundation will continue to support such efforts. Bibliography Attwood, D. Insight report on safety in the fishing industry: a global safety challenge [online] Lloyd’s Register Foundation. Available at: https://www.lrfoundation.org.uk/en/publications (2018) Bałazy, P., Copeland, U., & Sokołowski, A. “Shipwrecks and underwater objects of the southern Baltic—Hard substrata islands in the brackish, soft bottom marine environment”. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 225 (2019): 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2019. 05.022 Brennan, Michael L., Dan Davis, Robert D. Ballard, Arthur C. Trembanis, J. Ian Vaughn, Jason S. Krumholz, James P. Delgado. "Quantification of Bottom Trawl Fishing Damage to Ancient Shipwreck Sites." Marine Geology 371 (2016): 82-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2015.11.001. Bristow, M. 311 – 333 Whapload Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk: Historic Area Assessment, No. 57–2019; Research Report Series. Portsmouth: Historic England, 2019. https://historicengland.org.uk/research/results/reports/7747/311%E2%80%93333WhaploadRoadLowestoftSuffolk%E2%80% 93HistoricAreaAssessment Croome, A. “Sinking fast.” New Scientist 161, no. 2169 (1999): 49-52. Davidson, S. Fishing Industry Protocol for Archaeological Discoveries: Final report, 73271.04. Salisbury: Wessex Archaeology, 2013. https://historicengland.org.uk/research/results/reports/6952/FishingIndustryProtocolforArchaeologicalDiscoveries Fernández-Montblanc, T., A. Izquierdo, R. Quinn, and M. Bethencourt. "Waves and Wrecks: A Computational Fluid Dynamic Study in an Underwater Archaeological Site." Ocean Engineering 163 (2018): 232-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.05.062. Firth, A. Managing shipwrecks. London: Honor Frost Foundation, 2018. https://honorfrostfoundation.org/wpcontent/uploads/2019/07/BRIJ5800-Multiwreck-A4-Report-WEB-0419-UPDATE.pdf Firth, A., and Dapling, T. “Fishing for heritage: A project to better understand ‘fishermen’s fasteners’ off the coast of Sussex”. Historic Environment Research 15 (2020): 38–45. https://historicengland.org.uk/imagesbooks/publications/historic-england-research-15/he-research-15/ Firth, A., Hooper, T., and Sheehan, E. “Fish and ships: Integrating heritage with habitat surveys off the Isles of Scilly”. Historic Environment Research 15 (2020): 46–53. https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/historic-englandresearch-15/he-research-15/ Firth, A., McAleese, L., Smith, R., and Woodcock, T. Fishing, and the historic environment, EH 6204. Bath: Marine Ecological Surveys Ltd, 2013. https://historicengland.org.uk/research/results/reports/6951/FishingandtheHistoricEnvironment Geraga, Maria, Dimitris Christodoulou, Dimitrios Eleftherakis, George Papatheodorou, Elias Fakiris, Xenophon Dimas, Nikos Georgiou, et al. "Atlas of Shipwrecks in Inner Ionian Sea (Greece): A Remote Sensing Approach." Heritage 3, no. 4 (2020): 1210-36. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage3040067. Gregory, D., and M. Manders. Best practices for locating, surveying, assessing, monitoring, and preserving underwater archaeological sites, SASMAP Guideline Manual 2, European Union, (2015): 1-107. http://sasmap.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/temasites/sas_map/pdf/SASMAP_guideline_02_LR.pdf. 22 23 https://www.cabfishman.net https://risingfromthedepths.com/blog/marovany-4/ 7 �Gregory, D., Dam, M, Majcher, J., Matthiesen, H., Normann-Andersen, G., Quinn, R. (forthcoming) Using open-data portals, remote sensing, and computational modelling to investigate historic wreck sites and their environments: 45 years on from Muckelroy. To be submitted to International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. Majcher, Jan, Rory Quinn, Ruth Plets, Mark Coughlan, Christopher McGonigle, Fabio Sacchetti, and Kieran Westley. "Spatial and Temporal Variability in Geomorphic Change at Tidally Influenced Shipwreck Sites: The Use of Time‐ Lapse Multibeam Data for the Assessment of Site Formation Processes." Geoarchaeology (2021): 1-26. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gea.21840. McConnaughey, R. A., Hiddink, J. G., Jennings, S., Pitcher, C. R., Kaiser, M. J., Suuronen, P., & Hilborn, R. (2020). Choosing best practices for managing impacts of trawl fishing on seabed habitats and biota. Fish and Fisheries 21, no. 2 (2020): 319-337. Muckelroy, K.. "Historic wreck sites in Britain and their environments." International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 6, no.1 (1977): 47-57. Ndungu, K., et al. “Petroleum oil and mercury pollution from shipwrecks in Norwegian coastal waters.” Sci Total Environ 593-594 (2017): 624-633. Papageorgiou, M. “Underwater cultural heritage facing maritime spatial planning: Legislative and technical issues.” Ocean & Coastal Management 165 (2018): 195-202. Plets, R., Quinn, R., Forsythe, W., Westley, K., Bell, T., Benatti, S., McGrath, F., Robinson, R. “Using Multibeam Echo‐ Sounder Data to Identify Shipwreck Sites: archaeological assessment of the Joint Irish Bathymetric Survey data.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 40, no. 1 (2011): 87-98. Quinn, R., and D. Boland. “The role of time-lapse bathymetric surveys in assessing morphological change at shipwreck sites.” Journal of Archaeological Science 37, no. 11 (2010): 2938-2946. Quinn, R., and T. A. G. Smyth. "Processes and Patterns of Flow, Erosion, and Deposition at Shipwreck Sites: A Computational Fluid Dynamic Simulation." Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 10, no. 6 (2018): 1429-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-017-0468-7. Smyth, T. A. G., and R. Quinn. "The Role of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Understanding Shipwreck Site Formation Processes." Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014): 220-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.02.025. UNESCO “2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage,” Records of the general conference: Resolutions 31st session, Vol. 1, edited by UNESCO, Paris: UNESCO, (2001):50–61. https://unesdoc.unesco. org/ark:/48223/pf0000124687.page=56 Westley, K., Plets, R., Quinn, R. “Optimising protocols for high-definition imaging of historic shipwrecks using multibeam echosounder.” Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 11, no. 7 (2019): 3629–3645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520019-00831-6 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Cultural Heritage and Fishing Communities: Safeguarding Heritage and Safeguarding Fishermen Description An account of the resource This paper proposes that development of a fit-for purpose management to protect underwater cultural heritage from negative impacts caused by fishing gear requires three elements; evidence-based characterisation of impacts; understanding of the pressures and constraints acting upon fishing communities; commitment to engagement with fishermen and industry associations. A new study is introduced, ENDURE, that will help to characterize and quantify damage caused by fishing gear to archaeological material as part of a broader study of site formation and preservation in situ. The work of Lloyd’s Registry Foundation on fishing safety is presented as a contribution to the design of appropriate management regimes – it is emphasized that fishing is already inherently dangerous and that dislocation from traditional fishing grounds caused by exclusion or limitation of fishing in certain areas can exacerbate occupation safety challenges; the work of Historic England in is described as a case study of liaison with fishermen to safeguard heritage and the need for broad. The need for commitment to a broad program of engagement with fishermen, industry associations and responsible agencies is illustrated. The paper concludes that the vital role of fishing in maintaining the stability of coastal communities must be recognized while seeking arrangements that minimize risk to heritage on the seabed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ben Ferrari Antony Firth David Gregory Louise Sanger Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ferrari, Ben, Antony Firth, David Gregory, and Louise Sanger. 2023. “Underwater Cultural Heritage and Fishing Communities: safeguarding heritage and safeguarding fishermen.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Charlotte Jarvis, and Ole Varmer. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1903 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2d6c0915b56c5ef0bab7c6a27aa15ac0.pdf 7411c91d605333fe0f19d2c3e0886ca6 PDF Text Text Assessing Potentially Polluting Wrecks in US Waters Michael L. Brennan (SEARCH, Inc., Deep Water Sector Leader) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits within this session on threats to underwater cultural heritage (UCH) because of the environmental risk posed by shipwrecks with petroleum cargoes. While many shipwrecks from the World Wars are important parts of our cultural heritage, they also pose a significant threat to the marine and coastal environment as the steel hulls containing their cargoes continue to corrode. A vital limiting factor in addressing such pollution risks is that many of these wrecks lie in deep water and have yet to be located. Surveys to find these wrecks, followed by assessment and management are required to prevent or minimize the adverse impacts to our ocean heritage. Recent work using satellite detection of oil slicks has assisted in locating certain oil tanker shipwrecks in deep water. KEYWORDS Potentially Polluting Wrecks, World War II, oil spills, shipwrecks INTRODUCTION This paper studies the wrecks identified by the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as “Potentially Polluting Wrecks” (PPW), which are those that pose the greatest risk of leaking or spilling their petroleum cargoes or bunker fuel and causing an environmental hazard (NOAA 2013a). This fits within this session, “Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage” because most are considered historic under the US National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA). More than half of the wrecks identified as PPWs are merchant ships from World War II, which is a significant theme of national importance reflected in the programs for recognizing and encouraging the historic preservation efforts in the United States. The risk of threats to conservation of our heritage also refers to both natural and cultural resources under the World Heritage Convention. Historic and archaeologically significant shipwreck sites that are also potentially polluting therefore pose a risk to natural ocean heritage while being cultural sites also at risk themselves of collapsing. In these instances, when a wreck suffers a loss of structural integrity due to corrosion in the marine environment, the result is not only a loss of archaeological integrity as a historic site, but as a catastrophic pollution event as the cargo that had been retained in the hull is released. Under U.S. law, removing oil to prevent potential release from historic wrecks needs to consider and attempt to avoid or mitigate any loss of the historic property. CASE STUDIES A handful of significant shipwrecks have undergone site assessment and pollution risk mitigation through oil removal operations in the last few decades, but have typically been responsive to oil leaks rather than proactive. The wrecks that still retain their bunker fuel and petroleum cargoes will leak them into the ocean, and it is a matter of when rather than if. A major factor, therefore, is how much cargo or fuel remains, which is determined by the amount of damage to the hull, what level of structural integrity remains, the rate of corrosion, and how the wreck is situated on the seabed. Several case studies speak to these efforts, here I discuss three: SS Jacob Luckenbach, USS Mississinewa, and SS Bloody Marsh. Remediations of polluting wrecks have typically been conducted as reactionary spill response rather than proactive remediation of retained petroleum cargos. However, the approaches and methodologies employed on these early remediations have assisted in developing our understanding of removal efforts and how to assess sites. The lessons learned from these 1 �remediations have informed later work and guided the various studies that have begun to standardize approaches to pollution mitigation from shipwreck sites. SS Jacob Luckenbach In 1953, the 164-m C-3 freighter SS Jacob Luckenbach collided with its sister ship in the fog offshore San Francisco when departing for Korea with full bunkers. All crew members were rescued as the vessel sank to a depth of 53 meters (m) in less than 30 minutes. A series of mystery oil spills were observed in the 1990s, and possibly going back as far back as the 1980s, and a group consisting of the US Coast Guard, California’s Office of Spill Prevention and Response together with NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS) searched for the source of these spills in 2001 (Symons and Parker-Hall 2003). NOAA’s involvement as a trustee for ocean resources included the ONMS because the wreck lies within the Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary protecting significant natural and cultural resources. Leading up to this, thousands of oiled birds had washed up along California beaches (Michel et al. 2005). Samples of the oil were chemically fingerprinted to the bunker fuel carried on Jacob Luckenbach. A salvage operation was undertaken in May 2002 to determine the amount of oil remaining on the wreck and remove as much as possible. Many of the fuel tanks were found to have badly corroded piping and vents, which caused the oil to leak into cargo tanks; the assessment identified numerous spaces on the wreck that were estimated to contain 540 tons of heavy fuel oil (Michel et al. 2005). After 123 days on site, the operation removed 350 tons of oil from the wreck. The pollution remediation of the Luckenbach wreck was the first major one performed by the United States. Its location in a sanctuary further complicated the effort due to environmental impact concerns and mitigation. Approximately 85,000 gallons of oil were removed leaving an estimated 29,000 gallons of the oil within the wreck likely in small overhead spaces within the structure. The project was also viewed as a restoration action that addressed the immediate threats to the marine life and environment (Symons and Parker-Hall 2003). USS Mississinewa USS Mississinewa (AO-59) was a 553-ft T3-S2-A1 type auxiliary oiler launched in the spring of 1944. The oiler carried a cargo of 146,000 barrels of aviation fuel and Navy Special fuel oil (Gilbert et al. 2003). While at anchor at Ulithi in the Federated States of Micronesia in November, the tanker was struck by a kaiten, a Japanese human-piloted torpedo, which caused a large explosion that sprayed fuel across the ship that set it ablaze. The aviation fuel caused a second explosion, followed by a final one when the flames reached the ammunition magazine. The ship capsized and sank, extinguishing most of the fires. Sixty-three sailors died in the attack. It was the first known successful use of a kaiten (Mair 2008). A team of adventure divers located the wreck in 2001 in the Ulithi lagoon at a depth of 38 m. Soon after, a typhoon hit and caused the surrounding beaches to be “fouled by heavy oil leaking from the vessel” (Gilbert et al. 2003, 175). The oil continued to leak for months causing the Governor of Yap State to declare a state of emergency. U.S. Navy divers patched leaks in 2001, and then conducted a more extensive oil removal operation in 2003. The bow of the tanker had been blown off during the attack and lies at 90 degrees on its port side while the rest of the wreck is fully capsized on the seabed, which presented the removal team access to the cargo tanks (Naval Sea Systems Command 2003). Approximately 6,000 tons of oil was removed from the wreck and pumped onto a barge. Oil remains on the site, but is only residual oil in the piping, likely less than 50 tons (Michel et al. 2005). The removal operation was more straightforward than at the Luckenbach wreck due to the inverted position of the wreck and the warmer waters, which made moving the heavy fuel oil easier and better visibility for divers. A similar oil removal operation was conducted by the U.S. Navy on the wreck of the German heavy cruiser, Prinz Eugen in 2018. The vessel had been a target ship at Bikini for Operation Crossroads 2 �following its capture by the US at the end of the war. After the nuclear tests, the ship was towed to Kwajalein Atoll, where it capsized and sank in shallow water against the reef. The removal operations recovered nearly 230,000 gallons of oil from the wreck, which had been leaking into the waters of the atoll (Naval Sea Systems Command 2019). SS Bloody Marsh Recent ocean exploration efforts located the wreck of SS Bloody Marsh in deep water off the coast of South Carolina in 2021. The T2-SE-A1 tanker was sunk with two torpedoes by U-66 on its maiden voyage from Texas to New York with a cargo of more than 100,000 barrels of heavy fuel oil (NOAA 2013b). After an initial attempt to find with wreck by NOAA ship Okeanos Explorer in 2019, we were provided satellite data from colleagues in the UK who had found a series of oil slicks in the area of the tanker’s reported sinking that had been repeating since the 1990s. A second mission with Okeanos conducted additional multibeam mapping in the area and located a target, which when dived on with the ship’s ROVs, was identified as the wreck of Bloody Marsh. The stern and area of the engine room was severely damaged from the first torpedo strike, and the forward 100-feet or so of the tanker were missing and this bow section is ostensibly somewhere nearby. The main part of the wreck is the completely inverted hull, identified through its welded joinery and overall dimensions. The welded seams and hull plates are fairly intact in this main section, and the leaking oil is likely stemming from ruptured tanks near the areas of torpedo damage rather than corroding plate seams. The wreck, however, due to its intact and inverted state, is expected to likely contains a large amount of the oil cargo it carried. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct pollution risk assessments of potentially hazardous shipwrecks typically start with desktop and historical research, followed by site inspection and then remediation, when warranted. However, often, remediations are reactive rather than proactive and sometimes must start with patching leaks and move to direct remediation and oil removal, as was the case with Mississinewa. Studies like the RULET work, NOAA’s PPW study, and the International Oil Spill Conference work by Michel and colleagues have done much to lay the groundwork for standardized approaches to stepped assessments and informed remediations. Estimates of 20,000 PPWs convinced Congress to appropriate $1 million for NOAA to identify and prioritize the most ecologically and economically significant PPWs in U.S. waters for inclusion into USCG regional and area contingency plans resulting in NOAA’s 2013 PPW study. NOAA’s PPW study began with an assessment of nearly 20,000 historic era shipwrecks that had the potential to pollute that lay within the territorial waters of the US Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Through systematic assessment and detailed historical research, as well as assessing available archaeological data, the list was ultimately reduced to 87 shipwrecks that had the greatest potential to pollute. However, fewer than half of the 87 wrecks identified as highest priority in the PPW study have been found, in a large part because they were sunk away from the coast and lie in deep water. While desktop assessments of historical accounts of petroleum cargoes and the sinking events are essential, those only go so far. Locating and assessing the shipwreck sites themselves is imperative, especially now that wrecks from World War II are now passing their 80th year in the marine environment undergoing corrosion. Expanded efforts for targeted ocean exploration to find potentially polluting wrecks is necessary to understand the scope of the pollution threat posed by these wrecks. Since its 2013 study of PPWs, NOAA’s ONMS Maritime Heritage Program, and Ocean Exploration assessed two of the 87 wrecks: MV Fernstream, wrecked in 1952, lies in shallow waters inside San Francisco Bay, and SS Coast Trader, a World War 2 (1942) combat loss in the Straits of Juan de Fuca, between the state of Washington and Canada’s Province of British Columbia. These assessments determined that all the oil had been released when Fernstream sank, and approximately half of the oil had been released when Coast Trader sank, but that the other half remained in the 3 �intact, and essentially non-corroded forward hull of the wreck. Bloody Marsh was the third such assessment, this time undertaken by NOAA Ocean Exploration collaborating with the author. While the wreck of Bloody Marsh was thankfully relatively intact and indicative of a stable hull, we also learned that the hull was inverted and containing a substantial percentage of its cargo. It is not a matter of if that will spill out, but when, and at what rate, either slow leaks or catastrophic. FRAMEWORK The research questions regarding addressing pollution concerns from shipwrecks include standardized steps to be taken among stakeholders to best mitigate their pollution risks. While there is no consensus on a single comprehensive approach for pollution remediation between nations who have dealt with the issue, approach typically taken is incident specific and requires evaluation of the wreck, environmental conditions, risk reduction, and potential for catastrophic pollutant release (Landquist et al. 2013, 91; Etkin et al. 2009). The determination of a shipwreck as potentially polluting does not, however, negate its significance as a historic site. While the pollution risk from wrecks can pose a threat to ocean heritage, the potential hazard also poses a risk to the archaeological integrity of the historic sites. NOAA’s Remediation of Underwater Legacy Environmental Threats (RULET) project was designed to assist “in prioritizing potential threats to ecological and socio-economic resources while at the same time assessing the historical and cultural significance of these nonrenewable cultural resources” for shipwrecks in US waters (NOAA 2013a, 1). As a US agency, NOAA is required to comply with federal laws that protect natural and cultural resources. Therefore, the RULET work not only assessed which shipwrecks in U.S. waters might pose a risk of polluting, but also whether they met the standard for listing on the National Register of Historic Places. To narrow down the list of shipwrecks in US waters that could pose a pollution threat, the RULET study used a series of risk factors to assess the potential structural integrity of those identified wrecks and the oil remaining on board, and oceanographic factors that might influence removal operations. These include the amount oil on board, if the wreck had been demolished as a risk to navigation, if a large amount of oil was lost during the sinking, and the nature of the sinking event (NOAA 2013a, ES-3). Responses included a variety of options from leaving shipwrecks alone and responding to leaks or spills as they arose, to full oil removal and salvage. Intermediate options include background research for wreck-specific response plans, site monitoring, and in situ assessments through remote sensing and ROV documentation (NOAA 2013a, 74). Factors affecting response options include the type and volume of oil on board, water depth and visibility, location relative to shore, and other site factors like the wreck orientation. The study also addresses the potential impact of remediation on shipwrecks’ historical integrity: “this vessel is of historic significance and will require appropriate actions under the NHPA and the Sunken Military Craft Act (SMCA) prior to any actions that could impact the integrity of the vessel” (NOAA 2013b, 6). Such assessments are important in protecting shipwrecks that are historically significant and war graves. However, for many of the shipwrecks in the NOAA PPW study, they have yet to be located, so the response options are high level and all encompassing. The U.S. Coast Guard, which would lead, coordinate, and often contract for the remediation of polluting wrecks, is required under Section 106 of the NHPA to consider adverse effects to the PPWs that are also historic properties (Symons et al. 2014, 2024). In an emergency response situation, there is often insufficient time to adequately comply with the NHPA, to determine if a wreck warranted mitigation because it was listed in or was eligible for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). What was needed was a proactive approach that streamlined the process. Thus, the responsible federal agencies entered into the NHPA Section 106 Programmatic Agreement (PA) to ensure that historic properties are considered in their planning for and conduct of the emergency response under the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP). 4 �Following the larger contextual study, NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program evaluated three representative shipwrecks with a high pollution potential to determine which characteristics and historical associations would be eligible for the NRHP, meet the definition of a historic property, and would then be subject to Section 106 consultation should the Coast Guard move forward with assessment and pollutant recovery activities (Symons et al. 2014, 2025). The three wrecks nominated as tests were the WWII combat losses of SS Lancing, SS Empire Gem, and SS Coimbra. All three were pollution risks and lie off the coast of North Carolina and New York. The results include how they were accepted and listed in the NRHP. RESULTS The expected results of this combination of historical research and on-site assessments and remediations is a greater understanding of how to efficiently and effectively mitigate pollution risks from sunken oil tankers and other potentially polluting wrecks. Modern technology has allowed for better access to sites in deep water and will continue to improve the process. However, not only are there more potentially polluting wrecks that have yet to be found and assessed, there are actively leaking wrecks in US waters and elsewhere. Satellite detection of oil slicks, such as that which led us to the wreck of Bloody Marsh, has located repeating slicks over areas of deep water that have yet to be explored, but likely point to the locations of other PPW sites. However, the cost is high of bringing vessels and deep-water survey equipment to those remote areas offshore. Additional dedicated funds and resources need to be brought to bear to address these polluting sites. Some of these documented repeating slicks are off the eastern seaboard of the United States along the path of the Gulf Stream and, were a catastrophic release to occur, could oil a large area of the east coast shoreline (NOAA 2013a, 2013b). Expanded ocean exploration, targeted efforts to find and assess potentially polluting wreck sites, and the implementation of new technologies, such as satellite detection of oil slicks, is imperative to addressing this problem and mitigating the environmental hazard these wrecks pose. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I’d like to thank The Ocean Foundation, Lloyd’s Register Foundation, Ole Varmer, Mark Spalding, James Delgado, and Charlotte Jarvis for their support and assistance in preparing this manuscript. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Etkin, D.S., van Rooij, H., McCay French, D., Risk assessment modeling approach for the prioritization of oil removal operations from sunken wrecks. Effects of Oil on Wildlife. Estonia: Tallin, 2009 Gilbert, Trevor, Sefanaia Nawadra, Andy Tafileichig, Leonard Yinug, 2003. Response to an Oil Spill from a Sunken WWII Oil Tanker in Yap State, Micronesia. International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 1, (2003): 175-182. Landquist, H., I.-M. Hassellöv, L. Rosén, J.F. Lindgren, I. Dahllöf,. Evaluating the needs of risk assessment methods of potentially polluting shipwrecks. Journal of Environmental Management 119 (2013): 85-92. Mair, Michael. “Oil, Fire, and Fate: The Sinking of the USS Mississinewa AO-59.” WWII by Japan’s Secret Weapon. Platteville, WI: SMJ Publishing, 2008. Michel, Jacqueline, Trevor Gilbert, Jon Waldron, Charles Blocksidge, Dagmar Schmidt Etkin, Robert Urban. Potentially Polluting Wrecks in Marine Waters, 2005 International Oil Spill Conference, IOSC 2005. NHPA Section 106 Programmatic Agreement (PA) to ensure that historic properties are taken into account in their planning for and conduct of the emergency response under the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) (2002, signed 1997) https://www.nrt.org/sites/2/files/Programmatic_Agreement_on_Protection_of.pdf Naval Sea Systems Command, U.S. Navy Salvage Report, USS Mississinewa Oil Removal Operations. Naval Sea Systems Command, S0300-B6-RPT-010, 0910-LP-102-8809, 2003. Naval Sea Systems Command, U.S. Navy Salvage Report, Ex-USS Prinz Eugen Oil Removal Operations. Naval Sea Systems Command, S1740-AK-RPT-010, 0910-LP-118-8301, 2019. NOAA. Risk Assessment for Potentially Polluting Wrecks in U.S. Waters. 2013a <https://nmssanctuaries.blob.core.windows.net/sanctuariesprod/media/archive/protect/ppw/pdfs/2013_potentiallypollutingwrecks.pdf>. Accessed 6 April 2022 NOAA. Screening Level Risk Assessment Package: Bloody Marsh. 2013b <https://nmssanctuaries.blob.core.windows.net/sanctuaries-prod/media/archive/protect/ppw/pdfs/bloody_marsh.pdf>. Accessed 6 April 2022. Symons, Lisa, and Heather A. Parker-Hall. “The SS Jacob Luckenbach: Integration of NOAA Trust Issues into the Response.” International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2003 1 (2003): 649-653. Symons, Lisa J., James P. Delgado, Deborah Marx, and Erika Martin Seibert, A Means to Streamline Historic and Cultural Resource Consultation and Compliance for Pollution Assessment and Recovery Activities on Shipwrecks. International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2014 1 (2014): 2024–2036. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Assessing Potentially Polluting Wrecks in US Waters Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits within this session on threats to underwater cultural heritage (UCH) because of the environmental risk posed by shipwrecks with petroleum cargoes. While many shipwrecks from the World Wars are important parts of our cultural heritage, they also pose a significant threat to the marine and coastal environment as the steel hulls containing their cargoes continue to corrode. A vital limiting factor in addressing such pollution risks is that many of these wrecks lie in deep water and have yet to be located. Surveys to find these wrecks, followed by assessment and management are required to prevent or minimize the adverse impacts to our ocean heritage. Recent work using satellite detection of oil slicks has assisted in locating certain oil tanker shipwrecks in deep water. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michael L. Brennan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Brennan, Michael L.. 2023. “Assessing Potentially Polluting Wrecks in US Waters.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Ole Varmer. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1902 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2da7a0bab7c0cf6b00f1bbc4ded9efaf.pdf 96d5a6c7df7514df044a383bf84d8240 PDF Text Text Submerged Battlefield: Examining the Status and Challenges of World War II Shipwreck Management in the Philippines 1 Rachelle Anne Geline P. Ureta (National Museum of the Philippines, Museum Researcher; University of the Philippines School of Archaeology) 2 Bobby C. Orillaneda (National Museum of the Philippines, Museum Curator) ABSTRACT Many sites in the Philippines had been battlegrounds during World War II (WWII) that resulted in substantial sinking of American and Japanese naval vessels. Advanced technology has significantly helped in locating these shipwrecks and documenting their current condition. However, many of these underwater cultural resources have not yet been subject to proper scientific examination. Navigea, Ltd., in collaboration with the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Division of the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) has located and photo-documented WWII shipwrecks in Subic Bay, Surigao Strait, and Ormoc Bay which only comprise a small percentage of the total number of shipwrecks. These sunken vessels are considered war graves which are regarded with certain sanctity particularly for the nations they fought for. They possess intrinsic, scientific, educational, monetary, and cultural values, thus should be extensively investigated to effectively plan for their protection against threats such as natural processes and human intervention. Archaeological studies of sunken warships can also provide insight on the events during the naval battle and clarify information from written sources. This paper presents a status update and results of research activities in the WWII shipwrecks in the Philippines. It also outlines the challenges in managing these sites and proposes potential plans and measures for their long-term management and preservation. KEYWORDS: shipwreck, World War II, warships, Philippines, underwater cultural heritage LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. ROV image capture of a) Asagumo’s bridge, b) Fuso’s portside inboard propeller, c) Michishio’s dual gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 2. MBES sonar images of a) Yamashiro, b) Michishio, c) Yamagumo. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 3. ROV image capture of a) USS Ward’s bow section, b) USS Cooper’s side launchers, c) IJN Shimikaze’s gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 4. MBES sonar images of a) USS Ward, b) USS Cooper. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 5. Documentation of the El Capitan’s rudder. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 6. MBES sonar image of Oryoku Maru. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 7. MBES sonar image of USS New York. Courtesy of RV Petrel. INTRODUCTION The Philippines played an important role during the Second World War (WWII). Some sites such as in Subic Bay, Zambales Province in Luzon served as naval fortresses because of their strategic location (Anderson 2006, 189-204). The Battle of Surigao Strait is viewed as the last pure battleship-tobattleship engagement in WWII. It was also part of the larger Battle of Leyte Gulf, which is considered to be the largest naval battle in WWII (Tully 2009, 13). The Battle of Ormoc Bay was a sequence of naval battles between the American and Japanese forces, which prompted the latter to strengthen their forces in Leyte (Pinak 2017, 252). As many of the sites that resulted from these engagements are war graves for American and Japanese troops, the shipwrecks are regarded with a certain sanctity, particularly for the nations they fought for. They embody both tangible and intangible cultural heritage, apart from intrinsic historical significance. While vivid accounts of WWII were provided by numerous eyewitnesses, investigation of material evidence is still important to determine a site’s historical significance and formulate plans for its preservation (Lacsina 2017, 7-8). These wreck sites are part of our underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and are currently vulnerable to a wide range of threats from human activities and natural processes. Wrecks in shallow waters are expected to collapse and deteriorate in the next few years. The advancement of technology has also made the wreck sites more accessible to divers and salvors. The stability and condition of these underwater cultural resources are largely affected by the activities of sports divers and fishermen using surface supplied air diving (hookah system) (King et al 2019, 3). 1 �There is also reported looting on some shipwrecks through the salvage of ship metal parts or structures for commercial exploitation purposes (King et al 2019, 11-12). Moreover, volcanic deposits and sediments have been observed covering the surface of certain shipwrecks which may affect their condition (Cuevas 1994, 2). With these emerging issues, the management of underwater cultural heritage and progress of underwater archaeology is a priority, as well as a challenge. As the leading government agency tasked with the protection of the country’s UCH, the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) is constantly seeking ways to improve and develop the management of underwater archaeological resources through the help and coordination with local governments, archaeological organizations, and other stakeholders (King et al 2019, 2). The surveys of the wrecks may be used as a tool to reconstruct events from the past and clarify some conflicting memories of eyewitnesses. WORLD WAR II SHIPWRECK SURVEYS AND EXPLORATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES A. The Surigao Strait Shipwrecks The Battle of Surigao Strait took place on 25 October 1944 when the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) forces attempted to regain control over Leyte from American and Australian forces (Tully 2009, 2570). This is the last pure battleship-to-battleship engagement that ever took place and is thus a significant event in the world of naval history (Lacsina 2017, 2). The IJN Southern Force, led by Admiral Shoji Nishimura, sailed from Brunei towards Leyte. The fleet was joined by the two battleships Yamashiro and Fuso, the heavy cruiser Mogami, and four destroyers Shigure, Michisio, Assagumo, and Yamagumo (Lacsina 2017, 2). However, USN Admiral Jesse Oldndorf anticipated their approach and commanded six battleships, four heavy cruisers, 28 destroyers, and 39 motor torpedo boats to trap and overwhelm them. The IJN Force was overpowered, with only Mogami and Shigure able to retreat south. Mogami was eventually sunk by aircraft. In 2017, NMP coordinated with Navigea to confirm the locations of the IJN ships that sunk in Surigao Strait. Using Navigea’s research vessel Petrel and its state-of-the-art equipment, the conditions and exact locations of the Yamashiro, Asagumo, Fuso, Michishio, and Yamagumo were found. Figure 1 shows the image captures from the live video footage of Argus 6000 Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). Sonar images were also obtained using Multibeam Echosounder (MBES) sonar (Figure 2). Figure 1. ROV image capture of a) Asagumo’s bridge, b) Fuso’s portside inboard propeller, c) Michishio’s dual gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. 2 �Figure 2. MBES sonar images of a) Yamashiro, b) Michishio, c) Yamagumo. Courtesy of RV Petrel. B. The Ormoc Bay Shipwrecks Air and sea battles between American and Japanese forces were fought from 11 November to 12 December 1944 for the Battle of Ormoc Bay. USS Ward is a destroyer that was lost in the battle during the IJN air raid of the US Naval base. Another American ship, Summer-class destroyer USS Cooper was less than a year old when it was hit by a Japanese destroyer and then sunk at a depth of 193 meters (Lacsina 2017, 2). In 2017 to 2018, the NMP continued the project with Navigea to confirm the locations of the ships that sunk during the Battle of Ormoc Bay. Using Navigea’s RV Petrel and its equipment, the conditions and exact locations of USS Ward, USS Cooper, IJN Shimikaze, IJN Naganami (suspected), and IJN Wakatsuki (suspected) were found. Figure 3 shows the image captures of the parts of the wrecks from the live video footage of Argus 6000 ROV. Sonar images were also obtained using MBES sonar (Figure 4). Figure 3. ROV image capture of a) USS Ward’s bow section, b) USS Cooper’s side launchers, c) IJN Shimikaze’s gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 4. MBES sonar images of a) USS Ward, b) USS Cooper. Courtesy of RV Petrel. C. The Subic Bay Shipwrecks Subic Bay is known to contain a large number of historical ship, aircraft, and vehicle wrecks. It is located on the west coast of the island of Luzon in Zambales, Philippines, about 100 km northwest of Manila Bay. Its strategic location makes it an ideal shelter for vessels. The Spaniards discovered the natural, deep and strategically located harbor of Subic Bay and later built their naval fortress that served as a battlefield during the Spanish-American war in 1898. After the Americans took control over the Philippines, Subic Bay was designated as a military reservation from 1900 to 1941 and then again from 1945 to 1991, ultimately relinquished to the Philippines in 1992 (Anderson 2006, 194-204; King et al 2019, 1). Moreover, throughout WWII, Japanese forces took control and maintained a shipbuilding facility in Subic Bay (King et al 2019, 2). 3 �Currently, 14 shipwrecks are identified in Subic Bay to date, excluding aircraft and vehicle wrecks (King et al 2019, 2). This reflects the rich maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the area. One of the most accessible and popular diving sites in Subic Bay is the USS Majaba, more commonly known as the El Capitan. El Capitan was deployed between Hawaii Islands in the South Pacific to bring supplies for the American forces and was torpedoed on the starboard side at the Solomon Islands while unloading (Bennett 2010, 155). After undergoing repair, it was returned to Subic Bay and was placed out of service, then decommissioned in 1946. The ship sunk at its dock that same year (Bennett 2010, 155). The NMP has conducted field explorations and surveys on different Subic Bay shipwrecks since the 1990’s as part of its Cultural Heritage Management responsibilities. In 2019, surveys were conducted on El Capitan to document and monitor its condition for the protection and management plan of the Subic Bay shipwrecks. El Capitan is situated approximately 10-22 meters below sea level (King et al 2019, 8). The absence of obvious explosive damage confirmed historical records that the ship did not sink in action, but more likely due to collision. Parts of the shipwreck such as the rudder and a possible forward gun platform was also measured and documented for further research (Figure 5). Figure 5. Documentation of the El Capitan’s rudder. One known ‘hell ship’ that wrecked in Subic Bay is the Japanese Fleet Carrier Ship Oryoku Maru. In December 1944, the Oryoku Maru carried around 1,622 Prisoners of War (POW) to be taken to Japan to work in labor camps (Bennett 2010, 139). Several POWs died through injuries, starvation, suffocation, and other brutal causes. As the ship proceeded to Olongapo across Subic Bay, it was relentlessly bombed by American planes from USS Hornet causing it to sink. Some prisoners were able to swim to the shore, however, about 270 POWs reportedly died onboard (Bennett 2010, 139). In 2019, the NMP coordinated with RV Petrel to conduct preliminary surveys of Subic Bay shipwrecks, including the Oryoku Maru, using MBES. The data (Figure 6) obtained shows that the wreck is laying on the port side in a deteriorated state as its location is also a shipping area. The wreck lies 17–25 m deep, 400 m from Alava Pier (Bennett 2010, 139). There is poor visibility on the site and the wreck has reportedly undergone extensive scuttling. Currently, the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA), the primary authority over the Subic Bay Freeport Zone (SBFZ), has closed the site for all diving activities. 4 �Figure 6. MBES sonar image of Oryoku Maru. Courtesy of RV Petrel. One of the most dived wrecks in Subic Bay is the USS New York, also known as USS Rochester. The ship was a veteran flagship of the Spanish-American War in Cuba in 1898 and the leading battleship of the Asiatic Fleet when it came to the Philippines in 1901 (Bennett 2010, 35). In December 1941, orders came to destroy the Naval Yard at Subic Bay on the advancement of the Japanese. The ship was towed out into the bay and then sunk as depth charges were set off to avoid the Japanese forces from taking advantage of the ship’s powerful 200 mm guns (Bennett 2010, 35). Currently, the wreck lies on the Subic Bay seabed with a maximum depth of 30 meters. The decks, forward rear gun turrets, and one large eight-inch gun can be observed in the wreck (Bennett 2010, 35). The USS New York is also part of the Subic Bay shipwreck survey in 2019 with RV Petrel using MBES sonar. The sonar image (Figure 7) shows the USS New York lying on her port side and in fairly good condition. The data obtained from the surveys will be used for the cultural heritage management of Subic Bay shipwrecks. Figure 7. MBES sonar image of USS New York. Courtesy of RV Petrel. CHALLENGES IN THE WWII SHIPWRECK MANAGEMENT Underwater cultural heritage has become more accessible to the public and has been vulnerable to exploitation as well as natural conditions (Manders 2012, 3). These make the management and protection of UCH more difficult. Historical shipwrecks, especially those on shallow waters, are one of the most vulnerable sites since they are constantly exposed to a number of threats such as impacts of climate change, climactic conditions, and damage from human activities including looting, anchoring, and coastal or offshore development (Steyne 2010, 50). The NMP through its MUCH Division, is the lead agency in the management and research on WWII shipwrecks in the Philippines. Lim et al (2021) outlines the challenges of UCH management in the Philippines. These include lack of adequate funds and qualified personnel, weak legislation and policy enforcement, and insufficient communication and demonstration of significance (Lim et al 2021, 49). 5 �A. Lack of manpower and qualified personnel The amount of discovered and reported shipwrecks are continuously growing and there is a need for more trained and qualified personnel to conduct archaeological research and excavation. Currently, there are only 11 personnel in the NMP MUCH division: three researchers, six technicians, one laboratory aide, and one administrative officer. Nine of these personnel are licensed SCUBA divers; only one has an extensive background in archaeology. The other researchers have backgrounds in marine science and chemistry, but both are currently pursuing a Diploma Course in Archaeology. With the upsurge of newly discovered sites, as well as the sites that need re-examination, more support is needed. B. Inadequate funds and equipment Archaeological surveys, exploration, and excavation of wrecks is very costly, as it requires special equipment necessary to ensure safety of the divers and to be able to conduct the work accurately. It is also crucial to spend a long time underwater for assessment and documentation of wrecks thus, one field season is generally not enough to complete the survey and study of a site. The NMP has acquired SCUBA diving capabilities in recent years, including equipment such as dive computers, metal detectors, a rigid inflatable boat for surveys, and a side scan sonar. However, due to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the safety restrictions, underwater research has been hampered and most equipment has not yet been used. Most equipment such as the dive computer and buoyancy compensator (BC) must be regularly maintained, which also requires additional funding. More advanced equipment is also needed for deeper sites and unstable environmental conditions – the latter are typically very expensive and also need regular maintenance. C. Issues on policy enforcement and legislation The major challenge in cultural heritage management is treasure hunting, illicit trade, and antique collecting, which result in the loss of significant information of our history. There has been reported salvaging of small ship parts and objects from WWII shipwrecks as souvenir items and the dynamiting of metal structures for commercial purposes (King et al 2019, 11-12). The regulation of treasure hunting permits is authorized by the National Commission of Culture and the Arts (NCCA), in coordination with the NMP. However, these activities still adversely impact cultural heritage resources. Most of the reported underwater wreck sites have already been looted before the authorities can excavate or survey the site. The illegal trade of cultural objects provides an opportunity for lowincome locals to earn money for their livelihood, thus it is a problem that is difficult to control or resolve, especially as there is no clear penalty for the violation of some laws. Moreover, some excavations such as the Tagbita Bay and Mangsee shipwrecks, were unfinished due to insufficient funding, while the investigation of thirteenth to sixteenth century CE wreck sites and WWII remains in Scarborough Shoal was halted due to territorial and maritime dispute between the Philippines and China in the West Philippine Sea (Lim et al 2021, 44-45). The management of WWII-related UCH involves specific issues such as repatriation of human remains, unexploded ordnances, and potential pollution by oil spills (Takahashi 2018, 11). Many of these sites are war graves and regarded with respect for the troops and the countries for which they fought for. Apart from their historical significance, these wrecks embody our cultural heritage. For the repatriation of human remains, international laws and code of ethics must be considered. WAYS FORWARD Although faced with challenges, the NMP MUCH division continues to be proactive by conducting programs that promote understanding and appreciation of the significance of cultural heritage. A. Raising awareness Raising awareness is one of the best ways to preserve cultural heritage for future generations. Presently, the museum is increasing the public awareness program through social media educational 6 �posts, Museum from Home programs, Virtual Gallery Tours, and soon the digitization of records and databases to make the collections and their study more accessible to the public. The research conducted by MUCH is continuously published in different journals and presented on local and international conferences. It is the agency’s objective to strengthen the relationship of the museum with stakeholder communities and share updates on archaeological research and museum works. Information on WWII shipwrecks has been published on NMP’s official website and social media pages. Strengthening these programs promotes the appreciation of the public not only on historical shipwrecks but for all the country’s cultural heritage as well. B. Personnel development There is a need to increase the workforce in the MUCH division, especially personnel that specialize in archaeology. Training workshops and programs on SCUBA diving, proper archaeological methods, conservation, and relevant skills must be developed to produce more competent cultural heritage workers. C. Linkages and collaborations The task of managing UCH is a multifaceted process that should not be assigned to archaeologists alone (Manders 2012, 15). Cooperation among concerned stakeholders is therefore essential. Examples are the diving communities who are establishing their own shipwreck databases and are actively involved in discussion forums regarding their environment. The museum’s role as the leading agency in the protection of UCH is to facilitate and influence the discussions regarding research, protection, and site accessibility. Priority should also be given to the establishment of partnerships or collaborations for museum works and archaeological research, such as with archaeological institutions, national government agencies involved in cultural heritage and underwater preservation, and other international research institutions. Presently, the NMP has signed with a Memorandum of Understanding with the Philippine Coast Guard. Other national agencies that the NMP is pursuing collaboration with are the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) and Philippine Navy. These agencies have the necessary and more advanced equipment for the survey and documentation of shipwrecks. For instance, NAMRIA has four survey vessels equipped with multi beam and single beam sonars. They also have side scan sonars used in survey activities at shallow waters. They have experienced hydrographers on board that analyze the data from the surveys. According to NAMRIA representatives, they conduct a survey over each reported wreck site every five years. Through collaboration and a Memorandum of Agreement with the agency, their data can be shared with NMP which will be valuable in the protection and management of the wreck sites. Strengthening of linkages with local and international institutions is also important in the protection and preservation of UCH including historical shipwrecks. These include the continuous collaboration with local institutions such as Kapisanan ng mga Arkeologist sa Pilipinas, Inc., University of the Philippines School of Archaeology, and the NCCA. In the international venue NMP collaborates with the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization, and other cultural agencies. D. Policy implementation There is a lack of understanding on the laws governing the underwater cultural heritage of the Philippines. A strict implementation of policies must be established to discourage looters and treasure hunters. There should also be clear designation of roles for all the cultural agencies involved in the preservation of UCH. A regular focus group to address all the issues in the management of UCH can help in ensuring that the policies are properly disseminated to the public. 7 �CONCLUSION The NMP has been working continuously on the research and preservation of historical shipwrecks. Notable progress on the WWII shipwreck management in the Philippines was demonstrated by the undersea surveys at Subic Bay, Ormoc Bay, and Surigao Strait conducted in collaboration with Navigea’s RV Petrel. The data obtained from the surveys can be used to document the sites and record their conditions to help plan their protection and preservation. The museum also works on the development of educational programs to raise awareness of the archaeological and historical significance of UCH. Major issues include lack of qualified personnel, inadequate funds and equipment, policy enforcement and legislation, and ethical concerns over exploitation of UCH. These issues can be addressed by strengthening the programs on raising awareness, creating more job opportunities and training workshops for cultural heritage workers, developing new partnerships and strengthening the links between different local and international institutions, as well as strict implementation of UCH policies. It is recommended to publish a book or catalogue explaining the significance of the historical wrecks in the Philippines and also to educate and update the public on the archaeological research activities on these shipwrecks. There should also be involvement and coordination with local diving communities on the promotion of safe and enjoyable diving of wreck sites, while creating a scheme to protect the UCH. The management of WWII shipwrecks must follow a holistic approach, which includes long term measures and monitoring for the protection and sustainability of the shipwrecks. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Gerald R. Subic Bay from Magellan to Pinatubo: The History of the US Naval Station, Subic Bay. Gerald Anderson, 2009. Bennett, Tom. World War II Wrecks of the Philippines: WWII shipwrecks of the Philippines. Happy Fish Publications. Milford Haven Wales, 2010. Cuevas, Maharlika. “Subic Bay Underwater Archaeological Project: Second Preliminary Report”. Field Report, National Museum of the Philippines (1994). King, Catherine P., Bobby C. Orillaneda, Rachelle Anne Geline P. Ureta, and Nero M. Austero. “Examining the potential of underwater cultural heritage preservation and management in the Philippines: The Subic Bay shipwrecks”. Paper presented at the Proceedings at the International Archaeological Conference, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia, 24–30 September 2019. Lacsina, Ligaya. “Field Report: Navigea’s Survey for World War II Shipwrecks in the Surigao Strait and Ormoc Bay (November 20-December 5, 2017)”. Unpublished Field Report. National Museum of the Philippines (2017). Lim, Kristine Kate A., Bobby C. Orillaneda, and Catherine P. King. "People and the sea: A values perspective in the conservation management of maritime heritage in the Philippines." International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, IJAPS 17 (2021): 39-73. Manders, Martin. “Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage”. In Training manual for the UNESCO foundation course on the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage in Asia and the Pacific, 2-20. Thailand: UNESCO Bangkok, 2012. Pinak, Eugen "Ormoc Bay naval battle on December 3, 1944–The last victory of IJN surface ships." Американська історія та політика 3 (2017): 252-259. Takahashi, Akatsuki. "Safeguarding Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific: Report on good practice in the protection and management of world war II-related Underwater Cultural Heritage." (2017). Tully, Anthony P. Battle of Surigao strait. Indiana University Press, 2009. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Submerged Battlefield: Examining the Status and Challenges of World War II Shipwreck Management in the Philippines Description An account of the resource Many sites in the Philippines had been battlegrounds during World War II (WWII) that resulted in substantial sinking of American and Japanese naval vessels. Advanced technology has significantly helped in locating these shipwrecks and documenting their current condition. However, many of these underwater cultural resources have not yet been subject to proper scientific examination. Navigea, Ltd., in collaboration with the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Division of the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) has located and photo-documented WWII shipwrecks in Subic Bay, Surigao Strait, and Ormoc Bay which only comprise a small percentage of the total number of shipwrecks. These sunken vessels are considered war graves which are regarded with certain sanctity particularly for the nations they fought for. They possess intrinsic, scientific, educational, monetary, and cultural values, thus should be extensively investigated to effectively plan for their protection against threats such as natural processes and human intervention. Archaeological studies of sunken warships can also provide insight on the events during the naval battle and clarify information from written sources. This paper presents a status update and results of research activities in the WWII shipwrecks in the Philippines. It also outlines the challenges in managing these sites and proposes potential plans and measures for their long-term management and preservation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rachelle Anne Geline P. Ureta Bobby C. Orillaneda Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ureta, RachellenAnne Geline P., and Bobby C. Orillaneda. 2023. “Submerged Battlefield: Examining the Status and Challenges of World War II Shipwreck Management in the Philippines.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1901 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0d935f7fc006c58551f50567cd2269a7.pdf ce91a690bcf6dd87950e1c9c0ab7501f PDF Text Text CAPACITY BUILDING IN THE TIME OF COVID: THE CASE OF HMAS PERTH (I) Dr Natali Pearson (The University of Sydney, Curriculum Coordinator) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract best fits within Session 4, ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the AsiaPacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges’ because of the latter’s focus on World War II heritage in the Asia-Pacific. The case study under consideration in this paper is that of HMAS Perth (I), an Australian warship sunk in Indonesian waters in 1942. The focus of this paper is Australia’s maritime capacity building initiative for the wreck of Perth (I), and the challenges and opportunities of advancing this project in the time of COVID-19. While some projects lent themselves to being conducted online, many others were forced to reevaluate their feasibility entirely. This paper considers the changes wrought by COVID-19 on conventional heritage capacity building and management models, and the extent to which these models still apply. As it proposes, the limitations posed by the pandemic on capacity building projects created space for more inclusive and enduring knowledge building approaches, which elevated local stakeholders and, arguably, contributed to more sustainable outcomes in the long-term. At the same time, however, broader questions remain about the uses of digital heritage in a connected world. * A detailed publication on this topic is available. Pearson, Natali. “Too Little, Too Late? Redefining the Legacy of HMAS Perth (I), an Australian Warship Sunk in Indonesian Waters.” Historical Archaeology (2023). KEYWORDS World War II, naval shipwrecks, capacity building, heritage post-COVID INTRODUCTION International capacity building projects were seriously affected by the combination of travel restrictions, reduced budgets, and health considerations associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. While some projects lent themselves to being conducted online, many others were forced to reevaluate their feasibility entirely. For Australia and Indonesia, the limitations imposed by COVID–19 prompted a re-evaluation of what constitutes capacity building, and the extent to which maritime heritage collaboration and cooperation can be advanced in the absence of face-to-face engagement. Australia and Indonesia share one of the longest maritime boundaries in the world and have expressed their commitment to working together to build and strengthen cooperation in the area of maritime cultural heritage. This commitment is articulated in the Plan of Action for the Indonesia-Australia Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (2020–2024), which places a priority on intensified maritime cooperation and posits cooperation as critical to both country’s shared strategic interests (Australian Government, 2018). In recent years, bilateral maritime heritage cooperation has centred around HMAS Perth (I), an Australian warship that sunk in Indonesian territorial waters. As the final resting place for hundreds of sailors, Perth represents both a complex and sensitive example of the challenges of protecting and preserving shared maritime heritage. In many ways, COVID exacerbated these challenges. At the same time, however, and as this paper argues, the limitations imposed by COVID have presented unexpected opportunities to imagine a more sustainable model for future maritime engagement between the two countries. 1 �CASE STUDY: HMAS PERTH (I) HMAS Perth (I) was a modified Leander class cruiser that began life as HMS Amphion before being purchased by the Royal Australian Navy, prior to the outbreak of WWII. Perth and her crew saw action all over the world, including in the Caribbean and the Mediterranean. In 1942, Perth joined American, British, and Dutch forces to guard Java from Japanese occupation in the Battle of the Java Sea (27–28 February 1942). The Allies were decisively defeated, and Perth, together with USS Houston, was fortunate to escape (Perryman, 2017). The two vessels fled west, arriving in Tanjung Priok (Jakarta) on 28 February to re-fuel and re-load. Almost immediately, they received orders to sail through the Sunda Strait and towards Cilacap on the southern coast of Java. Although they had been told the coast was clear, Perth and Houston encountered the Japanese Western Invasion Convoy in waters near Banten Bay, just west of Jakarta. The intense battle that ensued has come to be known as the Battle of the Sunda Strait (28 February–1 March 1942). Both Perth and Houston were destroyed by Japanese torpedoes and gun fire, with Perth sinking just after midnight and Houston shortly thereafter. Japan also suffered losses. HMAS Perth (I) had 681 men aboard, including naval personnel, air force personnel, and civilian staff. Of these, 353 died when Perth went down. Of the 1061 aboard USS Houston, 693 lives were lost. Most of the survivors were taken as prisoners of war and endured years of suffering on the Thai-Burma railway. HMAS Perth (I) sank, largely intact, on her port side in Banten Bay. The wreck lay undisturbed until 1967 when it was rediscovered by Australian diver David Burchell. His intention was to recover touchstone objects from the vessel before it was ravaged by what he called ‘diving pirates,’ who, he feared, were salvaging non-ferrous metal from the many sunken warships scattered across the region (Burchell 1971, 26). After twenty-five years in the warm waters of Banten Bay, both Perth and nearby Houston had become thriving marine ecosystems, alive with colour. Then as now, local fishermen have relied on these wrecks for their livelihoods and, due to the birds they attracted, as navigational aids. Burchell’s efforts to find and recover objects from HMAS Perth (I) heralded the first of many human interactions with the wreck. Many of these interactions were motivated by a desire to pay respect to Perth and her crew. Some visitors placed floral wreaths into the water above the site, while others descended below the waves to the wreck itself. These divers, some of whom visited the site on a semiregular basis, were the first to sound the alarm in 2013 that Perth was being salvaged on an industrial scale due to the re-sale value of its scrap metal (Besser, Oakes, & Hermant 2013). The salvaging of Perth for scrap metal has destroyed marine habitats, deprived local communities of sustainable livelihoods from tourism and fishing, and desecrated the final resting place of Australian war dead. Besides the concern over human remains, the presence of unexploded ordnance and fuel oils add a further complication. Despite the imminent threat of destruction by looting, bilateral collaboration to protect and preserve Perth was—for reasons outlined elsewhere in the literature (Pearson 2023)—slow. In May 2017, the Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) and the National Centre for Archaeological Research (Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, or Arkenas) conducted a technical survey of the site, which revealed that just 40 per cent of the wreck remained in situ (Hosty, Hunter, & Adhityatama 2017). The 2017 survey, together with petitioning by the Banten provincial government, played a critical role in supporting efforts to advocate for the establishment of a protected zone around the wreck. RESOURCES For Australia and Indonesia, the salvage of Perth placed maritime heritage cooperation in the spotlight, prompting greater bilateral engagement and collaboration to manage the wreck for the 2 �future. In February 2018, then-Minister for Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Susi Pudjiastuti, issued a Ministerial Decree designating HMAS Perth (I) and surrounding waters as Indonesia’s first Maritime Conservation Zone (Kawasan Konservasi Maritim) (Republic of Indonesia 2018). The Maritime Conservation Zone establishes a core zone around the wreck, surrounded by a zone of limited utilisation. The Decree provides a legal basis for site protection, and, in accordance with Indonesian law, was introduced at the national level but must be implemented at the provincial level. Since the establishment of the Maritime Conservation Zone around Perth in 2018, key stakeholders on both sides have worked hard to develop and refine a comprehensive management plan for the site that incorporates the technical requirements of wreck conservation with the historical, administrative, and economic considerations of managing a tourism site of Perth’s significance. Some of these efforts have taken place under a project funded by the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade’s Maritime Capacity Building Initiative (MCBI) and managed by the ANMM with support from the Australian Embassy in Jakarta and the Sydney Southeast Asia Centre at the University of Sydney. The MCBI, as initially conceived, was aimed at promoting greater awareness of the challenges and opportunities of managing HMAS Perth (I). In particular, it recognised the need to balance preservation interests with economic benefits for local communities. One of the first activities conducted under the auspices of the MCBI Perth project was a follow-up survey of the wreck by ANMM and Arkenas in May 2019 (Hosty, Hunter, Adhityatama, & Malliaros 2020). Results suggested that the wreck had been damaged further by a tsunami in Banten Bay in late 2018. Community consultations and capacity building were also considered to be essential components of the MCBI in its original incarnation, due to the value of Perth not only as a grave site and a historic site, but also as a source of tourism opportunities and sustenance for the local fishing economy in Banten Bay. These consultations, involving Australian and Indonesian stakeholders, were due to take place in Banten in 2020, and were intended to contribute towards the development of an overall management plan for the wreck. FRAMEWORK Plans to undertake community consultations and capacity building were, however, temporarily, and then permanently, disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The challenges posed by COVID had a severe impact on the project, with travel (both international and domestic), budgets, timelines, and expectations all affected. In the absence of face-to-face activities, were the capacity building aspects of the project still feasible? Initially, consideration was given to engaging local enumerators to conduct community consultations, but it was agreed that this would pose an unacceptable health risk to the enumerators themselves. Instead, adapting the project required the development of methodological alternatives. This included engaging more directly with key Indonesian collaborators to facilitate access within and beyond the national level of government. In some respects, this approach serves the capacity building objectives better, in that it allowed for deep and extended engagement with specific individuals. At the same time, however, this reliance on certain stakeholders placed a significant imposition on their time and commitments. This was a delicate balance and one that had to be negotiated with care. Another consequence was a greater reliance on existing networks. This has served as a valuable reminder of the importance of investing in relationships prior to any capacity building project. Strong relationships don’t come about because of capacity building projects; successful capacity building projects are the result of such relationships. RESULTS Due to the pandemic, and in lieu of face-to-face activities, the MCBI pivoted to support a range of other events and programs. This was a complete reframing of what constitutes capacity building in a travel- and budget-constrained environment, requiring a reconsideration of the purpose of such 3 �activities within the context of the MCBI project. The activities conducted as part of this pivot were led by the author in her capacity as project consultant to the ANMM. To guide the re-design, the project objectives–to balance Perth’s preservation requirements with its tourism potential–were front of mind. The first pivot activity was the Historic Shipwrecks Workshop Series, which ran online across five modules in November 2020. The Series was designed to promote understanding among Indonesian government stakeholders, academics, and diving practitioners about the significance of HMAS Perth (I) and the necessity of working together to develop a plan to protect and preserve the wreck. It attracted key representatives from the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the Ministry of Education and Culture; the Coordinating Ministry for Political, Legal and Security Affairs; the Indonesian Navy; Indonesian Universities; and representatives from local diving associations. Australian, Indonesian, and international experts presented on themes relating to maritime heritage in Indonesia, sustainable management of WWII wrecks, and public education and engagement. The Historic Shipwrecks Workshop Series helped identify areas for further collaboration. Subsequently, representatives from the University of Sydney and the ANMM met with representatives from the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (national level) and the Marine Affairs and Fisheries Service in Banten (provincial level) to review and refine the draft management and zoning plan (Rencana Pengelolaan dan Zonasi) for HMAS Perth (I). To ensure access to knowledge for ongoing capacity building, Australia also supported the creation of digital content that can be accessed online. This includes a limited podcast series called Perth’s Stories (https://soundcloud.com/hmasperthi_asharedhistory). Produced and hosted by Australian and Indonesian partners at the University of Sydney and the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, the podcast features survivors, descendants, historians, advocates, officials, scholars, students, archaeologists and Banten Bay locals. The podcast series is readily accessible via major streaming platforms including Spotify and Soundcloud. The project team also developed a bilingual digital museum via an online portal, with the intention that it would be made publicly available. The portal seeks to do justice to HMAS Perth (I) and its communities by broadening the scope of our understanding of underwater cultural heritage management beyond a conflict-centred approach to one that instead creates space for multiple viewpoints, including not only survivors and descendants but also those who have lived with the wreck in their waters for close to eighty years. It provides an entry point for members of the public interested in learning more about both HMAS Perth (I) and Banten province, and features themes including ‘The Battle of the Sunda Strait,’ ‘The Ship’s Bells,’ ‘Waters of Banten Bay,’ ‘View from the Shore,’ ‘Sites of Pilgrimage, ‘The Pepper Sultans of Banten,’ and ‘Preserving a Wreck.’ A key feature of the website is an option for members of the public to submit their own stories and photos of Perth. The portal also provides links to Perth and Banten-related resources and websites. Many of these activities and achievements have resulted from a project-based approach to maritime heritage collaboration between Australia and Indonesia. However, Australia has also taken steps to establish a more strategic and sustainable model of maritime heritage engagement. It has done so by embedding bilateral collaboration within a revitalised whole-of-government approach, building on previous ad hoc arrangements and ensuring ongoing future collaboration between Australia and Indonesia on maritime archaeology research and underwater cultural heritage management. CONCLUSION As project managers, researchers, and educators reconsider what bilateral engagement looks like in a post-pandemic world, this project also offers an opportunity to reassess what heritage will look like. 4 �First, COVID has forced us to face the problems of extractive research. We now rely on local partnerships more than ever and must recognise the shared responsibility of these research partnerships. This prompts the question of why we haven’t been doing this all along, and how we can embed this as part of collaborative research practices in the future. Second, given the healthcare and economic crises across the world, it is increasingly important to be aware of why we are choosing to give time and resources to heritage. We need to not only have a keen sense of why heritage matters at a time when there are so many competing priorities, but to be able to communicate the value of heritage meaningfully and effectively. As the dismantling of confederate and other pro-slavery statues in the United States in 2020 demonstrated, heritage is a flashpoint for the biggest issues of our times. It is where these debates–about identity, inequality, privilege, opportunity, modernity, colonialism, national ambition–come together, where the ideas and legacies of the past intersect with the present and create both friction and opportunity. Finally, COVID has accelerated the push toward digitisation and access for all. With museums closed and travel banned, the need to digitise the past and make it accessible seemed to become more pressing. At the same time, however, the embrace of digitisation raises many important questions that we are yet to fully reckon with, such as the value we ascribe to authenticity (Lixinski 2022), and the potential for open access data to be exploited for purposes other than those intended. Although many decades have passed, the sinking of warships and the catastrophic loss of life that accompanied their destruction continues to reverberate today as nations grapple with the complexities arising from the presence of naval shipwrecks in foreign territorial waters. Cooperation and collaboration are essential if this maritime heritage is to be managed for the future. HMAS Perth (I) is a significant shipwreck for both Australia and Indonesia, and there is strong interest from both sides in working together to ensure that we can do justice to its communities and continue to tell its stories for the future. COVID forced us to think more creatively and more expansively about heritage and about bilateral cooperation. Even as we continue to prioritise the protection and preservation of sites such as HMAS Perth (I), we must also be cognisant of the broader questions about how heritage is being used, and the opportunities, for better and for worse, it presents. BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Government. (2018). Plan of Action for the Indonesia-Australia Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (20202024). https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/indonesia/Pages/plan-of-action-for-the-indonesia-australia-comprehensivestrategic-partnership-2020-2024 Besser, L., Oakes, D., et al. (2013). HMAS Perth: WWII Warship Grave Stripped by Salvagers. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-12-13/outrage-as-warship-grave-stripped-by-salvagers/5156320. Burchell, D. The Bells of Sunda Strait. Adelaide: Rigby, 1971. Hosty, K., Hunter, J., et al. (2017). Maritime Archaeological Investigation of HMAS Perth (1942) (THE HMAS PERTH PROJECT 2017). Retrieved from Sydney; Jakarta: http://www.hmasperth.asn.au/drh0507/Perth_2017_Report.pdf Hosty, K., Hunter, J., et al. (2020). Maritime Archaeological Investigation of HMAS Perth (1942) (THE HMAS PERTH PROJECT 2019). Manuscript, Australian National Maritime Museum and Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, Sydney, Australia. Lixinski, L. (2022). Against Authenticity. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 28(11-12), 1213-1227. Pearson, N. (2023). Too Little, Too Late? Redefining the legacy of HMAS Perth (I), an Australian shipwreck in Indonesian waters. Historical Archaeology, 57(1). Perryman, D. J. (2017). HMAS Perth (I). Retrieved from http://www.navy.gov.au/hmas-perth-i. Keputusan Menteri Kelautan dan Perikanan No.21 Tahun 2018 tentang Kawasan Konservasi Maritim HMAS Perth di Perairan Provinsi Banten (Ministerial Decree from the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries No.21/2018 regarding HMAS Perth Maritime Conservation Zone in the waters of Banten Province), (2018). 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Capacity Building in the Time of COVID: The Case of HMAS Perth (I) Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract best fits within Session 4, ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the AsiaPacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges’ because of the latter’s focus on World War II heritage in the Asia-Pacific. The case study under consideration in this paper is that of HMAS Perth (I), an Australian warship sunk in Indonesian waters in 1942. The focus of this paper is Australia’s maritime capacity building initiative for the wreck of Perth (I), and the challenges and opportunities of advancing this project in the time of COVID-19. While some projects lent themselves to being conducted online, many others were forced to reevaluate their feasibility entirely. This paper considers the changes wrought by COVID-19 on conventional heritage capacity building and management models, and the extent to which these models still apply. As it proposes, the limitations posed by the pandemic on capacity building projects created space for more inclusive and enduring knowledge building approaches, which elevated local stakeholders and, arguably, contributed to more sustainable outcomes in the long-term. At the same time, however, broader questions remain about the uses of digital heritage in a connected world. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Natali Pearson Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Pearson, Natali. 2023. “Capacity Building in the Time of COVID-19: The case of HMAS Perth (I).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology.URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1900 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023