15 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/438948588b3d0742db8101ce16ddd264.pdf 559f917c0a6bfaf9372fea273209d6f4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 3: Sustainable Development of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Asia‐Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 3 paper Description An account of the resource The archaeological community seems to acknowledge the touristic side of the underwater cultural heritage but only if is not incompatible with the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage. In fact, the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage highlights the importance of public awareness and public enjoyment of the underwater cultural heritage. This is implicitly pointing out the necessity of a sustainable use of this heritage: it tries to balance the desire to conserve and protect versus the desire to exploit. However, while it has been accepted that the heritage needs to be available to all, its availability sometimes could threat its integrity: mass tourism can bring pollution, economic exploitation and mass transit. Sustainability means living in a way that do not endanger the life chances of people alive tomorrow by exhausting the earth’s resources and destroying its environment. In our case, it means enjoying the underwater cultural heritage today in a way that do not endanger it for tomorrow. However, underwater cultural heritage can be places to visit and learn, giving economic benefits to local communities. New options have to be developed for making underwater cultural heritage accessible to all since involving society is not only necessary but also a good way to preserve the underwater cultural heritage. This session seeks to find proposals where the management of underwater cultural heritage complies with a sustainable development: to provide education, protection and accessibility. The Asia‐Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage is the perfect scenario to keep an open mind to attract new ideas where not only the preservation of the underwater heritage but also its enjoyment by all can become a reality: the sustainable use of underwater cultural heritage is possible. Session organiser: Dr Elena Perez‐Alvaro Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Consulting companies as a bridge between maritime spatial planning and underwater cultural heritage stakeholders Description An account of the resource Port and harbour developments, marine wind farms or submarine pipelines and cables are all part of an increasing demand for ocean resources with consequences for the preservation of underwater cultural heritage: identifying and assessing potential impacts to minimise risks is essential. Consulting companies provide services for development of these maritime and marine infrastructures and they are the key link between the constructors constrain budget and time, and cultural heritage stakeholders who want to preserve as much as possible in the best conditions. This paper will offer the point of view of marine consultancies as advocates of underwater cultural heritage in the Marine Spatial Planning process. These companies have to potential to create synergies between different activities in the seas, protecting the environment but encouraging the investment. It offers new challenges and opportunities for the safeguarding of this heritage, protecting it but opening the door to businesses contribution and people willing to take a financial risk. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Perez-Alvaro, Elena. 2021. “Consulting companies as a bridge between maritime spatial planning and underwater cultural heritage stakeholders.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/677 Asia-Pac Session 3 2021 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Court and Province in mid- and late T’ang Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource C.A. Peterson Denis Twitchett Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author C.A. Peterson Editor Denis Twitchett Item Type Book Section Book Title Sui and T’ang China Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Pages 464-560 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series Number The Cambridge History of China Title A name given to the resource Court and Province in mid- and late T’ang Volume 3 China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Court Politics in Late T’ang Times Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dalby, Michael T Denis Twitchett Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Dalby, Michael T Editor Denis Twitchett Item Type Book Section Book Title Sui and T’ang China Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Pages 561-681 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series The Cambridge History of China Title A name given to the resource Court Politics in Late T’ang Times Volume 3 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c5e7a36e9879c19a88edd12a50a9583c.pdf 1d9e6feecfdd62ade4c1c3797f75c8a3 PDF Text Text Creating the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Dr Emad Khalil Abstract The most recent report published by UNESCO Section for Museums and Cultural Objects concerning Underwater Archaeology Courses at Universities and Other institutions mentioned more than thirty facilities around the world that provide education and training in aspects of Underwater Archaeology, most of which are located in Europe and the USA, with some programs in Asia, Australia and South America. However, there is an evident lack in underwater archaeology education and training facilities in many parts of the world, in particular in Africa and the Arab Region. So far, the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage, based in the Faculty of Arts, Alexandria University is the only underwater archeology education centre in African and Arab countries. The centre was created in 2009 through a grant from the EU Trans European Mobility Scheme for University Studies (Tempus). The project was the result of collaboration between eight institutions from the UK France and Egypt, who provided the necessary academic, technical and administrative expertise required for achieving the project's objectives. The Tempus project aimed to create a specialised centre for postgraduate studies at the Alexandria University, which provides education and training at different levels in aspects of maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage. It also aimed to develop and implement postgraduate Diploma and Master Programs in Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage, designed and structured in accordance with EU standards. Since its creation and until today, the centre has played a major role in the development of maritime and underwater archaeology in Egypt. It has also been a part of several international networks and projects with the aim of disseminating its activities and contributing to capacity building in the fast growing field of underwater archaeology. Underwater Archaeology in Egypt The development of underwater archaeology in Egypt can be divided into several phases, each of which has its nature and characteristics. The first of these phases started in the early twentieth century with the discovery of the ancient harbour at Pharos by the French engineer Gaston Jondet (1912). Then, in the years that followed, more underwater discoveries were made by explorers and amateur archaeologists. These included the discoveries made by Prince Omar Toussoun in the 1930s (Toussoun 1934) and those made in the Eastern Harbour of Alexadnria by Kamel Abu El-Saadat in the 1960s (Morcos 1993). Moreover, the remains of the Napoleonic fleet were discovered east of Alexandria in the mid 1980s under the direction of the Société Française de Recherche Archéologique Sous-marines (Khalil & Mustafa 2002:520). In other words, this phase of underwater archaeology in Egypt was led primarily by non-specialists and it mainly included accidental discoveries and subsequent salvage operations. The Egyptian role in the projects that took place during this phase was quite limited, it was mainly through the contribution of the Egyptian Navy in addition to some professional and sport divers (Morcos 1993: 42-5). The second phase started in the mid 1990s with two significant projects which are considered to be a turning point in the history of underwater archaeology in Egypt. In 1994, the Centre d'Études Alexandrines (CEAlex) started the first systematic underwater archaeological survey in Egypt looking at the submerged remains of the ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria (La Riche �1996). In the same year, the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) launched the first underwater archaeological survey along the Egyptian Red Sea coast, which led to the discovery and the subsequent excavation of the Sadana Island shipwreck during the period from 1995 until 1998 (Haldane 1994; Ward 2001). Those two events could be considered the true beginning of the practice of underwater archaeology as a scientific discipline in Egypt. Since then and until the present time, several archaeological projects were carried out in Egyptian waters and a number of archaeological missions surveyed and excavated many underwater sites in Egypt. This phase, however, was mostly led by European and American archaeological missions that belonged to different universities and institutions (Goddio et al. 1998; Gallo 2003; Tzalas 2003; Goddio 2007). Nevertheless, in 1996, and as a result of the significant underwater discoveries that were made by the French archaeological missions in Alexandria, the Egyptian government decided to establish a Department for Underwater Antiquities (DUA) as part of the Supreme Council for Antiquates (SCA), which is the main authority responsible for the exploration, conservation and management of archaeological sites in Egypt. The establishment of the DUA was the first governmental recognition of the importance of underwater archaeological research in Egypt. The main role that was assigned to the DUA was monitoring and regulating the work of the foreign archaeological missions, however, soon the DUA started conducting its own projects, utilising the experience its members acquired through collaborating with the foreign missions. Nevertheless, the bulk of work in terms of exploring, preserving and presenting Egypt's underwater cultural heritage was done by non-Egyptians. The reason behind this was the total lack of education and training in any aspect of underwater archaeology in Egypt, an issue that has hindered for years the development of that discipline, despite Egypt's extensive and rich maritime heritage. This was recognised during the International Workshop on Underwater Archaeology and Coastal Management, organised in Egypt in 1997 under the patronage of UNESCO, which included amongst its recommendations that the Alexandria University should consider developing specialised courses at postgraduate and undergraduate levels in underwater archaeology, coastal zone management (Mostafa et al. 2000:192). However, the absence of education in maritime and underwater archaeology is Egypt was not only due to the lack of funds and expertise, but more importantly due to the lack of vision. Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology The creation of the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology & Underwater Cultural Heritage was a turning point in history of underwater archaeology in Egypt. The idea of creating the Centre was proposed to me by the Dean of the Faculty of Arts following my return from Southampton in 2005, where I obtained a PhD in Maritime Archaeology. The idea was to formulate a project to be submitted to the EU Tempus program for funding the creation of the centre. Moreover, according to the Tempus regulations, the project had to include a number of partners from Egypt and the EU. And while the beneficiary would be Alexandria University, the grant holder had to be a university from the EU. This is how the collaboration between Alexandria University and the University of Southampton started. Accordingly, in 2006 a �project proposal was formulated by the University of Southampton as the grant holder and the Alexandria University as the beneficiary and submitted to the Tempus program. In addition to those two institutions the project consortium included: the Nautical Archaeology Society, the Supreme Council for Antiquities, the Centre d'Études Alexandrines, the Arab Maritime Academy. That is in addition to two external reviewers from the University of Ulster, and Université de Provence. The project consortium would collaborate to provide the academic, technical and administrative expertise necessary for creating the centre. The proposal aimed to create a new academic centre which would provide education and training at different levels in aspects of maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage. In doing so, it would develop and implement a new postgraduate Diploma and Master programs in Maritime Archaeology which would be structured closely into line with similar programs in European countries, in order to promote the mobility of students, graduates and staff members between compatible and comparable education and training programs. In July 2007, a grant of about 250,000 Euros was awarded by the EU Tempus program for the creation of the Centre. However, there were some activities in the project that were not eligible for the EU funding, which included the renovation and furnishing of the building which would host the centre and the purchase of some equipment, such as a Rigid Inflatable Boat (RIB) and a Truck for the use of the centre. Therefore, private sponsorship was sought and hence a number of individuals and corporations agreed to fund different aspects of the project. Between 2007 and 2009 the centre was created and incorporated into the structure of the Alexandria University. The establishment of the centre required the performance of various activities, which were carried out by the consortium members either in Egypt or the UK. This included obtaining the necessary approvals and accreditations from the Egyptian Ministry for Higher Education, the purchase of equipment, supplies and books, the formulation of the different education programs and courses that would be taught at the centre, visiting similar centres in a number of UK universities, developing a statute for the new centre, appointing the centre’s main academic, administrative and technical staff members and decimating information about the newly established centres, its aims, objectives and activities. In October 2008, the Faculty of Arts at Alexandria University celebrated the inauguration of the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology & Underwater Cultural Heritage, however, different activities related to the project were still being carried out until the centre was completely functioning by September 2009 when the first group of post-graduate students were admitted. Since that date, the centre has been functioning as Africa and the Arab Region only education and training facility in maritime and underwater archaeology. The regional focus of its courses is be the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf, while the temporal focus will extend from the Pre-Classical period to Late Antiquity. The centre offers a The Graduate Diploma which aims to provide graduates from different backgrounds with a basic understanding of contemporary theory and practice in aspects of maritime and underwater archaeology. Its duration is for one year, therefore it �has been of a particular interest to professionals dealing with cultural heritage, such as antiquities inspectors and museum curators in order to promote and develop their careers and professional skills. Moreover, the centre offers a Master Degree in Maritime Archaeology, which lasts for two years and aims to provide graduates in archaeology and related disciplines with a sound theoretical and methodological grounding in the investigation, interpretation and management of maritime and underwater archaeological resources. In addition to the above-mentioned graduate programs, the centre started implementing an introductory course in Maritime Archaeology, which is taught at the undergraduate level in year four at the Archaeology Department. At present the centre has 20 Master students including fresh graduates, professional archaeologists and tour guides. Research and Extracurricular activities: During the past two years, since the centre started functioning, it has been involved in various activities, which are considered an integral part of the centre's mission and objectives. In March 2010 the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology & Underwater Cultural Heritage in collaboration with the University of Southampton, the University of Ulster and the British Museum organized a 10-days international workshop on maritime and underwater archaeology. This workshop was attended by 15 trainees from Egypt, Bahrain, Kenya, Libya, Somaliland & Tunisia. During the course, trainees were introduced to various theoretical and practical aspects of maritime and underwater archaeology including site management, finds handling, conservation & remote sensing. And in April 2010, the Bibliotheca Alexandrian hosted an International Seminar on Maritime Cultural Heritage, which was organized by the Centre for Maritime Archaeology and the University of Southampton, the British Museum and the European Commission Tempus program. The seminar was held on the occasion of concluding the project of establishing the centre. The main themes of the seminar were preservation, presentation and education in Maritime Archaeology. The seminar aimed to provide opportunities for institutions to address issues of coastal heritage management, to encourage capacity building in the region and to establish networks of contact to support and inform with regard future initiatives and challenges. Over the two days of the seminar, 25 papers were presented by speakers from 15 countries: (Australia, Bahrain, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Kenya, Libya Morocco, Somaliland, Tunisia, UK & USA). The seminar was divided into three sessions. The first day was dedicated to Management and Preservation, the second day was dedicated to Outreach, Presentation and Museums, and the final session to Education. The Centre for Maritime Archaeology is recognized by the Egyptian Diving & Lifesaving Federation as the first Scientific Diving Training Facility in Egypt. The Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology has also been certified by the Egyptian Diving & Lifesaving Federation (EDLF), member of the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS), as a full SCUBA diving training facility authorized to teach all levels of sport and scientific diving according to the training system of the CMAS. It has also been authorized by the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS), to provide NAS training course either to the university students or to the public at large. This �has enabled the centre to extend its mission to the general public and contribute to raising public awareness about underwater cultural heritage. In an effort to make the centre for maritime archaeology into a regional and international education and training facility, the Alexandria University has proposed to the Euro-Mediterranean University (EMUNI) to develop a new Masters program in Maritime Cultural Heritage to be offered to the students of the EMUNI member universities. This proposal has been approved by the EMUNI senate and the program is expected to start in September 2012. This will be in addition to a free standing summer course in Underwater Archaeology which will be offered for EMUNI in June 2012. On the other hand, the centre has been involved in two main research projects. The first one was an underwater archaeological survey of a number of shipwreck sites in the Red Sea. Two survey seasons have been carried out so far, in 2010 and 2011. This is a collaboration survey conducted between the British Museum, the University of Southampton and the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology. The other research project is the first one to be carried out entirely by the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology. It is the investigation on a number of shipwreck sites, which the Centre discovered during a scientific diving course 250km west of Alexandria. So far two survey seasons have been carried out by the students and staff of the Centre, which resulted in the discovery and mapping of over 2 hectares of seabed covered with early and late roman amphora which suggests the existence of more than one shipwreck. The project is funded by Alexandria University and it is expected to run for at least two more seasons. Conclusion It is expected that the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage will play a significant role in the development of that field in Africa and the Arab Region. A number of students from different Arab and African countries have shown interest in joining the centre’s education programs. Moreover, other Arab universities have expressed their interest in developing their own centers for maritime archaeology based in the Egyptian experience. It is also expected that the centre will continue its collaboration with different institutions around the world on both the academic and the research aspects aiming to contribute to capacity building and the development of generations of knowledgeable and skilful underwater archaeologists. �Bibliography Gallo, P., 2003. Nelson Island project: Research into archaeology and geology. In S. Morcos et al. (eds.) Towards integrated management of Alexandria’s coastal heritage, UNESCO Coastal Region and Small Island papers 14, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 26. Goddio, F., et al. (eds)., 1998 Alexandria: The Submerged Royal Quarters, Periplus, London. Goddio, F., 2008 The Topography and Excavation of Heracleion-Thonis and East Canopus (1996-2006), Oxford University School of Archaeology, Oxford. Haldane, C., 1994 INA-Egypt's Red Sea Survey. The INA Quarterly, 21.3, pp. 4-9. Khalil, E. and Mostafa, M., 2002 Underwater Archaeology in Egypt, in Carol Ruppe & Janet Barstad (eds.). International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology. Plenum Series in Underwater Archaeology, pp 519-534. Morcos, S., 1993 Submarine archaeology and its future potential: Alexandria casebook, Societe Archeologique d’Alexandrie. Bulletin 45 Mostafa, M. H. et al. (eds.) 2000 Underwater Archaeology and Coastal Management – Focus on Alexandria. UNESCO Publishing Paris. Toussoun, O., 1934 Les Ruines Sous-marines de la Baie da'Aboukir. Bulletin de la Société archéologique d'Alexandrie, 29, pp. 342-345. Tzalas, H., 2003. The Hellenic Mission's Underwater Archaeological Survey in Alexandria (Egypt) 2002-2003. ENALIA 7, pp.38-40. Ward, C., 2001. The Sadana Island Shipwreck: An Eighteenth-Century AD Merchantman off the Red Sea Coast of Egypt. World Archaeology, 32.3, pp. 368-382. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/58c3fdd74a9463082d8aad5ad06e69e1.jpg 1fbd7baa1fc2ffef94cefd011a9589ca Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 648 Height 398 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/83f2f7fca06c4361072b0f3a98daae1c.jpg 9f26207302ff2d0f965dd2ffe4af2dbc Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 348 Height 366 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Creating the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Speaker Description An account of the resource <p>The most recent report published by UNESCO Section for Museums and Cultural Objects concerning Underwater Archaeology Courses at Universities and Other institutions mentioned more than thirty facilities around the world that provide education and training in aspects of Underwater Archaeology, most of which are located in Europe and the USA, with some programs in Asia, Australia and South America. However, there is an evident lack in underwater archaeology education and training facilities in many parts of the world, in particular in Africa and the Arab Region. So far, the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage, based in the Faculty of Arts, Alexandria University is the only underwater archeology education centre in African and Arab countries. The centre was created in 2009 through a grant from the EU Trans European Mobility Scheme for University Studies (Tempus). The project was the result of collaboration between eight institutions from the UK France and Egypt, who provided the necessary academic, technical and administrative expertise required for achieving the project's objectives. The Tempus project aimed to create a specialised centre for postgraduate studies at the Alexandria University, which provides education and training at different levels in aspects of maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage. It also aimed to develop and implement postgraduate Diploma and Master Programs in Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage, designed and structured in accordance with EU standards.</p> <p>Since its creation and until today, the centre has played a major role in the development of maritime and underwater archaeology in Egypt. It has also been a part of several international networks and projects with the aim of disseminating its activities and contributing to capacity building in the fast growing field of underwater archaeology.</p> <p>To watch a video of this presentation please click here: <a title="Dr. Lucy Blue Keynote Address" href="http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/videos/Lucy_Blue.m4v" target="_blank">http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/videos/Lucy_Blue.m4v</a></p> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr Emad Khalil Dr. Lucy Blue Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Keynote https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/85787d79fe25897696333f4f59acf9d4.pdf d23766701a0d68d28066eaedc2683cdb PDF Text Text Cricket run or Home run? Can a correlation between Emporia and non-Emporia based trade be made using the wreck of the Lena Shoal? Brian Fahy Abstract Is it possible to look at a shipwreck like the Lena Shoal and investigate patterns of emporia and non-emporia trade throughout Southeast Asia? Was the boat simply ferrying cargo from one specific port to another specific one, or was the trade a linear, multi-legged run? By looking at the artifactual assemblage of the boat and its cargo, its construction, as well as the socio-political and th economic climate of 15 Century Southeast Asia and China, it is the goal of this paper to assess what trading might have looked like from a boat like the Lena Shoal. Both types of trading were most likely happening simultaneously, but there may certain characteristics that the Lena Shoal wreck possessed that may stress a specific role or function that it had in the smaller (or larger) scheme of Southeast Asian trade. Construction methods and ship size of the boat may reveal details into the boats’ intended role in maritime trade. Can correlations be made between ships of specific sizes having specific purposes? An attempt at comparing ship size and cargo of similar wrecked vessels that share a similar temporal space in the area will be necessary and vital to ascertain such qualities. Much, but not all of the cargo was Chinese, the whole of which may help reflect a particular course of trade through the area. Planned testing of the metals excavated at the site will hopefully help promote the need for a complete database of metallurgical sources in the th region, to help further understand the role that the Lena Shoal played in 15 Century Southeast Asian Maritime trade. Introduction Shipwrecks are often referred to a “time capsules,” whereby the moment a ship sinks and comes to rest on the ground; it produces a pseudo-effect of an event “trapped” outside of time. Everything on that ship (including cargo and hull) in that moment gives us a font of information most importantly due to their connection with each other. Since all these items onboard were deposited in situ at the same time, then they have relatability to one another. While fieldwork methods of mapping, excavating and cataloguing the artifacts will yield a large amount of data, there are a number of other inferential corollaries to be made with the finds. Richard Gould (2000:12) notes that these, “so-called events (the moment a ship wrecks, becoming a potential archaeological site) prove to be embedded in ongoing processes linked to social, economic, and even symbolic activities”. There is valued information to be gained not only from looking at the moment of the wreck, but also from the various circumstances preceding and proceeding it. Shipwrecks are part of larger social and cultural landscapes; they are not without a wider set of interpretive contexts. In the instance of the Lena Shoal wreck (or Busuanga), there is a great deal of artifactual evidence to process. Dated to approximately 1490 CE, the wreck carried a various array of materials: metal ingots and cannons, ivory, glass beads with the bulk of the cargo being a large assemblage of Chinese and Southeast Asian ceramics. �The objective of this paper is to attempt to describe the environment of 15 century production and exchange in Southeast Asia, as it possibly relates to the Lena Shoal, to put the wreck back into the social, cultural and economic systems that created it. Can inferences be made on the cargo of a wreck to determine whether the cargo practicing direct trade between two ports (making a sort of “cricket run”, between two bases), or will the cargo tell us a tale of a linear, port-to-port circuit trade known as “tramping” (like a batter traveling around the bases in baseball)? I plan on addressing this in a two ways; the artifactual assemblage, (ceramics and metals) as well as the material used in the construction of the ship. Other sources located within the assemblage give supporting claims to regional provenances, but are not as concrete as the ceramic wares. Items like ivory tusks, brass arm bangles, brass and iron cannons, bronze gongs and tin ingots reveal their presence in the remains, yet are less distinct in the details. In these cases traditional typological studies can reveal vague regions of production rather than specific production centers. This paper is also intended to stress the strict need for metallurgical surveys and X-ray Florescence (XRF) catalogues throughout the region, to aid in distinguishing provenances of the ingots (both the iron and tin) and well as the brass workings in the collection. To achieve these goals, it will be necessary to understand the concepts of what is and what is not an emporium, how this affects and directs trade routes and connectivity, and whether the classical definition of the term applies to the ports of trade in Southeast Asia. th The wreck of the Lena Shoal The wreck was discovered in 1996. The book, Lost at Sea by Goddio, et al. (2000) relates the discovery and subsequent archaeological excavation through the following facts. The research vessel Kaimiloa, en route to another archaeological site, was waylaid by reports of fisherman bringing up ceramic shards in their fishing nets. A quick scan and reconnaissance dive by the vessels’ crew revealed a large swath of ceramics and elephant tusks at a depth of about 48 meters. After an impressive feat of organization and logistics, in a matter of weeks the team managed to secure the site, map the wreck in commendable detail, and bring up thousands of artifacts from the wreck. The bulk of the cargo seems to have been ceramic in nature. Monique Crick (2002:86) notes that there were blue and white porcelains, celadon ware, monochrome and Fahua porcelains from China within the wreckage. The cargo also consisted of Thai Sawankhalok and Tao Maenam Noi jars, Siamese Celadons and Vietnamese stonewares. These items clearly have a specific provenance in their creation; ones which archaeologists are able to correlate to definite kiln sites throughout Southeast Asia and China. Other items uncovered within the wreck include; bronze arm bangles, bronze and iron cannons, iron pots, tin ingots and pig iron, as well as laquerware, iron needles, elephant tusks, glass beads , stone/shell objects and pepper. �Comparative analysis was done on the remainder of the hull (left in situ) to determine the materials used in its construction, and spectrographic samples of the tin, brass and beads were performed. Concepts of Emporia There are varying definitions for the word “emporia”. At its barest definition, the word was used merely as a synonym for “port” (Rouge 1966); Its’ other minimalistic meaning was known as a “place where ships are built” (Rouge 1966). This acts as a “stepping off” point, to be able to define the term in a more elaborate manner. Defined from a purely economical position, emporia is characterized by historian and Indologist Deitmar Rothermund (1991:3) as a: (M)arket place in which a variety of goods is more or less continually available and in which a plurality of buyers and sellers can meet without undue restraint under predictable conditions of supply and demand. A synthesis of these base definitions were made by Alain Bresson (1993), using translations and writings from Greek geographer Strabo and analyses of Strabo from Michel Casevitz (1993). He notes the necessity to include geographical terms in the definition of emporia, notably the need for its connectivity to water (i.e. river, canal, and sea). This is useful because it includes both a market function AND connectivity. With the exception of Rothermund, these authors are referring to emporia in the Mediterranean during the Roman period, yet I believe there are similarities in the terms and universals in the concepts that can be used to define emporia globally. Obviously there are some differences in defining Asian emporia and Mediterranean emporia, as well as temporal differences in entrepots between the Roman era (27 BCE - 476 CE) and the Medieval Era (10th - 15th centuries), further research is needed to properly compare and contrast the two. In the case of Southeast Asia, an attachment to the sea certainly applies here. The regions’ major centers of civilization come from water rich areas. Riverine locales promoted an agricultural boon and the use of the rivers as trade routes imply that early cities established on these coastal tributaries may embody the very nature of emporia (see Hall 2011). Strabo notes there are specific activities and structures that contribute to the identity of emporia. Obviously, commercial activity is one aspect that defines an emporium. He stresses that trade can have a single axis (i.e. one way trade, tribute), or dual axes (i.e. forms of exchange, barter). With these commercial activities come commercial structures; buildings like trade offices, storage facilities and market halls. From an agricultural standpoint, it would be necessary to have grain storage of some sort not only for the local populace, but as a tradable commodity. Technically, an emporium would benefit from places to build or repair one’s ship as well as fabricate certain items. Certain religious structures would be present to cater to the various religions of the local populace as well as the passing sailor and traveler. Institutional and bureaucratic structures like tax �offices and administrational centers would be in place to facilitate profit for the state and establish diplomacy in state matters. Emporia in Southeast Asia certainly had some of these structures and processes in place to varying degrees. These structures may take form as a “Bund”, built similarly like Shanghai’s port that was established during the 18 th century steamship era, or something more organic, whereby structures and processes were erected and established in a port as they were needed, and wherever they could fit them. However, some of these structures may not have been necessary in Southeast Asia, certainly depending upon how large or small the emporium was. There are theories in maritime economics that propose varying degrees of emporia, based upon region of connectivity. Some emporia may cater to a local, riverine population; other mid-level emporia operate within small seas or cities along a stretch of coast line, while other, even larger emporia may provide interactions from a multitude of continents. Martin Stopford attempts to place these emporia into different sizeable contexts, based on type of maritime trade. He proposes that there are some ports that specialize in either Interregional trade, Short sea trade, and/or Land/River/Canal based trade. (1988:39) The models are applied by Stopford in a modern framework, defining Interregional trade (or “Deep-Sea shipping”) as economic exchange between continental landmasses; Short Sea trade is defined as the coastal distribution of the cargo delivered to major ports by Deep Sea shippers. Local/River/Canal transport is small scale, localized trade within a series of waterways or river network (Figure 1). Figure 1. Stopford’s Models of Modern Sea Trade �There are certainly emporia that do some or all of these types of trade, but within these types of emporia one trade method is usually more popular than the others. Within the region of Southeast Asia, and using Stopford’s models of trade I suggest breaking and splitting Interregional trade into Inter-regional emporia and Intra-regional emporia (Figure 2). I believe that these terms would easily assist in defining which ports were catering to ports mostly within (Intra) Southeast Asia and those emporia whose region of trade and contact was between two regions (Inter). Stopford’s “Short Sea” shipping model can apply to vessels that operate Intra-regionally, because the largely common practice of following the coast applies to Most of Southeast Asia. Examples of Inter-regional emporia would be cities along the straits of Moluccas and Java in the West and the Chinese cities of Guangzhou and Quanzhou in the East. There are other regional emporia which had some degree of inter-regional contact, depending upon politics and security at that time. Entrepots that typically operate as Intraregional emporia are those that are mostly engaged in trade within the South China, Sulu and Java Seas, including the Gulf of Thailand (Hall 2011). Figure 2: Augmented Inter/Intra regional model for within Southeast Asian context. �Reflections on the wreck of the Lena, as it relates to Southeast Asian emporia The ship It is important to note that while the design of the Lena may be Chinese in nature, the ship itself is not. Identification of the planking reveals the type of wood to be a variety of Shorea (Shorea sp.) It is a tropical hardwood belonging to the family Dipterocarpaceae, and found most commonly in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. Two taxa of Shorea are found in China, but both are rare, and not located near the coastal China. The pegs/treenails used to connect the planking were identified as GuttaPercha (Palaquium sp.) of the family Sapotaceae. Again, this is a wood primarily native to Southeast Asia and Northern Australasia. These factors point to a ship that was most likely constructed in Southeast Asia, in the Southeast Asian junk tradition, and most likely called its home port somewhere in the region. The cargo The wreck contained items from all over Southeast Asia and China, the majority of the cargo coming from China. Franck Goddio (2000) surmises that the Lena Shoal most likely overshot its port of call in the Philippines, after visiting ports of China, Vietnam and Thailand (in that order), and while attempting to come around, grounded itself along the Palawan Coast. It is most likely that the ships’ next port of call was the Philippines. A nearly identical list of commodities that the Philippine elite were importing was documented by E.P. Patanñe (1996:59) in The Philippines in the 6th through 16th Centuries, he states, (t)he elite [of Tanjay] also possessed [in their burial contexts] status-symbolizing goods such as trade porcelains from China , Annam and Siam, iron and bronze weaponry, brass and copper gongs and drums, silks and fine cotton textiles, elaborate basketry, beaded and gold ornaments. This shows that there is a clear corollary between the marketable commodities popular in the Philippines at that time, and the cargo on the Lena Shoal, deemed as product that never made it to its intended destination. Further Study It is conjectured that the Lena arrived and traded at ports in China, Vietnam and Thailand before making its last leg of the trip to the Philippines – tramping (Figure 3; Goddio, et al. 2000:259). �Figure 3. Emporia based “Direct trade” example vs. Non-emporia, “Tramping” model (adapted from Goddio, et al. 2000:259). I wish to propose an alternative pattern of trade that the Lena may have taken before its untimely end. As mentioned earlier, the tin was (expertly) analyzed by Energy Dispersive Spectrometer. Without going into great scientific detail about the process, an elemental spectrum is created of the sample, and, with the help of other measured metallic spectra, there may be a chance to source the material being analyzed. The goal is to look at sources of tin throughout Southeast Asia, with the hopes of locating where the tin on the Lena Shoal came from. The island of Mendo Barat, in Indonesia is one of the largest, if not the largest sources of tin in the region. If analysis of these sources of tin is catalogued, then we can cross reference the data from Mendo Barat with the tin ingots found within the Lena cargo. The same holds true for the Brass bracelets located within the wreck. Spectrographic analysis gives us a detailed look at the copper, zinc and tin elements in the arm bangles. Again, if accurate analyses of said sources were measured and catalogued, it might reveal useful information about the arm bangle and bracelet trade as well as the ship(s) that carry them. At that time, India held the largest sources of zinc, and if the spectrographic analysis matched sources from there, it would reveal significant insight into the metallurgy trade of the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. �If the tin was from Mendo Barat, it could suggest that the Lena Shoal had docked there previously. The ship could have made its way up from Srivijaya, through Thailand and Vietnam, up into China and on its way to the Philippines when it overshot its port. It still remains plausible that the Lena’s next port was in the Philippines, quite possibly with the intent to unload the whole of its cargo. However, the sheer volume of high quality blue-and-white ceramics on the boat does not coincide with the social atmosphere in 15th century Philippines. Studies done by John Miksic (2006) and Laura Junker (1999) show an increase in the demand of high quality porcelain, but not to the extent of what the Lena Shoal was carrying. It lends credence to the possibility that the Philippines was at least the intended port of call for a portion of the blue-and-white, with the bulk of the Chinese ceramics destined for points farther West. In that regard, we may envision a ship whose route was forever clockwise, possibly engaging in a cyclical trade pattern throughout Southeast Asia and Southern China. Clearly identified trading routes would certainly contribute to such a scenario. Goddio (2000:8) put forth the claim of a maritime trading route up and down the Western Palawan coast, stating that although there are no textual sources that mark a trade route via this corridor, he believed that it was a frequently used route since the eleventh century. He backed that up with finding and documenting other wrecks along the coast, showing that indeed the route was a popular one. An original map of the region, recently rediscovered in the Bodleian Library Special Collections in Oxford, dating to the mid-16th century further supports his theory. Figure 4. Selden Map. Orientation - North is to the right (photo by author, copyright Ashmolean Museum). �The “Selden Map”, is a detailed map of Southern China and Southeast Asia in the 17th Century (Figure 4). Dated to 1653, it was allegedly made by Chinese cartographers and captured during a British military operation. There were two documented independent ventures from Britains to China around that time; One by Henry Bornford made in 1635 and another made in 1637 by William Corteen’s Association. Both were going to Macao, but no mention of the map was in either record (Riddick 2006). The map appears to have been made in Quanzhou, as it appears to be the start of all the sea routes on the map. The map clearly shows Goddio’s suggested Palawan Strait route, supporting his theory regarding that coastal trade route. The map also reveals a direct trade route from Quanzhou to the Philippines, which may help bolster the cyclical route of the Lena Shoal. Certainly, there are a great many other factors to be taken into account to help support this claim. Agents like weather patterns, politics and maritime logistics need to be, and will be, studied to bolster this theory (Fahy in prep). I hope though that the paper shows the necessity for a more complete metallurgical spectroscopy catalogue, and a need for continued collaboration supporting the field of maritime archaeology in Southeast Asia. Bibliography “Flora of China, 2004-2010”, in The Flora of China Project, Missouri Botanical Garden Press, accessed June 17 th 2011: http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/. Bresson, A., and L’Emporion, De Boccard, Paris. Rouillard, P., 1993 Cricket Run or Home Run: Emporia and non-Emporia based Fahy, B., trade in Southeast Asia, unpublished DPhil thesis, Oxford In preparation Centre for Maritime Archaeology, University of Oxford. Sunken Treasure: Fifteenth Century Chinese Ceramics From Goddio, F., the Lena Cargo, Periplus, London. Pierson, S., and Crick, M., 2000 Goddio, F., Crick, Lost at Sea: The Strange Route of the Lena Shoal Junk, M., Pierson, S., Periplus, London. and Scott, R., 2002 Archaeology and the Social History of Ships, Cambridge, Gould, R. A., 2000 Cambridge University Press. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Hall, K. R., Societal Development, 100-1500, Rowman and Littlefield, 2011 Maryland. Raiding, trading, and feasting: the political economy of Junker, L. L., Philippine chiefdoms, University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu. 1999 Brach, A. R., 2011 �“Chinese Ceramics and the Economics of Early Southeast Asian Urbanisation, 14th to 16th Centuries”, in Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 26, pp.147-153. The Philippines in the 6th through 16th Centuries, LSA Press, Patanñe, E.P., 1996 San Juan. The History of British India: a chronology, Praeger Riddick, J. F., 2006 ,Connecticut. Rothermund, D., “Asian Emporia and European Bridgeheads” in (eds.) Roderich Ptak and Dietmar Rothermund, Emporia, 1991 commodities and Entrepreneurs in Asian Maritime Trade, C.1400-1750., Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart. Recherges sur L’organisation du Commerce Maritime Rouge, J., Mediterranee sous L’empire Romain, Service d'Edition et de 1966 Vente des Publications de l'Education Nationale (S.E.V.P.E.N.) , Paris. Selden Map of MS Selden Supra 105], Map Collection, Bodleian Library, Southern China University of Oxford, Oxford. and Southeast Asia, 1653 Stopford, M., Maritime Economics, Unwin Hyman, London. 1988 Miksic, J. N., 2006 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cricket run or Home run? Can a correlation between Emporia and non-Emporia based trade be made using the wreck of the Lena Shoal? Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource Is it possible to look at a shipwreck like the Lena Shoal and investigate patterns of emporia and non-emporia trade throughout Southeast Asia? Was the boat simply ferrying cargo from one specific port to another specific one, or was the trade a linear, multi-legged run? By looking at the artifactual assemblage of the boat and its cargo, its construction, as well as the socio-political and economic climate of 15th Century Southeast Asia and China, it is the goal of this paper to assess what trading might have looked like from a boat like the Lena Shoal. Both types of trading were most likely happening simultaneously, but there may certain characteristics that the Lena Shoal wreck possessed that may stress a specific role or function that it had in the smaller (or larger) scheme of Southeast Asian trade. Construction methods and ship size of the boat may reveal details into the boats’ intended role in maritime trade. Can correlations be made between ships of specific sizes having specific purposes? An attempt at comparing ship size and cargo of similar wrecked vessels that share a similar temporal space in the area will be necessary and vital to ascertain such qualities. Much, but not all of the cargo was Chinese, the whole of which may help reflect a particular course of trade through the area. Planned testing of the metals excavated at the site will hopefully help promote the need for a complete database of metallurgical sources in the region, to help further understand the role that the Lena Shoal played in 15th Century Southeast Asian Maritime trade. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Brian Fahy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9c2940c1beda3be9f9dc0a2e2d3e41d0.jpg ab4ac569b5e2b270de08ef64f8f5ae5c Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 1230 Height 870 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Crossing Cultures - Poster Description An account of the resource For the first time in the history of South West Coast of India, a variety of archaeological evidence for the long distance maritime exchanges was unearthed at Pattanam (N. Lat. 10° 09.434’; E Long 76° 12.587’). The ca 4 m thick cultural\ deposit of Pattanam may be defined into five cultural periods spanning three millennia since 1000 BCE. Four seasons of excavations by KCHR, in about 650 sq. m dug up area, produced 39,846 antiquities and about three million (29,83178) pottery sherds. The excavations also revealed remains of brick architecture - warehouse, wharf/jetty and residential/industrial structures, wooden canoe and a plethora of biological remains. The poster illustrates the major finds and cross cultural connections suggesting Pattanam could be part of the legendary port of Muziris. A full scale version of the poster can be downloaded from this location: https://rapidshare.com/files/721815335/Muziris_Poster_v_final2.pdf Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource P J Cherian K P Shajan V Selvakumar M Nambirajan K Rajan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Poster https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5a9e43d194aaed55b3ce8474f8be4e1e.pdf 6468dc9e8305d3f7c3c57da15ef7f7ea PDF Text Text Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements Arjun Rao (Dept. of History and Archaeology, Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi India) arjunrao@cuk.ac.in ABSTRACT Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements is focused on the prehistoric and early historic sites located on the perennial rivers of south India. This topic suits Session 22, Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums. The region has potential archaeological site-centric data on the cultural heritage of the perennial rivers due to the lack of methodological frameworks we have known least on the inland (short/long distance) water navigation network and the frequent river crossing patterns adopted by the ancient societies. The significance of rivers in inland routes has taken the lesser focus of Indian Archaeology, except for several studies centred on the Ganga-Yamuna rivers and coastal ports of the Indian Peninsula. The rivers Kaveri, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Bhima, origin from the Western Ghats in south India, flow through several ecological regions and plateaus on reaching the Bay of Bengal. At several places, these rivers have broader (1-1.5km in width) and narrow channels cutting through the plains and valleys. Early sedentary villages and larger settlements leading to urbanisation seem connected with the rivers. For example, Neolithic and Megalithic site complexes (T-Narasipura and Koppa, Talakadu and Kaveripattinam on the river Kaveri; Sannati-Kanaganahalli on the river Bhima; Nagarjunakonda on the river Krishna are few sites that hold a prominent discussion in this paper. There need to be more conceptual and methodological frameworks for such topics that pose point-blank-range challenges to research. What archaeological and cultural materials (directly or contextually) can support such studies, and to what extent the geolocations and the local geomorphological characteristics can support the inland navigation are to be assessed. Hence, this paper is the beginning of new research directions and will contribute to developing methodological perspectives towards the cultural heritage of perennial rivers. Keywords: River Crossing, Fords, Ferries, South India INTRODUCTION The Indian rivers are both perennial and non-perennial rivers. Perennial rivers are fed by the Himalayan glaciers, draining Indus, Ganges, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra systems. While connecting to the archaeological site distributions, much of the later prehistoric and early historic sites are reported along the Indus and Gangetic riverine systems. They likely played ecological implications on the rise and spread of the first and second urbanisation of Viz Indus Valley Culture in the second and third millennium BCE and Ganga Valley culture during the first millennium CE. The central and southern part of India is drained by the non-perennial rivers fed by the monsoonal precipitation originating from the Western Ghats, such as the river Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, major river systems traversing various geological formations on their confluence into the Bay of Bengal in the east. Much of the archaeological sites of prehistoric cultures are reported from the near river banks and at their tributary channels. By the early historical period (300 BCE- 800 CE), the concentration of the settlements increasingly happened to be located on the river banks in southern India. Such broad archaeological and temporal distinction is noticeably clear in the geo-cultural studies of the river-based settlement developments in Indian archaeology. 1 �Figure 1: Major Rivers of India. Source:www.mapsofIndia.com CASE STUDIES Case study 1, river Krishna Krishna is another major river of Southern India originating from the Western Ghats and confluences with the Bay of Bengal by crossing 1400 km. The river Krishna has a wider channel in its middle reaches ranging from 1 km to 1.5 km in the region of Raichur (also called Raichur Doab and the north bank is associated with the geography of Shorapur Doab. In monsoonal seasons, the river flows with massive water discharge disconnecting the north and south bank inhabitants. This disconnection and uneasy river crossing is also reflected in mediaeval warfare records. Archaeological studies have reported many prehistoric sites across the river Krishna at the Raichur (see Korisettar 1979; Paddayya 1974; Arjun 2018, 2021). On either side of river banks, the density of middle Palaeolithic and Mesolithic/ microlithic sites are exceptionally higher, ranging from 35-40 areas spreading at the river 2 �stretch of c. 30km. The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic economies were engaged in foraging for food resources and raw materials for their stone tools; their occupational location on the river banks indicates frequent river crossing. Case study 2, river Tungabhadra River Tungabhadra is a significant tributary of Krishna and the region of their confluence forms Raichur Doab in the Raichur and Bellary regions. And this is also a part of the core Southern Neolithic culture developed during 3200-1200 BCE. Of many well-studied Neolithic sites, Halluru can be contextually discussed here. Halluru is located on the left bank of Tungabhadra, a significant Neolithic-chalcolithic site showing potential agricultural development during c. 1400-1100 BCE continues to develop further in the Iron Age phase until the dawn of 100 BCE (Nagaraja Rao 971). Excavations have revealed the cultivation of crops such as cotton, millet, and rice. Though much of the Neolithic settlements were concentrated on the smaller stream orders and isolated hillocks, sites like Halluru, Brahmagiri, and T- Narasipura remain focused on riverine environs. Several Iron Age and Early Historic sites are reported from the riverine areas of Tungabhadra in the region of Hampi. At the outset, Hampi itself was a significant capital city of a mediaeval kingdom, the Vijayanagara. Case study 3, river Kaveri River Kaveri originates from peaks of the Western Ghats in the Coorg Plateau in Karnataka and flows through 805 km and conflux with the Bay of Bengal in the east. The river flows through narrow and steep gorge cutting across the valleys and gains momentum, often causing flash floods in the upper reaches (Kale et al. 2010; Kartika et al. 2018) until it enters a relatively plain landscape in the middle reaches. Recent archaeological surveys in 121 sq. km. of an area on the river bank of Kaveri and its tributary stream Harangi recorded 39 Iron Age period sites (Fig. 1 and Table 1) relatively datable to first millennium BCE (see Arjun et al. 2018; Arjun 2019, 2021). Such a high density of sites on either side of the riverine valleys indicates frequent crossing over the c. 100-150m broad channel river banks. Case study 4, river Bhima Bhima is a tributary river of Krishna, originating in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra and flowing south-east towards Krishna in Karnataka. The confluence region is known as Shorapur Doab. Shorapur Doab is the earliest occupational site in human and cultural evolution, dating to 1.2 million years. Along the Bhima River, the upper and Middle Bhima basin is reported with a number of Chalcolithic and Early Historical sites. At the lower basin, site complexes like Sannati, Kanaganahalli and Ranamandala developed as a marker of early urbanisation in the region with increasing significance for Buddhist monasteries and Stupas. Bhima and further along the river Krishna, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati show the high probability for inland navigation connecting multiple early historic Buddhist sites during the Satavahana reign (100 BCE- 300 CE). In this session, see the paper ‘Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India’ for more details. Overall, this paper attempts to identify major archaeological settlements in Karnataka ranging from prehistoric to early historic periods located on the rivers such as the Krishna, Tungabhadra, Bhima, and Kaveri. Though there is a lack of direct physical evidence for the navigation infrastructure, the geolocation of the sites and socio-economic activities indicates the human association with the river in knowing the fords and engaged in crossing over the riverbanks by foot or using wooden/ thatched ferries depending on the year-round seasons must have been an inevitable part of sustenance. 3 �RESOURCES Research conducted on the line of crossing rivers and fords based on the geolocations of prehistoric and early historic sites are almost nil, except random attempts made by Allchin and Allchin. The archaeology of river crossing by Allchin and Allchin (1962) attempted to identify geographically strategic locations, such as valley passes and river confluences, in the context of trade routes connecting various geographic regions with prominent settlements. They mapped a few megalithic sites on the river of Krishna near the Raichur and discussed the possible activities engaged in crossing over the rivers on ferries likely in the modern period before the advent of rail/roadway bridges. Archaeological sources Large-scale archaeological data is available in the form of prehistoric and historical period sites located along the river banks of Krishna, Bhima, and Kaveri (e.g. Korisettar 1979; Paddayya 1974; Nagaraja Rao 971; Allchin and Allchin 1962; Allchin 1954; Arjun 2018, 2021; Munn 1934; Paddayya 1971; Subbarao 1948; Sundara 1969; Varaprasada Rao 2002). The resources to conduct this research is handicapped by the lack of research conducted on the technology and tradition of river crossing Historical sources Though there are references to trade routes running through the river banks and often crossing the rivers to enter other regions and trading centres, they largely remained at the Ford location to cross over. Often, during the battle, the army crossed the rivers during the low tides, and in the case of high-water flows, they camped on the river banks waiting for the river water to recede. There is a corpus of reports on the trade routes (Lahiri 1992; Begley 1981; Chakrabarti 2010) and places of religious importance (e.g. Seshadri and Sundararaghavan 2012) developed throughout the historical period along the mighty rivers throughout its journey and often indicates prominent locations meant to cross over the rivers. Framework and results on prima facie study As discussed above, direct physical archaeological sources in the form of ferries, anchors or any associated infrastructures addressing river crossing and identification of fords needs novel methodological initiatives. As many sites of different prehistoric and historical cultural phases are reported on the river banks and closure to river banks, it conjecturally indicates a close association of the people with the rivers and crossing over them to move beyond foraging for food resources and procurement of raw materials. During the early historical period, as the trade routes formed throughout the rivers or crossing over the rivers, landmark fords must have begun to play a crucial point of activities during the monsoon and post-monsoon. As the rivers are non-perennial, multiple approaches in the river crossing must have been determined subject to seasonal variations. One can walk through the river bed if the water level is below knee length or on a dry bed, usually during the summer. In the monsoon and post-monsoon, the river may pose suitable conditions to navigate as crossing over by foot is hampered. To cross over the river, the medium of transport must have been likely a smaller ferry made of bamboo and wooden trunks. 4 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Allchin, F.R. The Development of Early Cultures in the Raichur District of Hyderabad, Ph.D. Dissertation. London: University of London, 1954. Allchin, F.R. and B, Allchin. “The archaeology of river crossing by FR Allchin and Bridget Allchin.” In Indian Anthropology: Essays in Memory of D.N. Majumdar, edited by T.N. Madan and Gopala Sarana, 52-65. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962. Arjun, R. Landscapes and Settlement Pattern of Neolithic and Iron Age Cultures of Raichur Doab, Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, 2018. Begley, V. “From Iron Age to Early Historical in South Indian Archaeology.” In Studies in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan, edited by J. Jacobson, 299-301. New Delhi: American Institute for Indian Studies, 1981. Chakrabarti, D.K. The Ancient Routes of the Deccan and the Southern Peninsula. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2010. Korisettar, R. Prehistory and Geomorphology of Middle Krishna, Karnataka, Ph.D. Dissertation. Poona: University of Poona, 1979. Korisettar, R., D.Q. Fuller and P.C. Venkatasubbaiah. “Brahmagiri and Beyond: The Archaeology of the Southern Neolithic.” In Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: Prehistory, Archaeology of South Asia, edited by S. Settar and R. Korisettar, 313–348. New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical Research and Manohar Publishers, 2002. Lahiri, N. The Archaeology of Indian Trade Routes (up to c. 200BC). New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992. Munn, L. “Prehistoric and Protohistoric Finds.” Journal of Geological Society II, no.1 (1934): 121-135. Paddayya, K. Pre and Proto- Historic Investigations Shorapur Doab, Ph.D. Dissertation. Poona: University of Poona, 1968. Paddayya, K. “The Mesolithic Culture of the Shorapur Doab, Peninsular India.” Anthropos 69 (1974a): 590-607. Padma Seshadri and Sundara Raghavan P.M. It Happened Along the Kaveri (A Journey Through Space and Time). New Delhi: Niyogi Books, 2012. Subbarao, B. The Stone Age Cultures of Bellary. Pune: Deccan College, 1948. Sundara, A. Megaliths in North Karnataka, Ph.D. Dissertation. Poona: University of Poona, 1969. Varaprasada Rao, J. Prehistoric Environment and Archaeology of the Krishna- Tungabhadra Doab. Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan, 2002. 5 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements Description An account of the resource Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements is focused on the prehistoric and early historic sites located on the perennial rivers of south India. This topic suits Session 22, Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums. The region has potential archaeological site-centric data on the cultural heritage of the perennial rivers due to the lack of methodological frameworks we have known least on the inland (short/long distance) water navigation network and the frequent river crossing patterns adopted by the ancient societies. The significance of rivers in inland routes has taken the lesser focus of Indian Archaeology, except for several studies centred on the Ganga-Yamuna rivers and coastal ports of the Indian Peninsula. The rivers Kaveri, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Bhima, origin from the Western Ghats in south India, flow through several ecological regions and plateaus on reaching the Bay of Bengal. At several places, these rivers have broader (1-1.5km in width) and narrow channels cutting through the plains and valleys. Early sedentary villages and larger settlements leading to urbanisation seem connected with the rivers. For example, Neolithic and Megalithic site complexes (T-Narasipura and Koppa, Talakadu and Kaveripattinam on the river Kaveri; Sannati-Kanaganahalli on the river Bhima; Nagarjunakonda on the river Krishna are few sites that hold a prominent discussion in this paper. There need to be more conceptual and methodological frameworks for such topics that pose point-blank-range challenges to research. What archaeological and cultural materials (directly or contextually) can support such studies, and to what extent the geolocations and the local geomorphological characteristics can support the inland navigation are to be assessed. Hence, this paper is the beginning of new research directions and will contribute to developing methodological perspectives towards the cultural heritage of perennial rivers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arjun Rao Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rao, Arjun . 2023. “Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2022 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/708b4dbbe6bc70240824e2adba5ea2c7.pdf 7f76272b6c6a6bc27bc51a651cf0ba4d PDF Text Text Cultural attitude and values towards underwater cultural heritage and its influences on the management actions in Indonesia Zainab Tahir Directorate of Coast and Marine Affairs, Jakarta, Indonesia 10110 zen02zen@yahoo.com Abstract Understanding attitudes and values towards underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is critical element in determining appropriate approaches to a wide variety of planning and management actions. Management actions such as gaining support to protecting historic shipwreck and its associated relics, designing and implementing new management methods depend on an understanding of cultural norms and values of their success. In Indonesia, historic shipwrecks and its associated relics are managed through two different policies. Cultural protection Act 11/2010 mandates protection on cultural heritage including underwater remains, and Presidential Decree 19/2009, regulated commercial management processes, incorporating UCH as marine resources with potential economic value, which might contribute to community welfare. These two paradoxical procedures have raised long debate between stakeholders, including government agencies. Using individual interview, this paper attempts to understand cultural attitudes and values towards shipwreck and its relics in related government agencies in Indonesia, in which resulting the two deferent management approaches. Furthermore, this writing also examines the possible influences of these policies on the current management of UCH in this country. Key words: historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, intrinsic value, commercial interest, private company Introduction Substantial amount of underwater cultural heritage in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are predicted lying off Indonesian Water. This form has lost mainly due to natural or accidental causes. Currently, there are twenty underwater sites documented, spreading from South China Sea to Java Sea.The character of the wrecks varies from one another. For example, the Cirebon wreck, found in Java Sea, is a 10 th century wooden shipwreck containing large amount of artifacts from Five Dynasty Chinese ceramics to glass bottle from Iran, enriched history of an ancient trade in �maritime silk road, while in Tulamben, Bali lies beneath the water a World War II transport ship the USAT Liberty. Each wreck has its story, comprising valuable knowledge, technology and culture from specific periods and place, assigning it not only exceptional and irreplaceable (Smith & Couper, 2003) but also finite. Therefore, some experts assert that historic shipwrecks are human legacy and it deserves protection and management, ensuring these heritage is interpreted and shared with the wide public and preserved for the benefit of present and future generations (Jameson and Scott-Ireton 2007; Spirek and Scott-Ireton 2003 see in (Leshikar-Denton, 2010). However, beside the concern of safeguarding the UCH, there is a distinct-profit interest towards historic shipwrecks. It is likely related to a different value assigned to the objects by different parties. Delgado (1988) examines the monetary benefit provided by historic shipwrecks, in particular its cargoes, besides cultural, historical, archaeological, aesthetic and recreational (Delgado, 1988). Public has witnessed how the Geldermalsen and Vung Tau were priced $16 million and $7,2 million respectively in the auction house. Some people have seen this commercial interestas threat against preservation and protection of the heritage. Kaoru and Hoagland (1994) supported that those values can overlap considerably causing conflict among parties over appropriate use of historic shipwrecks (Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994). Overlapping interest towards historic shipwreck and its cargoes become an interesting issue on managing underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia. Legally, there are two distinct policies imposed in regard to managing underwater artifacts. First is a policy places this heritage as significant cultural, archaeological and historical remains required preservation and protection, while the other policy has governed the objects as marine resources with physical value, allowing consumptive use of the heritage �i . Hypothetically, this paradoxical management type is influenced by knowledge, perception and attitude of people in a policy making level. Some studies have shown that people’s perceptions and attitudes towards particular objects or management issues are shaped by their knowledge, educational background, socio economic factors or management intervention (Allendorf et al. 2006; Shrestha and Alavalapati 2006; Xu et al. 2006; Alkan et al., 2009; Shibia 2010 see in (Htun, Mizoue, & Yoshida, 2012).This paper is about to portray and compare perceptions and attitudes of decision making level officers from two institutions in Indonesia, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF), and Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC), towards an underwater cultural heritage and its current management. Both institutions plays significant role in managing UCH in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in this country. The result of the study might provide preliminary insight and support in developing appropriate management strategies towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia Methods Policies towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia Shipwrecks exploration in Indonesian water has a long history, started from the exploitation of the Geldermalsen in 1986. Before this period, there was no specific national mandatory on managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (Tanudirjo, 2008)). Discovery of the Geldermalsen and the fantastic value of its cargoes became an eyeopening reality to the government in regard to the significance of historic shipwrecks, particularly its cargoes (Tanudirjo, 2008). In 1989, the Presidential Decree concerning Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship commanded the government to form a special committee, which has responsibility to manage the cargoes discovered from shipwrecks, included permitting its exploration and exploitation (Decree No. 49, 1989) ii. Since then, the monetary interest of underwater cargoes has become a concern inmanagingthe UCH in Indonesia.Three years later, in 1992, Act concerning Protection of Cultural heritage had been released under Ministry of Education and Culture, and it mandated a protection of cultural resources in land and underwater (Act 5, 1992)iii. The Act was revised in 2010 through Act 10/2010 and this new is clearly prohibited transferring cultural objects to other countries for any purposes but education and research. 815 �However, another new act concerning Coastal Management (Act 27, 2007), released under Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, classifies historic shipwreck and its cargoes as marine resources, in which the protection and economic concerns can be mutually managed. Sample and Data Collection Perception and attitudes of the government officers from the two ministries regarding underwater cultural heritage were measured by a personal interview, using questionnaire. The questionnaires consisted of three sections, first is started questions to identify general knowledge about the valuable cargoes from shipwrecks, answered in Yes, No and Not Sure; the section 2 is 15 major statements covered in 3 parts, part 1 is meant to gauge perceptions on the state of the significance of an underwater heritage, part 2 scales the attitudes towards the current management of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, and the last part is to identify responses on the management implication; then the section 3 is personal information. Perceptions and attitudes were measured by asking respondents to rate statements using Likert-type scale from 1 (Strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (not sure), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree), few statements used strongly unacceptable to strongly acceptable form. The questionnaires were closed type, however few parts of the section 2, the respondents were given space to provide comments. The respondents were gathered using non-probability method, with purposive sampling technique (Kumar, 2013). This paper only examined perception and attitudes of the decision making level officers (i.e. Head of Unit, Deputy Director and Director) from Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) and Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC), focusing to the unit or directorate that has closely responsible in managing underwater cultural heritage. From MMAF, 9 high official members of Directorate of Coastal and Marine Affairs were chosen, while in the MEC, the target respondents were Deputy Directors of Directorate of Culture and Head of the Preservation and Protection of Cultural Resources Office. The total respondents from the two institutions were 18 people. Result The first section, the respondents were asked four general questions with a Yes, No or 816 �Not sure answer to assess their understanding of the status of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia. Respondents who answered “yes” were preceded to the section 2 enquiring their perceptions and attitudes towards management of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes and the implication. In general, as it is written in table 1, all respondents from both institutions distinguished that historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are not only important but also protected. They also have knowledge, that these historic objects are opened for commercial purposes. Table 1. General understanding on the status of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes Questions on survey instrument Percentage Yes Do you know about the valuable objects from the sunken ship or commonly known as BMKT? 100 Do you think historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are important? 100 Do you know historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are protected? 100 Do you know some of the cargoes, discovered from historic shipwrecks could be sent off to auction? 94,4 Perceptions of the officers on the significant values of an underwater cultural heritage Concerning the significant value of an UCH in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, the respondents were asked to scale 4 statements. These statements are narrowed to portray perceptions of the officers towards the consumptive use and the non-use value of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (See (Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994). The results as indicated in table 2 show the officers from both institutions have strong agreement on valuing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Both of them are aware that there are several different values attached to these entities. Shipwrecks and its cargoes are historically and culturally significant, framing intrinsic quality of maritime past, as many experts support that historic shipwrecks are a closed context reflecting the society of the time; it has the potential to provide information about the people on board, ship construction, navigation technology, and the goods it was transporting; however, beside those essential value, it also have short term economic opportunities gained from this 817 �historic object (See (Delgado, 1988; Huang, 2013; Hutchinson, 1996; Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994). Table 2. Perceptions of the officers on the significant values of the UCH Statement On survey instrument Protecting underwater cultural heritage is important (i.e. historic shipwrecks and its cargoes) because it has historical value By managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes provide livelihood and other economic opportunities. The government should protect historic shipwreck and its cargoes in order to preserve national and cultural identity. Artifacts from historic shipwreck, such as ceramics and jewellery, are highly valuable in the antique market. Respondents-Scale (%) Correl. n1, 1 n2,1 n1,2 n2,2 n1,3 n2,3 n1,4 n2,4 n1,5 n2,5 0 0 0 0 0 0 22.2 0.0 77.8 100 0.958 0 0 0 0 0 0 66.7 6.0 33.3 33.3 0.853 0 0 0 0 0 0 55.6 33.3 44.4 66.7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 22.2 88.9 77.8 11.1 0.160 n1 = 9 (respondent from MMAF), n2 = 9 (respondent from MEC); 1 - 5 = likert scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = not sure, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree; Correl. = Correlation Perceptions of the officers on the current management of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes Currently, private company funds exploration of shipwrecks in Indonesian water. Consequently, they have rights to own 50% of the cargoes or 50% generated from the selling artifacts. The five statements in the questionnaire tried to explore how decisions making level officers perceive the involvement of the third party in exploring historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, auctioning the artifacts, and an appropriate funding source. In response to the statements, as it is shown in the table 3, the respondents from both institutions scaled strongly agree to agree that the government has responsibility to provide funding support to exploring and managing the historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. However, interestingly, when they were giving an option whether the fund for exploration should be provided by the government or private, the responses were varied, 33,3% officers from MMAF agreed the exploration should be funded by the government, 33% of it opposed the idea and 22,2% was not sure. 55,6% from MEC preferred the private as fund source, instead of the government, yet 22% strongly agreed if the fund 818 �support is from the state, while 11% was not sure. Even though, more than half of MEC’s respondent agreed the private providing fund for exploration, there were 33,3% of them refused the involvement of the third party would assist to manage and preserve historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Table 3. General Knowledge on the Status of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes Statement On survey instrument Exploration of shipwrecks and its cargoes should be conducted and funded by government not by private company. National policy allows private company to perform recovery excavation of historic shipwrecks and auction its cargoes off; then the selling income will be shared between government and private company. We can auction off artefacts discovered from one shipwreck as long as the national museum has pick the Significant Representative Collection. The government has responsibility to provide funding support to explore and manage historic shipwreck and its cargoes To help managing and preserving historic shipwreck and its cargoes in Indonesian water is by involving third party or private company to explore it Respondents-Scale (%) Correl. n1, 1 n2,1 n1,2 n2,2 n1,3 n2,3 n1,4 n2,4 n1,5 n2,5 11. 1 0.0 33.3 55.6 22.2 11.1 33.3 11.1 0 22.2 0 22.2 11.1 56.7 0 0 55.6 22.2 33.3 0 -0.067 0 0 0 77.8 0 0 44.4 11.1 55.6 11.1 -0.24 0 0 11.1 0.0 0 0 44.4 55.6 44.4 44.4 0.970 0 0 0 33.3 22.2 11.1 66.7 44.4 11.1 11.1 0.659 0.476 Furthermore, the biggest difference between the officers from the two institutions is when they were asked their perception on getting the artifacts off to auction. Even though, the unique and rare pieces must be list as state property and prohibit for sale, still 77,8% respondents from the MEC against the idea of selling the underwater artifacts, and only 11% respectively scaled strongly agree and agree to this idea. While, 55,6% and 33,3% of the MMAFs’ officers settled with the notion of commercial interest. They commented, that principally they agree to bring the mass product artifacts off to auction but the rare one must belong to the country.Subsequently, strong negative correlation (See(Rumsey, 2003) between officers existed, when they were asking their 819 �opinion on the current National Policy in which allows private company to salvage and auction the underwater artifacts. There was strongly disagreement towards the policy (56,7% and 22,2%), even though 22,2% of MECs’ officers marked agrees towards it. While 55,6 and 33,3% officers from MMAF were consistently support this involvement. Attitudes of the officers towards the management implication Integrating commercial values of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes into the policy have evolved public perceptions towards the objects. Since 1989, number of private companies permitted to explore shipwrecks in Indonesian water has increased and hundred thousands of artifacts discovered along the shipwrecks (PANNAS, 2012). However, despite the fact that this practice attracts investment to the country, some people criticized the exploration and salvage activities in Indonesia are far concern to the money-making and tend to disregard the intrinsic value of the objects (Tanudirjo, 2008). The International Congress of Maritime Museums mentioned the exploration of the Geldermalsen as an example how commercial salvor destroy the historical value of the cargoes (See in (Hallwood & Miceli, 2005). Six statements in the table 4 examine attitudes and perceptions of decision making officers from two main institutions, that closely responsible for managing underwater heritage, towards the management implication of the current policy. There are some significant differences between the MMAF and MEC regarding the statement that income generated from investment on shipwrecks and its cargoes benefits the country. 66,6% MECs’ respondents resisted that business on shipwrecks is not profitable to the state, contrasting 66,7% of the respondents from MMAF. The correlation between the high official respondents is negative. Similarly, most of the MECs’ do not accept to gain revenue by selling artifacts, while more than half respondents from MMAF (66,7%) consider this policy as an agreeable. Interestingly, when the MECs’ officers were asked about banning the auction, the proportion of MECs’ (44,4%) who agreed and disagreed is similar. Furthermore, a significantly higher percentage of the MECs’ (88,9%) believed the exploration of shipwrecks destroys the context of maritime history, while 56,7% from MMAF disagreed with the statement and one third of them have no knowledge 820 �regarding the issue. From one perspective, it might understandable if the proportion of “not sure” answers were little high considering respondents from MMAF generally come from different study background such as environment and economic. Yet, one MMAF’s respondent stated exploration might destroy the context of history if there is no strong regulation existed. Despite strong agreement from MECs’ about destruction of historical context, there are slightly high proportion of its respondents (44,4%) accepted the exploration done by the private has contributed to the preservation and protection of the historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, even though 33,3% of them disagree with this. Some people believe that exploration and recovery of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes might be considered as one way to safeguard the objects from being illegally salvaged and also providing further opportunity of the wide public to access the objects. Table 4. Attitudes and perceptions of the officers towards the management implication Statement On survey instrument Income from business on underwaterartifacts benefits the country. National policy should ban selling the cargoes discovered from shipwreck Exploration of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, done by private, has contributed to the preservation and protection of underwater cultural heritage. Exploration of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, done by private company, has destroyed the context of maritime history Business on shipwrecks and its cargoes attract more investment to Indonesia Government auctions off artefacts discovered from shipwrecks to gain country’s economic income. Respondents-Scale (%) Correl. n1, 1 n2,1 n1,2 n2,2 n1,3 n2,3 n1,4 n2,4 n1,5 n2,5 0 22.2 11.1 66.7 11.1 0.0 66.7 11.1 11.1 0 -0.17 11. 1 0.0 11.1 44.4 44.4 11.1 33.3 44.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 33.3 44.4 11.1 55.6 44.4 0 11.1 0.476 0 0 55.6 0 33.3 0 11.1 88.9 0 11.1 -0.27 0 1 11.1 55.6 22.2 0.0 55.6 22.2 0 11.1 0.036 0 44.4 11.1 33.3 11.1 11.1 66.7 11.1 11.1 0 -0.39 Discussion and Conclusion This survey was conducted to accomplish the main task of determining the perceptions and attitudes of the decision making level officers from different institutions towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. As it is predicted, the two institutions showed 821 �negative correlation for particular commercial interest issue. The policy on sending artifacts off into auction becomes sensitive among respondents from the MEC. Kaoru and Hoagland (1994) noticed that some individuals might find commercial attachment to the historical objects is offensive. To inform, all of the interviewees come from similar background, archaeologists and historians. Their knowledge on the historic objects might associate with their perception and attitude. In parallel with some studies resulted that greater in knowledge are associated with greater influence of attitudes on behavior (See (Fabrigar, Smith, Petty, & Crites Jr., 2006). On the other hand, high officers from the MMAF tend to consider the consumptive use over the non-use value of the historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (See Kaoru and Hoagland, 1994). They argue that historic shipwrecks and its cargoes along with other natural ecosystems are part of marine resources, which can be used and managed for the sake of the community wellbeing. Accordingly, the long term development goal of the MMAF are maximizing the use of the resources to achieve prosperity while keeping sustainability towards environment, social, culture, and economic as a based of actions (MMAF, 2007). Therefore, it is not surprising when the officers from this ministry have supported the inclusion of commercial value of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes into their policy. Assumption on the physical benefit of historic shipwrecks, particularly its cargoes is tempted, even though further research is required to justify how much direct and indirect benefit generated from this business until now. In relation to the involvement of private company in funding and exploring historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, apparently, there is ambivalent on the respondents from the MEC. It is realized that, exploring shipwrecks and its cargoes is an expensive project. The government has a limitation to fund the exploration of historic shipwrecks due to the country’s economic development priorityiv; this constraint encourages institution to seek for alternative funding source in order to study and explore more the maritime past. At the same time the private company offers an opportunity to access the historical time capsule on the deep ocean, with mutual benefit sharing mechanism. It often places the government in dilemmatic positions; partnership with the private company or salvors means allowing them to take away their shares, half of the historic cargoes, separating the artifacts as whole context, however, without fund support, the access to explore, to 822 �study and to research are also limited. While, looting and illegal salvage continually threatens the objects. In fact, both respondents are aware of the intrinsic cultural and historical value of the entities, however, they value the objects differently, in which resulting different management. At the end, managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes requires political willingness. The national government, include both institutions need a comprehensive action to unravel dispute and settle down national strategy on managing the underwater cultural heritage in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Bibliography Delgado, J. P. 1988. The value of shipwrecks. In J. W. Murphy (Ed.), Historic shipwrecks: Issues in management (pp. 1 - 10). Washington, DC: Partners for Livable Places. Fabrigar, L. R., Smith, S. M., Petty, R. E., & Crites Jr., S. L. 2006. Understanding Knowledge Effects on Attitude–Behavior Consistency: The Role of Relevance, Complexity, and Amount of Knowledge. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(4), 556 - 577. Hallwood, P., & Miceli, T. J. 2005. Economic Analysis of the Legal Regimes Governing Salvage of Historic Shipwrecks. Ocean Development & International Law, 36(4), 323 337. Htun, N. Z., Mizoue, N., & Yoshida, S. 2012) Determinants of Local People's Perceptions and Attitudes Toward a Protected Area and Its Management: A Case Study From Popa Mountain Park, Central Myanmar. Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal, 25(8), 743-758. Huang, J. 2013. Odyssey's Treasure Ship: Salvor, Owner, or Sovereign Immunity. Ocean Development & International Law, 44(2), 170 - 184. Hutchinson, G. 1996. Threats to underwater cultural heritage: The problems of unprotected archaeological and historic sites, wrecks and objects found at sea. Marine Policy, 4, 287 - 290. Kaoru, Y., & Hoagland, P. 1994. The value of historic shipwrecks: Conflicts and management. Coastal Management, 22(2), 195 - 213. Kumar, P. S. 2013. Sampling Design Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural Science, Social Science and Other Related Fields (pp. 427). India: Springer. Leshikar-Denton, M. E. 2010. Cooperation is the key: We Can Protect the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Maritime Archaeology, 5, 85-95. Management of Coastal Zone and Small Islands, 27 C.F.R. (2007). 823 �Ministerial Decree. Standard Operation Procedures on Survey and Salvage of the Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship, 39 2000. PANNAS, B. 2012. Laporan Perkembangan Pengelolaan BMKT. Annual Report. PANNAS BMKT. Presidential Decree. National Committee of Salvage of the Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship, 19 2009. Protection of Cultural Heritage, 10/2010. Rumsey, D. J. 2003. Statistics for Dummies. Hoboken: NJ. Wiley. Smith, H. D., & Couper, A. D. 2003. The Management of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 4, 25-33. Tanudirjo, A. D. 2008. Pendahuluan: Awal Jaringan Pelayaran dan Perdagangan. In B. B. Utomo (Ed.), Kapal Karam Abad ke 10 di Laut Jawa Utara Cirebon (Vol. 1, pp. 1 25). Jakarta: PANNAS BMKT. Biography Zainab is an Underwater Archaeologist working for Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. Zainab received her Bachelor in Archaeology at Hasanuddin University and a Master Degree in Environmental Science, specializing in Protected Area Management at James Cook University, Australia. i Sources are Act 11/2010 concerning Protection of Cultural Objects and Act 27/2007 concerning Coastal Area Management and Small Islands. ii This presidential Decree was revised in 2000, 2007 and 2009 due to the changes of responsible institution, however the substantial content has not been altered. Since 2000, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is the mandated institution to lead the committee. iii In order to harmonize the two legislations, the special committee has imposed a decree ordering the exploration and recovery of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes should be documented and recorded by the contractor. In addition, the unique and rare cargoes must be returned to the state (Ministerial Decree 39, 2000). iv Based on the Indonesia Strategic Framework for Development 2012 – 2016, there are five focus area, renewable energy, disaster risk management, agriculture, human resource development and eastern Indonesia 824 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cultural attitude and values towards underwater cultural heritage and its influences on the management actions in Indonesia Description An account of the resource Understanding attitudes and values towards underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is critical element in determining appropriate approaches to a wide variety of planning and management actions. Management actions such as gaining support to protecting historic shipwreck and its associated relics, designing and implementing new management methods depend on an understanding of cultural norms and values of their success. In Indonesia, historic shipwrecks and its associated relics are managed through two different policies. Cultural protection Act 11/2010 mandates protection on cultural heritage including underwater remains, and Presidential Decree 19/2009, regulated commercial management processes, incorporating UCH as marine resources with potential economic value, which might contribute to community welfare. These two paradoxical procedures have raised long debate between stakeholders, including government agencies. Using individual interview, this paper attempts to understand cultural attitudes and values towards shipwreck and its relics in related government agencies in Indonesia, in which resulting the two deferent management approaches. Furthermore, this writing also examines the possible influences of these policies on the current management of UCH in this country. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zainab Tahir, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/07b31d71e8d6e8e23c99940899e32be7.pdf 1a066cd4f1803116f0a381b68edefd8c PDF Text Text Decommissioning Offshore Structures: A Threat or an Underwater Cultural Heritage Opportunity Dr Elena Perez-Alvaro¹ and Dr James Delgado² ¹Professor Master in Cultural and Natural Heritage UNIR, España ICOMOS International Committee on the Underwater Cultural Heritage ²Senior Vice President SEARCH, Inc., United States of America ABSTRACT This article focuses on the possibility of recycling, removing, and leaving on-site offshore structures, such as wind turbines and oil platforms. It also looks at the environmental consequences of these structures recycling mostly carried out in southern Asian countries with limited work and environmental regulations. The construction of some of these offshore structures does not provide ‘end-of-life’ considerations, so, if left in situ they will become underwater cultural heritage in the future. This article will look at the benefits of a collaboration between offshore and maritime industries and underwater cultural heritage practitioners. It will also highlight the importance of including as underwater cultural heritage less “attractive” sites which may not be as popular, but can still be of importance. If forgotten, we may lose a significant part of humanity’s history. List of tables Table 1. SWOT analysis: Strengths/Opportunities/Weaknesses/Threats (created by authors). INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within the session on Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage at the Fifth Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage because the actions that are being taken now in relation to the decommissioning of offshore structures will have a potential impact on the future scope of and management of underwater cultural heritage. The decommissioning of offshore structures is still in a legal vacuum, and, if left untouched on the ocean, they will become underwater cultural heritage in the future. New offshore energy and developments in the oceans are a growing but still completely unexplored industry. Oil and gas platforms have been developed for longer, but it is in the current and future decades when they will stop working. A new issue for ocean users is that offshore oil, gas reserves and wind farms trigger one of the largest decommissioning operations undertaken in the marine environment (Ross 1978). When offshore structures reach the end of their productive life, they are decommissioned and then dismantled, recycled, or disposed of. However, construction of these elements does not provide ‘end of life’ considerations. Over the next several decades, more than 7,500 oil and gas platforms in the waters of 53 countries will become obsolete (Fowler et al. 2018), including platforms that sit on the seabed, floating production systems, and other offshore storage and loading units (Simpson 1998). Their decommissioning will cause many issues because, due to their size and weight, the removal of platforms is a complex engineering process that will require some of the heaviest lifting operations ever attempted at sea. This dismantling, recycling, or preservation in situ of those platforms will have an impact on the underwater cultural heritage because, for the first time, underwater cultural heritage experts can anticipate what is going to become – or not become – submerged heritage in the future. In addition, the removal of these structures of which many have become habitats may have a detrimental impact on the local natural environment. 1 �Underwater cultural heritage can and does include sites or resources that reflect threats to the environment. This takes place on land with sites associated with extractive mining, as well as industrial sites where past processing or manufacturing have left a legacy that is both archaeological and detrimental to the ecosystem and/or human health. However, this negative aspect does not diminish the potential significance of the site(s) nor their potential to yield pertinent archaeological evidence. For example, the oil boom in the United States started with the commercial success of the Drake Well drilled in 1859 in Pennsylvania along the banks of Oil Creek, it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966 and subsequently listed on the National Register of Historic Places (Drake Well Museum, n.d.). The query here is - if we should preserve sites that only speak to what we see as positive aspects, or if we should embrace the preservation and study of sites that speak to all aspects of the human experience and the consequences of human activities? This paper argues that underwater cultural heritage practitioners and the new energy industry can mutually benefit from sharing knowledge and working together. Underwater cultural heritage, like that on land, reflects all aspects of human behaviour. A Panamanian historical and archaeological site, the American-built submersible Sub Marine Explorer, represents mid-nineteenth century over-fishing and despoliation of Panama’s oyster beds (Delgado 2012). There is a strong potential for extensive archaeological remains from the centuries-long Middle Passage of the transatlantic African slave trade (Turner et al. 2020) as well as individual shipwrecks (Delgado et al. 2022). Other pertinent examples include historic and archaeological sites related to gold dredging, sites associated with the global wars of the twentieth century, and perhaps the most pertinent, the World Heritage Site at Bikini Atoll, which include nuclear test structures, sunken ships, craters, and radioactive isotopes (Brown 2013). CASE STUDY According to Offshore Wind, there are 162 offshore wind arms at the moment. There are also 2,011 offshore oil rigs. In recent years, the first few offshore wind projects are now dismantled (Smith and Lamont 2017), but the decommissioning projects are small relative to current installations. In fact, most of these decommissioning projects were demonstration or research projects. However, according to IHS Markit (2016), 2,000 offshore projects will be decommissioned between 2021 and 2014. Due to the novelty of the situation, the impacts of decommissioning practices on structures related to oil and gas development from the oceans are unknown. This article will look at how the decommissioning of these offshore structures will have an impact on how underwater cultural heritage is currently understood. The resources for this work include the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (hereinafter 2001 UNESCO Convention) and practice of nations. RESOURCES The 2001 UNESCO Convention defines underwater cultural heritage as […] all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical, or archaeological character which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years. It should be noted that pipelines and cables placed on the seabed are explicitly excluded from the definition of underwater cultural heritage. In addition, “[i]nstallations other than pipelines and cables, placed on the seabed and still in use, shall not be considered as underwater cultural heritage.” However, when those installations, such as platforms, are no longer in use then they may become 2 �underwater cultural heritage if they are also of an archaeological or historical interest and have been under water for more than 100 years. However, not all countries have ratified the 2001 UNESCO Convention, and not all national legislations require a time limit (as in the case of 100 years under water) for an offshore structure to become of importance. Some countries, such as France, Croatia, and Estonia, do not have a temporal limit in their definition of underwater cultural heritage, and submerged remains are protected based on historical interest. In Greece, ‘cultural’ objects are protected 50 years after their sinking. Furthermore, it is a wise practice to assess the potential of sites that are more recent as being significant and worthy of recognition, study, and preservation. In the United States of America (USA), for instance, like Greece the 50-year rule is applied, exceptions are made for events that occurred and which have attained recognition of significance; World War II sites were granted this designation by the USA in the 1980s, less than fifty years after the start and end of that war. It is beyond the scope of this paper to get entangled with the definition of underwater cultural heritage, which has been broadly debated in the literature (see bibliography). However, this demonstrates that offshore structures that function for some years now can become underwater cultural heritage according to much legislation, and in 100 years, they will be under the umbrella of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. In fact, existing platforms and wind turbines have a constructionoperation-decommission cycle of 20 to 30 years (Smyth et al. 2015). However, the regulation of the disposal of offshore installations is not a clear nor regulated legal process (Forte 1998), so many decisions are on a case-by-case basis. Until now, none of these decisions have taken into consideration the possibility for these structures to become underwater cultural heritage for the future benefit of humankind. There are a number of sites that are highly significant because they represent industries or activities that reflect environmental despoilation and damage such as whaling ships, for example, which can be found as floating ships, shipwrecks, and shore-based sites. Such is the case with South Georgia Island (USA), the British Columbia (Canada) coast, and the various sites in Australia and in Chile’s portion of the Estrecho de Magallanes. There are also early sites associated with the extractive petroleum industry listed in the United States National Register of Historic Places, the Canadian National Historic Sites, and deemed significant in Saudi Arabia and other countries (Symons et al. 2014). FRAMEWORK There are three main approaches when decommissioning offshore structures: 1. Dismantling and recycling: Globally, over 40 platforms each year reach the end of their useful life, which equates to around 40,000 tonnes of potentially recyclable materials (Choi et al. 2016). However, the most profitable shipbreaking methods are also the most dangerous to both worker safety and the environment (Choi et al. 2016), since many of the structures have been constructed with materials that are now known to be both toxic and highly pollutant. The materials that are recycled usually employ some dangerous methods. For instance beaching, which are carried out in southern Asian countries with a lack of enforced environmental legislation and welfare working regulations. The practice of beaching these platforms means to ground them in order for them to be scrapped. Although in some countries of the world there are strict regulations for platforms to be dismantled and recycled, in other countries, such as Bangladesh, India and Pakistan, there are facilities where the safety and well-being of the workers and the environmental impacts are ignored (Choi et al. 2016). In 2022, at least 10 workers lost their lives when breaking apart platforms on a particular coast of Bangladesh (NGO Shipwrecking Platform, n.d.). Some of the accidents were on platforms owned by wellknown companies. There are fatal consequences of recycling these structures: necessary diving activities that can result in injury or fatalities or helicopter trips necessary for the 3 �workforce and supervisory staff. It is necessary to take into consideration that in shallower waters, platforms typically weigh around 5,000 tonnes, although some deep-water steel platforms weigh over 200,000 tonnes when in-service and around 40,000 tonnes when stripped to its skeletal frame. The scrap resulting from this recycling process is often auctioned off to scrap dealers or sold to cash buyers (NGO Shipwreck Platform, n.d.). 2. Leaving them totally intact: There are two main reasons to leave the platforms untouched after decommissioned or sinking them to the bottom of the oceans. The first reason is economical. It has been estimated that the global cost of removal of platforms is US$210 billion (IHS Markit 2016). However, there is also an environmental reason. After some years, underwater remains become, in most cases, artificial reefs, housing thousands of fish species. The disturbance of these ecosystems and the impacts of removing these can have a negative impact on the marine environment. Some researchers (Fowler 2018) have looked at the environmental impacts of the decommissioning practices and the removal of offshore wind turbines. The authors consider that complete removal of the structures have a negative impact on biodiversity, provision of reef habitat and protection from bottom trawling because of the reopening of areas of fishing. In addition, as explained, there are some chemical-contaminated sections of the structures, and bringing them to shore can also be a controversial issue. In fact, dealing with hazards are one of the main issues that arises when offshore structures are left in the oceans, including the release of toxic, flammable, or explosive materials, or failure consequences that can result in environmental disasters (Baker 1998). The reality is that, in 100 years, the platform will become underwater cultural heritage according to the 2001 UNESCO Convention. 3. For some authors, partial removal options are better options, which still means these structures will become underwater cultural heritage in the future and be under the umbrella of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. It is argued that just some of the most toxic parts of the structures could be dismantled or those parts that can imply a navigation hazard. As discuss below, over 500 energy platforms previously installed on the USA Outer Continental Shelf have been partially removed and made into artificial reefs in the Gulf of Mexico in coordination with USA coastal states and other stakeholders including fisherman. According to Jordan and Bennie (1998), one of the most important controversies over the decommissioning of offshore structures is the relationship between the public and private interest. In the case of the Brent Spar, a North Sea oil storage operated by Shell UK, the company shared that deep sea sinking was the safest option for disposal from an environmental and safety point of view. However, Greenpeace occupied the platform for more than three weeks and provoked a media scandal that damaged Shell’s reputation, arguing that sinking the platform was just to cut costs and not for scientific reasons. Finally, Shell decided to reuse much of the main structure of the platform for a new harbour facility (Jordan and Bennie 1998). The legislation at the moment requires complete removal of offshore installations, but it allows exceptions that fulfil technical criteria (Forte 1998). Although the main objective of this paper is not to evaluate the best option for the decommissioning of offshore structures, it is pertinent to value the impact that leaving these structures under water would have to the construction of a new kind of underwater cultural heritage. Table 1 shows a SWOT analysis in order to understand the strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats of leaving these structures as underwater cultural heritage. 4 �Table 1. SWOT analysis: Strengths/Opportunities/Weaknesses/Threats (created by authors). STRENGTHS Cultural heritage for the future of mankind Low economical cost Avoid occupational safety of dismantling Avoid noise of dismantling OPPORTUNITIES Environmental aspects such as fish reefs Learn from the future Public and private initiatives such as diving Future uses WEAKNESSES Non-natural bodies in the oceans Uncertainty in public acceptance Changed visual landscape impact Possible overlap with other ocean actors THREATS How many? Some? All of them? Maintenance issues Oil and gas spills Safety navigation hazards For instance, the Gulf of Mexico is an example of possible preservation as a maritime landscape whose 20th century underwater cultural heritage includes not only oil tankers wrecks, but the evolving landscape of oil wells that are progressively shifted from shallow to deep water, as well as the technology and changes in offshore oil well rigs. Such a maritime landscape would also include the extensive deep-sea infrastructure of not only wells but pipelines, and the onshore infrastructure such as the Houston Ship Channel and refineries (BOEM 2021). Ironically, perhaps, the provision under federal laws in the USA to assess the potential impacts to cultural resources has led to an extensive and well documented range of underwater cultural heritage in the Gulf as a result of compliance with those laws and regulations. RESULTS Offshore structures are products of modern civilizations; additionally, harbours and caravels were developments of past civilizations. Today, we aim to preserve the tangible remains of those past developments, and, as we preserve lighthouses and Viking longships, future civilizations may want to protect offshore structures as proof of progress and blossom of energy construction in the 21st century. The research approach of this paper is focused on calling for a collaborative partnership between the new energy industry and underwater cultural heritage experts. It is one of the first opportunities in history where underwater cultural heritage practitioners can foresee what is going to become underwater cultural heritage in the future. It is a unique opportunity to decide how important this heritage will become for humanity and to establish a dialogue with these companies on aspects such as preservation of metal under water, oil spills control or the dichotomy between cultural and natural tangible remains in the oceans, all of which underwater cultural heritage practitioners have experience with (Perez-Alvaro 2019). Popularity of beautiful underwater cultural heritage sites does not always equate significance, and some of the offshore infrastructures addressed in this article may also need to be considered, recognized, designated as heritage, and preserved. It is also important to highlight the benefits of the construction and dismantling of these offshore structures to underwater cultural heritage because prior to any offshore construction, research must reveal that no underwater archaeological sites are located in the planned location and new archaeological sites can be discovered. However, there is still a lot to do regarding policies and procedures in offshore energy extraction. The archaeological education for 5 �energy farm construction companies and workers is essential to respecting underwater cultural heritage. Clarification of best practices in the development sectors of the oceans will need to emerge in the next years, and underwater cultural heritage managers should be part of the conversations not only for the opportunity to share their knowledge on underwater remains but also to decide which structures can become underwater cultural heritage due to any particular characteristics that can benefit both the knowledge of humankind and the environment. This will also provide a new way to deal with heritage: it will offer the opportunity to decide in the present what we want to remember about this century that is worth preserving for the future. Acknowledgements This research has been supported by the Honor Frost Foundation through the British Academy/Leverhulme Research Grants Scheme. The authors would like to thank Ole Varmer and Chris Underwood for their valuable comments on this article. 6 �Bibliography Baker, Michael. “Safety and Reliability of Decommissioning Offshore Structures.” In Decommissioning Offshore Structures, edited by David Gorman and Joyce Neilson, 57–78. Springer, 1998. BOEM. “Wakes Across the Gulf: Historic Sea Lanes and Shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico”. Technical Report, 2021. Available at: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAIQw7AJahcKEwi4o6 CKn_fAhUAAAAAHQAAAAAQAw&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boem.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fr egions%2Fgulf-mexico-ocs-region%2Foffice-environment%2FTR-BOEM-2021057.pdf&psig=AOvVaw2IM4rH96eLjFMlai4u161h&ust=1684237318775965 Brown, Steve, “Poetics and politics: Bikini Atoll and World Heritage Listing,” in Transcending the Culture–Nature Divide in Cultural Heritage: Views from the Asia–Pacific region, edited by Sally Brockwell, Sue OʹConnor and Denis Byrne, 2013, ANU Press. 35-52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5hgz2n.7 Choi, Jun-Ki, Daniel Kelley, Sean Murphy, and Dillip Thangamani. “Economic and environmental perspectives of end-oflife ship management.” Resources, Conservation and Recycling 107 (2016): 82–91. Delgado, James P., Misadventures of a Civil War Submarine: Iron, Guns, and Pearls. Texas A&M University Press, 2012. Delgado, James P., Deborah E. Marx, Kyle Lent, Joseph Grinnan and Alexander DeCaro, Clotilda: The History and Archaeology of the Last Slave Ship. University of Alabama Press, 2022. Drake Well Museum (n.d.). Available at: https://www.drakewell.org/ Forte, Angelo. “Legal Aspects of Decommissioning Offshore Structures.” In Decommissioning Offshore Structures, edited by David Gorman and Joyce Neilson, 125–140. Springer, 1998. Fowler, Ashley, Anne‐Mette Jørgensen, Jon C. Svendsen, Peter I. Macreadie, Daniel OB Jones, Arjen R. Boon, David J. Booth et al. “Environmental benefits of leaving offshore infrastructure in the ocean.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 16, no. 10 (2018): 571–578. IHS Markit. Offshore decommissioning study report. London: IHS Markit, 2016. Jordan, Grant, and Bennie. Lynn. “Political Aspects of Decommissioning.” In Decommissioning Offshore Structures, edited by David Gorman and Joyce Neilson, 141–160. Springer, 1998. NGO Shipwrecking Platform (n.d.). Available at: https://shipbreakingplatform.org/tag/beaching/ Perez-Alvaro, Elena. Underwater Cultural Heritage. Ethical concepts and practical challenges. London: Routledge. 2019. Ross, David. Opportunities and Uses of the Ocean. New York: Springer, 1978. Simpson, Graeme. “The Environmental Management Aspects of Decommissioning Offshore Structures.” In Decommissioning Offshore Structures, edited by David Gorman and Joyce Neilson, 1–22. Springer, 1998. Smith, Gillian, and Graeme Lamont. “Decommissioning of Offshore Wind Installations–What we can Learn.” Offshore Wind Energy (2017): 6–8. Smyth, Katie, Nikki Christie, Daryl Burdon, Jonathan P. Atkins, Richard Barnes, and Michael Elliott. “Renewables-toreefs?–Decommissioning options for the offshore wind power industry.” Marine pollution bulletin 90, no. 1–2 (2015): 247– 258. Symons, Lisa J., James P., Delgado, Deborah Marx, and Erika Seibert), “A Means to Streamline Historic and Cultural Resources Consultation and Compliance for Pollution Assessment and Recovery Activities on Shipwrecks,” International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings, Volume 2014, Issue 1: 2024-2036. Turner, Philip J. , Sophie Cannon, Sarah DeLand, James P. Delgado, David Eltis, Patrick N. Halpin, Michael I. Kanu, Charlotte S. Sussman, Ole Varmer, and Cindy L. Van Dover), “Memorializing the Middle Passage on the Atlantic Seabed in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction,” Marine Policy, CXXII, December 2020. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Decommissioning Offshore Structures: A Threat or an Underwater Cultural Heritage Opportunity Description An account of the resource This article focuses on the possibility of recycling, removing, and leaving on-site offshore structures, such as wind turbines and oil platforms. It also looks at the environmental consequences of these structures recycling mostly carried out in southern Asian countries with limited work and environmental regulations. The construction of some of these offshore structures does not provide ‘end-of-life’ considerations, so, if left in situ they will become underwater cultural heritage in the future. This article will look at the benefits of a collaboration between offshore and maritime industries and underwater cultural heritage practitioners. It will also highlight the importance of including as underwater cultural heritage less “attractive” sites which may not be as popular, but can still be of importance. If forgotten, we may lose a significant part of humanity’s history. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro James Delgado Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Perez-Alvaro, Elena and James Delgado. 2023. “Decommissioning Offshore Structures: A Threat or an Underwater Cultural Heritage Opportunity.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl and Ole Varmer. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1905 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e594cb59d63b65b87400c35c9800d396.pdf 0d50689148a8e4cfe74155ec25a059ce PDF Text Text Deepwater Archaeology off Tobishima Northern Japan Island of Hayato Kondo1 and Akifumi Iwabuchi2 Abstract Tobishima island on the Japan sea, belonging to Yamagata prefecture, lies about 40 kilometres to the northwest of mainland Japan. Although the island itself is relatively small, it has been on seaborne trading routes since ancient times. Trawl fishermen occasionally find earthenware pots of the 8th century by accident around the seabed. From the late 17th to the 19th centuries Tobishima island was an important islet of call for Kitamaebune, which were wooden cargo ships trading along the northern coast of Japan. According to local legends, the southeastern waters just in front of the main port is a kind of ships’ graveyard hallowed by sacred memories. Contrariwise, no reliable historical record on maritime disasters or shipwrecks exists. In February 2011 Tokyo University of Marine Science & Technology (TUMSAT) and the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) conducted the preliminary submerged survey around these waters, utilising a multibeam sonar system and a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). The research team succeeded in recording fine-resolution bathymetries and video images of a few shipwrecks lying between 60 and 85 metres. looks modern, but one seems to be potentially older. One For the next step, an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV), which has been designed and developed by TUMSAT, is planned to be employed for the visual mappings. The AUV is able to hover for observation by approaching very close to specified objects, and is equipped with high definition cameras. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional photo mosaics will be obtained, while accurate bathymetry data shall be recorded using sonar and an optical ranging system mounted on the vehicle in order to creat fully-covered and detailed site plans. Key words: Deepwater archaeology, Multibeam sonar, Remotely operated vehicle (ROV), Autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), Tobishima island 1 Deep Submergence Lab, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA 2 Tokyo University of Marine Science & Technology, Tokyo 135-8533, Japan �Introduction According to James P. Delgado (1997:126-127), deepwater sites as archaeology’s final frontier are the world’s last great archaeological resources. Not only in Japan but also in other industrialized countries, deepwater archaeology has just started. There are two main reasons why many underwater academics have lately become interested in this branch of nautical archaeology. First of all, almost all deepwater archaeological sites are still intact and well-preserved, while shallow-water sites have often already been disturbed by natural and human activities such as erosion, commercial fishing, or treasure hunting. Secondly, the incredible innovation of underwater technology makes now deepwater sites more accessible. In particular, Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are the most essential. Once sites are discovered, drawing the precise plan of the sites distribution is the first step in underwater archaeology as well as in land-based archaeology. Even mapping shallow-water sites distribution by hand using divers, however, is not so easy: in the past it has taken up to 10 years to complete a project. By comparison, a newly-developed hovering type of AUV could manage to do the same job in a fraction of the time even in the deep sea. No unanimous definition of deepwater archaeology exists. Delgado (1997:126) defines deepwater sites as submerged archaeological sites, usually shipwrecks, found at depths greater than 300 metres. On the other hand, John D. Broadwater implies that this field of study encompasses all sites deeper than 30 metres, saying a majority of submerged archaeological sites lie in coastal waters shallower than 100 feet. He stresses the hazards that divers face, including potential fatalities at depths below about 130 feet (Broadwater 2002:642-643). The deepwater archaeological survey around Greece, which was recently conducted by an international team, targeted submerged sites from 40 to 150 metres deep. Here again the team points out the fact that in deeper water conventional diving is impossible (Delaporta et al. 2006: 79-85). When we divide underwater archaeology into two, i.e. shallow-water archaeology and deepwater archaeology on the basis of divers availability, the depth of 50 metres is an appropriate and suitable border line. Along the similar ideas as for deepwater archaeology, Keith Muckelroy (1978:149-150) said, �Roughly speaking, this means depths in excess of about 50 metres. The upper part of this zone, down to about 300 metres at present, constitutes the range of commercial and naval mixed-gas-breathing divers, while the waters below that are at present visited only by submersibles, manned or unmanned. Historical and Archaeological Background Tobishima island on the Japan sea, belonging to Yamagata prefecture, lies about 40 kilometres to the northwest of mainland Japan. From the port of Sakata on the mainland it takes approximately one hour to the island by ferry. The island itself is relatively small; it covers an area of only 2.7 square kilometres, being 10 kilometres round in circumference. The census gives the population of the island in 2010 at 265 persons, but in 1949 at 1,621 persons. According to historical records, on the contrary, its population from the 17th to the 19th centuries showed the figure to be around 1,000 islanders, perhaps because of traditional infanticide. Tobishima island consists of three villages: Hoki village, Nakamura village, and Katsuura village. The easternmost Hoki village is said to be the oldest, but the smallest. Nakamura village used to be named Ura village, which is situated between Hoki and Katsuura villages. The southernmost Katsuura village is the largest, having the main port and some religious centres. Katsuura village and its port used to be protected by a fort, which was built on the top of the cape of Ebisumaesaki, just to the southwest of the port. The historical or archaeological origin of the fort is unclear. It is surrounded by stone bulwarks, and it clearly aimed at defending the port. However, neither islanders nor historical documents could give us any reliable information. From the archaeological viewpoint, its construction technique seems to have come from Korea or from northern Asia. Village rumour suggests that at the Middle Ages a pirate group held this fort. According to a historical source, one local chief from the mainland attacked it in 1559. Because he would not have assaulted poor unarmed fishermen, his target was most likely sea bandits at this fort (Kasuya 2010:58-60). Although further historical study will be needed to conclude that pirates really did play an important role in Tobishima island, there is a strong probability of the fort being an ancient lookout or signal fire station. In any event, the vestiges of an old fort prove what a strategic position Tobishima island was on the Japan sea. �Around 6,000 years ago the island had already been inhabited as the archaeological excavations have proved. In the few thousand years following, however, it became uninhabited. The forefathers of contemporary islanders, who settled down in Tobishima island around 1,500 years ago, built some Shinto shrines, and since then the island has been one of the most important sacred and consecrated places, as well as a traffic point, on the Japan sea. Katsuura village has been keeping the Shinto shrine of Ogami Jinjya, which used to be named Oshaku-jima Jinjya. Oshaku-jima is a small uninhabited rocky islet, which lies to the west of Tobishima island. Women are not allowed to land on the islet. Since this islet still acts as the inner shrine or sanctuary of the Shinto shrine of Ogami, islanders even now revere the coastal waters including the islet and other tiny rocks. Partly because of these religious reasons, and partly because of unaffordable island economy, islanders have not permitted strange fishermen to trawl near to shore. This fact has ironically succeeded in helping to preserve the underwater cultural heritage around the island. The most important industry on Tobishima island is fishing, with little or no agricultural activity on the island. As above mentioned, the island has been a seaborne strategic point on the Japan sea since ancient times. Trawl fishermen, who are not islanders, occasionally find earthenware pots of the 8th century by accident around the seabed between Tobishima island and the port of Sakata. One of them seems to have been manufactured in western Japan. The Shinto shrine of Ogami Jinjya keeps many wooden and stone guardian lion-dogs, which also seem to have come from Hokuriku region or from Korea (Kasuya 2010:54). From the late 17th century Tobishima island on seaborne trading routes grew in importance in naval trade as it became a principal port of call for Kitamaebune. Kitamaebune were wooden cargo ships, between 20 and 30 metres from stem to stern, which traded along the northern coast of Japan. The staple shipping commodities were oil, spirits, salt, herring, tangleweed, and rice. In particular, rice was the most important for Kitamaebune which touched at Tobishima island, because the port of Sakata on the opposite shore in the mainland became the leading rice exporting base of northern Japan, to the city of Osaka or to the capital of Edo. Kitamaebune, which intended to call at the port of Sakata or to sail out of the port along the main seaborne route, occasionally waited for favourable winds at the port of Katsuura of Tobishima island. The port of Sakata at the �mouth of the River Mogami is not free from danger at all, because it is vulnerable to westerly or northwesterly winds and its depth of water varies from season to season. On the other hand, the port of Katsuura has ample depth of water, being sheltered from westerly or northwesterly winds by the cape of Ebisumaesaki. Historical records tell us that in 1792, for instance, 593 ships called at the port of Katsuura. Before the 19th century approximately 300 ships on average put in at the port per year. Most stopped from March to September (Nagai 1951:164-167). We could still observe some old mooring posts made of stone and some holes for wooden ones at the foot of the cape of Ebisumaesaki. However, the port of Katsuura is absolutely vulnerable to northeasterly or easterly winds. Hundreds of ships are said to have sunk just in front of the port. Unfortunately, neither detailed historical record nor hard documentary evidence regarding maritime disasters or shipwrecks exists for the area, thereby reinforcing the importance of the underwater archaeological work. According to some fragmentary materials or local stories, maritime accidents around Tobishima island could be divided into two categories: drifting ashore and sinking. The former was by far the commoner of the two. In the cases of drifting ashore, ships sometimes lost their masts or rudders a good distance off Tobishima island, and they were driven ashore suffering significant damage. On the way to Tobishima island, they often threw huge amounts of cargo into the sea for safety reasons. Between 1685 and 1866 roughly 100 ships were recorded as having been wrecked (Nagai 1951:252-264). This figure includes both drifting ashore and sinking. Other than these 100 cases, however, no one knows how many ships really sunk around Tobishima island, in particular, before reaching the island. If islanders had not succeeded in rescuing neither crew nor cargo, they could not have written any records. One of the typical drifting cases is as follows: a Kitamaebune left the city of Osaka on 1st March in 1820 carrying mainly cotton and salt, and then arrived at Tobishima island on 26th March. On 28th she tried to clear the port, but owing to strong easterly winds she was obliged to return to the port. Again on 30th she tried to do so, but by the winds she was drifted ashore (Nagai 1951:193, 256). Infrequently, only lifeboats whose mother ships had sunk a good distance off Tobishima island managed to arrive at Tobishima island. In 1804 a Kitamaebune leaving the port of Hakodate on 25th August was damaged by strong winds and lost the mast and much of its cargo just off �Tobishima island. The crews abandoned the ship and landed on the island by lifeboat on 4th September. Around 11th September, however, they rediscovered the deserted ship, and then towed her into the port (Nagai 1951:192-193, 255). According to the Japanese maritime customary laws during the premodern era titled Kaisen Shikimoku, by the way, the coastal community which first found flotsam and jetsam could claim an ownership to them in order to appropriate them for the renovation of local religious buildings, only when all crews died or disappeared. As long as the very last one survived, on the other hand, they did belong to the cargo ship or the ship’s owner. Usually, however, the captain or owner had to pay a generous remuneration in reward to the community’s services. In 1832 the following local rules were issued: islanders at Tobishima island were invariably granted a right to receive 5 percent of cargos whose ship had drifted ashore and to receive 10 percent of jettisoned and sunken cargos (Nagai 1951:190). In addition, islanders who tugged half-wrecked ships on to the port normally succeeded in receiving a substantial amount of cash from captains by secret. Once one Kitamaebune was drifted ashore, Tobishima island fairly enriched. However, that was not always the case. When official or governmental cargo ships wrecked, islanders often received no remuneration at all. Sometimes they had to dry soak cargos for nothing. Even after the era of steamers, the area of Tobishima remained a kind of ships’ graveyard. In 1868 during the civil war of Boshin, two battleships belonging to the ruling Tokugawa shogunate came to Tobishima island. One was a wooden schooner, and the other was a steel steamer built in Glasgow. On 23rd October, the strong easterly wind blew against those battleships. The schooner succeeded in leaving the port of Katsuura, but the steamer named Nagasaki-maru No. 2 was driven ashore by the wind. Fortunately all crews managed to land on Tobishima island, and later on to unload almost all weapons, navigation requisites, and personal belongings from the ship. On 23rd December a rescue ship arrived at Tobishima island, accommodated all crews and weapons, and left the island. When she sailed, some requisites and belongings such as a barometer, a binocular telescope, banners, and kitchen utensils were gifted to some islanders in gratitude for their kindness. More than for 100 years these heritages were kept in Tobishima island, but they were recently transferred to a museum at the city of Sakata. As the wreckage was �scrapped, however, there is no trace of Nagasaki-maru No. 2 herself in the island at present (Kasuya 2010:158-159; Nagai 1951:214-219). Preliminary Survey In February 2011 TUMSAT and the ARIUA conducted the preliminary submerged survey around these waters, utilising a multibeam sonar system and a ROV. Typically side scan sonars and magnetometers are used for shipwreck survey, but old wooden shipwrecks may not have iron parts, and they may be submerged in sands or silts and covered. Thus a multibeam sonar, which can obtain a detailed profile of the seabed, is sufficient for these targets instead of side scan sonars. The along track resolution of the multibeam sonar which is used for the survey is 1 degree and across track resolution is 0.5 degree. Supposing that the depth is about 70 metres the footprint of one beam is 1.2 x 0.6 metres. The mutibeam sonar provides 256 points of depth ranges within a 130 degree swath. These measurement data are stored together with GPS and Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) data, which are roll and pitch angle of the sonar, in a computer on board of a survey boat, and a bathymetry is obtained by post processing. Multibeam sonar also provides backscatter data so the operator can see side scan like image in real time while doing survey. The purposes of this multibeam sonar survey were as follows: 1) Explore shipwrecks and locate suitable sites of interest because the research team have no detailed information about shipwreck positions. 2) Obtain detailed bathymetry for AUV survey mission planning because a hovering AUV will cruise very close to the seabed at an altitude of 2 metres to take high-resolution images. 3) The bathymetry will be used for three-dimensional mapping with high-resolution mosaic image draped on. No one sensor is sufficient in itself but combinations of different sensors provide a very powerful mechanism for addressing the needs of the archaeologist working underwater (Singh, et al. 2000:319-328). �Figure 1. Bathymetry of the Survey Site near the Port of Katsuura (© TUMSAT) Figure 2. A Shipwreck Found in the Survey Site (© TUMSAT) �Figure 3. AUV “BA-1” (© TUMSAT) The team set the survey site just south-east off of the port of Katsuura. The size is about 400 x 1,500 metres and depths vary from 45 to 90 metres. The bathymetry contour map obtained by the survey is shown in Figure 1. The research team succeeded in detecting a few shipwrecks lying between 60 and 85 metres in depth on the seabed. One looks modern, but one seems to be potentially older. A small ROV was deployed from the boat to visually prove whether the objects are shipwrecks or not. Figure 2 shows a picture of the Wreck 2 in the Figure 1, which was taken by the ROV. The water current and wind was too strong for the small boat and the small ROV to reach from reaching the Wreck 1 and 3. For the next step, an AUV (Figure 3), which has been designed and developed by TUMSAT, is planned to be employed for the visual mappings. The AUV is able to hover for observation by approaching very close to specified objects, and is equipped with high definition cameras. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional photo mosaics will be obtained, while the accurate bathymetry data shall be recorded using sonar and an optical ranging system mounted on the vehicle in order to create fully-covered and detailed site plans. �Acknowledgements This research project is supported by the Canon Foundation Research Grant Program. The authors would like to thank Windy Network Corporation, Toyo Corporation and laboratory students for helping the multibeam sonar survey. We also would like to express our thanks to Q.I Corporation for kindly letting us use their ROV “DELTA-150” for visual survey of the shipwreck. An author would like to acknowledge Dr. Hanumant Singh at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution for providing me an opportunity to stay at his laboratory to do research and giving me precious advises. Bibliography “Digging Deeper: Deepwater Archaeology and the Monitor National Marine Sanctuary”, in (eds.)Carol V. Ruppé and Janet F. Barstad, Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, pp. 639-666, Kluwer, New York. Delaporta, K., “The Greek-Norwegian Deep-Water Archaeology Survey”, Jasinski, M. E., and in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 35, No.1, pp. 79-87. Søreide, F., 2006 Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, Delgado, J. P., 1997 British Museum, London. Tobishima: A Remote Island in the Sea of Japan, Kasuya, S., 2010 Tohoku-shuppankikaku, Tsuruoka (in Japanese). Maritime Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Muckelroy, K., 1978 Cambridge. The History of Tobishima, Kobun-do, Tokyo (in Japanese Nagai, S., 1951 with English Summary). “Imaging Underwater for Archaeology”, in Journal of Field Singh, H., Adams, J., Mindell, D., and Archaeology, Vol. 27, No.3, pp. 319-328. Foley, B., 2000 Broadwater, J. D., 2002 � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/578da1d0fc5382a1a64b7c5b9698724b.jpg 1228c16865d499aa90c8ad878b2482fc Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 302 Height 346 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/36bce032dd33ba50cc190079e3932b3a.jpg 2dcbfd77e8fff5d422eb8f886951488f Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 938 Height 624 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a25324b44fd8a21c5fe620a8c62636c2.jpg f21eb997526edc2736863a8caeb4326e Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 802 Height 775 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Deepwater Archaeology off Tobishima Island of Northern Japan Subject The topic of the resource Session 3 History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource Tobishima island on the Japan sea, belonging to Yamagata prefecture, lies about 40 kilometres to the northwest of mainland Japan. Although the island itself is relatively small, it has been on seaborne trading routes since ancient times. Trawl fishermen occasionally find earthenware pots of the 8th century by accident around the seabed. From the late 17th to the 19th centuries Tobishima island was an important islet of call for Kitamaebune, which were wooden cargo ships trading along the northern coast of Japan. According to local legends, the southeastern waters just in front of the main port is a kind of ships’ graveyard hallowed by sacred memories. Contrariwise, no reliable historical record on maritime disasters or shipwrecks exists. In February 2011 Tokyo University of Marine Science & Technology (TUMSAT) and the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) conducted the preliminary submerged survey around these waters, utilising a multibeam sonar system and a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). The research team succeeded in recording fine-resolution bathymetries and video images of a few shipwrecks lying between 60 and 85 metres. One looks modern, but one seems to be potentially older. For the next step, an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV), which has been designed and developed by TUMSAT, is planned to be employed for the visual mappings. The AUV is able to hover for observation by approaching very close to specified objects, and is equipped with high definition cameras. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional photo mosaics will be obtained, while accurate bathymetry data shall be recorded using sonar and an optical ranging system mounted on the vehicle in order to creat fully-covered and detailed site plans. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hayato Kondo Akifumi Iwabuchi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 3