13 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5d778826a3972e2e3df194a951b5b75d.pdf 1da711cd408570ee6337edc67f999823 PDF Text Text Ancient Afro-Asia Links: New Evidence from a Maritime Perspective Caesar Bita Abstract Historical records have shown that the East African coast was connected to ancient global trade st networks. These early overseas contacts are evidenced by references to trading voyages in the early 1 th th millennium AD and in the 11 to 14 century AD. During these periods, exports to India, China and the Persian Gulf included skins, horns, ivory and gold, whilst pottery, glass, textiles and beads were imported. Maritime archaeological studies have produced pottery, beads and shipwrecks that have showed links between East Africa and the Middle East, Indian sub-continent and China. Furthermore, historic Kenyan coastal settlements such as Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu were important port towns of call for merchant shipping, as they were strategically sited along busy sea-lanes. This paper examines this historical connection between ancient Kenyan coastal towns and the Asian continent. It explores results of previous and ongoing underwater archaeological research in Malindi and Lamu archipelago that has produced evidence of Asian cultural heritage. Keywords East Africa; Kenya; Maritime; Swahili; Mombasa; Lamu; Pate, Malindi; Ngomeni Introduction Kenya is one of the East African countries that border the Indian Ocean. The East African coast littoral of the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) is referred to as the "Swahili coast" and its coastline extends for 3000 km from 1° North in Somali to 25° south to the mouth of Limpopo (Morgan 1973; Sanseverino 1983; Kusimba 1999). The dimensions of this coast cover the coastal littoral and the off-shore islands of Lamu, Pemba, Zanzibar and the Comoros (Chami 1998:199-218; Horton 1984; Sutton 1990). However, its width varied historically depending on the rate of interactions. For example, between 11th and 15th century AD, this coast extended from 50 – 300 kilometers (km) to the interior, while between 7th to 9th century AD and after 17th century AD, the width was 100 km (White 1983; Chami 2006). The coast is characterized by alternating beaches, rocky outcrops, coral reefs, large estuarine areas, wetlands, lagoons and inter-tidal flats (Ase 1987:276–295). On its part, the Kenya coast extends over 600 km in length bordering Somali in the north (at Kiunga) and Tanzania in the south at Vanga (see Figure 1). It has an almost continuous fringing of coral reef shelf running parallel to the coastline and extending 0.5 – 20 km offshore (Obura 2001:1264-1278). Over the years the adjacent continental shelf has been subjected to marine activity thereby leading to creation of new coastlines through fresh deposition of sand dunes and formation of coral rocks (Ase 1987:276–295). In other cases adjacent lands have been eroded away or have been sunk (Obura 2001:1264-1278). There is evidence that oceanic wave turbulences as well as human activities have, through the years, caused wreckage to a number of ships and canoes with cultural materials in them (Patience 2006). Communities who settled along the Swahili coast have had a history of long and continuous interaction with not only the hinterland communities but also across the Indian Ocean seaboard. This Ocean has permitted a close network of sailing routes between its surrounding continents based on regular and predictable monsoon winds (Hall 1996). These winds allowed the Kenyan coast, being part of the WIO, to be visited �by seafarers from distant lands: Greece as early as 2000 Before Present1 (BP) (Coupland 1938; Inghams 1962:1-2; Freeman-Grenville 1975:1-4, 14-24, 50-112; Hourani 1963), China and Persia in the 900 – 1400 AD (Boxer 1960; Chittick 1979:273277; Sutton 1990). These visitors left material remains such as ceramics and shipwrecks that are reported in the seabed of Kenya. Local fishermen have reported features on the seabed along many parts of this coast and collected and handed to the National Museums of Kenya pottery, stone anchors, cannons and canon balls (Bita and Wanyama 2007; Bita 2008; 2009a). Recent archaeological and non-archaeological expeditions have yielded significant materials that are confirming this historical AFROSINO-ARABO connection (Bita and Wanyama 2007; Bita 2008; 2009a; 2011a). Figure 1. The Kenya coast showing location of some of the sites mentioned in the text (Bita 2010). Historical links Historical records reported by travelers as well as chronicles have showed that for centuries, the people who lived along the east African coast had developed international trade links (Boxer 1960; Freeman-Grenville 1975: 1 - 4, 14 - 24; Chittick 1976; Huntingford 1980; Smith and Wright 1988; 115 - 145; Casson 1989; 117 - 134; Sutton 1990; Hall 1996; Chami 1999: 237 - 241; 2001: 7 – 20; Mbida, et al 2000: 151 - 162). However, the scale of this trade seems to have been limited and there is a marked hiatus in trading activity at most sites from the fourth to the eighth / ninth century AD (Forsythe, et al. 2003:133-138). Thus, it is at the latter date that the dynamic commercialization in the WIO truly begins. During this period, the Swahili coast was a busy highway for international traders and travelers some of whom recorded observations of the areas they visited (Hollingsworth 1951; Mathew 1963:94-114; Datoo 1970:65-77; Freeman-Grenville 1975:1-4, 14-24; Huntingford 1980; Kirwan 1986:99114; Casson 1989; Chami 1999:237-241). Even before the arrival of the Europeans, Africans had connections with people from the India-subcontinent. According to Martin 1 used to indicate a date before the present era, commonly 1950 is the chosen date of reference because this is when the radiocarbon dating method was first invented. �(1973), Indian traders had been visiting the East African coast from at least the early centuries of the first millennium AD with some settling in the region. Today, Indiandescendants' enterprise and business acumen has introduced and currently runs most of the cloth shops in the coastal towns (Martin 1973; Bita 2005; 2008). When one walks the streets the notable Indian heritage includes the architectural styles of storey buildings with penthouses and outer wooden stairways, a style that has remained unique in some infrastructure found in the region. Interestingly, other assortments of artifacts of Asian origin have been adopted as cultural heritage of the local people. These include for instance, Indian grinding stones and wooden pestles for making noodles (Bita 2005; Bita 2008). Other forms of heritage resulting from the Asian contact are the introduction of Hori (type of canoe) and Ngalawa (boat with outriggers) both of which are still in use in the region (Martin 1973; Bita 2005; Bita 2009a; Bita 2009b). During the Ming dynasty the Chinese launched various missions to the African continent. Two of these voyages made between 1417-1419 AD and 1421-1422 AD have descriptions of the African territories visited, such as Maqdishu (Mogadishu), Brava, Juba and Muâ-lién / Mo-lin (Inghams 1962:5; Kirkman 1964:86-89). These areas have been identified as East African coastal towns with, Mua-lien as the town of Malindi on the Kenyan Coast and Maqdishu as Mogadishu in Somali (Inghams 1962: 1 - 3; Freeman-Grenville 1975: 7).The descriptions of these territories have been preserved in the Ming Shih, the official history of the Ming dynasty (Inghams 1962:5). The same record has also been preserved in the Hsing- ch’a sheng- lan which is a record of the lands visited by Fei Hsin who sailed as a junior officer on some of the voyages (Inghams 1962:5; Freeman-Grenville 1975:7; Kirkman 1964:86-89). The fifth Chinese expedition was between 1417-1419 (Inghams 1962:5) to Malindi and was a reaction to a gift of a giraffe sent to the Chinese Emperor by the King of Bengal Saif-ud-Din, as a gift from the Sultan of Malindi (Kirkman 1964:86-89). The gift included a ‘celestial stag’ or Oryx, and a ‘celestial horse’ or Zebra. The arrival of an African giraffe in China was made possible by the established seafaring networks between the Kenyan coast and countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The legendary Chinese explorer Zheng He is said to have visited Malindi several times during the Ming dynasty, when maritime trade grew unabated (Inghams 1962:1-5; Kirkman 1964:88-89). In Zheng He's travel he would have been privy to this commercialization, the most obvious signs of which include a wide range of imported ceramics, beads, glassware and metal artifacts imported from the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, India, Southeast Asia and China. Artifacts of these types have been found in most archaeological excavations along the Kenyan coast (Wilson 1982; Abungu 1994; Chami 2006; Kusimba 1999; Breen and Lane 2003; Bita 2011b). China was known for its porcelain production. Coming from China, the porcelain was traded on the Swahili Coast in exchange for mangrove poles, ambergris2, leopard skins, slaves, ivory, gums, rhinoceros horns, and tortoise shells (Chittick 1979:273-277; Whitehouse 2001:411-424; Forsythe, et al. 2003:133-138). The ancient Afro-Asiatic trade connections are said to have existed for several centuries in the Swahili Coast before the arrival of Europeans. This historical link is today evident by, the suspected shipwreck of Zheng He and the associated descendants of his shipwreck survivors in the Lamu archipelago (Bita and Wanyama 2007; Bita 2009a). During one of Zheng He's voyages to East Africa, around 1458 AD, one of his ships is said to have capsized near Pate in the Lamu archipelago (see Figure 2 A gray waxy substance secreted from the intestines of the sperm whale consisting mainly of cholesterol. It is found floating in tropical waters or on beaches and was an important export commodity to the Far East and Middle East mainly for perfume-making. �1). After the Chinese the next well-documented foreign arrivals to the Kenyan coast were the Portuguese, eighty years later (Bita 2005; Bita 2008). Previous research Previous archaeological research has revealed that the Kenyan coast has had long contacts with Far Eastern countries. An underwater excavation of the Portuguese shipwreck Santo Antonio de Tanna recovered a lot of pottery identified as manufactured in the Far East (Figure 2) including India, China, Thailand and Burma (Piercy 1977:331347; Piercy 1978:301-319; Sassoon 1980; Lynch 1999). In Malindi, fishermen have been collecting Chinese porcelain in the sea (Bita 2008; Bita 2011a). Figure 2. Jars from Thailand and Burma (Courtesy: Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa) Present work Current maritime research is concentrating in Malindi and the Lamu archipelago, areas known for their historical global trade links. Malindi, located 120 km northeast of Mombasa and about 250 km south of Lamu, among the towns that have shaped the history of the East African coast. The town appears in Chinese records of the 9th century AD (Freeman-Grenville 1975:7; Kirkman 1964:86-89) and was visited and described by Arabs and Portuguese visitors in the 12th - 15th centuries AD (FreemanGrenville 1975:1-4; Inghams 1962:5-15; Ross 1995; Hall 1996; Sassoon 1980). By the 15th century AD for instance, the Chinese explorer Zheng He is said to have visited the town where he was given a giraffe as a present by the Malindi ruler (Kirkman 1964:8689). By then it was a thriving town an attribute that led the Portuguese on their arrival to make it their headquarters for international trade links between Europe and the Indian sub-continent (Boxer 1960; Freeman-Grenville 1975:50-75; Kirkman 1964:89-95; Kirkman 1974; Hourani 1963; Martin 1973; Martin 1975; Martin and Martin 1978; Sutton 1990; Bita 2011b). In trading areas, shipwrecks would be closer to certain shipping hazards such as reefs and projecting headlands. In Malindi, maritime investigations are confined in the areas of Ras Ngomeni and Leopard Bay. Ngomeni is located near a headland whereas Leopard Bay is in a navigation channel between two reefs. In the two areas many ships are suspected to have sunk and locals have been collecting Chinese and Persian ceramics from underwater (Bita 2008; Bita 2011a; MS, Malindi). Recent maritime surveys in Leopard Bay have identified a ship engine block, Chinese porcelain of the 14th century and Indian wares (Bita 2008; Bita 2011a). There are several Portuguese shipwrecks in Malindi whose locations have not been found �(Bita 2008), including one allegedly discovered by local fishermen containing Indian and Chinese pottery (Patience 2006; TA, Malindi). Ngomeni village, about 50 km north of Malindi town, stands on an arm of land jutting towards the sea (Ras Ngomeni), which offers a protected shallow harbour formerly used as a gateway for all seafarers from Lamu to Malindi (Wilson 1982:210219; Bita 2008; Bita 2011a). The area was known for mangrove growing which was exported to, and used in house-roof construction in, cities around the Gulf (Wilson 1982:210-219; Whitehouse 2001:416). Recent maritime archaeological studies in the area have discovered a 14th century AD wooden shipwreck about 40 m long at a depth of between 7 – 10 m partially covered in sand (Plate 1). On-going studies seek to establish the origin of this shipwreck (Bita 2011a). Plate 1. Bottom plank of a shipwreck in Ngomeni, Malindi (Bita 2011a). Other artifacts recovered, which confirm the trade links between Malindi and the Far East, include a complete Far Eastern pot, white-glazed plate from Thailand (Figure 3), Islamic green glazed pottery, bronze mortar, copper plates and bowls (Bita 2008; Bita 2011a). Figure 3. Glazed pot, Ming Dynasty pot with Dragon and Thailand plate (Courtesy: Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa) �Lamu archipelago is composed of several islets but the main inhabited islands include Lamu, Manda, Pate, Ndau and Kiwayu, all with ancient towns by the same names. The archipelago and its settlements are important landmarks in the history of the East Coast of Africa. This archipelago was the most important centre of the northern Swahili world with Manda and Pate revealing evidence of early occupation (Chittick 1984; Horton 1987b:290-322). The Island of Pate borders Manda Island to the south and the Indian Ocean to the east. The island’s main town of Pate is significant because it was among the earliest sites founded upon the East African coast (Wilson and Omar 1997:31-76; Kusimba 1999). Previous research has indicated that Pate fully participated in the development of the Swahili culture from these beginnings and grew to be one of the most politically influential and economically prosperous communities on the Swahili coast (Wilson and Omar 1996:453-554; Wilson and Omar 1997:31-76). Pate Island for many years served as the gateway to Lamu for sea travelers. Up to the present locals refer to its eastern shores as mlango wa Lamu (gateway to Lamu). The Portuguese used this route for decades controlling the WIO trade (FreemanGreenville 1975:50-112; Kirkman 1964:86–117). The Arabs dominated the coastal strip long before the Portuguese and used the same route for hundreds of years in trade with the Persian Gulf (Chittick 1979:273-277; Chittick 1984; Hall 1996). A narrow creek divides Pate Island into two halves. In the past the creek was deep allowing sailing ships to anchor for the loading of copra, tamarind, dates, mangroves, leather products, furniture and other Swahili crafts; and off-loading products from various markets (Chittick 1967:37-67; Chittick 1979:273-277; Whitehouse 2001:411-424). The eastern side of this creek has silted heavily allowing mangrove forests to grow hence they cover the entire original anchorage. Pate Bay has several long reefs and many rock outcrops such as Pazzali, Mwamba Hassani and Mwamba Hanawi. The lack of nautical charts for this area caused many early seafarer casualties on these coral rocks when sailing through this bay. Over the years, fishermen in the Lamu archipelago have been recovering archaeological pottery at various sites along the reefs and channels (Bita and Wanyama 2007; Bita 2009a). A distinct find was a pot with a dragon emblem (see figure 3), believed to be of the China Ming Dynasty period. In one of the Chinese Ming Dynasty missions to East Africa one of Zheng He's ships is said to have wrecked in Pate bay, around 1458 AD, where survivors went to stay with, and later intermarried with, the local population (Bita 2009a). The union led to a generation of locals who claim direct decadency of the Chinese shipwreck survivors (SK, Pate; AS, Lamu; SM, Lamu; HK, Mombasa). Their physical features and DNA analyses (SM, Lamu; BS, Pate) attest to this and locally they are referred to as Wa- China (local for Chinese people). The clan name of these people is Wa- Shanga (people from Shanga) which local people claim is an abbreviation of Shanghai (meaning the ship wreckers may have originated from modern day Shanghai, China). Recent Evidence The Zheng He phenomenon in Pate and the prolonged recovery of Chinese cultural materials in Lamu has prompted further underwater archaeological research. Recent maritime and underwater archaeological surveys have recovered data that further supports ancient trade connections between Kenya and Asian countries (Bita and Wanyama 2007; Bita 2009a; Bita 2011a). Seabed survey identified scatters of Far Eastern and Chinese pottery and several copper ingots. Several underwater sites were identified, although yet to be confirmed, indicate presence of historic shipwrecks (Bita 2011a). The studies have also established existence of a strong tradition and a generation of locals who claim ancestry from the Zheng He shipwreck in Pate (SL, Pate; �AS, Lamu; SM, Lamu; SK, Pate; SM, Pate; BS, Pate; Bita and Wanyama 2007; Bita 2009a). In relation to the shipwreck survivors there are also two graveyards: one with elaborate tombs and the other, thought to belong to the Chinese, has simple graves with headstones that Chinese informants from Xinhua News Agency identified as Chinese tombstones (HK, Mombasa). In the nearby villages of Pate, Faza and Siyu, there are a lot of Chinese porcelain of the 14th century, used in decoration of niches of tombs and houses (Horton 1987b: 290-322; Bita and Wanyama 2007; Bita 2009a). Conclusion This paper has considered multiple sources in the research to define the extent of the significance of the Swahili Coast in past Indian Ocean maritime activities. The Periplus 3 documents refer to east Africa’s coast as early as 2000 BP. Chinese sources mention presence of a cattle economy at Berbera coast, Somali by late 800s AD, as well as their involvement in trade with foreigners from the Far East. Historical records by Arab travelers and geographers in mid 900s AD mention thriving maritime communities along the east African coast. These records are correlated with data coming from terrestrial archaeological investigations at many sites on the Swahili Coast. Maritime archaeological studies which are producing evidence in forms of shipwrecks lend support to these ancient trade links. Additionally, the probable presence of the Zheng He shipwreck(s) in Pate; and cultural materials of Chinese, Indian, Thai and Burmese in underwater archaeological sites signify that communities of the Kenya coast were in continuous interaction with the Asian continent. Accordingly, that the Kenyan coast was (and still is) a highway for international maritime travelers, and has had historical trade connectivity with regions surrounding the Indian Ocean, makes it an important area for maritime studies as traces of these connections could be lying on the seabed. Oral Sources 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Twalib Ahmed, Village Mayungu, Malindi, 12 January 2011, cited as TA, Malindi. Baraka Shee, Village Siyu, Pate, 17 June 2009, cited as BS, Pate. Shariff Lali, Shanga Village, Pate, 16 June, 2009, cited as SL, Pate. Salim Bwana Kheri, Village, Siyu, Pate, 7 June 2009, cited as SK, Pate. Ali Suo, Shella, Village Lamu, 3 October 2007, cited as AS, Lamu. Safina Mohamed, Village Shella, Lamu, 4 October 2007, cited as SM, Lamu. Herman Kiriama, Mombasa, 23 April 2005, cited as HK, Mombasa. Mwalimu Shali, Village, Ngomeni, Malindi, 26 October 2008, cited as MS, Malindi Bibliography Abungu, G.H.O., 1994 Ase, L. E., 1987 Bita, C., 2011a 3 “New Finds Along the Kenya Coast.” Kenya Past and Present, Issue 26, pp.41-48. “Sea-level changes on the east coast of Africa during the Holocene and late Pleistocene”, in (eds.) Tooley, M. and Sherman, I., Sea-level changes, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 276 - 295. Preliminary underwater archaeological survey in Malindi and Lamu. Preliminary report. SINO-Kenya underwater Archaeology project. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Documents by anonymous first century AD traveler written as a guide to the ports and trade of East Africa and connecting areas of Arabia, India and China. �The Origin of Malindi Town. A Case Study of Mambrui, M.A. Dissertation. University of Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam. Protection of maritime and underwater cultural heritage in Kenya, Paper presented to the International Conference on Maritime Cultural Heritage, Alexandria, Egypt. Inter-tidal and foreshore survey of Pate island, Survey report, Fort Bita, C., 2009a Jesus Museum, Mombasa. The intertidal and foreshore archaeology of Mombasa Island: An Bita, C., inventory of maritime sites, Survey report, Fort Jesus museum, 2009b Mombasa The Western Indian Ocean maritime heritage. An overview of the Bita, C., maritime archaeological heritage in Malindi, British Institute in Eastern 2008 Africa, Nairobi. Malindi. A Review of the History of a Coastal Town at the mouth of Bita, C., River Sabaki, Kenya, National Museums of Kenya, Malindi 2005 Bita, C., and Preliminary intertidal and underwater archaeological survey of Lamu archipelago, Research report, Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa. Wanyama P., 2007 Fort Jesus and Portuguese in Mombasa, British Museum, London. Boxer, C. R., 1960 Periplus Maris Erythreai. Text with introduction, translation and Casson, L., commentary, Princeton University Press, Princeton. 1989 Chami, F. (ed.), Zanzibar and the Swahili Coast from c.30 000 years ago, E & D Vision 2009 Publishing, Dar es Salaam. The Unity of African Ancient History: 3000 B.C. to AD. 500, E and D Chami, F., 2006 Publishers, Dar es Salaam. Chami, F., “The archaeology of the Rufiji Region since 1987 to 2000”, in (eds.) Chami, F., Pwiti, G. and Radimilahy C., People, Contacts and the 2001 Environment in the African Past, Dar es Salaam University Press, Dar es Salaam, Studies in the African Past No. 1, pp. 7–20. Chami, F., “Roman beads from the Rufiji Delta, Tanzania: first incontrovertible archaeological link with Periplus”, in Current Anthropology, 40, pp. 1999 237–41. “A Review of African Archaeology”, in African Archaeological Review Chami, F., 1998 15, pp. 199 - 218. Manda. Excavations at an island port on the Kenya coast, British Chittick, H. N., 1984 Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi “Early ports in the Horn of Africa”, in International Journal of Nautical Chittick, H. N., Archaeology, 8 (4), pp. 273-277. 1979 Chittick, H. N., “An archaeological reconnaissance in the Horn: the British-Somali Expedition 1975”, in Azania, 11, pp. 117–34. 1976 “Discoveries in the Lamu Archipelago”, in Azania, 2, pp. 37 - 67. Chittick, H. N., 1967 East Africa and its invaders, Clarendon press, Oxford. Coupland, R., 1938 Datoo, B. A., “Rhapta: The location and importance of East Africa’s first port”, in Azania, 5, pp. 65 - 77. 1970 Forsythe, W., "Subtidal archaeological investigations in Mombasa’s Old Port", in Quinn, R., Breen, (eds.) Mitchell, P., Haour, A., Hobart, J., Researching Africa’s Past: New Contributions from British Archaeologists. Oxford University C., 2003 School of Archaeology Monograph 57, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 133138. Bita, C., 2011b Bita, C., 2010 �FreemanGrenville, G. P., 1975 Hall, R., 1996 Hollingsworth, L., 1951 Horton, M. C., 1990 The East African Coast: Selected documents from the first to earliest nineteenth century, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Horton, M. C., 1987 Horton, M. C., 1984 Hourani, F. G., 1963 Huntingford, G. W., 1980 Inghams, K., 1962 Kirkman, J., 1974 Kirkman, J., 1964 Kirwan, L. P., 1986 Kusimba, C. M., 1999 Lynch, M., 1999 Martin, E. B., 1975 “Early Muslim trading settlements on the East African Coast: New Evidence from Shanga”, in Antiquaries Journal, 67, pp. 290 - 322. The early settlement of the northern Swahili coast, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Arab Seafaring, Khayats, Beirut. Martin, E. B., 1973 Martin, E. B., and Martin C. P., 1978 Matthew, G., 1963 Empires of the Monsoon, a History of the Indian Ocean and its Invaders, Harper Collins. A Short History of the East Coast of Africa, Macmillan, London. “The Periplus and East Africa”, in Azania, 25, pp. 95 – 99. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Hakluyt Society, London. A History of East Africa, Longman Ltd., London. Fort Jesus: A Portuguese Fortress on the East African Coast, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Men and Monuments on the East African Coast, Lutterworth Press, London. “Rhapta: Metropolis of Africa”, in Azania, 21, pp. 99 - 114. The Rise and fall of Swahili States, Altmara Press, London. “A 17th Century Portuguese East Indiana: The Santo Antonio de Tanna”, in Institute of Nautical Archaeology Newsletter, vol. 18, No. 2. The History of Malindi: A geographical analysis of an East African Coastal Town from the Portuguese period to the present, East African Literature Bureau, Nairobi. A history of Malindi, East African Literature Bureau, Nairobi. Cargoes of the East: The Ports, Trade and Culture of Arabian Seas and Western Indian Ocean, Tree Books, Elm. “The East African Coast until the coming of Portuguese”, in (eds.) Oliver, R. and Matthew, G., History of East Africa, Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 94 - 128. Mbida, C. M., Van “Evidence for banana cultivation and animal husbandry during the first millennium BC in the forest of Southern Cameroon”, in Journal of Neer, W., Doutrelepont, H., Archaeological Science, 27, pp. 151–62. and Vrydaghs, L., 2000 East Africa, Longman Ltd., London. Morgan, W. T., 1973 “Kenya”, in Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42, pp. 1264-1278. Obura, D., 2001. Shipwrecks and Salvage on the East African Coast, Kingdom of Patience, K., �2006 Piercy, R.C.M., 1978 Piercy, R. C. M., 1977 Ross, J. S., 1995 Sanseverino, H.V., 1983 Sassoon, H., 1980 Smith, M. C., and Wright, H. T., 1988 Sutton, J.E., 1990 White, F., 1983 Whitehouse, D., 2001 Dar Akhbar Khaleej, Bahrain. "Mombasa wreck excavation, second preliminary report", in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 7, pp. 301-319. “Mombasa wreck excavation, preliminary report”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 6, pp. 331–47. A Brief History of the Portuguese Chapel and Vasco da Gama’s Pillar, Malindi Museum Society, Malindi. “Archaeological remains on the South Somali Coast”, in Azania, 28, pp. 151 – 164. Mombasa Wreck Excavation, Interim Report, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. “The ceramics from Ras Hafun in Somalia: notes on a classical maritime site”, in Azania, 23, pp. 115–41. A thousand years of East Africa, British Institute in East Africa, Nairobi. The vegetation of Africa, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. “East Africa and the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean A.D. 800 – 1500”, in (ed) Amenoreti, B. S., Islam in East Africa: New Sources, Herder, Rome, pp. 411 – 424. Wilson, T. H., “Spatial analysis and settlement patterns on the East African coast”, in Paideuma, 28, pp. 201 - 219. 1982 Wilson, T. H., and “Archaeological investigations at Pate”, in Azania, 32, pp. 31 - 76. Omar, A. L., 1997 Wilson, T. H., and “Excavation at Pate on the East African coast”, in (eds.) Pwiti, G., and Soper R., Aspects of African Archaeology, University of Zimbabwe, Omar, A. L., 1996 Harare, pp. 543 - 554. Wright, H. T., “Early seafarers of the Comoro Islands: the Dembeni phase of the IXth - Xth centuries A.D.”, in Azania, 19, pp. 13 – 60. 1984 � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/554146139040ea0dfb73d0cf3cd51393.jpg 6b460c0002cf3a046ff570fe7a4fa0b2 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 794 Height 570 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/63c62e76e3a709bc61c1d451e5f5ec72.jpg b7e49d7038549104e9ed5e52d711b95b Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 733 Height 571 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3a9c977d9724f00b4f6571b338431f35.jpg 4a59445c0986ba199df4c5ef4d88316c Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 715 Height 596 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/42efe1c97d7dd939ab23224dfdf1da5b.jpg 49265aec843e7522af410019415776ad Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 720 Height 587 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ancient Afro-Asia Links: New Evidence from a Maritime Perspective Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource Historical records have shown that the East African coast was connected to ancient global trade networks. These early overseas contacts are evidenced by references to trading voyages in the early 1st millennium AD and in the 11th to 14th century AD. During these periods, exports to India, China and the Persian Gulf included skins, horns, ivory and gold, whilst pottery, glass, textiles and beads were imported. Maritime archaeological studies have produced pottery, beads and shipwrecks that have showed links between East Africa and the Middle East, Indian sub-continent and China. Furthermore, historic Kenyan coastal settlements such as Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu were important port towns of call for merchant shipping, as they were strategically sited along busy sea-lanes. This paper examines this historical connection between ancient Kenyan coastal towns and the Asian continent. It explores results of previous and ongoing underwater archaeological research in Malindi and Lamu archipelago that has produced evidence of Asian cultural heritage. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Caesar Bita Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/aed71ad26404c2541bafe9b60397b4f4.pdf 1bb61ec4517eaf6690d5507ff955d202 PDF Text Text Maritime and underwater archaeological explorations in Kenya: Recent discoveries Caesar Bita National Museums of Kenya, Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa, P.O. Box 82412, 80100, Kenya Email: mcbita@yahoo.com Abstract Kenya is the first sub-Sahara African country to initiate an underwater archaeological expedition thus legally recognizing the value of underwater cultural heritage. This was after successful survey and excavation of the 17th Century Portuguese shipwreck, Santa Antonio De Tanna, in Mombasa. Kenya coast is part of the Western Indian Ocean; commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’. This coast was a domain of foreigners from the early centuries of the first millennium AD. It was visited by the Greeks; controlled by the Arabs, Portuguese and the Europeans. In addition, it played a major role in ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard linking the Swahili Coast with the Arab world, India sub-continent, Far East and China, America and Europe. Owing to crude navigation and sea faring technologies of the time, there are on the seabed of Kenya traces of these interactions in the form of archaeological remains. Recent studies have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of shipwrecks and has immense potential in underwater cultural heritage. Drawing from ancient literature, previous and current maritime and underwater archaeological studies, and this paper presents the recent discoveries from underwater archaeological surveys in Kenya. The paper illustrates that there is immense potential for underwater archaeology in Kenya that requires new attention both in research and conservation. Key words: Swahili Coast, Lamu archipelago, Malindi, Maritime Archaeology Underwater Cultural Heritage, Shipwreck Introduction The conservation of maritime and underwater cultural resources has become a major field of great scientific and regional importance world over. Maritime cultural heritage is a critical element of Kenya’s wellbeing. In addition to its intrinsic value, it provides us 1 �with important space for recreation and has a significance that makes it worth preserving; it is part of the environment, has an economic and scholarly value. This resource is however under ever increasing pressure from human activity. Its protection is thus a key part of sustainable development, whereby policies to encourage social and economic development should be equaled by policies to protect our environment. To effectively protect this heritage one important step is to document how much of this resource is available. The National Museums of Kenya (NMK) cannot afford to rely on “accidental” discoveries by non-scientific ventures and still remain an authentic custodian of the national heritage. It is for this that Kenya has made efforts to implement the preservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH). The country has developed capacities in maritime and underwater cultural heritage through the training of underwater archaeologists and establishment of an underwater artifact conservation laboratory. NMK has designed a maritime archaeological programme for the study of this heritage as well as a database of all shipwrecks in the country. These efforts are expected to increase the dimension in which we understand and interpret this heritage in addition to mitigating the risk of loosing this resource to vandalism and uncontrolled development. Maritime History of the Kenyan Coast Kenya is a maritime country with a coastline approximately 600 km long with many small islands and navigable channels. This coast, which is part of the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’, was a major player in the ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard. Its inhabitants are known to have had a history of long and continuous interaction with not only the Indian Ocean but also foreign visitors including the Greeks, 2 1 Fig. 1 Trade goods exchanged across the Western Indian Seaboard. (C. Bita) Arabs, Portuguese and the �Europeans. Further, several early Swahili settlements ranging in time from the 8th-17th centuries AD dot both the entire coastline as well as its off-shore islands (Garlake, 1966; Chittick, 1984; Horton, 1984; Abungu, 1989; Bita, 2011b). Such include Mombasa, Lamu, Pate, Faza, Dondo, Kiunga, Ishakani, Ungwana, Siyu, Kilepwe, Mambrui, Malindi, Gedi, Jumba La Mtwana and Kilifi. These ancient towns linked the Swahili Coast and other continents across the Western Indian Ocean seaboard including the Arab world, India sub-continent, south East Asia, the Far East and China, America and Europe (Fig. 1). Several historical records make reference to ancient seafaring off the Swahili coast. The Periplus of Erytharean Sea, document by the a an anonymous Greek sailor, mentions the east African coast as early as 2000 BP (Freeman- Fig. 2 Figure showing the concentration of shipwrecks along the Grenville, 1962; 1975; Wright, 1984; Horton, Kenya coast. (C. Bita) 1990; Whitehouse, 2001; Chami, 2006). Records by Chinese travelers refer to the Somali coast and her trade connections with the Far East by late 800s AD, while reports by Arab geographers allude to thriving maritime communities on this coast by 900 AD (Kirkman, 1964; Datoo, 1970; Martin, 1973; Freeman-Grenville, 1975; Horton, 1990; Hall, 1996). The period between the first millennium BC and the 2nd half of the first millennium AD was characterized by crude shipping technology and lack of nautical charts. These crude navigation technologies, as well as oceanic changes, are likely to have made early seafarers casualties of coral reefs and violent sea waves. In addition, the East African coast has been a centre of rivalry between major powers and the resultant wars 3 �witnessed a number of marine armour destroyed and sunken in these waters. This evidence is today lying on the sea-bed and foreshores in the form of shipwrecks, anchors, military structures among others (Bita, 2014). In Kenya this underwater archaeology comes to light from researches, accidental discoveries by fishermen, written records and oral tradition. Recent investigations that corroborate historical literary sources have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of ancient shipwrecks. Studies have shown the highest concentration of these sites in Kenya to be around Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu (Fig. 2) (Breen and Lane, 2003; Forsythe et al., 2003; Bita, 2008; 2010; 2011b; 2014). Maritime and Underwater Archaeological explorations in Kenya There are significant pointers towards the richness of Kenya’s maritime and underwater cultural heritage. A survey to establish the full range of this resource is ongoing in the country. The objectives of this undertaking are to identify and understand the range and distribution of this resource in the Kenya coast and to develop a database of the maritime and UCH sites for further archaeological investigation and conservation. Kenya initiated an underwater archaeological expedition after successful survey and excavation of the 17th century Portuguese shipwreck in Mombasa. This Portuguese frigate was sunk by Oman Arabs in 1698 in Mombasa during a battle to free Fort Jesus from the Arabs (Piercy, 1977; 1978; Sassoon, 1980; Boxer, 1960; Lynch, 1991; Patience, 2006). Following this development, this shipwreck, later dubbed ‘Mombasa Wreck’, was gazetted as a national monument and is today protected by the country’s legislation. It is this initiative that made Kenya the first east African sub-Saharan country to legally recognize the value of underwater cultural heritage. In the subsequent years, there was a growing importance of underwater archaeology including management of UCH in Kenya. With the potential of underwater archaeology in the country, a new research and heritage management perspective was required. As such, Kenya sought to develop capacities in underwater cultural heritage management through training and infrastructure development. The country has trained two underwater archaeologists, three conservators of underwater cultural material and has a well established underwater artifact conservation laboratory. Additionally, a database of maritime and 4 �UCH sites has been developed for the coastal region and undersea cultural heritage impact assessments are conducted as part of these efforts. Recent Discoveries Several underwater surveys have been undertaken off the Kenyan coast in which a lot of archaeological heritage has been documented. These surveys include a 2001 maritime archaeological study of Mombasa Island (Breen and Lane, 2003). Others are the 2006-2009 surveys in Lamu, Malindi and Mombasa by NMK (Patience, 2006; Bita and Wanyama, 2007; Bita, 2008; 2009 a-b). The latest, and ongoing, is the survey by National Museums of Kenya in collaboration with National Museums of China, in the “Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology project” (Bita, 2011a; 2013a). In these surveys numerous maritime and underwater heritage sites have been documented including shipwrecks, structures and artifacts. Interestingly these have been found to occur around the ancient towns of Lamu, Mombasa and Malindi; towns that played a major role in the ancient transoceanic interactions across the Western Indian Ocean (Fig. 2). Underwater archaeological surveys have also focused on these important towns. Underwater Archaeological survey in Mombasa Mombasa Island borders the open sea to the south east and has several channels. There have been numerous underwater archaeological surveys of this island in the previous years that realized a lot of maritime and heritage sites. underwater The first cultural survey undertaken was the excavation of the Santa Antonio recovered Indian shipwreck wares, which Chinese porcelain, Martaban and Portuguese jars, canons, mortar shells and bronze medallions (Piercy, 1977; 1978; Bita, Fig. 3 Lamu Archipelago: the eastern shores 2013b). A later survey revealed several have many rock outcrops where ancient ships 5 are believed to have sunk while entering Lamu Town. (C. Bita) �anomalies, some being shipwrecks (Breen and Lane, 2003; Forsythe et al., 2003). Recent surveys (Bita, 2009b; 2011c) have recorded wreck sites and associated structures (Fig. 3). Underwater Archaeological survey in Lamu archipelago Lamu archipelago is composed of several islands but the main ones are Lamu, Manda and Pate, all with ancient towns by the same names (Fig. 3). Ancient settlements in this archipelago are important landmarks in the history of the Swahili Coast. They were important centres of the northern Swahili world with some, like Manda and Pate, exhibiting evidence of very early occupation (Chittick, 1984; Horton, 1987; Wilson and Omar, 1996; 1997). Ancient Pate Bay for instance was the gateway to Lamu Town for sea travelers. Even up to the present, the eastern shores of this island are referred to by the locals as mlango wa Lamu (gateway to Lamu). This route was used by the Portuguese for decades controlling the WIO trade (Kirkman, 1964; Freeman-Greenville, 1975; Chittick, 1976; 1984; Hall, 1996). The Arabs dominated the Swahili Coast long before the Portuguese and used this route for hundreds of years in trade with the Persian Gulf (Bita, 2011b). Pate Bay has several long reefs and many coral rock outcrops such as Pazzali, Hassani and Hanawi. These rocks are at the confluence of Pate channel and the open sea and being submerged at high tide suggests many vessels may have wrecked here. In addition, the lack of nautical knowledge for this area caused many early seafarer Fig. 4 Portion of a shipwreck embedded in concretion in casualties on these coral rocks Mombasa waters. (Coastal Archaeology, National when sailing through this bay. Over Museums of Kenya) the years, fishermen in the Lamu archipelago have been recovering archaeological materials at various sites along these 6 �reefs and channels in addition to seabed surveys (Bita and Wanyama, 2007; Bita, 2009a; 2014). Recent surveys in Lamu have made major achievements in terms of the volume of artifacts recovered; sites surveyed and amount of data collected. Geophysical studies have recorded several underwater anomalies while sites identified include areas with concentrations of pottery and iron anchors (Bita, 2014). A massive anchor approximately 4m long with 2m long hooks was found (Fig. 4). Standing upright and embedded in coral, one of its hooks is however missing (this suggests probably its line was cut when sailors were unable to take it back into the ship). Similar types of anchors have also been recovered in Mombasa. Small iron anchors 2m long heavily encrusted and of 3 hooks have also been recovered. This style of 3 hook anchors is not a common feature of the Swahili Coast and suggests they belong to foreign ships. Early travel across the Western Indian Ocean was subject to the monsoon winds which alternated every six months. For instance, foreign traders sailed to the East African coast on the northwest monsoon wind which blows from November until April. For six months they would wait for the winds to change direction in order for them to sail back home on the southeast monsoon winds which blow from June to October. During this period of wait, ships would be anchored for loading and repairs while the sailors engaged in trade. Similarly, due to ocean currents and long wait, the ship anchors would, in most cases, be covered in sand or dragged into rock crevices. Such would make them difficult to pull back into the ship at departure forcing the crew to cut the ropes and abandon the anchor underwater. As is the case with Pate channel, many areas have silted over the years with many sites heavily covered in the sands (Bita, 2014). Maritime Archaeological Survey in Malindi Malindi town is located 120km north of Mombasa and is one of the ancient trading towns which had contact with the outside world in the last centuries of the last millennium. The town owes, as do many other coastal towns, its origin and prosperity to the Western Indian Ocean for facilitating transport and trade. It was at one time a gateway where the movement and transformation of goods were facilitated and urban services developed to promote maritime trade (Bita, 2008). It is believed to have been visited by a Chinese fleet in the 15th century. When the Portuguese arrived on the Kenyan coast in 1495, they found a thriving town and made it their trade headquarters 7 �while monopolising the WIO trade (Hall, 1996; Martin, 1975; Bita, 2012). Malindi Bay has three ancient centres, Malindi town, Mambrui and Ngomeni. Mambrui and Malindi were vibrant agricultural regions while Ngomeni was known for production and export of mangroves (Bita, 2005; 2008). In trading areas, shipwrecks would be closer to certain shipping hazards such as reefs and projecting headlands. In Malindi Bay, Ngomeni is located near a headland whereas in Malindi town there is Leopard Bay, the navigation channel of which is between two reefs. In the two areas, many ships are suspected to have sunk (Patience, 2006; Bita, 2008; Bita, 2011a-b; 2012). Portuguese records mention their ships lost and sunk in Malindi and whose locations have not been found (Patience, 2006). Maritime and underwater archaeological surveys in the area have documented several shipwrecks (Bita, 2005; 2008; 2011a) including remains of a ship engine block, sites containing 14th-15th century Indian and Chinese pottery (Bita, 2008; Bita, 2011a). This corroborates Portuguese and British records of ships lost in Malindi waters (Patience, 2006). Fig. 5 The plan of the Ngomeni Ras shipwreck Fig. 6 The remains of the Ngomeni Ras shipwreck site. (Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology lying project) on seabed. (Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology Project). Ngomeni Ras Shipwreck While no UCH sites have been located in Mambrui, 10km north of Malindi Town, in Ngomeni, a village about 30 km northeast of Malindi town, several important sites have 8 �been identified. Ngomeni stands on an arm of land jutting towards the sea (Ras Ngomeni), which offers a protected shallow harbour formerly used as a gateway for all seafarers from Lamu to Malindi (Wilson, 1982; Bita, 2008; 2011b). The area was known for mangrove growing which was exported to, and used in house construction in cities around the Persian Gulf (Wilson, 1982; Whitehouse, 2001). Surveys in 2008 discovered a wooden shipwreck that consistently produced materials dating to the 14th century including Persian and Far Eastern wares. The shipwreck was revisited in 2010-2011 and excavated in 2013. The exposed wood remains of this site are however seriously threatened by terredo. Ngomeni Ras Shipwreck is a probable 15th-16th century merchant ship. The site measures 40m x 20m lying 5m below the sea (Fig. 5-6). This discovery has proved the town participated in ancient mangrove trade across the Western Indian Ocean (Bita 2011a-b; 2013a). Fig. 7 A militant bunker overlooking the sea in Fig. 8 Lime and stone jetties and sacred sites on the Mombasa. (C. Bita) maritime zone of Mombasa coast. (C. Bita) Intertidal and Foreshore surveys Intertidal and foreshore surveys have also documented a rich resource of cultural heritage. Irrespective of typology, these sites existed to exploit the maritime resource that is the Western Indian Ocean. The most important include ancient forts, redoubts, anchorages, ports and jetties. Others are maritime practices such as boat building and fishing styles. It is their relationship with this ocean that makes them worth studying and conserving. 9 �Military structures Ancient East African coast was a centre of rivalry between powers such as between rivaling Arab rulers, Arabs and Portuguese and later in the 1st and 2nd world war between Germans, British and Italians (Coupland, 1938; Kirkman, 1964; 1974; Martin, 1973; 1975). These witnessed a number of marine structures erected along the coast as defense forts or escape tunnels (Bita, 2009a-b). The Kenyan coast is awash with such, including redoubts, forts including Fort Jesus, Siyu and Lamu, as well as habitable caves and military bunkers. A majority of these are associated with Arabian, Portuguese and British periods (Fig. 7). Moorings, Anchorages, Jetties and sacred sites Intertidal surveys have recorded ancient moorings and anchorages of different styles (ranging from metal, lime and stone), ruins of jetties built of stone and lime (Fig. 8). A majority of these have been attributed to the Portuguese and British periods. Jetties may probably be related to old crossing points from the Islands to the coastal mainland. Other equally important features are the sacred sites that are manifestations of the relationship between people’s beliefs and the elements of maritime environment. Most shrines are located in rock shelters, caves and secluded places on the seaward side of cliffs (Bita, 2009b). The traditional ritual paraphernalia including talismans, white and or red pieces of cloth; mixed colours of red, blue, white and black are mostly strategically placed so as to come in contact with sea water at high tide. Acknowledgments I am thankful to the Director General, National Museums of Kenya, for his support and nominations to the training in Underwater Archaeology. I am also grateful to UNESCO for the sponsorship to train in the 3rd Foundation and In-Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage courses in Thailand and participation in the Abuja UCH meeting. Thanks too to the Chinese government for the bilateral cooperation in underwater archaeology research in Kenya. 10 �References Abungu, G. O., 1989. Communities on the river Tana, Kenya: An Archaeological study of relations between the Delta and the river basin, 700-1800 AD. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Bita, C., 2014. The potentials of underwater archaeology in Kenya: A short communication. In Sila Tripati (Ed.), Shipwrecks around the world: Revelations of the past, Delta Book World, New Delhi: 486-510. Bita, C., 2013a. Underwater archaeological survey of Ngomeni Shipwreck site. SINOKenya Underwater Archaeology Project Report. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2013b. Martaban jars found in Kenya. Southeast Asian ceramics museum Newsletter. Vol. VII (1) Jun-Sept 2013: 3. Bita, C., 2012. The Origin of Malindi Town: A Case Study of Mambrui. M. A. Dissertation. University of Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam. Bita, C., 2011a. SINO-Kenya Underwater Archaeology Project. Preliminary Report. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2011b. Ancient Afro-Asia links. New evidence from a maritime perspective. In Mark Staniforth et al., (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 November 2011, Manila: 289-301. Bita, C., 2011c. Cultural Heritage Impact Assessment for the Lion 2 Undersea Fibre Optic Cable in Mombasa. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2010. Protection of maritime and underwater cultural heritage in Kenya. Paper presented to the International Conference on Maritime Cultural Heritage, Alexandria, Egypt. Bita, C., 2009a. Inter-tidal and foreshore survey of Pate island. Survey Report, Fort Jesus Museum. Mombasa. Bita, C., 2009b. The intertidal and foreshore archaeology of Mombasa Island: An inventory of maritime sites. Survey Report, Fort Jesus museum, Mombasa. 11 �Bita, C., 2008. The Western Indian Ocean Maritime Heritage: An overview of the maritime archaeological heritage in Malindi. British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Bita, C., 2005. Malindi. A Review of the History of a Coastal Town at the mouth of River Sabaki, Kenya. National Museums of Kenya, Malindi. Bita, C., and Wanyama, P., 2007. Preliminary intertidal and underwater archaeological survey of Lamu archipelago. Research Report, Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa. Boxer, C. R., 1960. Fort Jesus and Portuguese in Mombasa, British Museum, London. Breen, C., and Lane, P., 2003. Archaeological Approaches to East Africa’s changing Seascapes., World Archaeology, Vol. 35 (3): 469-89. Chittick, H. N., 1976. An archaeological reconnaissance in the Horn: the British-Somali Expedition 1975. Azania, Vol. 11: 117-34. Chittick, N., 1984. Manda: Excavations at an Island Port on the Kenya coast. Memoir No. 9, British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Coupland, R., 1938. East Africa and its invaders. Clarendon press, Oxford. Chami, F., 2006. The Unity of African Ancient History: 3000 B.C. to AD 500. Dar es Salaam, E and D Vision Publishers. Datoo, B. A., 1970. Rhapta: The location and importance of East Africa’s first port. Azania, Vol. 5: 65-77. Forsythe, W., Quinn, R., and Breen, C., 2003. Subtidal archaeological investigations in Mombasa’s Old Port. In P. Mitchell., A. Haour, and J. Hobart (Eds.), Researching Africa’s Past: New Contributions from British Archaeologists, Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph 57, Oxbow Books, Oxford: 133-138. Freeman-Grenville, G. P., 1975. The East African Coast: Selected documents from the first to earliest nineteenth century. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Freeman-Grenville, G. P., 1962. The Medieval History of the coast of Tanganyika, Oxford University Press, London. 12 �Garlake P. S., 1966. The early Islamic architecture of the east African coast. Nairobi. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Hall, R., 1996. Empires of the Monsoon. Harper Collins, London. Horton, M. C., 1990. The Periplus and East Africa. Azania, Vol. 25: 95-99. Horton, M. C., 1987. Early Muslim trading settlements on the East African Coast: New Evidence from Shanga. Antiquaries Journal, Vol. 67: 290-322. Horton, M. C., 1984. The early settlement of the northern Swahili coast. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Kirkman, J., 1964. Men and Monuments on the East African Coast. Butterworth, London. Kirkman, J., 1974. Fort Jesus: A Portuguese Fortress on the East African Coast. Clarendon, Oxford. Lynch, M., (Ed.), 1991. The Mombasa wreck excavation. Institute of Nautical Archaeology Newsletter, Vol. 18 (2): 2-29. Martin, E. B., 1975. The History of Malindi: A geographical analysis of an East African Coastal Town from the Portuguese period to the present. East African Literature Bureau, Nairobi. Martin, E. B., 1973. A History of Malindi, Nairobi. East African Literature Bureau. Nairobi. Patience, K., 2006. Shipwrecks and Salvage on the East African Coast. Dar Akhbar Al Khaleej, Bahrain. Piercy, R, C, M., 1977. Mombasa wreck excavation, Preliminary Report. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 6 (4): 331-47. Piercy, R, C, M., 1978. Mombasa wreck excavation, Preliminary Report. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 7 (4): 301-19. Sassoon, H., 1980. Mombasa Wreck Excavation. Interim Report, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. 13 �Whitehouse, D., 2001. East Africa and the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean AD 8001500. In B. S. Amenoreti (Ed.), Islam in East Africa: New Sources, Herder, Rome: 411424. Wilson, T. H., 1982. Spatial analysis and settlement patterns on the East African coast. Paideuma, Vol. 28: 201-219. Wilson, T. H., and Omar, A. L., 1997. Archaeological investigations at Pate. Azania, Vol. 32: 31-76. Wilson, T. H., and Omar, A. L., 1996. Excavation at Pate on the East African coast. In G. Pwiti., and R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African Archaeology, University of Zimbabwe, Harare: 543-554. Wright, H. T., 1984. Early seafarers of the Comoro Islands: the Dembeni phase of the 9th-10th centuries AD. Azania, Vol. 19: 13-60. Biography Caesar Bita has a Masters degree in Archaeology from the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; a Postgraduate Diploma in Management of Heritage and Museum Collections from the University of Nairobi, a Professional Diploma in Underwater Archaeology from Underwater Archaeology Center in China. Bita has participated in training programme such as Maritime Heritage Training and Integrated Coastal Zone Management Course (2006, Zanzibar, Tanzania), Regional Training on Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management (2010, South Africa), International Training Workshop on Preservation, Presentation and Education on Maritime Cultural Heritage (2010, Alexandria, Egypt). He participated in the 3rd UNESCO Foundation Course on Underwater Cultural Heritage and In-Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2011, Thailand). He joined the National Museums of Kenya in 1999 and currently coordinating underwater archaeological research and underwater cultural heritage management at Fort Jesus museum, Mombasa, Kenya. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime and underwater archaeological explorations in Kenya: Recent discoveries Description An account of the resource Kenya is the first sub-Sahara African country to initiate an underwater archaeological expedition thus legally recognizing the value of underwater cultural heritage. This was after successful survey and excavation of the 17th Century Portuguese shipwreck, Santa Antonio De Tanna, in Mombasa. Kenya coast is part of the Western Indian Ocean; commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’. This coast was a domain of foreigners from the early centuries of the first millennium AD. It was visited by the Greeks; controlled by the Arabs, Portuguese and the Europeans. In addition, it played a major role in ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard linking the Swahili Coast with the Arab world, India sub-continent, Far East and China, America and Europe. Owing to crude navigation and sea faring technologies of the time, there are on the seabed of Kenya traces of these interactions in the form of archaeological remains. Recent studies have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of shipwrecks and has immense potential in underwater cultural heritage. Drawing from ancient literature, previous and current maritime and underwater archaeological studies, and this paper presents the recent discoveries from underwater archaeological surveys in Kenya. The paper illustrates that there is immense potential for underwater archaeology in Kenya that requires new attention both in research and conservation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Caesar Bita, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/19b6abb9f37e5d8b013f90d8faf75a8d.pdf 56461cb3b96b38e611cf8b5239a332ad PDF Text Text Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Sunny O. Ngirmang and Calvin T. Emesiochel1 Abstract Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts & Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey & Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey & Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide detail of their efforts and goals, challenges, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. Palau Island Brief History, Geography & Geology The Palau Island is the westernmost archipelago in the Caroline chain approximately 7 degrees North of the equator, consisting of six island groups totaling more than five hundred high and low islands (only 16 of which are inhabited) including World War II battleground of Peleliu and world-famous mushroom shaped rock islands. The inhabited islands of Palau including from north to south is Kayangel, Babeldaob, Koror, Peleliu, Angaur and the Southwest Island groups. Most of the Islands are encompassed in a barrier reef that stretches for approximately 105 kilometers except for the Southwest Islands Palau lies on a subduction zone causing Babeldaob, the largest island to submerge about a half millimeter per year. Consequently, it is hypothesized according to paleoenvironmental studies that the earlier colonization and settlement sites along the coast of Babeldaob are underwater (Dickinson and Athens 2007). More archaeological data are needed from other possible sites for examination and identification pending comparative analysis. The possibility to access other sites around 1 Bureau of Arts & Culture, Palau Historic Preservation Office, Koror, Republic of Palau 96940 �Palau Pg - 2 - of 8 Micronesia is needed for a further reexamination to cement together proposed hypothesis of early settlement and exclude others. Bureau of Arts & Culture The Bureau is a branch of the Palau National Government responsible for identifying, documenting, protecting, preserving and managing all cultural and historical resources within the Republic First established in 1978, then called the Division of Cultural Affairs and is presently the Bureau of Arts and Culture through Executive Order No. 203 since 2001, is a Palau governmental entity under the Ministry of Community & Cultural Affairs, which mandates a framework for the adequate protection of archaeological sites and tangible cultural resources (Emesiochel 2008:4). Additionally, the Bureau implements Section 106 of the US National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended. The Bureau helps in the implementation of acceptable historic preservation laws in the 16 states of the Republic of Palau. The Bureau receives funds from the Palau National Government and the Historic Preservation Funds from the U.S. National Parks Service, Department of the Interior. The Bureau has a total of 11 staff members. It operates with the advice and assistance from the 16-member Palau Historical and Cultural Advisory Board, 16-member Society of Historians, and 5-member Technical and Professional Review Committee. The mission of the Bureau is to protect and preserve all the Republic’s cultural and historical resources to enhance, enrich, and foster the Palauan heritage now and into the future. To achieve this mission, the Bureau had four main goals: First to preserve and foster cultural and historical resources for the benefit of Palauan people; Second, to preserve and educate Palauan tradition that are threatened with extinction; third, to protect cultural and historical resources from destruction; and finally, to preserve culture and tradition in the face of inevitable increasing foreign contact and interaction. A. Historical & Cultural Preservation Act 19 PNC § 102 Created in 1974, the Palau Historic Preservation Act (PNC Title 19) is administered by the Bureau that is intended to serve as the official inventory of all those historical sites and tangible cultural properties which are deemed of significance to the Palauan people and culture hence worth preserving, plus be protected from destruction and impairment. The Palau Register is the legal instrument to ensure that registered properties or properties that may be eligible, threatened by public or private development will be subject to comment and review in accordance with the procedures prescribed by law. 19 PNC § 134: Each state (and national government) reserves to itself the exclusive right and privilege of ownership and control over historical sites and tangible cultural property located on the lands and waters owned or controlled by the state. A.1 Survey, Inventory and Archaeology The Survey, Inventory and Archaeology Section are the leading responsible for the identification and inventoried of all cultural and historical resources within the Republic. �Palau Pg - 3 - of 8 To carry out this responsibility, we have divided our survey into three phases: First, Babeldaob survey, second, rock island survey then underwater survey. The basis of determining and prioritizing our survey in this way was based on economical, developmental, policy, as well as not enough staff, training and funding to do both surveys at one time. Especially Underwater Cultural Heritage that require more technical skills. Even though data haven’t input into the database, the information of underwater cultural heritage but we do have readily available hard copies that provide descriptive information including coordinates, maps, drawings, and photos. There are records of more than 60 wreck sites are submerged around the Palau lagoons. Some of these sites are very popular for tourist diving spots which are shown on the map. Diving tour companies are really strict as to preserve these sites for their own benefit. They usually report to our office as they found new wrecks or even suspicious action of looting. The issue of Geographic Information System (henceforth referred to as GIS) in Palau and future plan is to centralize a main information office that manages all data. Each government agency should be interconnected to the Information office and have their own GIS program they manage and provide data to the central office. This will allow all agencies to share and upload files from different agencies. But due to lack of funding, only few government offices and NGOs are able to acquire GIS program. Right now, the office of PALARIS - Palau Automated Land and Resource Information System is the office that has well trained and full GIS operation staff. This office is the one that supposedly be the central GIS information office. Short-term Goals • Revisit identified underwater archaeological sites/resources for further analysis of: site condition, assessment, and verification of information, and inventory • Identify immediate threat (deterioration, looting, etc) affecting underwater cultural resources • Develop community and local state government interest and collaboration Long-term Goals • Method of conservation and preservation • Establish a database for underwater archaeological sites/resources • Create a underwater cultural resources management plan to be implemented at the state and national level • Continuous management, protection, and preservation of underwater cultural resources This section assist in public education in “disseminating information and educating the public through presentations and site visits, in order to foster awareness and importance of protecting, preserving, and conserving our cultural heritage that is our national identity for our future generations” (Emesiochel 2008: 8). B. Palau Lagoon Monument 19 PNC § 306 It is hereby declared that it is a policy of the Republic to preserve forever historic landmarks, structures, and other sites and objects of significance to the Republic of the Trust Territory situated within the jurisdiction of the Republic for the inspiration and benefit of the people of the Republic. �Palau Pg - 4 - of 8 All ships, other vessels and aircraft, and any and all parts and contents thereof, which formerly belonged to or were part of the armed forces or commercial fleet of Spain, Germany, Japan, and the United States or any other nation, which were sunk to or otherwise deposited on the bottom of the Palau Lagoon and its territorial waters, subject to applicable salvage laws, shall be and hereby are set apart as monuments which shall be collectively called the Palau Lagoon Monument. The administration, protection, and development of the monument shall be exercised under the direction of the President of the Republic or his duly authorized representatives. The strictness of this law, give us enough time to seek assistance and trainings to accomplish the survey and inventory of the underwater cultural heritage of Palau. In order to convict someone for violating the Palau Lagoon Monument, the government must prove that the individual (1) removes, appropriates, damages, or destroys (2) ships, other vessels or aircraft (or parts thereof), which formally belonged to the armed forces or commercial fleet of any nation and which are at the bottom of the Palau lagoon. C. Types/Categories of Underwater Cultural Resources The most notable types of UCH sites within the Republic are the WWII wrecks located mostly in the Southern Lagoon. There are more than 60 WWII ship and aircraft wrecks sites in Palau. The wrecks sites are popular tourists dive spots. Tourists who decide to dive the wrecks are educated in the types of ship, ship content, and their components. Captain Wilson’s shipwreck of 1783 off the Coast of Ulong Island is also a well-known site. The Antelope shipwreck site is under the control of the Koror State Government. Some of the ship’s remnants can be seen during low tide. Other UHC sites are locally known by the form of myths and folklore for instance is the sunken City of Ngibtal. Fish trapping sites, stone docks/piers, underwater burial sites, and submerged landmarks are known UCH sites which are found in different parts of Palau – all are protected under Title 19. Other known but not fully documented is the numerous Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport from Palau to Yap. These large stones or “megaliths” were quarried in Palau by Yapese islanders prior to European contact (Hazell and Fitzpatrick 2006:12). During their several hundred kilometers of oceanic voyage to Yap, some vessels transporting the money disks capsized, leaving a trail of money disks from several trips on the ocean floor. It is not yet certain where exactly these money disks are located. There has yet to be a full documentary, mapping, and surveying of the Yapese stone money disks under the waters of Palau. Recent work by Scott M. Fitzpatrick in the management and protection of the quarry sites provides the opportunity for the local communities in Palau and Yap to take lead in the preservation of such sites. The proposed management plan covers sites located inland. Sites or money disks underwater are also given the same amount of attention and protection it deserve once the sites have been identified. One of Palau’s local community leader and well-known scuba diver Francis Toribiong takes lead in the advocacy and protection of UCH sites in the Republic. �Palau Pg - 5 - of 8 As part of public education and outreach, the Bureau in collaboration with Palau Visitors Authority, the Belau National Museum, and local state government aims to promote community awareness on the types of underwater cultural heritage. From the shipwrecks to sunken city and to the Yapese megaliths, Palau aims to increase the fascination and value into the preservation and conservation of UCH sites. D. Tourism, location, and accessibility Palau was the headquarters of the Japanese command in Micronesia and was heavily fortified by the Japanese in the years leading up to WWII in the Pacific. Malakal Harbor was a major forward supply base for Japanese shipping. On March 31, 1944 U.S. dive-bomber strikes from aircraft carriers Yorktown and Bunker Hill, of Carrier Task Force 58 destroyed over 50 warships and airplanes of the Japanese Imperial Forces, making Palau's western lagoon their final resting place. Most of the wrecks are located within a few minutes of Sam's Tours dive center and remain in excellent condition for diving. Each year in March, Sam Scott of Sam's Tours hosts Palau Wreck Week to mark the anniversary of the sinking of the Japanese fleet. WWII shipwreck sites are mainly located in Palau’s Southern Lagoon in Koror, the states of Peleliu and Angaur and other sites around the coast of Babeldaob. Most of Palau’s dive shop, naming for instance Sam’s Dive Tour offer services, kayak, and dives to the WWII wrecks. Provided in the tour, the dive operator educates the tourist basic information of the wreck. There are 10 popular wreck dive sites which Sam’s Tour takes their clients for diving. Accessibility to the sites is not restricted; tour operators can freely access the wreck for photo taking, kayak, and other recreational activities. E. Current legislation, Preservation and Management of Underwater cultural resources Aside from PLM, local conservation legislations and regulations pertaining to the protection and management of UCH sites are very minimal. The permits or MOA’s administered by the office of the President of stipulations of the management and treatment of UCH sites are only created in the event such salvage, research, etc arises. With the exception of Title19 and PLM, the Protected Areas Network Act (henceforth referred to as PAN) and the Micronesia Challenge established in 2007 aims to protect not only terrestrial cultural heritage but up to 20% of marine areas including where such UCH sites are located. Since there is not a definite line where the 20% occupies, it would be logical to deduce that such percentage be broken accordingly to where high concentration of UCH sites are found. Included in the 20% however should be reserved also for the protection and preservation of high marine biodiversity areas. To be protected under PAN, local state government endorses the PAN Act and agrees to the stipulations and guidelines under PAN to ensure full resource safeguarding. In turn, the sites designated by the states as PAN sites are eligible for funding and other opportunities for the effective management of the sites. Local state governments take full responsibility in the protection of the UCH sites located within their municipal boundaries. Such legislation, rules and regulations or guidelines must address the proper protection, monitoring, and research around the areas. Special cases such as the salvage of a particular vessel or parts thereof will be �Palau Pg - 6 - of 8 under the unified consensus and understanding between the foreign entity, the state government, and the President with the cooperation and guidance from the Bureau. F. Threats The ever changing climatic changes, erosion, and oil spills are potential yet inevitable threats to marine cultural heritage. The supposed submerged landscape such as the City of Ngibtal is prone to heavy silt erosion due to development projects inland. As Palau is eagerly searching for economic and financial stability during this present-day world financial crisis, Palau may explore other sources of renewable sources of energy such as water currents which could inevitably have serious impacts to UCH sites. The lack of or minimal legislation in place which specifies the integrity of UCH sites makes these sites at risk of improper handling and inadequate recording or data recovery. Salvage of particular artifacts, relics, or components of a UCH site when exposed to the elements may oxidize hence damage to the object. This possibility will hinder any salvage attempts but will not impede any foreign entity to reclaim their objects. The parts of some vessels of WWII ships are exposed during low tide. This exposure speeds up oxidation and the deterioration. More attention needs to be made from the administrative center in charge of and mandates UCH sites within the Republic. G. Status of Salvage Any foreign entity wishing to salvage parts of or contents of any submerged vessel shall comply with the provisions outlined in the rules and regulations of the Palau Lagoon Monument section of Title 19. A signed memorandum of agreement between the foreign entity and the Republic of Palau government must agree to the outlined stipulations in the memorandum. Usually before any salvage, proper research and documentation of the wreck site, the parts, and contents to be salvage are conducted. Salvage instances seldom occurs in Palau. The expense of research and data recovery rests on the foreign entity wishing to repatriate their artifacts. Entities wishing to repatriate goes through a series of negotiation with the Palau Government stating intention and the need of such artifacts being returned. H. Case Study Republic of Palau (plaintiff) v. Cameron James Avenell, Matthew Young, Richard Sumor, David Tansey, and Ian McCombie; ROP vs. Avenell, 13 ROP 272 (Tr. Div. 2006) Criminal Action No. 06-072 Mr. Cameron Avenell and Mr. Matthew Young, the remaining defendants where charged for removing pieces of artifacts from shipwrecks. These shipwrecks have been declared by low to be preserved as “Palau Lagoon Monument”. The Government charged the defendants for their conduct with counts based on the Palau Lagoon Monument Act. The divers took artifacts from Amatsu Maru wreck, Chuyu Maru wreck, Ryuku Maru wreck and an unidentified forth wreck. Amongst the artifacts found during the search resulted in the recovery of a porthole, a compass, a frame, lanterns, light bulb covers, and porthole frames. The artifacts were recovered from the Lionwind vessel operated by divers. �Palau Pg - 7 - of 8 Francis Toribiong and the Republic of Palau (plaintiffs) v. John C. Gibbons, Koror State Executive Administrator, et al. Civil Action No. 451-91; 24 September 1993 Plaintiffs allege that Koror Sate intends to dismantle or remove a World War II Zero fighter airplane which is located under the Palau lagoon at the depth of approximately sixty feet. They allege that such removal would violate the provisions of 19 PNC § 301 et seq. because the Zero is part of the Palau Lagoon Monument. The relief sought by the Plaintiffs is a declaratory judgment that Koror State may not remove or dismantle the Zero without complying with the Lagoon Monument Act and that it be permanently enjoined from the removing or dismantling the Zero unless it obtains a permit to do so pursuant to the Lagoon Monument Act. Plaintiffs have proven by a preponderance of the of the evidence that the airplane at issue herein is a Zero formerly a part of the armed forces of Japan and that is has been sunk or otherwise deposited on the bottom of the Palau lagoon. Section 304 of the Lagoon Monument Act requires that, before a person may gain access to a monument aircraft to examine it or gather objects from it, a permit must be obtained from the President of his duly authorized representatives. Similarly, section 306 provides for penalties for any person who removes such aircraft or any part thereof without first obtaining permission from the President. Koror State contends that it does not have to comply with the Lagoon Monument Act by obtaining a permit to gain access to or otherwise deal with the Zero because (1) under Article I, Section 2 of the ROP Constitution, Koror State is the owner of the Zero, and the owner can “do what he pleases with what he owns”; (2) the Republic of Palau’s regulatory power are limited by Koror State’s right to own and derive revenues from exploiting state resources; (3) the Lagoon Monument is unconstitutional as sought to be applied here because, without compensation, it takes away Koror State’s right to exploit and derive revenues from the Zero; and (4) absent regulations, the Republic of Palau has no rights under the Lagoon Monument Act. Conclusion Currently, there is only three staff within the Bureau with adequate training on maritime archaeology. The minimal expertise available within the Bureau reduces the speed of anticipated surveys and monitoring. In addition, there is no other available expertise on island particularly in maritime archaeology. Due to a very few certified trainees in underwater archaeology and courses on island, the support of such discipline is minimal. Public interest is high however there is a lack of available resources for the proper education and awareness of underwater archaeology. The Bureau is always looking for opportunities plus welcomes any opportunity that offers the adequate training, education, and the right tools in assessing, monitoring, and managing UCH sites. The Palau Community College offers a course in archaeology but short of the resources to expose students in underwater archaeology. The college aims to seek available programs that are geared towards the protection of marine cultural heritage which is a much needed field in Palau. In addition, such opportunity will help increase in the public awareness and advocacy and the potential push needed to help create new �Palau Pg - 8 - of 8 or strengthening existing legislations for the protection of UCH sites at the state and national level. Bibliography Bailey, D. E., 1991 Dickinson, W. R., and Athens J. S., 2007 Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2008 Flatman, J., 2009 Emesiochel, C. T., 2008 Hazell, L. C., and Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2006 Liston, J., 2009 Olsudong, R., (M.A.) et al., Palau National Code Title 19 1982 Sam’s Tours WWII Wrecks of Palau, North Valley Diver Publications, California. Holocene Paleoshoreline and Paleoenvironmental History of Palau: Implications for Human Settlement. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 2(2):175-196 Maritime interregional interaction in Micronesia: Deciphering multigroup contacts and exchange systems through time. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27 (2008) Pp. 131-147 Preservation and management for Yapese Stone Money sites in Palau and Yap. Editorial. Conserving Marine Cultural Heritage: Threats, Risks, and Future Priorities. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites (11):1 Pp. 5-8 Palau County Report: Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection: Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains. Nara: Japan The maritime transport of prehistoric megaliths in Micronesia. Archaeol. Oceania 41 (2006) Pp. 12-24 Cultural Chronology of Earthworks in Palau, Western Micronesia. Archaeol. Oceania 44 (2009) Pp. 56-73 Draft: Inventory of Cultural Sites and Oral History in Melekeok and Irai. Palau: Bureau of Arts & Culture (1997) Draft: Inventory of Cultural & Historical Sites and Oral History in Ngarrard State. Vol. I: Inventory of Cultural and Historical sites. Palau: Bureau of Arts & Culture (2000) Cultural and Historical Preservation Act www.samstours.com, accessed Oct 11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts & Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey & Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey & Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide detail of their efforts and goals, challenges, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sunny O. Ngirmang Calvin T. Emesiochel Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/23cb459153f3a69510e47bd7f7d3821b.pdf 5a7c81c64b13144c78287b3eabdb7d1b PDF Text Text Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Sunny O. Ngirmang and Calvin T. Emesiochel Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture, Koror, Republic of Palau 96940 Email: bac_reg@palaunet.com Abstract Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide details of efforts, challenges and goals, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. In addition, give an overview of the latest UCH training, sponsored by UNESCO, which was held in Palau and plans moving forward to increasing the advocacy of UCH in the Pacific Region, particularly Micronesia. Key words: Palau, WWII, Pacific, Micronesia, Yapese Stone Money Introduction Cultural heritage protection by means of public education is an effective medium for the positive awareness at local community level. In addition, it provides enough force for capacity building of key stakeholders or advocates and other leaders to set the stage for community level goals towards cultural resource management mechanisms. This will 1 �promote effective and sustainable resource management, training, public education and awareness, and advocacy that will instigate community based efforts and goals in preserving archaeological heritage sites. Cultural resource management will allocate the awareness of traditional cultural heritage that would embody sustainability and sensitivity towards cultural heritage. Underwater cultural heritage offer a vast selection of heritage wealth for the understanding and interpretation of our past. Underwater archaeology has yet to receive its much-needed recognition and appreciation within the Palauan community since the field is not fully popularized. This report examines the current situation within the Bureau of Arts and Culture (BAC) and its subdivisions particularly the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section of their efforts and goals pertaining to the management of underwater cultural resources. In addition, provide the outcome of the most recent Palau Underwater Archaeology Training in 2013. Palau Island Brief History, Geography and Geology The Palau Island is the westernmost archipelago in the Caroline chain approximately 7 degrees North of the equator, consisting of six island groups totaling more than five hundred high and low islands (only 16 of which are inhabited) including World War II battleground of Peleliu and world-famous mushroom shaped rock islands. The inhabited islands of Palau including from north to south is Kayangel, Babeldaob, Koror, Peleliu, Angaur and the Southwest Island groups. Most of the Islands are encompassed in a barrier reef that stretches for approximately 105 km except for the Southwest Islands. Palau lies on a subduction zone causing Babeldaob, the largest island, to submerge about a half millimeter per year. Consequently, it is hypothesized according to paleoenvironmental studies that the earlier colonization and settlement sites along the coast of Babeldaob are underwater (Dickinson and Stephen, 2007). More archaeological data is needed from other possible sites for examination and identification pending comparative analysis. The possibility to access other sites around Micronesia is needed for a further reexamination to cement together a proposed hypothesis of early settlement and exclude others. Role of Agency: Bureau of Arts and Culture The Bureau of Arts and Culture is a branch of the Palau National Government responsible for identifying, documenting, protecting, preserving and managing all 2 �cultural and historical resources within the Republic. First established in 1978, the Bureau of Arts and Culture - then called the Division of Cultural Affairs - and later renamed under the Executive Order No. 203 since 2001- is a Palau governmental entity under the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs, which mandates a framework for the adequate protection of archaeological sites and tangible cultural resources (Emesiochel, 2008: 4). Additionally, the Bureau implements Section 106 of the US National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended. The Bureau helps in the implementation of acceptable historic preservation laws in the 16 states of the Republic of Palau. The Bureau receives funds from the Palau National Government and the Historic Preservation Funds from the U.S. National Parks Service, Department of the Interior. The Bureau has nine staff members. It operates with the advice and assistance from the 16 members Palau Historical and Cultural Advisory Board, 16 members Society of Historians, and 5 members Technical and Professional Review Committee. The mission of the Bureau is to protect and preserve all the Republic’s cultural and historical resources to enhance, enrich, and foster the Palauan heritage now and into the future. To achieve this mission, the Bureau had four main goals: First, to preserve and foster cultural and historical resources for the benefit of Palauan people; second, to preserve and educate Palauan tradition that are threatened with extinction; third, to protect cultural and historical resources from destruction; and finally, to preserve culture and tradition in the face of inevitable increasing foreign contact and interaction. Historical and Cultural Preservation Act Title 19 PNC § 102. Created in 1974, the Palau Historic Preservation Act (PNC Title 19) is administered by the Bureau of Arts and Culture that is intended to serve as the official inventory of all those historical sites and tangible cultural properties, which are deemed of significance to the Palauan people and culture. Their significance makes them worth preserving, and protecting from destruction and impairment. The Palau Register is the legal instrument to ensure that registered properties or properties that may be eligible, threatened by public or private development will be subject to comment and review in accordance with the procedures prescribed by law. Title 19 PNC § 134: Each state reserves to itself the exclusive right and privilege of ownership and control over historical sites and tangible cultural property located on the lands and waters owned or controlled by the state. 3 �Section 134 allows the state government to create legislations for the protection of their UCH sites not limited to the foreign vessels located within their boundaries. The creation of the legislation is however at the discretion of the state. If the state does not have legislation in place, the state would comply with the procedures outlined in PNC Title19. Sites located underwater that may suffer potential damage or displacement during a development project are subject to and must comply with the rules, regulations, and provisions outlined in the PLM Act of PNC Title 19 through the project review process. Currently, all WWII wreck sites as well as the Yapese stone money disks on the shores of rock islands and the bottom of the sea plus other known or unknown submerged landscapes are not listed on the Palau Register of Historic Places. The BAC Survey and Inventory/Archaeology section has yet to perform a thorough underwater survey of the sites. Survey and Inventory/Archaeology The Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section is the leading responsible body for the identification and inventory of all cultural and historical resources within the Republic. To carry out this responsibility, we have divided our survey into three phases: First, Babeldaob survey; second, rock island survey; then, underwater survey. The basis for determining and prioritizing our survey this way is based on economical, developmental, and policy factors, as well as a lack of staff, training and funding to do both surveys at the same time, especially Underwater Cultural Heritage that requires a more technical set of skills. The issue and plan of GIS in Palau and plan is to centralize a main information office that manages all data. Each relevant government agency should be interconnected to the Information office and have their own GIS program they manage and provide data to the central office. This will allow all agencies to share and upload files from different agencies. But due to lack of funding, only few government offices and NGOs are able to acquire a GIS program. Short-term Goals  Revisit identified underwater archaeological sites/resources for further analysis of site condition, assessment, and verification of information, and inventory  Identify immediate threat (deterioration, looting,) affecting underwater cultural resources 4 � Develop community and local state government interest and collaboration Long-term Goals  Method of conservation and preservation  Establish a database for underwater archaeological sites/resources  Create an underwater cultural resource management plan to be implemented at the state and national level  Continuous management, protection, and preservation of underwater cultural resources This section assist in public education in “disseminating information and educating the public through presentations and site visits, in order to foster awareness and importance of protecting, preserving, and conserving our cultural heritage that is our national identity for our future generations” (Emesiochel, 2008: 8). Palau Lagoon Monument 19 PNC § 306 It is hereby declared that it is a policy of the Republic to preserve foreverhistoric landmarks, structures, and other sites and objects of significance to the Republic of the Trust Territory situated within the jurisdiction of the Republic for the inspiration and benefit of the people of the Republic. All ships, other vessels and aircraft, and any and all parts and contents thereof, which formerly belonged to or were part of the armed forces or commercial fleet of Spain, Germany, Japan, and the United States or any other nation, which were sunk to or otherwise deposited on the bottom of the Palau Lagoon and its territorial waters, subject to applicable salvage laws, shall be and hereby are set apart as monuments which shall be collectively called the “Palau Lagoon Monument”. The administration, protection, and development of the monument shall be exercised under the direction of the President of the Republic or his duly authorized representatives. The strictness of this law, give us enough time to seek assistance and trainings to accomplish the survey and inventory of the underwater cultural heritage of Palau. In order to convict someone for violating the Palau Lagoon Monument, the government must prove that the individual (1) removes, appropriates, damages, or 5 �destroys (2) ships, other vessels or aircraft (or parts thereof), which formally belonged to the armed forces or commercial fleet of any nation and which are at the bottom of the Palau lagoon. Types/Categories of Underwater Cultural Resources The most notable types of UCH sites within the Republic are the WWII wrecks located mostly in the Rock Island Southern Lagoon (World Heritage Site – 2012). There are more than 60 WWII ship and aircraft (see Fig. 1 for sample aircraft) wreck sites in Palau (Bailey, 1991). The wrecks sites are popular tourists dive spots. Tourists who decide to dive the wrecks are educated on the types of ship, ship content, and their components. In the form of myths, locally known UHC sites and folklore for instance is the sunken City of Ngibtal. Fish trapping sites, stone docks/piers, underwater burial sites, and submerged landmarks (Olsudong et al., 1997 and 2000) are known UCH sites that are found in different parts of Palau – all are protected under Title19 PNC Chapter 1. Other known material that is not fully documented is the numerous Yapese stone money disks (Fig. 2) which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport from Palau to Yap. Yapese islanders quarried these large stones or “megaliths” in Palau prior to European contact (Hazell and Scott, 2006: 12). During their oceanic voyage to Yap, which expanded several hundred kilometers, some vessels transporting the money disks capsized, leaving a trail of money disks from several trips on the ocean floor. It is not yet certain where exactly these money disks are located. There has yet to be a full documented, mapping, and surveyed report of the Yapese stone money disks under the waters of Palau. Recent work by Fitzpatrick (2008a, 2008b) in the management and protection of the quarry sites provides the opportunity for the local communities in Palau and Yap to take lead in the preservation of such sites. The proposed management plan covers sites located inland. Sites or money disks underwater are also given the same amount of attention and protection it deserve once the sites have been identified. Francis Toribiong, one of Palau’s local community leaders and a well-known scuba diver, has taken the lead in the advocacy and protection of UCH sites in the Republic. As part of public education and outreach projects, BAC in collaboration with PVA, the Belau National Museum, and local state government aims to promote community awareness 6 �of the types of underwater cultural heritage. From the shipwrecks to sunken city and to the Yapese megaliths, Palau aims to increase the fascination and value into the preservation and conservation of UCH sites. Fig. 1 (left)Jake Seaplane - History: A Japanese - Aichi E13A1-1 Navy Floatplane, built in 1941. The seaplane is a long range and high speed reconnaissance seaplane, 3-seat, single engine, twin float, 15 hr maximum endurance, range of 1,128 nautical miles. Primary role – bombing missions against land and shipping targets, air-sea rescues, staff transport and kamikaze sorties and destroyed in 1944. Today, the seaplane sits upright, mostly intact; artifacts around the site are radios, ammunition – small bomb inside cockpit to the right of the aft seat. Marine life surrounding the site consists of crocodile fish, Batfish, Octopus, Cuttlefish, whitecap Shrimp and Nudi branches. The marine life in surrounding shallow patch reef – Sponges, Staghorn Lettuce, Brain, and Table corals, small sea whips and colorful juvenile tropical fish. (Bailey, 1991; Emesiochel 2013 Palau Underwater Archaeological Training field notes) Fig. 2 (right)The site is Uet el Daob ma Uet el Chutem, a Yapese Quarry site on Orrak Island, Airai state. The Orrak Island site is undergoing UNESCO World Heritage nomination process as a Transboundary site with Mangyol Money Bank in Yap. (Scott M. Fitzpatrick, 2002, Airai, Palau) Tourism, location and accessibility Palau was the headquarters of the Japanese command in Micronesia and was heavily fortified by the Japanese in the years leading up to WWII in the Pacific. Malakal Harbor was a major forward supply base for Japanese shipping. On March 31, 1944 U.S. divebomber strikes from aircraft carriers Yorktown and Bunker Hill, of Carrier Task Force 58 destroyed over 50 warships and airplanes of the Japanese Imperial Forces, making Palau's western lagoon their final resting place (Bailey, 1991). Most of the wreck are located within a few minutes of Sam's Tours dive center and remain in excellent condition for diving. Each year in March, Sam Scott of Sam's Tours hosts Palau Wreck Week to mark the anniversary of the sinking of the Japanese fleet. WWII shipwreck sites are mainly located in Palau’s Southern Lagoon in Koror, the states of Peleliu and 7 �Angaur and other sites around the coast of Babeldaob. Most of Palau’s dive shops offer services, kayak, and dives to these WWII wrecks. Provided in the tour, the dive operator educates the tourist on basic information about the wreck. There are 10 popular wreck dive sites, which Sam’s Tour takes their clients for diving. Accessibility to the sites is not restricted; tour operators can freely access the wreck for photo taking, kayak, and other recreational activities. Most of the Palau tour agencies with the assistance of Palau Visitors Authority (PVA) promote eco-tourism and eco-heritage. Such promotion provides incentive to state legislatures to create or strengthen exciting laws pertaining to UCH sites within their boundaries. Current legislation, Preservation and Management of Underwater cultural resources Aside from PLM, local conservation legislations and regulations pertaining to the protection and management of UCH sites are minimal. The permit or MOA is administered by the office of the President for the stipulations of the management and treatment of UCH sites are only created in the event such salvage and research arises. With the exception of PNC 19 and PLM, the Protected Areas Network Act (PAN) and the Micronesia Challenge established in 2007 aims to protect not only terrestrial area up to 20% but also includes a 30% of marine areas where possible UCH sites are located. Since there is not a definite line where the 30% occupies, it would be logical to deduce that such percentage would be broken accordingly to where high concentrations of UCH sites are found. Included in the 30% there should be space reserved for the protection and preservation of high marine biodiversity areas. To be protected under PAN, local state government has to endorse the PAN Act and agree to the stipulations and guidelines under the Act to ensure full resource safeguarding. In turn, the sites designated by the states as PAN sites are eligible for funding and other opportunities for the effective management of the sites. Local state governments take full responsibility in the protection of the UCH sites located within their municipal boundaries. Such legislation, rules and regulations must address the proper protection, monitoring, and research around the areas. Special cases such as the salvage of a particular vessel or parts thereof will be under the unified consensus and understanding between the 8 �foreign entity, the state government, and the President with the cooperation and guidance from the BAC office. “Public involvement and interest in the underwater cultural heritage is at an all-time high, but, paradoxically, one of the major problems as regards marine-zone development and the historic environment remain that of convincing the government and the general public alike to consider cultural heritage within environmental impact assessments, and to see the protection of cultural heritage as not only a moral, social imperative but also as an economic one” (Flatman, 2009). UCH conservation is relatively new. Nevertheless, Palau is willing to take part in any capacity building opportunities for training to effectively manage underwater heritage. This will provide a foundational guidance to the local stakeholders and state government the necessary tools to build their conservation program to include the proper management of their known (and unknown) UCH sites. Threats The ever changing climatic changes, erosion, and looting are potential yet inevitable threats to marine cultural heritage. Climate change is a slow inevitable threat to semisubmerged sites and other coastal properties as it continues to change the physical characteristics of the area. This either alters the features or displaces them from the site. Unexploded Remnants of War (ERW) that leaks out picric acid, oil, and maybe other harmful elements are increasing threats to the livelihood of wreck divers and local community, environment as well as the heritage itself. There is an ongoing project at the famous Helmet Wreck dive site to remove fused depth charges. There are no thorough survey of all the wrecks to understand the extent of EWR and its impact on marine life. Salvage of particular artifacts, relics, or components of a UCH site when exposed to the elements may oxidize, which damages the objects. This possibility will hinder any salvage attempts but will not impede any foreign entity to reclaim their objects. Available expertise and Current Trainings Currently, there are only two staff members within the Palau HPO with adequate training on maritime archaeology. With the assistance from UNESCO’s Participant Program, Palau through the Bureau of Arts and Culture was able to secure funding to 9 �perform a three-week training course on Underwater Cultural Heritage from November 18 to December 06, 2013. Through this training, we were able to achieve valuable lessons: i. Educate local partners the benefits of the UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage ii. Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training program a. Introduction to Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology b. Part 1, Certificate in Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology c. Part 2, Intermediate Certificate in Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology iii. Study Tours – Peleliu and Koror State Southern Lagoon World Heritage Sites iv. Development of a Palau Underwater Cultural Heritage Team (PUCHT) a. Recording and documentation of UCH in Palau Through the Underwater Archaeology Training program, Dr. William Jeffrey of Flinders University and his associate Luis Cabral from the Guam Department of Education were able to train and certify 10 Palauans and 1 American environmental graduate student from the University of Guam in UCH surveying, conservation and preservation techniques. The UCH training gained a great number of supports from the local state governments, environmental NGO’s in Palau, as well as the Palau National Congress. This amount of support from the Bureau of Arts and Culture partner agencies encourages the Bureau to seek more funding from UNESCO to do more UCH trainings beyond technical skills. More importantly, this would help toward the completion of the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) certificate training program of Part 3 and Part 4. This request came through the Bureau by the state government if there is a possibility to do more training in 2014. The success of the training will be shared during the 2014 Asia-Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Honolulu. It is hoped that more publicity could build solid networking and interest to bring in more training opportunities to Palau. Training outcomes included: i. Trained 10 Palauans who have worked together very effectively in conducting a 3Dimensional survey and two quick 2-D surveys of 3 underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites in Koror and Airai States. 10 �ii. Can now work together on future Palauan UCH projects in combination of further training. iii. Well recorded and documented the Jake Seaplane that with further research could be nominated for the Palau National Register of Historic Places or the US National Register of Historic Places. iv. The cohorts have the capacity to conduct surveys of all types of underwater cultural heritage (tangible and intangible). Conclusion In conclusion, we are a small island nation and still in the process of getting ourselves to improve our capacity building and awareness regarding our UCH. We are hoping that the participants who just finished the UCH training will help the agency on both human resource and public awareness. We are also looking forward to seek any other sources to expand the capacity and awareness to the states so we can assist both working side by side to enhance the protection and preservation of our underwater cultural heritage. Acknowledgement We would like to take this opportunity and to extend our deep appreciation to the organizer of the conference that gave us the opportunity to participate and share the Role of the Agency regarding UCH heritage in the Republic of Palau. We would like to also thank all the participants for their contribution and experiences that will help paved us our way to improve and enhance our approach to our heritage. References Bailey, D. E., 1991 WWII Wrecks of Palau. California: North Valley Diver Publications, California. Dickinson, W. R., and Stephen, A. J., 2007. Holocene Paleoshoreline and Paleoenvironmental History of Palau: Implications for Human Settlement. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Vol. 2 (2): 175-196. Emesiochel, C. T., 2008. Palau County Report: Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection: Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains. ACCU Nara, Japan. 11 �Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2008a. Maritime interregional interaction in Micronesia: Deciphering multi-group contacts and exchange systems through time. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, Vol. 27: 131-147. Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2008b. Preservation and Management for Yapese Stone Money sites in Palau and Yap, Palau HPO. Palau. Flatman, J., 2009. Editorial. Conserving Marine Cultural Heritage: Threats, Risks, and Future Priorities. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, Vol. (11) 1: 58. Hazell, L. C., and Scott, M. F., 2006. The maritime transport of prehistoric megaliths in Micronesia. Archaeology Oceania, Vol. 41: 12-24. Olsudong, R., Calvin T. E., and Errolflynn, T. K., 1997. Draft: Inventory of Cultural Sites and Oral History in Melekeok and Irai, Bureau of Arts and Culture, Palau. Olsudong, R., Calvin, T. E., and Errolflynn, T., K., 2000. Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture, Draft: Inventory of Cultural and Historical Sites and Oral History in Ngarrard State, Vol. I: Inventory of Cultural and Historical sites, Bureau of Arts and Culture, Palau. Biography Sunny O. Ngirmang is currently the Director/HPO of the Bureau of Arts and Culture, also known as Palau Historic Preservation Office of the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs of the Palau National Government. Ever since in her post in the Bureau four years ago, she has attended several trainings, conferences, workshops and other activities related to managing, preserving and protecting historical and cultural heritage both in the state, national, regional and international level. She is passionate about cultural resource management of Palau’s tangible and intangible heritage. Calvin T. Emesiochel is currently the Deputy HPO of the Bureau of Arts and Culture, also known as Palau Historic Preservation Office of the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs of the Palau National Government. Emesiochel has over 12 years of extensive archaeological experience including extensive knowledge in GIS and Access database management, Section 106, surveying, and CRM. He is a certified PADI diver since 2002 with experience in underwater archaeological surveying techniques and also NAS Part 1 and Part 2 certified since 2006. He is passionate about the preservation and protection of the Palauan tangible and intangible heritage. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Description An account of the resource Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide details of efforts, challenges and goals, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. In addition, give an overview of the latest UCH training, sponsored by UNESCO, which was held in Palau and plans moving forward to increasing the advocacy of UCH in the Pacific Region, particularly Micronesia. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sunny O. Ngirmang Calvin T. Emesiochel, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d8d9714ea01741734d9379eccaaa5c10.pdf 07ee134fc48130fa36d35bc2699a5a9d PDF Text Text The Southeast Asian Galleon Trade: A process towards a re-assessment of human-environment interaction Jennifer Craig and Carl Hughes McGill University Indian Ocean World Centre Montreal, Canada H3A 0E6 Email: Jennifer.craig2@mail.mcgill.ca Email: carl.hughes@mail.mcgill.ca Abstract In 1939, William Schurz published ‘The Manila Galleon’ that has been considered a seminal work in maritime history (in the English language). In it, he proposed the shipping route of the galleon trade in the Pacific Ocean during the 16th to 19th centuries. The directional flow of goods were purported to enter eastern Southeast Asia through the Philippine archipelago at the San Bernardino Strait. The same strait was also used as the exit point by the galleons that travelled northeast out of East Asia and east bound across the Pacific. This paper will reconsider Schurz’s hypothesis with input from up to date analyses based on environmental data. Our results are displayed in layers on digital seascape in a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) format? These layers include detailed water-surface topography (small islands, atolls, reefs) as well as the dynamic atmospheric and oceanic environment. The data for these layers were gathered from accessible online datasets generated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These datasets were then reconfigured into algorithms and models for use in a set of geovisualizations using GIS and Google Earth. This is overlaid with Schurz’s hypothesized historic shipping route. The results are a comparison of human-environment interaction and a re-assessment of a 75 year old hypothesis. Keywords: Chart, Digital, Geovisualizations, Manila Galleon, Maritime, Pacific Ocean Introduction This paper is a case study and part of a larger project that re-evaluates historians’ works on shipping routes in Southeast Asia from the 14th to mid-18th centuries CE (Common Era) for maritime archaeology purposes. It discusses the methodology to produce dynamic charts that visually represent human-environment interaction. The 1 �direct comparison of contemporary data on human activity and environment action was problematic because there is little information on maritime environment data prior to the mid-19th century. To overcome this issue, we incorporated recent atmospheric and oceanic data generated from readily available reputable sources. The results are an original figure of a chart created in 1939 and three charts created using GIS software. The first figure is William Schurz’s interpretation based on the Spanish archives. Of the three figures created by this exercise, the first chart is a detailed shipping route through the Philippines for the eastward journey. Schurz did not repeat the details for the westward journey but he inferred similar directions that were followed through the Philippines to Manila. The second chart showed the breadth of the possible shipping routes eastward bound for the Americas. The third chart showed the breadth of possible shipping routes westward bound across the Pacific Ocean. Schurz’s hypothesis William Schurz’s (1939) ‘The Manila Galleon’ is considered a seminal work in maritime history (in the English language). Part of the reason why the book had such impact was because it contained The Chart of the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 1; henceforth known as Schurz’s Chart). This is a visual representation of Schurz’s hypothesis of past Spanish shipping activity through the Philippines, across the Pacific Ocean and along the western coast of the Americas. However, the choice to include the figure at the beginning of the book is confusing because the chart did not represent Schurz’s whole discussion but only one of his subsections of a chapter. The subsection titled The Route (Schurz, 1939: 216-250) is summarized in Schurz’s Chart. Fig. 1 The Chart of the Pacific Ocean. (Schurz, 1939: no number) Image enhancement by Rachid Hedjam with Synchromedia laboratory, Ecole de technologiesuperieure de Montreal, University of Quebec, Canada. One can see from this figure that Schurz included the multiple possible routes the Spanish took to establish trade in Southeast Asia. Some of his directions may seem 2 �uncharacteristic of sailing; for example, when the ships heading eastbound suddenly switched direction from northeast to directly east. Other directions were unclear perhaps due to the scale of the chart, such as the route through the Philippines. The environment these voyages took place was highly dynamic; with air and water movement being the major contributors to the decision-making of shipping activity timing and location but the figure did not include this information. In fact, the water and air look placid, and appears practically non-existent. Perhaps this is a restriction during the time of writing because his text provided details of a very dynamic environment. Schurz expects his readers to be familiar with major planetary environment. For example, he writes of prevailing winds. Understanding where these winds blow are central to appreciating the degrees of latitude ships sailed on the Pacific Ocean’s east and west bound routes. Due to the Universal Laws of Gravity between the Earth, the Sun and the Moon, prevailing winds consistently blow across the Pacific Ocean eastward in the prevailing westerlies belt at latitudes 30º to 60º and westwards in the north-east trade winds belt between 5º to 30º(Thurman and Trujillo, 2001). Schurz’s exclusion of major water currents is not surprising. At the time of this publication, humans knew next to nothing about the seabed. In 1940, the Woods Hole Institute had just gathered survey information on the Indian Ocean and it was not until 1967 that Mary Tharp had completed her drawings of the bathometric rift and published her results in Mercador’s World (Tharp, 1967). Since then, oceanographers have discovered the planet’s ocean water currents are caused by the prevailing winds and effects of temperature caused by the Earth’s molten core seeping through the Earth’s Crust at seabed rifts (Thurman and Trujillo, 2001). In the Pacific Ocean, the atmospheric and oceanic action is separated by the Equator into Northern and Southern Hemispheres (Thurman and Trujillo, 2001). In both hemispheres, Subtropical Gyres are formed by the circulatory movement of water currents caused by the California Rift and Mariana Trench, along with wind direction caused by prevailing winds. The currents that form the north Pacific Subtropical Gyre are the Kuroshio Current, at approximately 15º latitude off the east coast of the Philippines, flowing northeast out of the Philippine Sea; to the east flowing the North Pacific Current; to the south, flowing California Current and returns westward across the Pacific Ocean from latitude 10-15º with the North 3 �Equatorial Current (Thurman and Trujillo, 2001). Although these are major systems of the Earth’s planetary causes there are other seasonal environmental effects. One of the seasonal details that Schurz discussed is the monsoon. Schurz pointed out the ‘traditional route’ took months to complete because of the monsoon winds. The longest stretch of the journey was going through the archipelago from Manila to the Embocadero and crossing the Pacific Ocean. For the purposes of this paper it will suffice to say that the sea, as displayed by Schurz, does not show the dynamism of his text. He expects the reader to be familiar with the local weather patterns and planetary functions known in the 1930s. When he mentions monsoon he does not explain the regularity of shipwreck caused by extreme weather but instead implies this by mentioning the need to be out of harm’s way at the start of the season. This is certainly the case for the westbound journey timing to enter the Embocadero and the eastbound journey’s timing for leaving Manila. In order to visualize a closer reality to the shipping activities of past sailors, the authors are currently developing a methodology to display dynamic charts with historians’ hypotheses included as layers. This will provide a platform for comparisons of data, recognition of gaps in the literature and provide information for maritime archaeologists to recognize areas of potential highrisk for shipwreck of particular cultural groups during specific periods of time. This exercise identifies cultural-group-specific corridors of maritime activity. It identifies locations of Spanish galleons in the Philippines at certain periods of time; or when a shipwreck is located these charts narrow down the possibilities of date and ship-type. Alternatively, it notes if a shipwreck is in an unexpected area, leading to the hypothesis of bootlegging. Methodology: The Digital Data Geovisualizations bring the dynamisms of the environment to historians’ hypothesized routes. The results of this exercise are displayed in layers on digital seascape in GIS format. These layers include detailed water-surface topography (small islands, atolls, reefs) and the dynamic atmospheric environment. The data for these layers are gathered from online accessible datasets generated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These datasets are then reconfigured into algorithms and models for use in a set of geovisualizations using GIS and Google Earth. 4 �This is overlaid with Schurz’s hypothesized historic shipping route for comparison and discussion. First, one had to prepare the data for GIS. This required ‘point creation’ of the geographical locations described in the historian’s text. With these points in place the authors followed Schurz’s text, the case study, to connect the points and sailing routes. The reader is reminded that the authors were focused on the Southeast Asian portion of Schurz’s data so the figures below do not include details about the route from the Pacific Ocean to the western coast of the Americas, nor along that coast. The westbound directions from Acapulco are assumed steady across the Pacific Ocean because, in comparison to the complicated course of the eastbound journey, the westbound journey is described as regular and straight across the Pacific to the Ladrones. For example, to describe the eastward route from Manila to the Embocadero Schurz (1939: 223-4) wrote 23.5 lines of text. From the Embocadero to the point where the galleon crossed the Pacific Ocean, Schurz (1939: 226-7) wrote 14 lines of text. The description for the westward route from Acapulco to Manila however, occupied only 8.5 lines of text (Schurz, 1939: 251-252). Results: Geovisualizations For the sake of clarity the ‘traditional route’ has been subdivided by the authors into six steps: 1) Manila to Embocadero; 2) Eastbound from Embocadero to Ladrones; 3) Eastbound from Ladrones to the Americas; 4) Southbound along the Americas; 5) Westbound from the Americas to Ladrones; 6) West-Northwest bound from Ladrones to Embocadero; 7) Embocadero to Manila. Steps 1, 2, 6 and 7 are displayed in full with only partial discussion of steps 3 and 5. Step 4 is not included in this paper. To discuss these locations and the consistent and seasonal environment the authors noted details of timing and direction. Our meaning of the term ‘Direction’ is specifically the geographical locations of the ‘traditional route’. ‘Timing’ discusses the months chosen for sail which correspond to environment data of seasonal high and low activity. Steps 1 and 7 are displayed in (Fig. 2). The east bound journey was timed to start with the beginning of the southwest monsoon. At this time, the winds were strong and would push the sails of galleons through the archipelago from early May to late September, with preference for timing during mid-June to mid-July (Schurz, 1939: 251-252). The route’s direction through the Philippines is provided in minute detail in the book’s text 5 �over two pages (Schurz, 1939: 221-222). However, Schurz’s Chart (Fig. 1) only showed Fig. 2 Schurz’s hypothesized Spanish galleon ‘traditional route’ through the Philippines from 1565 to 1730. (Schurz, 1939: 216-283 and Chart created by Carl Hughes) the exit/entry point of the Embocadero at the San Bernardino Strait. Figure 2 brings to the foreground the following interesting points. The passage for the shipping activity should be littered with shipwrecks. However, at this time the authors are unaware of any underwater archaeology activity from the Verde Passage eastward. Perhaps this has to do with the highly active environment. At this time, there is little data available on the surface currents and wind force of the Philippines. Although an Oceanography article discussed some of these details in the Sulu Sea region, the area is outside the route discussed by Schurz (Lermusiaux, et al., 2011). Interestingly, Schurz provided minute details when the route was directed around the entire coast of Capul Island. He included what was viewed at the portside and starboard along with, one of the few times it is mentioned, distance. This may have been the same case for San Bernardino Island 6 �situated near the entrance of the San Bernardino Strait. The directions on how a ship was to sail through this point are confusing, hence the hashed triangle over the island of San Bernardino and out towards Catanduanes, “northeast with Sorsogon coast to port and San Bernardino to starboard; northeast by east seven leagues to the Embocadero with San Bernardino now to port and the island of Biri to starboard” (Schurz, 1939: 222). Step 2 and half of step 3 are displayed in (Fig. 3). Mid-July was recorded as the best time to use the wind power of the monsoon in order to reach and sail across the North Pacific. The Spanish galleons were recorded to regularly leave Manila from mid-June and reach the Embocadero in mid-July; and then head from the 2nd Midpoint to the Americas in September through November. Throughout most of the year, the winds and currents run east from the 2nd Midpoint to the Americas. In (Fig. 3), October is labelled because it is the middle of that period. In order to get to the Ladrones, they would need to rely on the July winds to push them out of the Embocadero, up to the latitude where the current flows eastward and along a narrow band of latitude running parallel to the arrows on Figure 3. Our data shows that north of the July currents, the wind direction is straight north then curves west. If this were the case, then ships may not have only stopped into the Ladrones but also ported the islands south of China and/or Japan. Schurz (1939: 230) did remark that ships reached Japan, “a galleon occasionally passed close enough to make out the mountains of Hondo to the west”. On the chart where the lines are solid, very definitive directions are provided. Where the hashed triangles are is the potential extent of where the ships may have sailed. Schurz does mention the full breadth of the route extended from the Shichi-to Islands to Guam but he is clear that the main area the ships sailed were between the Volcanes and Uracas (Schurz, 1939: 230-231). The ships again follow a very strict route to Midpoint 1 at 31º latitude and longitude east of Manila 28.5º”, then east northeast on to Midpoint 2 at between 36º and 37º in longitude 40º. Within the area represented in the key as the Extent of the Route, Schurz indulged in Spanish lore of the islands Rica de Oro and Rica de Plata (‘Rich in Gold’ and ‘Rich in Silver’). He spent some time discussing the importance of these islands and stipulated the reason the ‘traditional route’ remained on course for the length of time it did was because of these islands. Rica de Oro and Rica de Plata had multiple locations over hundreds of years. They were often likened to 7 �Ptolemy’s Chryse. Argyre Henry and Yule (1882) placed a start point from Orissa, West Coast India and sailed east across the Bay of Bengal to Arakan, Argyre (in Burma) in parallel to the Ganges. From there one went south to Chryse within Indo-China (i.e. Pegu and Irrawady Delta Myanmar/Thailand). of Fig. 3 Schurz’s ‘traditional route’ eastward from the Embocadero to mid-way across the Pacific Ocean. (Schurz, 1939: 216-283 and Chart created by Carl Hughes) In 1885, William Muir in his publication on the Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society cited Yule but went on to place Ptolemy’s Argyre in Arakan, Burma and Chryse as a misnomer (Muir, 1885). This is interesting timing as the British were attempting to colonize this part of the planet. Later, when the Americans displayed strong presence in the Pacific Ocean, Japan was thought to be Chryse / Rica de Plata (Chassigneux 1933; Moriarity and Roberts 1975). Considering these comments, the authors believe this is still an area open for debate and one that seems to move geography according to political maneuvers in colonization. Half of step 5 and all of step 6 are displayed in (Fig. 4). The westbound voyage was timed based on the Philippines’ northeast monsoon. It was recorded as best timing to have the galleons in Manila by mid-April. This journey was only a matter of weeks so the suggested date for leaving Acapulco was during the month of February through to the end of March (Schurz, 1939: 225). Spanish galleons sailed westbound from the Americas to Ladrones, then west bound from Ladrones to Embocadero. The westbound journey, like the eastbound, also had a wide zone of possible sail route. Within which any of the islands from the Marianas to Guam were potentially ported. A Royal Decree in 1668 declared Guam as a regular stop point for all Manila Galleons. In 1681, Guam 8 �was fortified and a royal governor and friars were sent to administer and convert the local populace in the name of the Spanish crown. When timing is considered, Schurz referred to Humbolt on the ‘serenity of the sky’, and did not mention a specific month in which the galleons had favorable conditions; except that it was best to enter the Embocadero prior to the start of the northeast monsoon that runs from late April to early October. This corresponds with Schurz’s (1939: 225, 252) comments that galleons were not expected to reach Manila again until mid-April. Fig. 4 Schurz’s ‘traditional route’ westward from the mid-Pacific Ocean, through the Ladrones to the Embocadero. (Schurz, 1939: 216-283 and Chart created by Carl Hughes) Discussion and Conclusion The authors provided a methodology to create geovisualizations that displayed the complex seascape of exchange with details on shipping activity directions and timing. There are many and varied details to consider if one were to reassess the whole of Schurz’s chart so the authors narrowed their focus to only Southeast Asia and the western Pacific Ocean portion of Schurz’s ‘traditional route’, namely the Philippines and the Ladrones. The Philippines is an archipelago of over 7,000 islands that topographically intercepts the force of the Pacific Ocean in the Philippine Sea as it 9 �moves over/through the archipelago to continue to flow into the South China Sea, Sulu Sea and the Indonesian Throughflow. The Ladrones are the Marianas Islands (Schurz, 1939: 247), an archipelago to the east of the Philippine Sea and at the western boundary of the Pacific Ocean. The directional flow of goods were purported to enter westward into east Southeast Asia through the Philippine archipelago at the San Bernardino Strait. The same strait was also the exit point; then northwards close to Japan with the eastbound route out of East Asia and across the north Pacific. The locations mentioned in the text were all located and pinpointed on digital charts, along with lines drawn or hashed-marks used to display breadth of route. The geovisualizations provided more complete and dynamic figures to accompany the details of Schurz’s text. It also pointed out the locations of unexpected activities on the route, such as sailing around the entire island of Capul in the Philippine archipelago. With these more detailed figures, we can begin to surmise the possibility of bootlegging having occurred in the Ladrones. This area was visited by both the eastbound and westbound journeys. The long stay and the false ship manifests are other indicators that this area was a potential hotspot for illicit activity. The outcome of this exercise pointed out the inconsistencies between the text and figures. Schurz’s original chart (Fig. 1) showed an overlap of multiple documents. The key associated to the Schurz’s Chart entailed five routes, however in his text he discussed more. Schurz suggested that the galleon trade occurred within the period from 16th to 19th centuries, specifically from 1565 to 1815. The ‘traditional route’ existed from 1565 to 1762 without much argument but from 1762 to 1814 various other options were suggested, legislated, decreed and ultimately ignored. The Spanish consulado, “which embodied the commercial interests at Manila” (Schurz 1939: 226) nearly consistently argued to re-route different directions but these never took place (specifically in years 1777, 1782, 1786, 1791, 1794) (Schurz, 1939: 226). An example that Schurz does include in his chart but does not explain in the key is the Cape Bojeador option. It was never favored, nor followed by the Spanish (Fry, 1985: 17-18). It was endorsed by Philip Thompson, a British pilot of the royal navy who stated, “up the west side of Luzon [a sail ship] could climb to the twentieth parallel in two and a half or three DAYS” (Schurz, 1939: 224); whereas the ‘traditional route’ took nearly two 10 �MONTHS. Thompson’s route shortened the average time to Acapulco from five or six months to three months. If this is the case then why follow the southern Embocadero route? It was also interesting to note that modern day environment data was compatible for displaying the past seasonal environment information. The seasons Schurz discussed were from the archival records of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries and these matched the seasonality of the data collected by NOAA over an 18 year period, from 1992 to 2010. Acknowledgments We would like to thank our Team Leaders Brendan Gillon and Gwyn Campbell for their continued academic input and support. This project is funded by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada’s Major Collaborative Research Initiative for the project The Indian Ocean World: The Making of the First Global Economy in the Context of Human-Environment Interaction (http://indianoceanworldcentre.com/mcri). References Chassigneux, Edmond., 1933. Rica de oro et Rica de plata. In T'oungPao, Second Series, Vol. 30 (1-2): 37-84, Brill, available on the World Wide Web at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4527041. Fry, Howard. T., 1985. The Eastern Passage and Its Impact on Spanish Policy in the Philippines, 1758-1790. Philippine Studies, Vol. 33 (1): 3-21. GeoNames., 2013. GeoNames http://www.geonames.org/ Geographical Database, retrieved from Lermusiaux, Pierre, F. J., Haley, Patrick J. Jr., Leslie, Wayne, G., Agarwal, A., Logutov, Oleg, G., and Burton, Lisa, J., 2011. Multiscale Physical and Biological Dynamics in the Philippine Archipelago: Predictions and Processes. Journal of Oceanography, Vol. 24 (1): 70-89. Moriarity, James. R., III and Roberts, William, R., 1975. Between Cipango and Quivira: The Legends of Rica de Oro, Rica de Plata and Las Islas del. Southern California Quarterly, Vol. 57 (3): 223-242, University of California Press on behalf of the Historical Society of Southern California, Santa Cruz, accessed on the World Wide Web 26/11/2013 at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41170604. Muir, W., 1885.Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Vol. 17 (3): f1-f16, accessed on the World Wide Web 11 �26/11/2013 at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0035869X00165517. Schurz, W., 1939.The Manila Galleon. E. P. Dutton, (Reprinted 1959), New York. Tharp, M., 1967. Bathymetric Map. In Mercator’s World and reproduced for National Geographic Maps the 1999 November/December issue. Thurman, Harold. V., and Trujillo, Alan P., 2001. Essentials in Oceanography. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, Seventh Edition. Yule, H., 1882. Notes on the Oldest Records of the Sea-Route to China from Western Asia. In Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, New Monthly Series, Vol. 4 (11): 649-660, Wiley on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), London, accessed on the World Wide Web 26/11/2013 at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1800301. Biography Jennifer Craig is an underwater archaeologist. She attained two Archaeology degrees from Memorial University in Newfoundland and University of Bristol. She continues to thank all the people whose projects she was/is invited to join. Jennifer started her Doctoral degree at the University of Oxford and continues at McGill University. Carl Hughes is a GIScientist. He attained a degree in Geography from McGill. He continues to work on novel web based mapping methods in his Masters degree at McGill University. He would like to thank the support and resources provided to himfrom within the Indian Ocean World Centre. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Southeast Asian Galleon Trade: A process towards a re-assessment of human-environment interaction Description An account of the resource In 1939, William Schurz published ‘The Manila Galleon’ that has been considered a seminal work in maritime history (in the English language). In it, he proposed the shipping route of the galleon trade in the Pacific Ocean during the 16th to 19th centuries. The directional flow of goods were purported to enter eastern Southeast Asia through the Philippine archipelago at the San Bernardino Strait. The same strait was also used as the exit point by the galleons that travelled northeast out of East Asia and east bound across the Pacific. This paper will reconsider Schurz’s hypothesis with input from up to date analyses based on environmental data. Our results are displayed in layers on digital seascape in a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) format? These layers include detailed water-surface topography (small islands, atolls, reefs) as well as the dynamic atmospheric and oceanic environment. The data for these layers were gathered from accessible online datasets generated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These datasets were then reconfigured into algorithms and models for use in a set of geovisualizations using GIS and Google Earth. This is overlaid with Schurz’s hypothesized historic shipping route. The results are a comparison of human-environment interaction and a re-assessment of a 75 year old hypothesis. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer Craig Carl Hughes, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2eb81b4f95ff8b0e702985eb7864f5d3.pdf 383349ec5e53fda45658b91f8ff141c2 PDF Text Text Pre Hispanic Navigation: Iconographic Evidence in Moche Fine Line Painting Carlos Ausejo Abstract Navigation in pre-Hispanic times in the Andean region has been a topic of discussion among researchers for years. Different sources of information lead us to believe that at least one type of marine craft was in use and involved in long distance trade at the arrival of the Spaniards. However, the debate surrounding earlier periods is stronger due to the lack of evidence in archaeological records. Most evidence consists of iconographic or sculptural depictions on pottery; wall friezes; and, ultimately, references gathered by chroniclers – but not a single remain of any kind of vessel. This situation has lead researchers to believe that marine crafts like the “Caballito de Totora” (“reed horse”) were just simpler tools without any further development. However, one particular type of watercraft represented in the Moche iconography apparently contradicts this idea, the “reed boat”. Moche fine line paintings portray this particular type of vessel, which differs from the traditional “reed horse” vessel, and seems to be capable of holding considerable cargo and occupants. Although the use of totora constitutes the oldest tradition for constructing rafts and boats along the coast and in the Titicaca region, unfortunately, as mentioned above, there is no evidence of such rafts or boats in the archaeological record apart from the iconographic depictions. In spite of this, we suggest that “reed boats” represented a real boat just as other real Moche characters were represented in their iconography, such as the “Lord of Sipan” or “The Priestesses of San Jose de Moro”. Moreover the reed boats were a technological innovation, which filled particular needs to perform rituals in times of ecological distress and to procure certain sumptuary items. The Moche The Moche civilization developed on the north cost of Peru between 100 and 800 Anno Domini (A.D1) during the Early Intermediate2 period (Donnan and McClelland 1999:13). The geographical area occupied by the Moche can be divided into Northern and Southern regions, separated by the Pampa de Paijan. The success of the Moche society was based on controlling the rivers through the construction of a complex network of irrigation canals, which supported successful large-scale agriculture (Shimada 1994:52-56; Bawden 1996:87-92). Furthermore they managed to exploit the large resources of marine and coastal fauna combined with the use of domesticated llamas, guinea pigs and ducks (Bawden 1996:86-87; Donnan and McClelland 1999:14-15). The success of food production allowed the Moche to maintain a highly stratified and dense population, and therefore to assign large number of workers to the construction and maintenance of pyramids, palaces, temples, and irrigation canal systems (Bawden 1996:76-107; Donnan and McClelland 1999:14). As in any other Andean society, they didn’t have a writing system; instead they left a stunning artistic record of their beliefs and activities in Modelled and Painted ceramics (Bawden 1996:23; Donnan and McClelland 1 Georgian Calendar designation that starts at year one, fromt he birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with every year since added by one. 2 Between 400 B.C. and 600 A.C. (Rowe 1945:265-284) 1 �1999:15). Rafael Larco Hoyle developed Moche chronology in 1948 based on the stirrup spout bottle. He identified five phases, each thought to last around 100 to 200 years (Donnan and McClelland 1999:21). However, during the last ten years, researchers combined individual phases into three historical periods (Bawden 2004:23,116-129): Early3 (Phase I – II), Middle4 (Phase III – IV), and Late Moche5 (Phase V). Moche potters were consummate masters of three-dimensional sculpture and also produced ceramics with low-relief depictions of figures and activities, geometrical and pictorial scenes with fine line painting (Donnan and McClelland 1999:15-17). On the other hand it seems that Moche representations had a limited representation of specific events or activities, which are referred to as themes (Donnan and McClelland 1979:5). Phase V shows a clear change in fine line painting evolution from previous phases; the change to abstract and distorted, heavy emphasis being placed on supernatural rather than human activities, and ultimately a focus on marine creatures and environment (Donnan and McClelland 1999:178-183). We can also find innovations in layout, characters and narrative techniques as well as pottery shape (Donnan and McClelland 1999:166). Although artistic cannons are mostly the same as preceding phases, there are changes; the layout consists of half and half, spiral layout, and a new scheme using the burial theme (Donnan and McClelland 1999:182-183). It is in this context that Reed boats are more frequently depicted than in previous phases, but for a completely different function. Rather than being portrayed for fishing activities they are depicted carrying elaborately dressed individuals (Donnan and McClelland 1999:179). Iconography versus Archaeological Evidence Over the last two decades, archaeological evidence has been demonstrating that the Moche practiced several activities portrayed in fine line painting. They also demonstrated that dignitaries as shown in iconographic representations wore clothes and accessories (Bourget 2005:89-109; Castillo 2000:307-332; Donnan and McClelland 1999:23; Verano 2005:111-125). In that sense Christopher Donnan and Donna McClelland (Donnan and McClelland 1979:6-10) propose the burial scene theme as four distinctive activities: burial, assembly, conch-shell transfer, and sacrifice. Double and parallel lines indicate that the activities were separate events, which did not occur at the same time but were associated with the burial of one extremely important individual and suggest that all depictions referred to the same individual (Donnan and McClelland 1979:13). The evidence found in Huaca Rajada is similar to the depictions (Alva 2004:101-116), but instead of one, there are at least three high status individuals buried at three different times with similar types of offerings. Moreover the caskets had a rigid structure of reinforced heavy canes wrapped in cloth, which covered the cane and the faces shown on the caskets may be hammered metal masks and attached to the cloth wrapping (Donnan and McClelland 1979:7). Moreover the goods depicted in the burial theme are frequently found in Moche and Sican graves, 3 Early Moche aproximately 200 A.D. – 400 A.D. Middle Moche aproximately 400 A.D. – 600 A.D. 5 Late Moche aproximately 600 A.D. – 800 A.D. 4 2 �along with different kinds of ceramic vessels, gourd bowls filled with food and conch shells (Alva 2004:86-99). Symbolic representation is also evident in the belongings of high status personages; they usually appear wearing gold alloy masks and are accompanied by specific emblems representing their status and role (Donnan 2008:77). The paraphernalia resembles the images contained in Moche friezes and ceramics, where it accompanies performers in the activities being depicted (Alva 2004;Donnan and Castillo 1992,1994). Specific individuals can be traced to the rituals depicted, which were acted out and performed exactly as they were depicted (Bawden 1996:25). That is the case of “the Priestess of San Jose de Moro” [Priestess] (Castillo 2000:307-332), where two female burials were found with distinctive paraphernalia corresponding to the Priestess from the Sacrifice scene, the female occupant of the reed boats (Cordy-Collins 1999:21; Donnan and McClelland 1979:7) and the net shirt personages form the burial scene (Donnan and McClelland 1979:7). Moreover the goblets found in burials, similar to those in the San Jose de Moro, tested positive for human blood traces (Bourget 2005:89-109). This reinforces the possibilities of actual blood rites during Moche times (Bawden 1996:154155;Bourget 2005:89-109). In that sense, the war and sacrifice rites depicted can also be related to archaeological evidence, such as the finding of human remains in the Huaca de la Luna, which show evidence of decapitation, defleshing and head trauma, among other signs of violence (Bourget 2005:89109; Verano 2005:111-125). Reed boats Iconography6 Reed boats in phase V are portrayed mainly in a half and half layout, they look larger than those depicted before and appear to have cargo decks carrying people and large ceramic jars. On one half the sacrifice Priestess is portrayed, on the second half a character is portrayed with a paddle-like object (Donnan and McClelland 1999:178-179; McClelland 1999:77-78). Phase V reed boats depictions appear with arms and legs, as well as the socalled floaters, contrary to Phase IV reed boats. Some artists replace the boat with the bottle equator or use a crescent moon shape similar to the reed boat. This type of representation is called the “Crescent Boat” and seems to be a simplification of the more complex reed boat scene (McClelland 1999:77-78). Whether it is represented in detailed reed boats carrying prisoners and jars; simply depicted on a crescent boat; participating in a complex sacrifice scene or in the Burial scene, it seems quite clear that the depiction of the Priestess, or at least a female character, is closely related to navigation scenes. Since these are all new scenes, or at least represented differently, we can presume that the boats represented in Phase V pottery may be a new type of reed vessel used in rituals and activities, perhaps as a response to changes in the ecological environment associated with the end of the Moche civilization around 800 A.D. (Donnan and McClelland 1999:184-185). 6 The research sample comes from drawings and photos from published sources, mostly by Christopher Donnan and Donna McClelland. The proveniences of the vessels were traced when possible, however most Moche pottery came from looted graves and therefore only a rough area of provenance is available in most cases (Donnan and McClelland 1999:17-18) 3 �Researchers separate them into two types: Crescent Boats and Reed Boats (Donnan and McClelland 1999:179), the first group refers to vessels representing a female seated on a boat, the boat is represented by a crescent shape form or using the angled equator to insinuate the boat, this group have been excluded from research due to be a simplified representation. The second group includes all the representations without making any distinction between raft and boat (Cordy-Collins 1999:17-33). Donnan and McClelland (1999:272) use the term reed boats for any representation of Moche watercraft, however these could be divided into two different types of representation, Reed Rafts and Reed Boats, which will be described as follows: Reed Rafts Unfortunately we were unable to gather all known iconographic examples but we believe that only a few are missing. The corpus is composed of six examples of reed rafts and looks very similar to today´s “Caballito de Totora”. The construction seems to be made up of bundles of Totora, which is tied together and fastened with simple or double ropes, all depicting an animal head on the upturned bow and stern, following a direction from left to right. They are single manned by a human figure holding a fishing line, wearing a shirt and a headdress adorned with feathers, an animal head, or simple lines. Usually the occupant stands over a bundle of nets. All reed rafts appear associated with fish, seashells, marine mammals and sea birds, which are usually very realistic. However in some cases they portray anthropomorphised sea birds pulling the reed raft. Reed Boats7 Reed boats are more frequently found in the northern area (Donnan and McClelland 2007:22), reed boats look in a similar way to the rafts but seem to use massive bundles of totora, over them a simple structure, which seems to create two different decks, one for cargo and a second for occupants. The occupants shown, on each half of the bottle is a Paddler holding a long stick or paddle and a female occupant usually identified as the Priestess (Donnan and McClelland 1999:178-179; Cordy-Collins 1999:17-33). The corpus of images is composed of the representation of thirty-seven reed boats, including four with the spiral narrative. To differentiate the variety of depictions, we have identified five main attributes: Direction, Anthropomorphic characteristics, number of occupants, type of cargo and finally the ratio and number of animal heads described as follow: • The first attribute is the direction of the scene; reed boat depictions can be presented following a direction to the left or right. • The second attribute is the anthropomorphic characteristics; most of the depictions appear with arms or legs, and sometimes both. There is only a small number without arms or legs. • The third attribute is the number of occupants, which may vary from one to three; only in a few cases, the number of occupants is 7 We believe to have most examples known, with just a few found in the last years. 4 �more than two. The rest of the sample presents only one occupant per boat. • The fourth attribute is the type of cargo; most cases present a cargo consisting of pottery jars or rounded objects tied with ropes, while the other type carries not only pottery jars but tied up prisoners. • The last attribute is the ratio of animal heads on the boat. Most reed boats show one or two animal heads in the bow and stern (# in bow / # in stern), the distribution can be mainly 1 / 2 or 2 / 1, a few exemptions appear where the distribution is 2 / 2, or 1 / 1. Reed Boats Group Descriptions After reviewing the corpus using these attributes, we can divide them into two main groups. With an extra third group conformed by the spiral narrative, however the boats represented on them belong to the type described on group two. Group 18: In general the depictions are represented similarly to the previous phase. The main activity of the boats is transporting people and cargo, in only one case the paddler is fishing instead, with the help of his companion. The reed boats are following a left direction and all of them show arms, usually holding a rope on the bow, and legs. Over the boat there is a single framed structure that creates two decks: the cargo deck hold prisoners tied to their necks and ceramic jars and the upper deck where the occupants stand9. The animal head usually has a relation of 1 / 2 and the boat itself looks similar to the reed rafts but the curve is less pronounced. All show the principal occupants, the paddler and the Priestess, accompanied by one or two more characters, and appear to be standing. The companions are anthropomorphised seabirds holding a similar object to the paddler. Group 210: the boats are very similar to the group ones although they have a major number of reed bundle fasteners. A new addition to the depiction is a circular net object attached to the bow and stern, with a few exceptions. All boats are travelling to the right and the cargo deck seem to be more elaborated or planned, it is represented as two double lines with a net in between, creating a more defined cargo. The cargo varies from ceramic jars; round objects suspended from the deck, probably gourd vessels, and some stylized round suspended objects. None show more than one occupant in the boats, likewise the occupants remain the same. Some changes can be seen in the priestess´ attributes, which in most cases appear holding an open bag, or having an oblong object on her dress, or holding a cup. The ratio of animal heads on the boats is not relevant in this group. Group 311: This group depicts the navigation scene in a ritual context using a spiral narrative. The boats are represented in a similar way to the group although they show four boats instead of two. The third boat holds an animal 8 This group is conformed of six cases. In this group, one particular case is a bit different than the other, the ceramic jars and prisoners are close to the bow, and in the priestess boat seems to be on two different levels. 10 This group is made up of twenty-six cases. 11 This group is composed of four cases. 9 5 �warrior in procession with the paddler and the female occupant, a fourth boat is shown at the beginning of the narration without occupants and apparently with some kind of object over the deck. The narration starts at the bottom of the chamber, with animated objects fighting human warriors; a male figure with a crescent headdress is watching the combat. Following the spiral, a female stands in front of bundles of weapons and the animated objects approach her. Further up the spiral, a procession of three reed boats appears with the paddler, the female occupant, and an animal warrior carrying containers. The boat arrives at a structure where part of the sacrifice ceremony is being performed while an anthropomorphized club and shield holds a goblet. Discussion Donnan (Bawden 1996:25) has a very interesting explanation of Moche iconography using the analogy of Christian artistic symbolism. In Christian art, the fullest depictions of the crucifixion included the cross and the flanking counterparts, but specific components can be used separately in religious art to symbolize aspects of the Christian dogma without losing meaning. The religious content in Moche iconography is similar, with full narrative compositions including fully identifiable participants, which can also be represented alone or in an abbreviated portion of the larger composition. Therefore, work as "symbolic" referents to the content and meaning were embodied in the major theme and identified as such by Moche People (Bawden 1996:25). Likewise we can interpret reed boats and crescent boats, as part of two different and new scenes in Moche depictions, the Burial Scene and the Spiral Navigation Scene Narrative, where boats played an important role transporting the Priestess who was in charge of the blood goblet. The relationship between them is based on the Priestess, and they might belong to a brotherhood therefore appearing as a group represented by the Net Shirts, figures wearing net shirts and a tiered item of attire extending down his back, appearing as a group on the burial scene (Cordy-Collins 1999:17-33). The same type of personage appears again on the reed boats and crescent boats. Other objects that are similar in boat representations are the jars that appear on the burial scene and an odd oblong object. Possibly both objects are brought to the grave by the net shirts (Donnan and McClelland 1979:7). These changes can also be seen on the reed boats occupants in Group 1, where the female occupant has the attributes of the Priestess, the feathers and clothes, and then in the Group 2 where the female occupant holds a goblet or an open bag. The perception of the ocean may have changed into a place where prisoners and cargo are being transported (Hocquenguem 1999:65). Maritime scenes may illustrate actual rituals just like other rituals in which religious dignitaries act out the myths of Moche society in order to reaffirm social foundations and continuity (Bawden 1996:75). If these rituals were actually performed as demonstrated in the archaeological evidence (Bourget 2005:89109; Castillo 2005:307-332; Verano 2005:111-125), the maritime scenes might therefore also leave an archaeological record. It does not seem that reed boats were involved in long distance trade for sumptuary goods. 6 �However they may have been involved in transporting guano12 from the islands offshore, a valuable resource as a fertilizer, the Chincha Islands being the largest of these islands groups, located on the southern Peruvian cost and possibly visited by the Moche (Bawden 1996:41-51; Kubler 1948:29-50); or perhaps Spondylus Princeps, Strombus Galeatus, important in rituals and ceremonies and found in archaeological contexts associated with those activities along the North Coast region (Bawden 1996:42; Shimada 1987:133144). In spite of this, we haven’t found any Moche fine line paintings depicting boats transporting such goods. The fall of the Moche society is associated with a catastrophic Niño13 event by 800 A.D. and this might be the reason for the change of Moche depictions to marine related scenes (Donnan and McClelland 1999:184-185), and the change in the perception of the sea (Hocquenguem 1999:65), where propitiatory rituals involving the safe transport of prisoners to offshore islands and high status individuals required a different and more complex system of navigation like the reed boat. Finally, differences between the reed boats, of Group 1 and 2, in the type of cargo they carry, could be easily explained as a simplification of a greater scene, as a referent of a greater meaning. Moreover those changes and the distortion of the representations follow the same path as Phase V pottery. Therefore the absence of evidence of an actual reed boat and the argument that only a few representations seem to depict a larger boat carrying cargo and prisoners (Makowski 2006:10-11) is not a strong argument against the existence and use of complex boats. Conclusion Reed boats and Crescent boats, as two representations of a single specific type of marine vessel capable of transporting cargo, prisoners and/or liquid containers, is possible. However the characteristics and activities are quite distinctive from previous representations. It is also clear that both reed boats and crescent boats are part of the same context of transporting blood offerings to/from the islands where they will be engaged in a larger ritual of sacrifice or burial. It is also clear that most of the ceremonies, rituals and objects depicted in Moche iconography have a real counterpart that has been found over the last two decades, suggesting that reed boats could be found in the archaeological record. Secondary data (Bawden 1996:75,77,79,101-102) other sources suggests firstly, that fishing communities were particularly separate from other groups, keeping their own identity and costums and secondly, that the reed boat tradition was related to Moche rituals and 12 Guano is the excrement of seabirds and seals found in the offshore islands of the Peruvian coast. It is an effective fertilizer due to its high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen (Shimada 1994:45-46) 13 El Niño events is a frequent long-term impact event that commence in Christmas season involving drastic changes in the marine environment of the Andean cost. Is a disruption of the prevailing currents and associated climatic conditions. This change can devastate the marine life interrupting the normal flow of nutrients and microorganism that support the prolific Peruvian coastal food chain. The phenomenon also affects the land by heavy precipitations; this brings several flooding’s causing widespread destruction (Bawden 1996:58). 7 �replaced by a northern balsa log raft tradition as well. Therefore looking for reed boats in burials has proved to be the wrong approach to the problem. Consequently, it would be feasible to find archaeological evidence of reed boats closer to the shore and islands, either on land or underwater. In that sense it would be likely to find archaeological evidence close to the main site where the reed boat depictions come from, and also where Moche presence has been reported in offshore islands. Moreover, it would be necessary to cross-reference with information such as sea currents and possible ports to identify a possible navigational route. Bibliography Alva, W., 2004 Bourget, S., 2005 Bawden, G., 1996 Bawden, G., 2004 Castillo, L., 2005 Sipán: Descubrimiento e Investigación, Edición del autor, Lima. "Rituals of Sacrifice: Its Practice at huaca de la Luna and Its Representation in Moche Iconography", in (ed.) J. Pillsbury, Moche Art and Archeology in Ancient Peru, Yale University Press, New Haven, London. The Moche, Blackwell, Oxford. "The Art of Moche Politics", in (ed) Helaine Silverman, Andean Archaeology, Blackwell, Malden. "The Last of the Mochicas: A View from the Jequetepeque Valley", in (ed.) J. Pillsbury, Moche Art and Archeology in Ancient Peru,, Yale University Press, New Haven Cordy–Collins, A., "La sacerdotisa y la Ostra: Queda resuelto el enigma 1999 del Spondylus?", in A. Cordy-Collins, et. al., Spondylus: ofrenda sagrada y simbolo de paz, Fundación Telefonica, Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima. Donnan, C.B., "Noche Masking Traditions", in (eds) Steve Bourget 2008 and Kimberly L. Jones, The art and archaeology of the Moche : an ancient Andean society of the Peruvian North Coast, University of Texas Press, Austin. Donnan, C.B., and "Finding the tomb of a Moche Priestess", in Castillo L.J., Archaeology 45, 6, pp.38-42 1992 Donnan, C.B., and "Excavaciones de tumbas de sacerdotisas moche en Castillo L.J., San José de Moro, Jequetepeque", in (eds.) Santiago 1994 Uceda, Elías Mujica, Moche : propuestas y perspectivas : actas del Primer Coloquio sobre la Cultura Moche, Trujillo, 12 al 16 de abril de 1993 / -Trujillo : Universidad Nacional de la Libertad; Lima : IFEA : Asociación Peruana para el Fomento de las Ciencias Sociales. Donnan, C.B., and The burial theme in Moche iconography, Dumbarton McClelland, D., Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington. 1979 8 �Donnan, C.B., and Moche Fineline Painting: Its evolution and Its Artists, Los Fowler Museum of Cultural History, UCLA, Angeles. McClelland, D., 1999 Hocquenghem, "En torno al Mullu, Manjar Predilecto de los Poderosos A.M., Inmortales", in A. Cordy-Collins, et. al., Spondylus: 1999 ofrenda sagrada y simbolo de paz, Fundación Telefonica, Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima. Kubler, G., “Towards Absolute Time: Guano Archaeology”, in 1948 American Antiquity, XIII, 4, pp.29-50. Larco Hoyle, R., Cronología arqueológica del norte del Perú, Sociedad 1948 Geográfica Americana, Buenos Aires. Makowski, K., "Orígenes Rituales de la Navegación en el Perú", in 2006 Gaceta Cultural del Perú,no. 22. McClelland, D., "A Maritime passage from Moche to Chimu", in (eds.) 1990 M.E. Moseley, A. Cordy - Collins, (Organizers) M. Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, M.E. Moseley, The Northern dynasties: kingship and statecraft in Chimor: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 12th and 13th October 1985, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Rowe. J., "Absolute Chronology in the Andean Area", in American 1946 Antiquity, Vol 10, pp 265-284 Shimada, I., Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture, University of 1994 Texas Press, Austin. Shimada, I., "Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of Prehistoric 2005 Status in Northern Peru", in (eds.) J. Hass, S. Pozorsky, T. Pozorsky, The origins and development of the Andean state, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. Verano, J., "War and Death in the Moche World: Osteological 2005 Evidence and Visual Discourse", in (ed.) J. Pillsbury, Moche Art and Archeology in Ancient Peru, Yale University Press, New Haven. 9 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pre Hispanic Navigation: Iconographic Evidence in Moche Fine Line Painting Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource Navigation in pre-Hispanic times in the Andean region has been a topic of discussion among researchers for years. Different sources of information lead us to believe that at least one type of marine craft was in use and involved in long distance trade at the arrival of the Spaniards. However, the debate surrounding earlier periods is stronger due to the lack of evidence in archaeological records. Most evidence consists of iconographic or sculptural depictions on pottery; wall friezes; and, ultimately, references gathered by chroniclers – but not a single remain of any kind of vessel. This situation has lead researchers to believe that marine crafts like the “Caballito de Totora” (“reed horse”) were just simpler tools without any further development. However, one particular type of watercraft represented in the Moche iconography apparently contradicts this idea, the “reed boat”. Moche fine line paintings portray this particular type of vessel, which differs from the traditional “reed horse” vessel, and seems to be capable of holding considerable cargo and occupants. Although the use of totora constitutes the oldest tradition for constructing rafts and boats along the coast and in the Titicaca region, unfortunately, as mentioned above, there is no evidence of such rafts or boats in the archaeological record apart from the iconographic depictions. In spite of this, we suggest that “reed boats” represented a real boat just as other real Moche characters were represented in their iconography, such as the “Lord of Sipan” or “The Priestesses of San Jose de Moro”. Moreover the reed boats were a technological innovation, which filled particular needs to perform rituals in times of ecological distress and to procure certain sumptuary items. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e3d699d5cbe820496ec9481e3c438cfa.mp4 655df45474f44632ef07cdaa97bdd6eb Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 14: Pre-Hispanic Navigation Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 14 Chair Carlos Ausejo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Navigation was not unknown in the Americas, at the Spaniards arrival different kind of vessel were in use both in the Pacific and the Atlantic shores, as well as in lakes or rivers. Canoe, reed rafts, balsa log raft and others skin based watercraft have been described mainly on historical records and gave us an idea of this technologies. Although it is clear that long and short distance maritime trade routes were in use and watercraft were also involve in war activities and other maritime activities, archaeological evidence related with actual boats has been elusive to find. Still some of these traditions have survived time and in use with some changes and others were incorporated to European navigation traditions. During the last decades an increasing interest among researchers in addition to new and different approaches from a broad spectrum of perspectives, including archaeology, history, ethnohistory and ethnography, has brought new and better understanding about these technologies. In spite of this, venues of dialogue to present and discuss about these traditions has been practically inexistent. The aim of this session is to show research advances on this topic mainly in the Pacific shores and inland waters through different perspectives up to the Spanish arrival. It will focus primarily in the Andean and Mesoamerican region, however other regions would be accepted. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video interview with Session 14 Chair Carlos Ausejo. Description An account of the resource Navigation was not unknown in the Americas, at the Spaniards arrival different kind of vessel were in use both in the Pacific and the Atlantic shores, as well as in lakes or rivers. Canoe, reed rafts, balsa log raft and others skin based watercraft have been described mainly on historical records and gave us an idea of this technologies. Although it is clear that long and short distance maritime trade routes were in use and watercraft were also involve in war activities and other maritime activities, archaeological evidence related with actual boats has been elusive to find. Still some of these traditions have survived time and in use with some changes and others were incorporated to European navigation traditions. During the last decades an increasing interest among researchers in addition to new and different approaches from a broad spectrum of perspectives, including archaeology, history, ethnohistory and ethnography, has brought new and better understanding about these technologies. In spite of this, venues of dialogue to present and discuss about these traditions has been practically inexistent The aim of this session is to show research advances on this topic mainly in the Pacific shores and inland waters through different perspectives up to the Spanish arrival. It will focus primarily in the Andean and Mesoamerican region, however other regions would be accepted. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/12/2014 Asia-Pac Session 14 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/985784694be97847b3193fe9e35472b2.pdf a03b5891136c4deb2d2215b0af13b756 PDF Text Text Pre-Hispanic Navigation in the Andean Region Carlos Ausejo Centro Peruano de Arqueología Marítima y Subacuática (CPAMS) Lima18 Perú Email: causejo@cpams.org.pe Abstract Offshore and inland waters in the Andean region were crossed by boats of various types made of different materials. These were related mainly to fishing activities, but also were involvedin long-distance trade of luxury goods, rituals, passengers and even war.Construction technologies and development of these vessels varied depending on available resources and the capacity of societies to solve navigational problems. In that sense a variety of types and forms of vessels have been identified, and although not all boats are "complex" as the Europeans, it is clear that they evolve and had changes over time that perfected them.Despite this plentiful of technologies, the archaeological record of actual watercraft is almost nonexistent. As a result the approach to these technologies is through other evidence as the iconography fund on pottery, textiles and wall friezes, as well as sculptural referencesnot to mentionreferences recorded by Spanish chroniclers and ultimatelypost- Conquest survivals.The aim of this paper is to recount these technologies through indirect evidence and elaborate some hypotheses about the use and success of the same in the pre -Hispanic Andean world and its survival after the conquest. Keywords: Prehispanic, Navigation, raft, boat, andean Introduction The Peruvian coastal environment consists of two related ecological zones, the Pacific Ocean with its adjacent shoreline and the river valleys that wind through the coastal desert creating linear oases. The coast of Peru, due to its complex natural environment generates a constantly renewed of marine food supply. The source of this large supply is the Peruvian Coast Current, also known as Humboldt Current, which is the easternmost segment of the counter clockwise circulation of the Pacific Ocean (Bawden, 1996). The archaeological evidence for the Middle Archaic (6000-3000 BC1) in the Andean area allows us to think that sedentary groups develop in the Andean valleys and the slopes each with their own neolithisation process. These societies 1 �depended on mixed economies however the coastal ones placed greater emphasis on the extraction of marine products (Shady, 2003b). The particular richness of the Peruvian coast allows the subsistence of larger groups of people and early complex coastal societies in pre-ceramic times as suggested by Moseley. Evidences of these can be found in Caral, Supe, and other sites, from the same period such as Huaynuna, Las Haldas, Ancon and La Paloma (Bearez and Miranda, 2003).Ever since the large marine resources could support the development of early complex societies, an increasing amount and more efficient marine exploitation was critical causing the development of new technologies to go further into the sea and complement the shoreline exploitation. Shellfish, Sea Mammals, Fish, and later the guano from off shore islands and long distance trade of sumptuary items, require a constant evolution and specialization on, fishing hooks, fishing nets and ultimately marine vessels (Rostworowski, 1989). Evidences for navigation The invention of floating devices in pre-Hispanic times is not a matter of discussion even though the lack of direct archaeological evidence of such devices. All evidences related with ancient navigation are based on historic and etnohistorical references, experimental archaeology and indirectarchaeological evidences such as iconography, models and artifacts. All of these sources face their own validation problems and subsequent debate. From all these sources it is clear that along the Andean region rafts of different complexity were the principal navigation tool, with the exception of the reed boat for Moche2times in the northern coast and Titicaca Lake3 (Ausejo, 2011). Archaeological evidence Actual rafts or boats have been elusive for archeologists, however the best evidence for them can be seenin a collection of wooden raft models found in southern Peru and northern Chile dated to the Late Intermediated Period (1000 – 1350 AD), belonging to the Chiribaya culture. The models are found on individual burials as burial offerings among others (Ortiz,2003). 2 �Other evidences are depictions of seafarers on mud friezes and sculpture or painted pottery. Depictions of seafarers on friezes are very rare, however Huaca Las Balsas, part of the Tucume complex in La Leche valley, dated prior to the arrival of the Chimu rule over the area shows a frieze (2.20m x 1.60 m) with two reed boats or rafts, each with two figures holding oars or paddles(Heyerdahl, 1995).Another wall frieze shows a similar depiction with four figures, two over a balsa log raft and two divers collecting spondyllus shell (Vicente Cortez, personal communication). The balsa raft appears to have sails. Likewise Mochefineline paintings on pottery show navigation depictions with complex reed boats (Ausejo, 2011). Besides the Moche other societies also represented navigation related representations such as the Sican, Chimu and Chancay (Cordy-Collins, 1990). The final archaeological evidence, which implies navigation, is the presence of archaeological remains in the off shore islands during the extraction of guano4 on the second half of the XIX century. The most interesting finds are wooden figures representing nude seated prisoners associated with Moche pottery (Kubler 1948). For San Lorenzo Island in the central coast, extensive cemeteries with complex burials have been reported, as well as hunting and fishing stations (Hudtwalcker and Pinilla, 2006). Historical Records The body of these records is composed by the chroniclers’ accounts, administrative and judicial documents and travellers’ accounts from the XVIII and XIX century. Despite the variety of information available from them, these records must be used with care and analysed critically; the chronicles, -texts written by Spanish observers- where written at a time when the indigenous people were seen as idolaters or sub-humans, therefore the preconceptions preclude any reasonable understanding of the Andean culture (Bawden, 1996). The earliest report come from Fray Bartolome de las Casas, around 1512, provided by the son of a Kuna5 chief telling about people from a rich kingdom, other than the Spaniards navigating with ships or vessels a little smaller using sails and paddles (Heyerdahl, 1995). The second and more famous report is from 1527, by Bartolome Ruiz, Pizarro’s pilot, aboutthe encounter with a little vessel tacking northward against 3 �the Northern current. The vessel was already passing the Ecuador when the Spaniards following the current southward into unknown waters intercepted it (Heyerdahl, 1995). Evidently the balsas were still in use and even of importance at the arrival of the Spaniards and during the rule of the Incas (Heyerdahl, 1995). Therefore some chroniclers and administrative documents refer to times before and during the Inca’s rule. An account classified as historical, but without references, is the naval battle fought by Atahualpa, who allied with the Curaca of Tumbes to declare war against the Puná Island. Having been defeated and wounded, Atahualpa withdrew to Quito and Tumbes was conquered and burned by the Curaca of Puná. That is why Pizarro changed the name of Tumbes to Puerto Quemado (Burned Harbour) (Rostworowski, 1999).Another account is related with a brief conversation between Pizarro and Atahualpa he asked the Inca ruler why the Curaca of Chincha was carried on a stretcher, and he responded that it was a very good friend and great man of the coast, and he had available a hundred thousand rafts at sea (Hocquenguem, 1999; Rostworowski, 1989) The most interesting and controversial document is a manuscript file, called “Aviso”, from the Royal Palace of Madrid; the document mention that before the Inca expansion, the Chincha lordship had thirty thousand farmers divided in twelve thousand farmers, ten thousand fishermen and six thousand "traders in the Indian way", each with reasonable wealth (Rostworowski, 1999). They used two routes, a land to highland, from Chincha to Cusco and Collao and another maritime, on rafts to Mantas and Puerto Viejo in Ecuador (Rostworowski, 1989).The controversy is because Rostworowski interpret the “traders in the Indian way” as merchants engage in maritime long distance trade and therefore the use of boats capable of long distance travel, such as described byBartolome Ruiz of the raft and the specificity of the contentssimilar to those referred in the “Aviso”(Rostworowski, 1989). Etnohistorical Evidence The Incas, as well as other previous societies, didn’t have a writing system, so they rely in oral tradition to keep records of their history. The Spaniards later recorded these Story’s or legends during the earlier years of the conquest or later. Therefore just like the historical records, and because they refer to events several years before the arrival 4 �of the Spaniards, legends recorded by the chroniclers must be use with discretion and critically. The northern coast of Peru before the Inca rule in the area have two foundations myths about the Chimu, very similar with each other but with different port of arrival, Naylamp arrives to Lambayeque and Tacaynamo to Trujillo (Rostworowski 1999). On either case the myth refers to a group capable of navigation systems and probably long distance traffic. Miguel Cabello de Balboa describes Naylamp arrival to the Lambayeque valley (Ravines, 1980):"The natives of Lambayeque say, that in ancient times who cannot number them, came from the northern part of this Piru with large fleet of rafts with a father of campaigns, a man of great value and quality called Naylamp and brought many concubines, but the principal wife was called Ceterni, brought within his company many people who as captain and leader were following him, but what was the most valuable among them were officers who were forty ... " (Cabello Balboa, [1576] 1951: 327-330). Another myth, in this case referred to the God Viracocha, is of particular interest. The God after finishing the creation of the world leaves to Ecuador, apparently Manta or Puerto Viejo, and embarks with his servants into a sea voyage without return (Hocquenguem, 1999). In the case of the Inca’s we found only two specific stories specifically related with Tupac Yupanqui, an Inca ruler several years before the arrival of the Spaniards.The first story is related with the use of balsa log rafts in the tributaries of the Amazons River transporting large number of soldiers and people with success. The second, and the famous, is his journey into the Pacific Ocean to the legendary islands of Auachumbi and Nina Chumbi. Apparently by the experimental use of balsas it seems that the islands referring in the Tupac Yupanqui story are Easter Island (for Ninachumbi) and Kava (for Avachumbi) according with the information of distance and direction provided by Sarmiento (Heyerdahl 1995). What’s more interesting is the references in Polynesian manuscripts noted by Sir Peter Buck, about a visitor in Mangareva called Tupa, and also tells that Tupa before going back to his country told them it was a vast land full of people and ruled by powerful kings (Heyerdahl, 1995). 5 �Type of Vessels In this section we’d like to discuss and define the type of navigation vessels use at the time and before the arrival of the Spaniards. The main problem we face typifying and defining marine, as well as lake or river, vessels is that some writers, weather is a reed or balsa log boat, use the term “Balsa” “Boat” or “Raft” indifferently to any kind of marine or water vessel they encountered and reported (Cordy-Collins personal communication). So to keep clear the terms we will use the definition of raft as a nonwatertight made of individual floating elements (McGrail, 1985). Although all pre – Hispanic vessels can be describe into this definition, we’ll make one exemption with a specific reed craft, called Tule Boat (Cordy Collins, 1972), or Reed Boat (Donnan and McClelland, 1979), found only in iconography depictions. The differences between a raft and a boat are base in comparisons with similar complex reed crafts use nowadays in the Titicaca Lake. After reviewing the available resources of information we can identify at least five types of vessels define by their building materials. Gourd Rafts The simplest vessel is made of gourds tied to each other, although it isn’t mentioned it should have some kind of simple deck; apparently it was used to cross rivers in flood seasons or particular coastal rivers with a constant and high flow the whole year (Rostworowski, 1981). Such is the case of the Santa River, south of Chao, the longest and mightiest of coastal rivers. Since the sixteenth century, is mentioned as “the greatest river, the toughest of these valleys and plains, it is cross using ugly rafts of gourds called mates ... " (JudioPortugués, 1958: 27 in Ravines, 1980) Skin Raft Another simply vessel is made with sea lions skins inflated as floating devices, they are reported between Ica, in Peru, and San Antonio, Chile (Paez 1986). This practice has been lost in the whole area, however in 1958 Hans Niemeyer reported one last man who remembered the construction technique of these vessels. The construction was simple, made of two inflated sea lion skins tied together with leather straps. A set of beams connected the skins, and over them wooden planks formed a simple deck (Rostworowski, 1981). A single person seated or kneeing with a double bladed paddle 6 �manned it. These raft were use for fishing, carrying goods and passengers, as well as Niter Paez, 1986). Balsa Log Raft The balsa logs vessels are the most common type of deep - sea vessel found by the Spaniards (Fig. 1 - 4). These traditions cover an area that includes Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile (Valdivia 1974). They are made of thick long logs of balsa wood (Genus Ochroma) tie together with ropes. Figure 1:Wall frieze of balsa log raft at Huaca Las Figure 2: Wall frieze of balsa log raft with sail and Balsas, northern coast of Perú. (Photo by: Vicente divers at Huaca Las Balsas, northern coast of Perú. Cortez) (Photo by: Vicente Cortez) Figure 3: Modern balsa log raft at mancora, Figure 4: Modern balsa log raft at mancora, northern coast of Perú. (Photo by: Ericka Cicchini) northern coast of Perú. (Photo by: Carlos Ausejo) The logs are always in odd numbers, being the middle log the longest, and over them other logs as crosspieces to tight the construction. Over the logs a framework of canes was laid and provisions and cargo were kept in an elevated cabin to protect it from the 7 �sea washouts (Heyerdahl, 1995).The balsa logs vessels size seem to be variable, but most accounts reveal that could carry a considerable cargo in men and horses and also carried stone anchors resembling millstones on the deck (Heyerdahl, 1995). Two different kinds of sails were use with the balsa log vessel: First, the lateen or triangular sail, as reported by Fernandez de Oviedo; and second, the square sail on a double mast, both types survived until modern times. The square sail on a bipod mast is also found in reed vessels on the Titicaca Lake (Heyerdahl, 1995). One last technology to note on the balsa logs vessels, and perhaps the more interesting is described first by the Dutch admiral Spilbergen about the use of broad boards inserted vertically in the cracks of the logs. The “Guaras” was system use called by the Figure 5:Totora Raft known as “Caballito de Totota” o “Totora indigenous people for deep Reed Horse”. (Photo by: Vicente Cortez) sea navigation. But it was in 1736 when two Spanish naval officers, G. Juan and A de Ulloa, describe in a better way the guara system and their advantages (Heyerdahl, 1995): “Hitherto we have only mentioned the construction and the uses they are applied; but the greatest singularity if this floating vehicle is that it sails, tacks, and works as well in contrary wind as ships with keel, and makes very little leeway. This 8 �advantages derives from another method of steering than by a rudder; namely, by some boards, three or four yards in length, and half a yard in breadth, called guaras, which are placed vertically, both at the head and stern between the main beams, and by thrusting some of them deep in the water, and raising others, they bear away, lift up, tack, lay to, and perform all the other motions of a regular ship.” Reed Raft The raft is a single or double manned vessel made of a reed fiber called Totora (ScirpusCalifornicus), it grew in abundance in marshes and lakes, natural or artificial, along the coast (Rostworowski, 1981) and It is also known in modern days as “Caballito de Totora” or Reed Horse (Fig. 5). They seem to had different characteristics according to the area, for example Huanchaco, north coast, have only the bow pointed upward and turn up; in Lurin, central coast, three bundles were made with the central bundle being slightly longer than the others. In the case of Moche and Chimu ceramics representation they seem to have both pointed ends upwards (Rostworowski, 1981). Strong continuities of this tradition exist, as shown by the survival of the “Caballito de Totora” in the north coast, and have been convincingly shown through ethnographic research into modern and recent societies of the north coast region (Bawden, 1996). Reed Boat This type of boat can only be seen at the Titicaca Lake nowadays (Fig. 6). This particular reed craft, although by definition might be considered as a raft, will be considered a boat in this paper. It consists of massive bundles of Totora forming a high floating hull (although it’s not empty and not watertight), over the “hull” the surface is dry and protected contrary to the washed surfaces of rafts. Depending on the size it could carry several people as mentioned by Cobo which described that major balsas were made over gathering reeds bundles on which they could sail up to twelve people and when they were joined two it was able to carrying cattle and beasts (Rostworowski, 1981). Larger boats can be made by sewing two of these and have a second deck made of lighter cane as well as sails. This is the type of craft being represented in Moche pottery as double deck reed boats capable of transporting cargo and in some cases passengers (Cordy-Collins, 1999; Ausejo 2011). This boat building tradition didn’t 9 �survive in the coast like it did in the Titicaca Lake probably replaced by the balsa log vessel tradition (Ortiz, 2006) However, it is unclear yet the origin of this construction technique in the Titicaca lake. Nevertheless complex reed crafts have proven to be worthless for long distance sea travels during the voyage made by Gene Savoy in 1969 from the Salaverry port in Peru to (Rostworowski, 1981). Figure 6:Totora read boat in Lake Titicaca, southern highlands, between Perú and Bolivia. (Photo by: Vicente Cortez) Conclusion As we can see societies in the Andean region successfully developed different types of watercraft using available resources for construction and adapted for different activities. Although archaeological evidence has been hard to find or identify most of these traditions are still alive as proof of their efficiency and success. This paper is a summary of most watercraft known for the Andean region and as such it’s an invitation for further research in the topic. We still have the great question of where can we find these vessels in the archaeological record, and then for every type of vessel we still have unanswered questions like when and where the sail appeared. Or why the reed boats disappeared in the northern coast, etc. The topic is broad and we haven’t even looked at the watercraft traditions in the Amazon basin. Acknowledgements 10 �I’d like to thank the organizing committee of the 2014 APCONF, especially to Hans Van Tilburg and Veronica Walker, and the session presenters, for making possible this session. Endnotes 1. Georgian Calendar designation that starts at year one, from the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with every year since added by one. 2. Between 400 B.C. and 600 A.C. (Rowe, 1945) 3. The Titicaca Lake is located in the border of Peru and Bolivia in the Altiplanic region. 4. Guano is the excrement of seabirds and seals found in the offshore islands of the Peruvian coast. It is an effective fertilizer due to its high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen (Shimada, 1994) 5. The Kuna lived in northern Colombia and the Darien region of Panama at the arrival of the Spaniards (Bartolomé and Barabas,2004). References Ausejo, C., 2011.Pre-Hispanic Navigation: Iconographic Evidence in Moche Fine Line PaintingIn. In M. Staniforth, Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific regional conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. 8-12 Nov 2011, Manila: 969-979. Bartolomé, A and A. Barabas. 2004. Recursos culturales y autonomía étnica. La democracia participativa de los Kuna de Panamá. En Amérique Latine Histoire et Mémoire 10. Bearez, P., Miranda, L., 2003. Análisis arqueo ictiológico del sector residencial del sitio arqueológico de Caral – Supe, Costa Central del Perú. In R. Shady, and C. Leyva (Eds.),La Ciudad Sagrada de Caral – Supe: Los orígenes y la formación del Estado Prístino en el Antiguo Perú. Lima: Instituto Nacional de Cultura – Proyecto Especial ArqueológicoCaral – Supe: 123-132. Bourguet, S., 1994. El mar y la muerte en la iconografía Moche. In: Uceda, S., Mujica, E. (eds). Moche: propuestas y perspectivas: Actas del Primer Coloquio sobre la cultura Moche, Trujillo, 12 al 16 de abril 1993. Lima: Universidad Nacional de La Libertad – Trujillo. Bawden, G., 1996. The Moche. Cambridge: Mass, Oxford: Blackwell. Cabello de Balboa, Miguel. 1951 [1576] MisceláneaAntártica: unahistoria del Perúantiguo:Seminario de Historia del Perú – Incas Instituto de Etnología. 11 �Cordy – Collins, A. 1990.FongaSigde, Shell Purveyor to the Chimu Kings. In: Moseley, ME, Cordy - Collins, A. (eds)., Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, M, Moseley, ME. (organizers). The Northern dynasties: kingship and statecraft in Chimor: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 12th and 13th October 1985. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Cordy – Collins, A., 1999.La sacerdotisa y la Ostra: Queda resuelto el enigma del Spondylus?. In: Cordy-Collins, A. et. al. 1999. Spondylus: ofrenda sagrada y símbolo de paz. Lima: Fundación Telefónica, Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. Donnan, CB., Castillo, L., 1994. Excavaciones de tumbas de sacerdotisas Moche en San José de Moro, Jequetepeque. In: Uceda, S., Mujica, E. (eds). Moche: propuestas y perspectivas. Lima: Universidad Nacional de La Libertad – Trujillo. Donnan, CB., McClelland, D., 1979. The burial theme in Moche iconography. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. Casas, B. de las.1956 [1512].Historia de lasIndias/ Fray Bartolome de las Casas.Ediciónpreparadapor la Fundación “InstitutoBartolomé de las Casas” de los Dominicios de Andalucía. Heyerdahl, T., 1995.Chapter 1.In: Heyerdahl, T., Sandweiss, D., Narváez, A. (eds). Pyramids of Túcume: The quest for Peru's forgotten city. London: Thames and Hudson. Hocquenghem, AM., 1999. En torno al Mullu, Manjar Predilecto de los Poderosos Inmortales. In: Cordy-Collins, A., Rostworowski, A., Hocquenghem, A., Pillsbury, J.1999. Spondylus : ofrenda sagrada y símbolo de paz. Lima: Fundación Telefónica, Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. Hudtwalcker, J., Pinilla, J., 2006. La historia cultural de la Isla San Lorenzo.Gaceta Cultural del Perú 22, 20-21. Kubler, G., 1948. Towards Absolute Time: Guano Archaeology. American Antiquity XIII/4, 29-50. McClelland, D. 1990.A maritime passage from Moche to Chimu. In: Moseley, ME, Cordy - Collins, A. (eds)., Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, M, Moseley, ME. (organizers). The Northern dynasties: kingship and statecraft in Chimor: a symposium at Dumbarton 12 �Oaks, 12th and 13th October 1985. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. McGrail, S., 1985. Towards a classification of water transport: World Archaeology,Vol 16. Issue 3: 298-303 Ortiz, J., 2003. Navegación en la Zona Sur Andina:Derroteros de la Mar del Sur.N˚11: 123-135. Ortiz, J., 2006. Tecnología de exportación. Gaceta Cultural del Perú 22, 12-13. Paez, R., 1986. Balsas de cuero de lobo en la segunda mitad del Siglo XIX: Antecedentes cuantitativos para el norte de Chile.RevistaChungara N˚ 16-17:412-418. Ravines, R., 1980. Chanchán: metrópoli Chimú. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos: Instituto de Investigación Tecnológica Industrial y de Normas Técnicas. Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, M., 1981. Recursos naturales renovables y pesca, siglos XVI y XVII. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, M., 1989. Costa peruana prehispánica. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. Rostworowski, M., 1999. Intercambio Prehispánico del Spondylus. In: Cordy-Collins, A., Rostworowski, A., Hocquenghem, A., Pillsbury, J. 1999. Spondylus: ofrenda sagrada y símbolo de paz. Lima: Fundación Telefónica, Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. Rowe. J.,1946. Absolute Chronology in the Andean Area.American Antiquity. Vol 10: 265-284 Shady, R., et al. 2003a. Los orígenes de la civilización en el Perú: el áreaNorcentral y el Valle de Supe durante el Arcaico Tardio. In: Shady, R., Leyva, C. (eds). La Ciudad Sagrada de Caral – Supe: Los orígenes y la formación del Estado Prístino en el Antiguo Perú. Lima: Instituto Nacional de Cultura – Proyecto Especial ArqueológicoCaral – Supe: 93-100 Shady, R., 2003b. El sustento económico del surgimiento de la civilización en el Perú. In: Shady, R. and Leyva, C. (eds). La Ciudad Sagrada de Caral – Supe: Los orígenes y la formación del Estado Prístino en el Antiguo Perú. Lima: Instituto Nacional de Cultura – Proyecto Especial ArqueológicoCaral – Supe:101-106 13 �Shimada, I.,1994. Pampa Grande and the MochicaCulture.Austin: University of Texas Press Valdivia, L., 1974. Pesca de arrastre con balsas en playa de Arica. RevistaChungara N˚ 4:55-60. Biography Carlos Ausejo is an archaeologist specialized in underwater archaeology, since 2006 he has taken part on several underwater Archaeology Projects in Peru. In 2009 he finished his degree in Maritime Archaeology at University College London, and in 2010, with other colleagues he founded the “Centro Peruano de ArqueologíaMarítima y Subacuática” (CPAMS). He is currently working as general manager at Hatunqucha, a CRM company that specializes in underwater and public archaeology, and also as Director at the (CPAMS), and part time professor in archaeology at the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 14: Pre-Hispanic Navigation Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 14 Chair Carlos Ausejo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Navigation was not unknown in the Americas, at the Spaniards arrival different kind of vessel were in use both in the Pacific and the Atlantic shores, as well as in lakes or rivers. Canoe, reed rafts, balsa log raft and others skin based watercraft have been described mainly on historical records and gave us an idea of this technologies. Although it is clear that long and short distance maritime trade routes were in use and watercraft were also involve in war activities and other maritime activities, archaeological evidence related with actual boats has been elusive to find. Still some of these traditions have survived time and in use with some changes and others were incorporated to European navigation traditions. During the last decades an increasing interest among researchers in addition to new and different approaches from a broad spectrum of perspectives, including archaeology, history, ethnohistory and ethnography, has brought new and better understanding about these technologies. In spite of this, venues of dialogue to present and discuss about these traditions has been practically inexistent. The aim of this session is to show research advances on this topic mainly in the Pacific shores and inland waters through different perspectives up to the Spanish arrival. It will focus primarily in the Andean and Mesoamerican region, however other regions would be accepted. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pre-Hispanic Navigation in the Andean Region Description An account of the resource Offshore and inland waters in the Andean region were crossed by boats of various types made of different materials. These were related mainly to fishing activities, but also were involvedin long-distance trade of luxury goods, rituals, passengers and even war.Construction technologies and development of these vessels varied depending on available resources and the capacity of societies to solve navigational problems. In that sense a variety of types and forms of vessels have been identified, and although not all boats are "complex" as the Europeans, it is clear that they evolve and had changes over time that perfected them.Despite this plentiful of technologies, the archaeological record of actual watercraft is almost nonexistent. As a result the approach to these technologies is through other evidence as the iconography fund on pottery, textiles and wall friezes, as well as sculptural referencesnot to mentionreferences recorded by Spanish chroniclers and ultimatelypost- Conquest survivals.The aim of this paper is to recount these technologies through indirect evidence and elaborate some hypotheses about the use and success of the same in the pre -Hispanic Andean world and its survival after the conquest. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/16/2014 Asia-Pac Session 14 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th Century A.D. Prasasti Indonesia 2 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Casparis, J.G. de Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Masa Baru Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1956 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Casparis, J.G. de Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1956 Place Bandung Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Masa Baru Title A name given to the resource Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th Century A.D. Prasasti Indonesia 2 Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3287c0c08fd1a9a23617a3b0cf880ef6.pdf acce7ed828087e393451ee686bcfe585 PDF Text Text The Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project – interim progress report Debra Shefi, Peter Veth, Cassandra Philippou School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, The University of Western Australia 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley Western Australia 6009 E-mail: debra.shefi@uwa.edu.au Jennifer Rodrigues, Vicki Richards and Western Australian Museum, Shipwreck Galleries, 47 Cliff St, Fremantle, Western Australia 6160 Peter Harvey Maritime Heritage Unit, Heritage Victoria, Department of Transport, Planning, Local and Infrastructure 1 Spring Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3000 Australia Abstract In early 2012 the Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project (AHSPP) was formally awarded a large Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage Grant, enabling ten Partner Organisations to join with four Australian Universities in one of the largest multi-organisational maritime archaeology projects to be undertaken in Australia. The project involved a month-long excavation on the historic shipwreck Clarence (1850) in April/May 2012 and a complex reburial program in November 2012. Further in-situ preservation work is also being conducted on James Matthews (1841) in Western Australia to test experimental reburial approaches in an alternative marine environment. The work on Clarence is now in its research, analysis, monitoring and reporting phase, with artefact, sediment and chemical analyses being undertaken. This paper will provide an interim report on AHSPP since its launch at the 1 st Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Manila in 2011. It will provide analysis of some of the more significant artefacts and features revealed during excavation and approaches to long-term in-situ preservation and management of shipwreck sites. Key words: In-situ preservation, in-situ management, historic shipwreck, artefacts, site management 1 �Introduction In early 2012 AHSPP was formally awarded an ARC grant of $500,000 AUD to investigate the excavation, recording and in-situ reburial of wooden shipwrecks. The historic shipwreck Clarence (1850) in Victoria’s Port Phillip Bay was selected as the first case study to test the excavation and reburial methodology. The proposed research plan from the ARC application was presented at the 1st Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage held in Manila in November 2011 (Veth et al., 2011). The project commenced in February 2012 with the appointment of a project manager to organise fieldwork logistics alongside the commercial dive operators, Melbourne based company - Professional Diving Services, and the host organisation, Heritage Victoria. It was decided to commence diving operations in mid-April 2012 to take advantage of autumn tides and weather. In less than two months, a diverse multi-national team of 65 professional and volunteer archaeologists, divers, conservation scientists, photographers, artefact specialists and marine ecologists converged on Portarlington, Victoria to commence the survey, excavation, artefact cataloguing and in-situ reburial of Clarence. The excavation took place from a 12 m x 18 m jack up barge, which was towed by tugboat out to the site on the 12th of April, and placed alongside Clarence, off Edwards Point near the township of St Leonards. The barge was equipped with three shipping containers that held the artefact photography and x-ray systems, conservation and other general equipment and diving communication and safety equipment. Survey operations began on the 16th of April and continued for 29 days. During this time, diving, conservation and support teams were transported daily to the site using Heritage Victoria’s 8 m commercial Kevlacat Trim, with both underwater and topside support teams changing over throughout the day. Dive teams were tasked with placing sandbags along the exterior of the shipwrecked hull to provide structural support prior to reburial, completing a pre-disturbance marine ecology survey, obtaining sediment cores for baseline conservation data, excavating the 2 �starboard side of the wreck from the stern towards the bow (from 0 – 9 m along the baseline), recording the artefacts and exposed timbers in-situ, documenting all recovered artefacts ex-situ and reburying them on site (or in the nearby underwater repository), placing sacrificial wooden and metal samples on site and in the repository and backfilling the excavation trench. This was all achieved in 181 hours of diving over 17 diving days. Non-diving personnel were tasked with topside and off site duties including data input, purchasing, organisation of equipment and housekeeping. Clarence – Artefact and Site Features The artefacts recovered during the 2012 excavation included 109 individual artefact pieces, consisting of 102 database entries. All recorded artefacts were subsequently reburied; organic artefacts were placed in an underwater repository less than 10 m from the stern of the shipwreck, and ferrous and non-ferrous objects were reburied in the excavated trench. The range of materials found consisted of timber thought to be dunnage, a large number of cask components (staves and headpieces), concretions (including a concreted bolt), lead hull-sheathing, fragile pieces of leather, rope related to rigging, clear and olive-green glass pieces, a ceramic fragment, and an animal bone which appeared to be burnt. A leather bag or satchel was also identified in situ, however, this artefact was not raised. To date, analysis of the excavated artefacts continues and here a few selected items will be profiled. A more comprehensive report on the artefacts will be submitted later in 2014. Tierce casks The wooden cask components represented the majority of artefacts raised. The sizes of the staves and headpieces fit closest to the category of tierce casks. A tierce is an old measure of capacity equivalent to one third of a pipe, 42 wine gallons, half a puncheon or approximately 158 to 160 litres. The imperial tierce was 35 imperial gallons (~159 L)  the US tierce was 42 US gallons (~160 L). English stave lengths for tierce 3 Fig. 1: Branding mark on cask. (AHSPP). �casks were usually given at 31.5 inches (~800 mm) (Kilby, 1971: 52). The complete lengths for the Clarence staves averaged between 876 mm and 890 mm for the interior and 911 mm to 930 mm for the exterior. These measurements identify the excavated staves as slightly larger tierce casks than those traditionally described by the English. This variation in size could be because some tierce casks were made to store dry goods, in which case, they could be more rudimentarily manufactured as opposed to wet casks, which required a higher level of skill and precision for storing liquids and preventing leakages. The casks from Clarence have similar features found on casks from other shipwreck sites. These include branding marks, incised lines and circles (made by a scribe tool) for ease of reassembly (Fig. 1) and branded names (either complete or partial due to deterioration or breakage) on headpieces for identification purposes or indication of their contents. Hoop marks are also visible on the exterior of some staves where they are assumed to have been hammered in. Some limited evidence of concreted iron hoops has also been found. The branding names on the headpieces recovered from Clarence, however, suggest that either these casks contained ale or they are reused components. The average diameter of headpieces raised was 55 cm (21.7 inches), which closely coincides with tierce cask head diameters of 20.5 inches (52.1 cm) (Kilby, 1971: 52). The slight difference is understandable considering that the Clarence casks are Fig. 2: Headpiece inscribed with “J & R TENNENT”. slightly larger than the standard English (AHSPP). dimensions of tierce casks. The pitch (widest mid section) of the cask would be approximately 25¼ inches (64.1 cm) in diameter. The headpieces are attached to each other via wooden dowels along the joining flat edges or straight flush joints. Dowels and dowel holes were visible along the joining 4 �edges. The outer circumference is bevelled in order to fit into the bite or croze groove of the staves upon assembly of the cask. The tool marks and striations observed suggest that the staves and headpieces were machine made rather than handmade, which was more common in earlier centuries. In England, for example, the first patent for a coopering machine was taken out by Plasket and Brown in 1811 (Kilby, 1971: 65). At this time, however, most of these machines were crude and inefficient and were mainly used for cutting headpieces. Certainly by the 1870s, a number of cooperages were making tierces and cheap dry casks by machinery (Kilby, 1971: 65). Some sets of headpieces, consisting of the cant and middle pieces, are branded on the topside with the words, either partial or complete, “J & R TENNENT” (Fig. 2). To date, at least one identity of J. & R. TENNENT has been traced to Wellpark Brewery in Glasgow, Scotland, which was in operation in the 1840s. If some of the casks originated from an overseas brewery, it is possible that the casks and similar contents were continuing to be transported elsewhere or the casks or some components were being reused, as was Fig. 3: Headpieces inscribed with “SAMUEL” and “BURTON”. (AHSPP). common practice. Another name branded on other cask heads, again, either partial or complete, is “SAMUEL” and “BURTON” (Fig. 3). Preliminary research identifies a Brewer named 5 �Samuel Allsopp as well as The Burton Brewery Company, both based at Burton upon Trent in Staffordshire, England. Samuel Allsopp entered business in 1807 and during the 1840s, Allsopp’s brewery had an overwhelming superior reputation for their pale ale (Perkins, 2012). Contemporarily, the Burton Brewery Company, founded in 1842, was one of the largest brewers in Burton upon Trent in the nineteenth century and supplied ships in the early 1850s with ale. However, it still may have been too late to be contemporary with casks that were later transported via Clarence. Further research into the connection between the Clarence casks and the abovementioned brewing companies is warranted. Although a few leads for the branded names on the cask’s heads have been obtained, the possibility that some components or entire casks had been re-used has not yet been ruled out. Leather Bag or Satchel A leather bag or satchel was also found on the site partially buried under a semi-circular timber artefact. Based on discussions amongst divers who excavated the area and upon close examination of underwater images, this leather bag, left in situ (Fig. 4), is thought to be a bosun’s bag. The size and thickness of the satchel suggest it may have been used to carry tools (i.e. if one was repairing masts or rigging), as it could be slung over the shoulder via a strap on the side. Interestingly, an image in Kilby (1971: 164) on coopers and their craft shows a nineteenthcentury travelling cooper carrying a Fig. 4: Leather bag or satchel left in-situ. (AHSPP). possible leather bag or basket over the shoulder containing tools. 6 �Clarence – Management Monitoring and Management In June 2012, shortly after the completion of the April/May Clarence excavation, a small team of researchers and volunteers returned to the site to finish backfilling the trench and artefact reburial depot to a minimum of 50 cm sediment coverage, as outlined in the research methodology. Final fieldwork took place in November when the site was covered with shade cloth and PVC tarpaulins to encourage anaerobic conditions and protect the site from anthropogenic and natural impacts (Fig. 5). Sediment core samples were collected for physico-chemical analysis and a marine biological survey was completed. In both March and September 2013, visual inspections were conducted and the site appears to have stabilised. A small team returned to the site in November 2013 to extract sediment core samples and sacrificial wood and metal samples. Management of the site has not ceased with the reburial of Clarence. monitoring, Long-term including Fig. 5: PVC tarpaulins on Clarence (J. Carpenter). visual site inspections and a program of regular compliance patrols, has been established. These site visits are conducted during periods of calm weather and on weekends and public holidays, when recreational boating activities peak. Individuals found within the 100 m protected zone surrounding the site are issued with either official warnings or infringement notices. Regular patrols by Heritage Victoria at Clarence have resulted in a 7 �high level of compliance by recreational anglers, with boats clustering around the boundaries of the site but complying with the exclusion zone itself. Although increased enforcement activities seem the likely driver for the improvement in compliance, consideration should also be given to the fact that stabilisation works on the site have substantially altered the seabed terrain and associated biology. Biological surveys indicate the variation in species on-site has not been greatly impacted, but this could have reduced the numbers of desirable fish catch, possibly also helping to explain the decreased fishing activity over the site. Digital Outreach In addition to on-site visitation and management of Clarence, AHSPP has focused on disseminating information beyond the academic and scientific communities to the wider public. This includes providing Project Updates for meetings of the Commonwealth Historic Shipwreck Act delegates, the AIMA quarterly newsletter and the AHSPP website (www.ahspp.org.au). Public lectures and professional papers have also been presented nationally and internationally with a major paper on the project published in the 2013 AIMA Bulletin (Veth et al., 2013). Moreover, in lieu of tangible displays, upon AHSPP digital dissemination relies media for Fig. 6: Shade cloth cover over the top of the cofferdam surrounding of James Matthews (J. Carpenter). information. This includes the project website and two public-focussed outreach projects. The first project is a triptych display banner that tells the story of the AHSPP Clarence case study using 8 �simple text and images. The pop-up banners are easily transportable and throughout 2013 and 2014 will be used as a travelling exhibition to Partner Organisations and collaborating institutions around Australia. They are also available for further use at presentations and conferences. The second outreach project was a curated digital database entitled ‘Preserving the Colonial Trader Clarence (1850)’ (the Clarence Anthology), which is publically accessible through library database subscriptions to BiblioBoard. This contains both web-based access and applications for mobile devices and Apple iPad and android tablets (http://www.biblioboard.com/libraries.html). The Clarence Anthology was the first Australian project created for BiblioBoard and also the company’s first archaeological and shipwreck database. The concept was to curate a collection of images, documents and multi-media items (including video and audio via web streaming) into an ‘anthology’ as part of BiblioBoard’s new ‘Artifact of History’ module. The module is made up of a wide range of historical sources that are focused on historical artefacts and archaeological discoveries. The Clarence Anthology consists of more than 270 files, primarily underwater site and artefact photographs, topside images and underwater and topside video. It also includes presentations, previous site research, historical research, media interviews and an edited oral history interview with a descendant of the captain of Clarence. This digital resource thus allows for enriched, well-curated content to be accessible to a broader, technologically-progressive audience and also facilitates access to associated grey literature. The Clarence Anthology is currently being utilised as a test case for future online curation of archaeological projects. As such, this method of community outreach may be recognized as an appropriate platform for future presentation of archaeological sites, in particular in-situ preservation projects where artefacts are returned to the seabed with no plan for future conservation and long-term museum curation. James Matthews 9 �Since the inception of AHSPP it was duly noted that to be a truly national research project, other sites around Australia should be included in the longitudinal in-situ preservation study for comparative analysis. Following the reburial success of Clarence in November 2012, and due to prudent project management, it became clear that the AHSPP could expand to a second case study. Partner Investigator Vicki Richards and colleagues at the Western Australian Museum (WAM) subsequently recommended the reburial of James Matthews (1841) in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia using a preferred cofferdam solution. Under the aegis of the AHSPP, WAM began organising this innovative reburial project in April 2013. Background James Matthews, originally known as Voltigeur, was a French-built wooden brig (approximately 24 m length x 6 m breadth x 3 m depth). In 1836 the vessel was sold to a Brazilian slave dealer and registered as Don Francisco under the Portuguese flag. For the following year, the vessel operated in the illegal slave trade between Africa and the West Indies until its capture by the British in 1837. Contemporarily, in 1836, British Parliament passed a Bill establishing an end to slavery. At this time, ships were seized and destroyed, often resulting in the vessel being dismantled and sold for scrap or burnt to the waterline and sunk (Henderson, 1977). This was obviously not the case with Don Francisco, which was sold and re-registered as the trading vessel James Matthews (Henderson, 1980). In July 1841 the ship sailed for the Swan River colony in Fremantle, Western Australia, but shortly after its arrival a violent storm struck the port and the vessel sank. Local divers came across the site in 1973, 12 km south of Fremantle, approximately 100 m off shore in 2-3 m of water (Henderson, 1977). Four seasons of excavation were carried out by WAM between 1974 and 1977. All loose artefacts were recovered and stabilised by standard conservation treatments appropriate for each material type and the excavation trenches were backfilled with the original overburden. The site remained buried for many years and was still relatively stable in the 1990s. However, in early 2000 it was observed that the edges of the 10 �wooden vessel and timbers at the stern and bow were exposed and severely degraded by marine borers and the extent of exposure was increasing every year. Therefore, devising an appropriate in-situ management plan to mitigate continuing deterioration was of paramount importance. Experimental Remediation Strategies and Monitoring Over the next ten years, a number of surveys and experiments were expedited to assess the most significant physical, chemical and biological deterioration processes impacting the site and determine an appropriate long-term in-situ preservation strategy to stabilise James Matthews. This included trialling different in-situ preservation strategies on-site, for example: sand bags; sediment trapping experiments using artificial seagrass, shade cloth mats and a cofferdam consisting of four environmentallyinert, interlocking medium density polyethylene ‘crash barrier’ units filled with surrounding sediment. More importantly, a long-term monitoring programme was also introduced that consisted of measuring sediment and seabed response and any changes in the sediment micro-environment via microbiological and physico-chemical analyses. Based on these results, the crash barrier cofferdam technique appeared to be the best solution for the in-situ preservation of James Matthews (Richards et al., 2009; Richards, 2012). However, due to the significant cost of this mitigation strategy (~$25,000 AUD for 40 crash barriers, geotextile and polymeric sandbags) and the local economic environment, the cofferdam solution could not be funded through WAM’s budget. Therefore, in 2010, the more exposed sections of the site were covered with shade cloth, which was economically more viable but resulted in undesirable toe scouring around the edges of the mats. The site continued to be monitored at regular intervals over the next two years (Richards, 2012). The AHSPP and the Cofferdam Solution Preparations for the reburial of James Matthews commenced in April 2013, with fieldwork occurring from 18-22 November 2013. A total of 22 people, including the AHSPP Chief Investigator and Acting Project Manager, WAM staff from the Materials 11 �Conservation and Maritime Archaeology Departments, practitioners from other Partner Organisations and volunteers, were involved during an intensive five-day fieldwork period. During this time, 36 road crash barriers were deployed on-site in a semi-elliptical arrangement, anchored in place with a minimum of 120 kg of blue metal per barrier and 20 m3 of clean, washed proprietary sand dumped within the confines of the cofferdam via a manufactured sand barge, which provided a sterile sand layer of approximately 515 cm over the entire site. A more comprehensive account of the fieldwork logistics and deployment procedures are outlined in Richards et al. (2014) published in this volume. The amount of sand required to fill the cofferdam to an optimum level of 0.8 m is approximately 165 m3, which was impossible to achieve in the five-day fieldwork interval. With a considerable reduction in personnel after the fieldwork had concluded, it was decided to cover the top of the cofferdam with 70% UV stabilised shade cloth (Fig. 6). The suspended shade cloth aims to a) preclude the ingress of dead seagrass and other organic material and b) encourage deposition of fine sand particles suspended in the water column, through the shade cloth and onto the site. In early 2014, the cofferdam will continue to be filled to the required depth (0.8 m) by dredging local surrounding sediment onto the site ensuring that minimal organic matter is incorporated within the backfilled sediment. On-site monitoring of sediment characteristics and analysis of sacrificial samples will then proceed, replicating the monitoring strategy used on the Clarence site. This should allow for meaningful comparative analyses of these reburial interventions in different contexts. The efficacy of different reburial and stabilisation techniques can thus be systematically tested providing an evaluation of optimal protocols for the in-situ preservation and management of historic shipwrecks determined to be ‘at risk’ in both Australian and other waters. Conclusion The primary aim of the Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project is the development of an optimal in-situ preservation protocol for historic shipwrecks at risk. Longitudinal recording, reburial and ongoing monitoring at both Clarence and James 12 �Matthews, occurring in different geomorphic and energetic contexts, will provide an invaluable comparative study towards this end, and will continue throughout 2014. As outlined in this paper, data collection, analysis and interpretation are continuing. The results from the archaeological, conservation, sedimentary and biological studies will be published in a major excavation and fieldwork report due for completion in 2015. Analyses of the artefacts, geochemistry of the sediments, pre- and post-disturbance biological surveys, and condition of the sacrificial tabs, will also be published over the next several years. Bibliography Henderson, G., 1977. Four seasons of excavation on the James Matthews wreck. The First Southern Hemisphere Conference on Maritime Archaeology, Perth, Western Australia. Henderson G., 1980. Unfinished Voyages. Western Australian Shipwrecks 1622-1850. University of Western Australia Press, Nedlands. Kilby, K., 1971. The Cooper and His Trade. Linden Publishing, Fresno. Perkins, B., 2012. Tennent’s India Pale Ale. Retrieval December 20, 2013. From http://barclayperkins.blogspot.com.au/2012/02/tennents-india-pale-ale.html Richards, V., 2012. In-situ preservation and monitoring of the James Matthews shipwreck site. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, Vol. 14 (1-4): 169-181. Richards, V., Godfrey, I., Blanchette, R., Held, B., Gregory, D. and Reed, E., 2009. Insitu monitoring and stabilisation of the James Matthews site. In K. Straetkvern and D.J. Huisman (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Amsterdam, 10-15 September 2007, Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten (RACM), Amersfoot: 113-60. Richards, V., MacLeod, I. and Veth, P., 2014. The Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project – In-situ preservation and long-term monitoring of the Clarence (1850) and James Matthews (1841) shipwreck sites. In S. Tripati and V. Walker (Eds.), 13 �Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 12-16 May 2014, Honolulu, Hawaii, Hawaii. Veth, P., Philippopu, C., Richards, V., Staniforth, M., Rodrigues, J., Khan, A., Creagh, D., Viduka, A., Barham, A., and MacLeod, I., 2013. The Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project 2012: First Report on the background, reburial and in situ preservation at the Clarence (1841-50). Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 37: 1-19. Veth, P., Viduka, A., Staniforth, M., MacLeod, I., Richards, V. and Barham, A., 2011. The Australian historic shipwreck protection project. In M. Staniforth, J. Craig, S.C. Jago-on, B. Orillaneda and L. Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 November 2011, Manila, Philippines, Jericopim Publishing House, Manila: 753-762. Biography Debra Shefi is a Research Assistant Professor in the Department of Archaeology at the University of Western Australia and is the Acting Project Manager for the Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project (AHSPP). She joined AHSPP after obtaining her PhD from Flinders University, where her thesis investigated the relationship between the in-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage in law and practice. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 7: Preservation and Conservation of Wet Archaeological Materials and Site Management Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 7 chairs Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource This session will focus on in-situ preservation and conservation management issues, conservation analyses and treatments, and applied conservation research of archaeological materials from freshwater, marine and wet terrestrial sites. The main purposes of this session are to encourage the exchange of ideas and practices as well as the development of conservation networks throughout the region. Presentations, posters and workshops are invited that address any of the following areas: • In situ preservation of marine archaeological materials, including reburial practices • Conservation management of shipwreck sites, including on-site monitoring • Conservation treatment case studies • Research into the analysis and treatment of wet archaeological materials • Review of the status of wet archaeological conservation programs in the Asia Pacific region • Development of collaborative conservation research and treatment programs Suggestions for additional topics are welcomed by the session organizers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project: interim progress report Description An account of the resource In early 2012 the Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project (AHSPP) was formally awarded a large Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage Grant, enabling ten Partner Organisations to join with four Australian Universities in one of the largest multi-organisational maritime archaeology projects to be undertaken in Australia. The project involved a month-long excavation on the historic shipwreck Clarence (1850) in April/May 2012 and a complex reburial program in November 2012. Further in-situ preservation work is also being conducted on James Matthews (1841) in Western Australia to test experimental reburial approaches in an alternative marine environment. The work on Clarence is now in its research, analysis, monitoring and reporting phase, with artefact, sediment and chemical analyses being undertaken. This paper will provide an interim report on AHSPP since its launch at the 1st Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Manila in 2011. It will provide analysis of some of the more significant artefacts and features revealed during excavation and approaches to long-term in-situ preservation and management of shipwreck sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Debra Shefi Peter Veth Cassandra Philippou Jennifer Rodrigues Vicki Richards Peter Harvey, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 7 2014