12 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1bcda376a910a9e09dd68952d56563fc.pdf eb8bdf725bebbacf088e37cf8c3023bb PDF Text Text Development and State of Research on Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea Bo-hyun Lee (Conservation Science Research Curator, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT Conservation treatment of large waterlogged wooden historic ships improved gradually as historic ships were excavated one after another. After 40 years, exhibition halls and conservation treatment centers have been established and in operation in Mokpo and Taean. Taean is equipped with Asia's largest vacuum freezer and Mokpo conservation treatment place with a long history is being transformed into a new conservation treatment center. In addition, the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, which has Korea's only underwater cultural heritage conservation and treatment facility, has been publishing treatment reports and guidelines for many years. However, as the acidic aging was discovered on the Sinan shipwreck like the Vasa and Mary Rose, it has become an issue and various studies were conducted to identify the cause and treatment method accordingly. It is unreasonable to apply the results of test pieces in the laboratory directly to the entire Sinan shipwreck, which was restored and displayed at the exhibition hall. Therefore, it is planned to conduct a partial test gradually to find a method that can handle exhibition and treatment at the same time. Keywords: underwater cultural heritage, conservation treatment, research status, challenges List of Tables Table 1. State of conservation treatment of historic ships recovered from underwater (as of May 2023) Table 2. List of publications on conservation of underwater cultural heritage INTRODUCTION This study deals with overall matters related to the conservation treatment of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Korea which started in 1976. The research was partially addressed in Conservation Treatment of Historic Ships Collected from the Sea published by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH) in 2021. This study intends to deal with the current state of research on conservation science of UCH in Korea in detail from more various perspectives. In addition, this study intends to highlight the current research projects and future tasks. We will examine the process of development before touching upon the current state of conservation science of UCH in Korea. DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN KOREA Conservation treatment of UCH in Korea began with the excavation of the Sinan shipwreck in 1976. However, excavation of the Sinan shipwreck which started in the sea, a special environment, presented many challenges from the beginning. There was no infrastructure to speak of such as professionals, budget and treatment facility and there was a big problem of how to treat super-large wooden historic ships. At that time conservation treatment technology of Japan was more advanced than that of Korea but the conservation treatment technology for wooden historic ships in East Asia was not comparable to that of Europe. Accordingly, Korea started direct exchanges with museums in many parts of Europe including Switzerland, Germany, Denmark, Sweden and the UK in order to learn Europe’s historic ship conservation treatment method and restoration technology in 1983. Korea dispatched domestic experts to international courses for wooden cultural heritage conservation sponsored by UNESCO and ICCROM and started forming academic exchanges. Thanks to this, the current state of wooden 1 �historic ships in Europe and various treatment methods became widely known in Korea. In the 1990s, the waterlogged wooden conservation treatment area took its root firmly in Korea’s cultural heritage conservation science. In addition, PEG-2 step treatment method was applied to the Sinan shipwreck through joint basic experiment and research conducted together with the German Maritime Museum. PEG-2 step is a method of impregnating a low-molecular PEG400 solution at a low concentration, and then heating the high-molecular solid PEG4000 at 40-45 °C and impregnating it to a high concentration (Kim Ik-joo 2004, 68-69). This method still works for submerged shipwrecks. Table 1. State of conservation treatment of historic ships recovered from underwater (as of May 2023) No. Name Size (length x width (m)) / No. of pieces Treatment method Date of treatment period Treatment status Location 1 Sinan shipwreck 34 x 11 / 1, 729 pieces 1981-2004 Exhibition Mokpo Museum 2 Wando shipwreck 9 x 3.5 / 1, 81 pieces 1984-1998 Exhibition Mokpo Museum 3 Dalido shipwreck 10.5 x 2.7 / 1, 33 pieces Jul. 1995- Dec. 2009 Exhibition Mokpo Museum 4 Sipyidongpado shipwreck 7 x 2.5 / 1, 14 pieces 2004-2016 Exhibition Mokpo Museum 5 Jindo shipwreck 16.8 x 2.3 / 1, 2 pieces Jun. 1992-present Dried Mokpo Conservation Center 6 Anjwado shipwreck 14.7 x 4.5 / 1, 39 pieces Aug. 2005-present Dried Mokpo Conservation Center 7 Daebudo shipwreck 6.6 x 1.4 / 1, 7 pieces Dec. 2006-present Dried Mokpo Conservation Center 8 Taean shipwreck 8.2 x 1.5 / 1, 7 pieces May 2008-present Reinforced (70%) Taean Conservation Center 9 Mado no. 1 shipwreck 10.8 x 3.7 / 1, 40 pieces Oct. 2009-present Reinforced (70%) Taean Conservation Center 10 Mado no. 2 shipwreck 12.8 x 5 / 1, 41 pieces - Oct. 2010-present Desalinated Taean Conservation Center 11 Mado no. 3 shipwreck 12 x 8 / 1, 21 pieces - - Conserved on site - 12 Yeongheungdo shipwreck 6 x 1.5 / 1, 3 pieces - Jul. 2013-present Desalinated Mokpo Conservation Center 13 Mado no. 4 12 x 5 / 1, 22 pieces - - Conserved on site - 14 Daebudo shipwreck no. 2 9.2 x 2.9 / 1, 50 pieces - Jul. 2015-present Desalinated Mokpo Conservation Center 15 Jebudo shipwreck no. 1 9.2 x 2.9 - - Conserved on site - 16 Jebudo shipwreck no. 2 9.2 x 2.9 - - Conserved on site - shipwreck PEG 2-Step method (400/4000) 2 �The Sinan shipwreck was unveiled in 2004 after 18 years of conservation treatment and 10 years of hull restoration. After excavation of Sinan shipwreck, historic ships were discovered one after another in the West Sea of Korea, including Wando shipwreck (1984), Jindo Pyokpari Tongnamu Pae (1992), Dalido shipwreck (1995), Sipyidongpado shipwreck (2004), Anjwado shipwreck (2005), Daebudo shipwreck (2006), Taean shipwreck (2008), Mado shipwreck no. 1 (2009), Mado shipwreck no. 2 (2010), Mado shipwreck no. 3 (2011), Yeongheungdo shipwreck (2013), Mado shipwreck no. 4 (2014), Daebudo shipwreck no. 2 (2015), Jebudo shipwreck no. 1 (2016) and Jebudo shipwreck no. 2 (2016). Table 1 summarizes where these ships have been treated for conservation or in the process of conservation treatment, while some are conserved on site. As historic ships have been excavated continuously, Korea’s underwater archeology and conservation treatment technology of historic ships have grown remarkably. The conservation treatment infrastructure, organization and budget have become one of the top in Asia. The NRIMCH, which started in Mokpo Conservation Center in 1982, is now operating museums in Mokpo (Jeollanam-do) and Taean (Chungcheongnam-do) respectively and has its own conservation treatment facility. Mokpo conservation center, which started with two employees about 42 years ago, has now ten employees in Mokpo and five in Taean. Taean conservation center has installed and run test operation of Asia's largest vacuum freezer. CURRENT STATE OF CONSERVATION SCIENCE FOR UCH IN KOREA Cultural heritage excavated from water is very diverse in materials such as metal, ceramics, wood, and stone. Various kinds of artifacts are excavated from ships as ships are a carrier of transport goods, which contains living space on the ship. Therefore, conservation methods should be applied differently depending on materials. Korea has already prepared guidelines on conservation treatment by material with dividing artifacts into those excavated from land and those from underwater and has treated them by referring to these guidelines. Recovered Artifacts so far are mainly made of wood (hull components, etc.) and ceramics (transport goods), so the proportion of conservation treatment for historic ships and ceramics is high. Out of 50,762 artifacts excavated, 47,036 pieces are ceramics, accounting for more than 93 per cent. In addition, all five pieces which are nationally designated cultural property and in possession are ceramics. Natural scientific analysis of ceramics excavated from the sea began in earnest in the early 2000s. Depending on the excavation site and function, various analyzes have been conducted, such as the base soil, firing temperature, minor components, and estimation of the production site. Starting from this year, research is being conducted to scientifically reveal the relationship between the production and the consumption areas, and the correlation between the times and materials based on the existing research results. 3 �Table 2. List of publications on conservation of UCH Major content No . Title Date 1 Guideline on Conservation Treatment of Artifacts Excavated from Underwater 2013 A guideline on conservation treatment of artifacts excavated from underwater including treatment cases. 2 Conservation Manual of Maritime Archaeological Objects in Korea 2014 English version of the guideline on conservation treatment of artifacts excavated from underwater, introducing how to treat wooden artifacts, ceramics and metal artifacts. 3 Conservation Treatment of Ceramics Excavated from Underwater 2020 Classifying pottery which was excavated the largest in volume into pottery, celadon and white porcelain and reporting treatment methods and cases. 4 Conservation Treatment of historic Ships Excavated from Underwater 2021 Containing the process of conservation treatment for Sinan shipwreck, Wando shipwreck, Jindo shipwreck, Dalido shipwreck and Sipyidongpado shipwreck and natural scientific analysis details. 5 Comprehensive Report on Sinan Ship Conservation Project 2022 Summarizing the research on analysis on aging of Sinan shipwreck and conservation treatment method comprehensively. Cover ISSUES REGARDING CONSERVATION SCIENCE OF UCH IN KOREA Korea's historic ship conservation treatment can be divided into two fields. First, conservation treatment of waterlogged wood using PEG and infrastructure. Second, neutralization treatment of acidic aging that occurs in historic ships treated with PEG. First, the conservation of waterlogged wood with PEG is to treat the wood using PEG-2 step method as mentioned earlier. Reinforcement treatment is done with PEG 400-PEG 4000 and not vacuum lyophilization but control drying is done for conservation. Taean conservation treatment room is equipped with the latest vacuum lyophilizer that can treat 10 m. The Mokpo Conservation Center needs facility replacement as it was established in 1981. Conservation treatment of waterlogged wood using PEG and infrastructure The hull varies in length from about 2 m to 10 m for each member and a specially designed tank is required for reinforcement treatment. The tank should be made of stainless steel with strong corrosion resistance, and a heat source (boiler hot water and electric coil) and temperature sensor should be attached to maintain a constant temperature. In addition, in order to mix the high molecular weight 4 �PEG well, a solution circulation pump facility that can exchange the upper and lower solutions is required. Moreover, boiler, expansion tank, and hot water pipe facilities should be in place in the boiler room upon heating treatment using boiler hot water. Assuming that the hull members are 5-6 m long, 0.1 m thick, and 0.5 m wide, the weight usually reaches 300 kg. Hoists, cranes, and lifts that can lift and move these members safely and easily are essential. Therefore, in order to conserve and treat large-sized timbers such as hulls, a large-scale processing facility should be established. The NRIMCH started seismic construction of PEG reinforcement treatment in 2022, and planned PEG reinforcement treatment internal construction (water drainage, piping, electricity, etc.) and tank (10 m x 1 m x 1 m * 1 unit, 6 m x 1 m x 1 m * 6 units), desalination treatment room improvement in 2025 and drying treatment room improvement in 2026. Acidic aging of historic ships treated with PEG Acidic aging is caused by the presence of iron compounds in wood and prolonged exposure, and the same phenomenon has already appeared in foreign ships such as Vasa, Mary Rose, and Batavia, and efforts have been made to solve this problem. The Sinan shipwreck experienced acidic aging since 2010 and various methods were tried inside and outside the laboratory to solve the problem. Constant temperature and humidity monitoring has been conducted to secure raw data and the aging condition of the hull has been recorded with 3D scanning using 3D digital methods. After that, surface contaminants were removed through dry cleaning, and a deterioration map was also prepared to compare changes in surface conditions. Integrated Pest Management is being implemented to prevent harmful organisms in exhibition halls and storage areas and to establish a stable conservation environment. Various acidic aging treatment experiments were conducted in the laboratory and the Comprehensive Report on Sinan Ship Conservation Project that contains the results of experiments was recently released. This experiment is the result of the experiment on a test piece carried out in the laboratory, but it is difficult to practically apply chemical treatment to the 924 m2 exhibition room. Therefore, the Heritage Science Team of the NRIMCH plans to expand the treatment area in the future, starting with a direct spot test on the Sinan shipwreck, which was exhibited from this year. Our future task will be how to open the exhibition site to the audience safely as the conservation treatment is underway in the exhibition hall. Acknowledgements I would like to thank organizers and committee members for making a decision for Korea to host APConf 2023. I would also like to express my gratitude to my seniors and colleagues who have worked hard for conservation science at the NRIMCH. Bibliography Kim, Ik-Joo. “Conservation of Waterlogged Ancient Ship in Korea.” The Conservation and Restoration of Shinan Ship, the 20 Years History (2004): 58-71 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Conservation Manual of Maritime Archaeological Objects in Korea, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 31. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2013 (In Korean). NRIMCH. The Conservation of Ceramics Excavated from Underwater, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 61. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2020 (In Korean). NRIMCH. The Conservation of Shipwrecks Excavated from Underwater, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 63. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2021 (In Korean). NRIMCH. The Comprehensive Report on Conservation Project of Sinan Shipwreck, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 74. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2022 (In Korean). 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 14: Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 14 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 14 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Development and State of Research on Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea Description An account of the resource Conservation treatment of large waterlogged wooden historic ships improved gradually as historic ships were excavated one after another. After 40 years, exhibition halls and conservation treatment centers have been established and in operation in Mokpo and Taean. Taean is equipped with Asia's largest vacuum freezer and Mokpo conservation treatment place with a long history is being transformed into a new conservation treatment center. In addition, the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, which has Korea's only underwater cultural heritage conservation and treatment facility, has been publishing treatment reports and guidelines for many years. However, as the acidic aging was discovered on the Sinan shipwreck like the Vasa and Mary Rose, it has become an issue and various studies were conducted to identify the cause and treatment method accordingly. It is unreasonable to apply the results of test pieces in the laboratory directly to the entire Sinan shipwreck, which was restored and displayed at the exhibition hall. Therefore, it is planned to conduct a partial test gradually to find a method that can handle exhibition and treatment at the same time. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bo-hyun Lee Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Lee, Bo-hyun. 2023. “Development and State of Research on Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1961 Asia-Pac Session 14 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a330ded6600f75867c4bef6a22643144.pdf a0a07bb3901c35ece4ab288ed2eba5a6 PDF Text Text Potential Climate Change Threats to underwater cultural heritage Sirine Saad El-Dine Ghiye (Lebanese Archeologist, Diver) Msc Student, Ulster University Ghiye-S@ulster.ac.uk / ghsirin@gmail.com Abstract Climate change is our greatest challenge. The paper is looking for the impact on underwater cultural heritage (UCH), deep oceans, and coastal zone through literature reference and case studies. It will discuss the causes of climate change, the results, with a focus on the sea surface temperature (SST) changes in the Mediterranean Basin and the Pacific. SST will be calculated using Landsat 8 which is equipped by two bands of thermal infrared sensor (TIRS). It is suitable for coastal zone monitoring due to its high resolution. The study depends on the use of Landsat 7 which carried the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensor. Both images are interpreted and analyzed on the QGIS to calculate the radiance and reflectance of each image to conclude the value of SST. The paper will finish by presenting the cycle factors which threaten the UCH and summarize the relationship between the change of climate and the UCH and how they help researchers understand climate in the past and the adaptation by humans in past. Keywords: climate change, SST, UCH, satellites imagery List of Abbreviations Carbone dioxide …. CO2 Normal Difference Vegetation Index …. NDVI Operational Land Imager …. OLI Sea surface temperature …. SST Sea surface salinity …. SSS Thermal Infrared Sensor …. TIRS Thematic Mapper …. TM U.S. Geological Survey …. USGS Underwater cultural heritage …. UCH List of figures Figure 1. Lebanese land map Figure 2. Chekka area with the cements factory’s location (Landsat 8, 2022) Figure 3. Temperature during summer, Landsat 8, 2021, Temperature during summer, Landsat 7 1999 Figure 4. SST during the last 20 years ago during the winter 4 5 7 8 INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within this Session “Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage and its environment,” because it will discuss the main disturbances and problems facing the maritime archeological sites and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) due to climate change. This paper defines the relation between climate and seas and oceans health, where the relationship is strong and interdependent. Climate can be defined into two levels: local climate, which is related to a specific area, city or country; and global climate of Earth. The global climate is the connected system of sun, land and oceans, wind, rain and snow, forests, deserts and savannas, and human activity (Lange 2020). All these local factors are connected and responsible for the balance of ecosystems; any change in one ecosystem leads to change in global climate. For example, global warming which is increasing of heat or energy in the atmosphere of the Earth led to climate change (Rockman and Hritz 2019). Rising temperature of the atmosphere led to melting of the ice in the poles which led to sea level change, this event was recognized at the beginning of 19th century (Kennedy et al. 2002). Anthropogenic factors are the main factor of climate change at a population of 7.8 billion people (World Bank 2023). This is well defined and explained by the assessment reports of the Intergovernmental 1 �Panel on Climate Change which describe the influence of human activities that lead to warmer atmosphere. Urbanization, development, and lots of industrial businesses accelerate the deterioration of seas and oceans due to illegal infringement on the coast, increased illegal fishing, and toxic gas emissions, all those led to change the main property of climate. One of results of climate change is the increasing of the sea surface temperature, which led to change the chemical property of salt water (Splading 2011). The paper presents the changes of sea surface temperature (SST) in Chekka, Lebanon with satellites imagery on QGIS. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are the following regions: the Mediterranean and the Pacific basins. This paper detects the changes in sea surface temperature in the Mediterranean basin through focusing in one example taking from Lebanon: Chekka area- North Lebanon (Figure 1). The aim of taking this example is to prove how the human activity next to the sea, lead to change and increase in the SST and land surface temperature in general. Chekka is a coastal area located in the Lebanese northern provenance facing the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 2). Chekka provides two potential locations for harbours, one to the north and one to the south of the headland of Chekka and its harbour is mentioned when it was occupied by the Arwad’s fleet1 (Safadi 2014). The town was covered by olive trees and salt marshes on the coast. These conditions of the town have been changed after the construction of the first cement factory in the area dated back to 1931 CE followed by another company after two decades. The coastline changed becoming heavily populated and many agricultural areas vanished. The main reason of this paper is to detect and monitor the changes of SST in the Chekka area as a typical example for human activity effect on the seas and oceans health. The study is going to compare the SST during summer and winter seasons during the last 20 years. This will be using satellites imagery of Landsat program is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of satellite imagery of Earth. It is a joint NASA / USGS2 program and launched on 23 July 1972. The study is also looking at the changes in SST of Pacific region and identifying the main reason for these changes. The North Pacific has a temperature higher than the South, and that is because of the ratio of land to sea areas is larger in the Northern Hemisphere and because Antarctica and the Southern Ocean also influence water temperature (Cotter et. al. 2023). From the studying of those two regions, the paper is identifying the results and consequences of changes in SST and the effect on the ocean, and therefore to determine the effects on the maritime sites in seas and deep oceans. Radiance and reflectance of images captured by the thematic sensor of Landsat are essential to calculate the value of temperature. This will be explained in detail in the methodology. 1 It developed into a trading city in the Bronze Age, as did most of the Phoenician cities on this coast. It had a powerful navy, and its ships are mentioned in the monuments of Egypt and Assyria (Safadi 2014). 2 The U.S. Geological Survey is the nation's largest water, earth, and biological science and civilian mapping agency (USGS website) 2 �Med. Sea Figure 1. Lebanese land map 3 �Med. Sea Figure 2. Chekka area with the cements factory’s location (Landsat8 2022) METHODOLOGY / RESOURCES The use of remote sensing and geographic information system as the QGIS free and open source, becomes a new technique used in studying many marine (Ramdani et al. 2021). The paper studies the changes in SST through satellites imagery, calculate and measure the temperatures on QGIS tools, in reason the detect the increasing of temperature during the last 20 years taking into consideration the seasons: winter and summer. The study is based on literature and previous study on the effect of climate change on the maritime sites, and how the maritime resource becomes a factor to understand the climate change. The algorithm created on ERDAS imagery 2014 for calculating the land surface temperature (LST), it’s the same concept for SST (Advan and Jovanovska 2016). The layers used in the project are raster and vector interpret and analyzed on QGIS version 3.6. The main coordinate system used is the WGS84 UTM zone 36N, ESPG: 32636. The Landsat 8 which is working on infrared radiometer band 10 and 11 provides huge data covered the Lebanese land. The sensors deployed on satellites imagery Landsat8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) instruments allow to assess water parameter efficiently. Through TIRS we can measure the land temperature in two thermal bands with a new technology that applies quantum physics to detect heat. The process worked by measuring the amount of infrared light emitted from the earth and the radiant temperature of water bodies (Bourouhou and Salmoun 2021). Both sensors are covered the landmass with 30m of resolution (visible, NIR, SWIR); 100 meters (thermal); and 15 meters (panchromatic). The primary features on Landsat 7 include a panchromatic band with 15-meter spatial resolution, an onboard full aperture solar calibrator, five percent absolute 4 �radiometric calibration, and a thermal infrared channel with a four-fold improvement in spatial resolution over Thematic Mapper (TM) (NASA, 2021). Steps of calculating SST 1. Calculating the Top of Atmosphere radiance which is the raw images captured by sensor of satellites, the radiance is the amount of radiation coming from the area, surface and cloud. 2. Calculating top of atmosphere reflectance which provides the ratio of radiation reflected to the incident solar radiation on a given surface, and also from the cloud and atmospheric aerosols and gases. 3. The brightness temperature is the measurement of radiance of the microwave radiation traveling upward from the top of atmosphere to the satellites. The process continues in progression to find the emissivity Ɛ of each pixel to convert the brightness temperature into land surface temperature or in the other hand the sea surface temperature. The emissivity is originated from the value of Normal Difference Vegetation Index NDVI which is provided by the visible red and near infrared bands. The result returns the maximum and minimum values of NDVI which are used in finding the proportion of vegetation in reason to rescale the NDVI between values representing bare soil and total vegetation. The operation is going to show the difference of temperature during the last 20 years with taking into consideration the same seasons, where the result section interprets the analysis value through literature resources of the impact of SST changes on UCH. RESULTS The results observed after calculating the SST through the Landsat images present an increasing of temperature by almost 1 ºC during the last 20 years. Extracting results from maps shows the increasing of temperature on the coastline near the cement factory, where the SST in the middle of sea become more less. Figure 3 present clearly these changes, where the temperature on the coastline during summer in 1999 was 24ºC -25 ºC, and it was almost 23 ºC far from the coast, but today the temperature on the coastline in 28 ºC-29 ºC, and it’s almost 27 ºC far from the coast. The results are also extracted from the SST map during the winter season for 2000 and 2021, where the average temperature in Chekka area increased 2 ºC during the last 20 years (Figure 4). 5 �Figure 3. Summer temperature today (TOP, Landsat8 2021). Summer temperature 20 years ago (BOTTOM Landsat7 1999) 6 �Figure 4. Winter SST today (left) and 20 years ago (right) (Landsat8 2021; Landsat7 1999). This example describes the changes in SST due to the rising of toxic gases from the cement factories next to the coastline. The main issue is to understand how the increasing of SST effect on the seas and oceans health, thus on the maritime and coastal sites. There are an estimated three million shipwrecks on the floors of the world’s oceans (Gregory et al. 2022), and more than 1000 coastal sites are under threat and damage because of sea level rise (Reiman et al. 2018) Increasing of CO2 in the atmosphere due to pollution and toxic gases, it leads to increase the temperature of air, thus, to melt the ice of poles where this lead to rise the sea level. Research confirms the rise of sea level by 1m by the end of 21st century, together with an increase in ocean surface temperatures (i.e., water to a depth of approximately 100m) of between 0.2 and 0.5°C (Gregory et al. 2022). In summary, rising of sea level led to many unprecedented weather events which impact directly on the coastal sites and erosion of coastline due to high tides. (Sesana et al. 2020). The effect of sealevel rise led to flooding and storms especially during the heavy rainfall, where the coastal sites become underwater sites with time. The effect of sea level not only on culture heritage but also on the marine boundary higher level will result in legal maritime boundaries become less well defined (Perez-Alvaro 2016). In addition, the submerged sites will be affected by the sea level rise because adding more water led to put the UCH under more depth, and more mass of water quantity on the shipwreck lying on the seabed which may be more than they can withstand (Sesana et al. 2020). Furthermore, the most recent IPCC report indicates not only an impact on surface ocean, temperatures but also on the deep ocean, with increases of 0.6–2.0°C chemical reaction rates double for every 10°C increase in temperature (Kennedy et al. 2002). This would reduce the amount of time a diver can remain underwater. Increased CO2 in the atmosphere, which is absorbed by the oceans, leads to increase in the acidification of seas and oceans where the PH of water decrease and influences the iron and steel of shipwrecks by 7 �increasing the rate of corrosion (Perez-Alvaro 2016; Wright 2016). With more evaporation and precipitation and formation of sea ice lead all together to increase the salinity in water and change the chemical and physical property of sea and ocean, that will create new bacteria and new organisms, which affect and threaten the archeological features especially the shipworms, causing damage to underwater wooden structures (Sesana et al. 2020). This study shows the high impact of climate change and the relation with the UCH, which became a main part of marine environment, the changes of sites help to understand the changes in climate. CONCLUSION / DISCUSSION We conclude that climate change will directly affect coastal and underwater sites, including the deterioration of our UCH. The relation between climate change and maritime archeological sites is very connected because shipwrecks become part of the marine environment such as artificial reefs. Today, maritime archeology help researchers to understand the past climate and the human past adaptation with climate change, where maritime and coastal sites illustrate the environmental changes. Several projects provide the opportunity for maritime archaeology research on climate in the past and then educate humanity to better understand the climate crisis. For example, several studies that focus on the human-environment interaction such as migration in ancient periods, and human uses of aquatic environment may inform what may happen in the future. It is important to involve cultural heritage in climate action because heritage includes the identity of people that they want to pass to future generations, and which may be at risk due to climate change. 8 �Bibliography Advan and Jovanovska 2016 Bourouhou I., and Salmun F. Sea surface temperature estimation using remotely sensed imagery of Landsat 8 along the coastline of Tangier - Ksar Sghir region, The International Conference on Innovation, Modern Applied Science & Environmental Studies (ICIES2020), Vol 234, 2021. Bardach, Cotter and Morgan. Pacific Ocean, https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed 17 March 2023 URL Gregory, Dawson, Elkin, Van Tilburg, Underwood, Richards, Viduka, Westley, Wright, Hollesen. Of time and tide: the complex impacts of climate change on coastal and underwater cultural heritage, Journal of Antiquity 96, no. 390 (2022): 1396–1411. Kennedy, Twilley, Kleypas, Cowan, Hare. Coastal and marine ecosystems and global climate change: potential effects on US Resources, Journal of Environment, Pew Centre on Global Climate Change. 2002. Lange M. Climate Change in the Mediterranean: Environmental Impacts and Extreme Events, European Institute of the Mediterranean, In: IEMED URLhttps://www.iemed.org/publication/climate-change-in-the-mediterranean-environmentalimpacts-and-extreme-events/. 2020. Perez-Alvaro, E. Climate change and underwater culture heritage: Impacts and challenges, Journal of Culture Heritage 21, (2016): 842-848. Ramdani, Wirasatriya, Jalil. Monitoring the Sea Surface Temperature and Total Suspended Matter Based on Cloud Computing Platform of Google Earth Engine and Open-Source Software, Conf. The 6th International Conference on Tropical and Coastal Region Eco-Development, IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 750, 2021. Reimann, Vafeidis, Brown, Hinkel, Tol. Mediterranean UNESCO World Heritage at risk from coastal flooding and erosion due to sea-level rise, Journal of Nature Communications 9, no. 4161 2018. URLhttps://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-01806645-9 Reul, Grodsky, Arias, Boutin, Catany, Chapron, Amico, Dinnat, Donlon, Fore, Fournier, Guimbard, Hasson, Kolodziejczyk, Lagerloef, Lee, Le Vine, Lindstrom, Maes, Mecklenburg, Yueh. Sea surface salinity estimates from spaceborne L-band radiometers: An overview of the first decade of observation (2010–2019), Journal of Remote sensing of Environment Vol. 242, no. 111769. 2020. URL https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0034425720301395 Rockman M., Hritz C. Expanding use of archaeology in climate change response by changing its social environment, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 15, (2019): 8295–8302. URL https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1914213117 Safadi C. Bronze age and Iron age Levantine harbor: an evaluation of their maritime accessibility and protection [Thesis], Southampton University 2014. Sesana E., et al., Climate change impacts on cultural heritage: A literature review, Ed: Carter T, et all., Journal of Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews 12, no. 42020, Splading M. Perverse Sea change: underwater culture heritage in the ocean is facing chemical and physical changes, culture heritage & art review. 2011. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Potential Climate Change Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Climate change is our greatest challenge. The paper is looking for the impact on underwater cultural heritage (UCH), deep oceans, and coastal zone through literature reference and case studies. It will discuss the causes of climate change, the results, with a focus on the sea surface temperature (SST) changes in the Mediterranean Basin and the Pacific. SST will be calculated using Landsat 8 which is equipped by two bands of thermal infrared sensor (TIRS). It is suitable for coastal zone monitoring due to its high resolution. The study depends on the use of Landsat 7 which carried the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensor. Both images are interpreted and analyzed on the QGIS to calculate the radiance and reflectance of each image to conclude the value of SST. The paper will finish by presenting the cycle factors which threaten the UCH and summarize the relationship between the change of climate and the UCH and how they help researchers understand climate in the past and the adaptation by humans in past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sirine Saad El-Dine Ghiye Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ghiye, Sirine Saad El-Dine. 2023. “Potential Climate Change Threats to underwater cultural heritage.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Elena Perez-Alvaro, and Ole Varmer. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1960 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/13c4043d24fd8aa226688a96e05d2248.pdf 20904f40b57b3fb135f8541dcd0715fa PDF Text Text The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Port of San Jacinto and the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, Central Philippines Catherine E. Villamor (Graduate student, University of the Philippines, School of Archaeology) ABSTRACT During the Spanish colonial period, European explorers noted that Ticao Island in the Central Philippines was the source of water, wood, and other galleon provisions. Hence, the Port of San Jacinto in Ticao was one of the last ports the galleons touched before sailing into the Pacific, and vice versa. Ticao Pass is the graveyard of galleons such as Encarnación (1649) and Santo Cristo de Burgos (1726) to the east of the island. Through the years, local histories have been written about the island's glorious past as a galleon port. However, only a little archaeology has been done on this subject. Thus, this study aims to report the status of the archaeological research on Ticao’s role in the galleon trade. This paper charts relevant historical sites, i.e., potential archaeological sites, for future reconnaissance. The resources available to conduct the work include ethnohistorical data, archival maps, maritime charts, archaeological reports, site discovery forms, and artefacts. These resources are deemed ample to illustrate the maritime cultural landscape of the Port of San Jacinto, the underwater archaeology of the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, and the lasting impact of galleon trade in the island, especially in the town of San Jacinto. Keywords: Ticao, Port of San Jacinto, galleon trade, galleon shipwrecks List of Figures Figure 1. Locational map of San Jacinto, Ticao Island and Ticao Pass - Murillo-Velarde map (1734) Figure 2. The location of the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass Figure 3. Maritime Cultural Landscape of Port San Jacinto Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1815) Figure 4. a. Reproduction of Cosme Bertodano’s Plano de el Puerto de San Jacinto (1792); b—Plan & View of St. Jacinto on Ticao (1763); and c. Plano de el Puerto de San Jacinto (1792) INTRODUCTION The history of Ticao Island in Central Philippines (Figure 1) is primarily intertwined with maritime traditions. In the Spanish colonial period, Ticao Pass was part of the treacherous route of the ManilaAcapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1812 CE) known as the Embocadero or the Paso de Acapulco (Schurz 1939). So, the Port of San Jacinto on this island ‘was celebrated for it served as a harbour for the famed galleons’ (Montero 1886, 338). It was also the source of water and wood; thus, it was the last port the galleons touched before sailing to the Pacific (Careri 1983). This paper investigates the extent of archaeological research on the role of Ticao Island and Ticao Pass in the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade. It reviews the underwater archaeology done on the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass. The study also illustrates the maritime cultural landscape of the galleon port of San Jacinto from archival maps, nautical charts, and ethnohistorical accounts, which could be investigated archaeologically. Ultimately, this work discusses the lasting impact of the galleon trade on Ticao Island, especially in San Jacinto. 1 �Figure 1. Locational map of San Jacinto, Ticao Island and Ticao Pass [Satellite image: ESRI World Imagery] in relation to the route of Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade as shown in the Murillo-Velarde map (1734), the overview map on this figure [Source: Library of Congress] METHODS Library and archival research were conducted to gather historical and archaeological data that are relevant to the roles of Ticao in the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade. This research also involves georeferencing archival maps published from 1565 to 1815 and geotagging relevant placenames and spatial references from ethnohistorical accounts using QGIS version 3.28.2. Some ethnohistorical 2 �sources are not directly linked to the galleon trade but apply to the maritime traditions in Ticao Island within its period, such as indigenous warfare, sea piracy, and slave raiding. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION According to Schurz (1939), from Cavite on Manila Bay, the galleons passed through the Embocadero towards San Bernardino Strait. However, storms would often coincide with the voyage, hence ‘galleons were… frequently becalmed for days’ (La Follette and Deur 2018, 169) and were ‘always delayed at San Jacinto on Ticao, or some other port in the vicinity’ (Schurz 1939, 222). The Galleon Shipwrecks in Ticao Pass Since Ticao Pass is part of the galleon trade route, it became the graveyard of galleons and other vessels during the Spanish colonial period. Some of the galleons that were wrecked in this passage were Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación (1649 CE), Santo Cristo de Burgos (1726 CE), San Cristóbal (1733 CE), Magallanes (1793 CE), and San Andrés (1798 CE) (Philippine Commission of Independence 1923; Schurz 1939; Warren 2012) (Figure 2). In the past thirty years, at least two of those galleons have been investigated archaeologically, namely Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación (1649 CE) and Santo Cristo de Burgos (1726 CE). Jago-on and Orillaneda first discussed the investigations of Encarnación and Santo Cristo de Burgos in the essay ‘Archaeological Researches on the Manila Galleon Wrecks in the Philippines’ (2019). Encarnación On its way to Manila, on 5 October 1649, Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación was struck by a typhoon near Bulan, Sorsogon. This maritime tragedy is attributed to Encarnación’s late departure from Acapulco. Two hundred passengers died, and all its cargo was sunk along with the galleon (Warren 2012, 195). On 28 November to 10 December 1985, the National Museum of the Philippines investigated the possible wreck of Encarnación. According to them, it was located approximately 1.5 kilometres westnorthwest of Bulan. Their team could not recover the ceramics and other cargoes of the galleons. On the other hand, they found ‘the double wall sidings of a wooden ship, the base of its mast, a probable cannon with heavy encrustations and a large piece of heavily rusted iron’ (Cuevas 1985, 1). An archaeological excavation was conducted from 28 December 1985 to 22 January 1986, where the team exposed wooden planks and ballast stones. However, due to strong currents, the team ceased the excavations ‘temporarily’ for their safety (Malones 1986, 1-2). Based on the available records, the wreck of Encarnación has not been re-excavated since then. 3 �Figure 2. The location of the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass Santo Cristo de Burgos The Acapulco-bound Santo Cristo de Burgos was hit by a typhoon near the shores of Ticao Island on 23 July 1726 CE. The galleon was described as a ‘500-ton fully laden vessel with a valuable cargo and unspecified number of passengers and more than 250 sailors. The only casualty of this tragedy was the ship’s master of the galley (Fish 2011, 508). However, while the, ‘crew and the passengers escaped… the cargo was mysteriously burned’ (Schurz 1939). Therefore, this maritime disaster underwent severe scrutiny from the Spanish authorities, who received tons of charges from aggrieved merchants (Schurz 1939, 260). They discovered that the galleon sunk during the storm because it was not anchored in its usual anchorage in the Port of San Jacinto. In October 1726 CE, the investigation committee concluded that the captain, chief pilot, and six officers were guilty of the loss of the galleon and its cargo. They were imprisoned, and the government seized their properties to compensate the aggrieved parties (Fish 2011). The National Museum of the Philippines surveyed the possible Santo Cristo de Burgos wreck site in July 1985. This underwater survey was mentioned and charted by Conese in the article ‘Underwater Archaeology in the Philippines’ (1989). The wreck, first discovered by a fisherman, is about 4.5 kilometres north of the Port of San Jacinto. Based on the survey form, they recovered tradeware sherds, earthenware sherds, and glass bottle pieces. Three anchors were also taken ashore, one of which was 15 feet long. From April to May 2004, the Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology, Inc. (FEFNA) launched the Santo Cristo Archaeological Exploration Project in San Fernando, approximately 10 kilometres south of the Port of San Jacinto. The artefacts recovered included an iron ring, a shell artefact, and ceramics (Alba 2004). It is important to note that the area FEFNA explored is about 14 kilometres from the San Jacinto Wreck Site. Moreover, the report for this exploration project did not reference the San Jacinto Wreck Site, which was first considered as the possible wreck site of Santo Cristo de Burgos. 4 �The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Galleon Port of San Jacinto Figure 3. The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Port of San Jacinto during the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1815 CE) According to Westerdahl (2011, 735), ‘The occurrence of historic shipwrecks must have relied on a logistic network of the past which could be recorded in the same process’. Currently, the galleon port of San Jacinto has not been investigated archaeologically. Hence, archival maps and ethnohistorical accounts were reviewed to illustrate its maritime cultural landscape during the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade. Westerdahl (1992, 6) defines maritime cultural landscape as ‘the whole network of sailing routes, old as well as new, with ports and harbours along the coast, and its related constructions and remains of human activity, underwater as well as terrestrial’. In the Port of San Jacinto, this network includes places that are relevant to maritime activities (e.g., trade, shipbuilding, and piracy), such as sources of provisions, docks, ports, shipyards, and fortifications (Figure 3). These landmarks were geotagged based on the Bertodano 1792 CE map (Figure 4a) and ethnohistorical sources. In the late 1600s, Italian adventurer Gemelli Careri notes in his travel accounts that San Jacinto was a ‘good port with the conveniency of fresh water and wood and is, therefore, the last land the ships bound for New Spain touch at’ (Careri 1983, 42). Based on the Dalrymple 1763 CE map (Figure 4b) and the notes on the Bertodano 1792 CE map (Figure 4c), the most accessible source of freshwater for the vessels (such as the galleons) was the river northeast of the Punta de Bodega called Aguada. The other sources were the tributaries of the Estero de Santa Rosa. There were also two wells on both sides of the bay. 5 �Figure 4. a. Reproduction of the Cosme Bertodano’s Plano de el Puerto de San Jacinto (1792) by Príncipe de la Paz; b. Plan & View of St. Jacinto on Ticao (1763) by Alexander Dalrymple; and c. Plano de el Puerto de San Jacinto (1792) by Cosme Bertodano [Sources: Biblioteca Nacional de España and Archivo Museo Naval de Madrid] 6 �On the other hand, the wood was probably acquired from the ‘hillocky’ cove on both sides of the anchorage (See Figure 3b). In particular, the Patag, east of Población, was the area where hardwoods such as Ipil (Intsia bijuga), Barayong (Afzelia rhomboidea), and Hamorawon (Vitex parviflora) were sourced during the Spanish colonial period (Merillo 1981). Due to its proximity to the port, it was probably also the source of wood for the galleons. In addition, along the Port of San Jacinto, there were places relevant to the prosaic maritime activities. To the east of the Punta de San Juan was a ‘historical beach’ where small indigenous watercraft such as banca (small dugout boat) and cumpit (fishing vessel) docked. In addition, based on the local history, Sitio Fabrica near Rondajan was a dockyard for bancas and ships (Merillo 1981). Interestingly, the Real Astillero de Mobo on the island of Masbate was located at Barangay Fabrica (Non 1993; Pelorina 2015). It is important to note that in the Spanish colonial period, ships and other vessels were built in the Philippine archipelago to facilitate fishing, transportation, and trade and were instrumental in fighting against sea pirates and slave raiders (Non 1993). In San Jacinto, inhabitants ‘rode small bancas pretending to be fishing within the town's bay and outside the bay's mouth, which would distract the entrance of sea pirates’ (Merillo 1981, 45). A round-the-clock patrol was also done on land in Rondajan, and because of the rampant piracy, ‘In 1701 a formal union of the settlers was formed with the end in view to protect themselves from the Moro marauders’ (Almodal 1953, 2). This marked the birth of the Población (settlement) in the Port of San Jacinto. Aside from building houses, the inhabitants built ‘more and better fortifications’ (Almodal 1953, 2). Cannons were installed in several areas, such as the Garita Rock (Spanish for ‘sentry box’), the Bagalayag Rock (probably near the Punta de Bodega), and the Binantayan Rock (also known as Binantayan Point) (Merillo 1981). Watch posts (vernacular: bantai/bantay/bantayan) were also established in strategic points such as the Punta de Tajiran, Punta de Binantayan, and Punta Lagan. Moreover, two watch posts were installed on Bantayan hills. There, the sentinels would blow their balalong (hollowed tree trunk) or bodiong (carabao horn or conch) to warn the inhabitants of the incoming raiders (Morado 1953; Barrun 1953; Mallari 1989). More importantly, guards were assigned to the fortress and the church, which served as the primary refuge for the inhabitants amidst intrusions (Merillo 1981). These defence structures protected the inhabitants from the indigenous sea pirates but also against Dutch and British intruders. In 1646 CE, the bay of San Jacinto was the venue of one of the skirmishes of the Battle of La Naval de Manila between the Spanish fleet and the Dutch squadron. On 22 June 1646 CE, a sentinel reported seven Dutch warships approaching the waters of San Jacinto. A day later, the Dutch forces attempted to seize the Garita Rock to ambush two galleons. However, they were vanquished by the local and Spanish forces. As a result, the Dutch seized the Port of San Jacinto until 24 July 1646 CE. More than a century later, during the British Occupation of Manila (1762-1764 CE), one of the ships of the British fleet attempted to anchor in the Port of San Jacinto but received cannon fire from the fortress. On 20 December 1797 CE, the inhabitants of the Población fled after they were warned of the atrocities of some British entities. These intruders were demanding foodstuffs, cattle, and freshwater. When the Spanish and local authorities refused to give in, the intruders fired at the church with ammunition before finally leaving the port (Gerona 2012). The other ports in Ticao Island during the galleon trade Based on the Murillo-Velarde Map (Figure 1), the galleons usually anchored on the Port of Ticao (present-day San Fernando). It was approximately 10 kilometres south of the Port of San Jacinto. Another anchorage lies on the northernmost tip of the island, known as the Port of San Miguel. It was probably a port of call during the galleon trade since the galleons were ‘turning ENE around the Punta de San Miguel and the Punta del Diablo [both in San Miguel]; [before] coasting around the east side of Ticao to the anchorage at San Jacinto’ (Schurz 1939, 222). 7 �The Impact of the Galleon Trade on Ticao Island and San Jacinto When the Spanish arrived, Ticao Island had sporadic communities with trading and burial traditions (See Evangelista and Paniza 1962). Its centre was also named Ticao (present-day San Fernando). According to local history, Ticao became a pueblo in 1701 CE (Merillo 1980). However, unlike the galleon port of San Jacinto, protected by a fortress and at least five watch posts, Ticao was virtually defenceless. As a result, that town was easily crushed by Iranun slave raiders in 1757 CE (Warren 2002). After the atrocities, ‘All the inhabitants of Ticao Island were re-concentrated in the port of San Jacinto’ (Dery 1986, 160). By 1804 CE, San Jacinto was established as the new and only town on Ticao Island (De la Cavada 1876, 262). More than two centuries later, San Jacinto remains a quaint town with a seaport and various fish ports. Its past as a galleon port is immortalised in its church. Now called the Church of the Santo Cristo de Burgos, this parish used to house the relic of Jesus Christ that was saved from the burning galleon Santo Cristo (Gerona 2012, 78). Moreover, the galleon Santo Cristo's tragedy has been integrated into the oral tradition of San Jacinto, which has been passed down in the community for almost three centuries. In terms of resources, the southwest tip of Estero de Sta. Rosa (now the Tutuban River) in the Bertodano 1792 CE map (Figure 3c) is still the source of freshwater in the village of Tutuban. Its tributary pointing to the south is now a fishpond in Pararatngan, leading to Cueva in Burgos's village, ‘the source of the water system in San Jacinto’ (Espares 1953, 6). Lastly, the galleon trade and the Dutch and British intrusions made the port (and later the port town) of San Jacinto cosmopolitan. Hence, it has been passed down through oral tradition and local history that some Dutch, English, Portuguese, and Spanish crewmembers of the frigates and other vessels, such as the galleons, intermarried with the town’s inhabitants (Magdaraog 1968.; Merillo 1981). In particular, the ‘original families’ in the village of Tutuban, where the freshwater for the galleon was acquired, ‘were of mixed breed—Spanish, Dutch, and English’ (Villamor c. 1953, 1). BIBLIOGRAPHY Alba, Larry. Santo Cristo Underwater Archaeological Exploration Project. Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 2004. Almodal, Angeles V. “History and Cultural Life of San Jacinto,” Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines, c. 1953. Barrun, Hermogenes E. History and Cultural Life of the Barrio [Mabini],’ Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines, c. 1953. Beyer, H. Otley. “Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology by Islands and Provinces.” The Philippine Journal of Science 77, nos. 3-4 (1947): 205-390. Bolunia, Mary Jane Louise A. “Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon.” In Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, edited by Hans Van Tilburg, Sila Tripati, Veronica Walker, Brian Fahy, and Jun Kimura. Honolulu, APCONF Committee, 2014. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. Philippine Fisheries Profile 2020. Quezon City: BFAR, 2021. Careri, Giovanni Franceso Gemelli. A Voyage to the Philippines. Translated from Giro del Mondo del dottor D. Gio Francesco Gemelli Careri. Parte Quinta Contenente le Cose più ragguardevoli vedute nell´isole Filippine, published 1700. Translated by Filipiniana Book Guild. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1983. Conese, Eduardo E. Underwater Archaeology in the Philippines. Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 1989. 8 �Cuevas, Maharlika. Ticao Pass (Bulan) Underwater Archaeological Project: A Field Report. Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 1985b. De la Cavada y Méndez de Vigo, Agustin. Historia geográfica: geológica y estadiśtica de Filipinas. Con datos geográficos, geológicos y estadiśticos de las islas de Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao y Joló; y los que corresponden a las islas Batanes, Calamianes, Balabac, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao y Burias, situadas al n. so. y s. de Luzon, tompo 1-2. Manila: Imp. de Ramirez y Giraudier, 1876. Dery, Luis C. ‘The Era of the Kris: The Moro Raids in Sorsogon and Kabikolan and their impact on Philippine history, 15711896.’ National Academy of Science & Technology, 11 (1989): 145-166. Evangelista, Alfredo E., and Inocentes P. Paniza. A Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Survey of Burias, Ticao and Masbate Islands (April 1 to May 31, 1962). Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 1962. Espares, Bienvenido A. “History of the Barrio of Burgos,” Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines, c. 1953. Fish, Shirley. The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific: With an Annotated List of the Transpacific Galleons 1565-1815. Milton Keynes: Authorhouse, 2011. Gerona, Danilo M. Las Islas de Masbate: A Beacon of Faith, A Fortress of Resistance. Masbate: Diocese of Masbate, 2012. Gerona, Danilo M. El Puerto Y Astillero Real de Pasacao. Pasacao: Office of the Mayor, 2018. Jago-on, S.C.B., Orillaneda, B.C. “Archaeological Researches on the Manila Galleon Wrecks in the Philippines.” In Archaeology of Manila Galleon Seaports and Early Maritime Globalization, The Archaeology of Asia-Pacific Navigation, vol. 2, edited by Chunming Wu, Roberto Junco Sanchez, and Miao Liu, 129-145. Springer, Singapore, 2019. La Follette, Cameron, and Douglas Deur. 2018. “Views Across the Pacific: The Galleon Trade and Its Traces in Oregon.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 119, no. 2 (2018): 160-191. Magdaraog, Victor. 1968. “San Jacinto, Ticao Island.” In The Historical and Cultural Heritage of the Bicol People, 2 nd Edition, edited by James J. O’Brien. Naga: Ateneo de Naga. Mallari, Francisco. “Camarines Towns: Defenses against Moro Pirates.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 17, no. 1 (1989): 41–66. Malones, Antonio Jr. The Encarnation. Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 1985 Merillo, Damaso. History of San Jacinto and Ticao Island Masbate. Unpublished Typescript, 1981. Montero y Vidal, Jose. El archipiélago Filipino y las islas Marianas, Carolinas y Palaos. Madrid: Imprenta y Fundación de M. Tello, 1886. Morado, Arturo B. c. 1953. “The Origin of the name “Bagahanglad” and its sitios,” Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines, c. 1953. Non, Domingo M. “Moro Piracy during the Spanish Period and Its Impact.” Southeast Asian Studies 30, no. 4 (1993): 401419. Pelorina, Renato. “Plunder of Paradise: The History of Forest Denudation of Masbate Island, the Philippines, 1870-1946.” Researchers World: Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce 6, no. 2 (2015): 52-66. Philippine Commission of Independence. Beautiful Philippines: A Handbook of General Information. Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1923. Realubit, Maria Lilia F. Bikols of the Philippines. Naga: A.M.S. Press, 1983. Schurz, William Lytle. The Manila Galleon. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1939. Villamor, Domingo S. “History and Common Life of the Barrio of Tutuban,” Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines. c. 1953. 9 �Warren, James Francis. Iranun and Balangingi: globalization, maritime raiding and the birth of ethnicity. Singapore: NUS Press, 2002. Warren, James. ‘Weather, History and Empire: The Typhoon Factor and the Manila Galleon Trade, 1565-1815.’ In Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past, edited by Geoff Wade, and Li Tana, 183-220. Singapore: ISEAS, 2012. Westerdahl, Christer. “The maritime cultural landscape.” The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21, no. 1 (1992): 5-14. Westerdahl, Christer. “The Maritime Cultural Landscape.” In The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, edited by Alexis Catsambis, Ben Ford, and Donny L. Hamilton, 733-76. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 12: The Archaeology of the Manila Galleon at the APCONF: past, present and new interpretations. Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 12 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Port of San Jacinto and the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, Central Philippines Description An account of the resource During the Spanish colonial period, European explorers noted that Ticao Island in the Central Philippines was the source of water, wood, and other galleon provisions. Hence, the Port of San Jacinto in Ticao was one of the last ports the galleons touched before sailing into the Pacific, and vice versa. Ticao Pass is the graveyard of galleons such as Encarnación (1649) and Santo Cristo de Burgos (1726) to the east of the island. Through the years, local histories have been written about the island's glorious past as a galleon port. However, only a little archaeology has been done on this subject. Thus, this study aims to report the status of the archaeological research on Ticao’s role in the galleon trade. This paper charts relevant historical sites, i.e., potential archaeological sites, for future reconnaissance. The resources available to conduct the work include ethnohistorical data, archival maps, maritime charts, archaeological reports, site discovery forms, and artefacts. These resources are deemed ample to illustrate the maritime cultural landscape of the Port of San Jacinto, the underwater archaeology of the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, and the lasting impact of galleon trade in the island, especially in the town of San Jacinto. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Catherine E. Villamor Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Villamor, Catherine E.. 2023. “The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Port of San Jacinto and the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, Central Philippines.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Jose L Casaban. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1959 Asia-Pac Session 12 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cdab29076868a5703fbfd2725db7a918.pdf ab88a71ea1821c93b33b3ca108ccd0c4 PDF Text Text Developing a zooarchaeological approach to studying the impacts of the Manila Galleon Trade on the landscapes and cultures of the Philippines Joan Quincy Lingao1, Eduardo Corona-M.2, Grace Barretto-Tesoro1, Patrick Roberts3,4, Maricar Belarmino5, Mary Jane Louise Bolunia5, Bobby Orillaneda5, Leee Anthony Neri1, Victor Paz1, Noel Amano3,6, Juan Rofes1,5,7 1 School of Archaeology, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. Centro INAH Morelos & Seminario Relaciones Hombre-Fauna, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. 3 isoTROPIC Research Group, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Kahlaische Str. 10, 07745 Jena, Germany. 4 School of Social Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Australia. 5 National Museum of the Philippines, P. Burgos Drive, City of Manila 1000, Philippines. 6 Zooarchaeology Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Kahlaische Str. 10, 07745 Jena, Germany 7 Archéozoologie, Archéobotanique : Sociétés, Pratiques et Environnements (AASPE, UMR 7209), CNRS/MNHN, CP56, 55 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France. 2 ABSTRACT After the discovery of the tornaviaje, or return trip to New Spain (Mexico), numerous galleons sailed from the Philippines to Mexico and back again for nearly two and a half centuries (1565–1815 CE). The Manila Galleon Trade played a major role in solidifying a maritime trade network between East and Southeast Asia and the Americas during the Spanish colonial period, stimulating the introduction of plants and animals that had major ramifications for the environments, economies, and societies of the Philippines. However, formal archaeological analyses of animal remains from the Spanish colonial period remain limited. Most studies related to the Manila Galleon Trade focus on shipbuilding, tradeware ceramics, and plants. Historical accounts have provided clues as to what animals may have been introduced to the Philippines during the Manila Galleon Trade and how they were integrated into the local economy and society. Demonstrating these introductions archaeologically is nevertheless an ongoing effort. By undertaking zooarchaeological research (study of faunal materials), we seek to improve the level of detail about the animals that arrived on Philippine shores during this time period. We recommend that extending the study of the Manila Galleon Trade to explore its impact on the landscape and culture of the Philippines will yield novel insights to animal translocations, animal husbandry practices, land-use, and changes in dietary preferences during the Spanish colonial period. Keywords: Galleon Trade, zooarchaeology, maritime archaeology, underwater archaeology, Spanish colonial period List of Figures Figure 1. Map of the sites and other relevant locations. Figure 2. Faunal remains from the San Diego wreck Figure 3. Faunal remains from the Intendencia ruins INTRODUCTION The Philippines was under Spanish rule for more than 300 years (1565–1898 CE), and this period witnessed major changes in the economies (e.g., Legarda 1999), cultures (e.g., Dakudao 1992; BarrettoTesoro 2015), and landscapes (e.g., Amano et al. 2021; Findley et al. 2022) of the Philippines. After Ferdinand Magellan reached the Philippines in 1521 CE (Field 2006), Spain had sent several expeditions to the archipelago, with an initial goal of penetrating the spice trade in Southeast Asia (Iaccarino 2011). These expeditions saw an already existing maritime trade network between China (as well as other 1 �southeast and east Asian regions) and some islands in the Philippines, highlighting the benefits of a trade network with China to European colonizers (Blair and Robertson 1903). By the 1570s, Spanish explorers led by Miguel López de Legazpi headed to Manila and designated it as the capital of its new colony of the Spanish East Indies (Iaccarino 2011). Fray Andrés de Urdaneta, one of the members of López de Legazpi’s expedition, also successfully mapped the tornaviaje, or the eastbound return trip to Mexico, which shortened the voyage from the Philippines to the Americas. This ushered the beginning of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade: a 250-year (1565–1815 CE) trans-Pacific maritime trade network that bridged together the two Spanish colonies (Legarda 1999; Reyes 2017). Archival records provide accounts of faunal introductions to the Philippines through the Manila Galleon Trade (Morga 1609; Iaccarino 2011; Javellana 2015). The thriving maritime trade in the Philippines at that time, particularly in Manila, not only welcomed plants and animals from New Spain (Mexico) but also from other East and Southeast Asian countries such as China and Cambodia (Alcina 1668; Legarda 1999; Javellana 2015; Amano et al. 2021). Animal husbandry practices and incorporation of the introduced taxa into the local diet were present in the archival records as well (Alcina 1668; Javellana 2015; Doeppers 2016). However, formal archaeological studies on these topics are limited. The historical archaeology of the Spanish occupation of the Philippines has tended to focus on buildings (e.g., churches and stone-based houses), shipyards, and tradeware (Barretto-Tesoro 2015; 2021; Jagoon and Orillaneda 2019). In contrast, there are limited zooarchaeological studies covering this period, including the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (Amano et al. 2021). The information provided by archival records only offers glimpses of the past, sometimes with conflicting accounts from different historical documents (Morga 1609; Dizon 1993; Goddio 1996a). Direct analysis of archaeological materials, especially animal remains, will not only complement and contrast archival records but may also provide new insights not explicitly indicated in historical documents (Amano et al. 2021). Zooarchaeological studies in general can offer inferences on the interaction of humans with their environment (Reitz and Wing 2008). Incorporating zooarchaeology within an historical framework will add to our current understanding of the historical archaeology of the Manila Galleon Trade and its legacy in the maritime trade networks in Asia during the Spanish occupation of the Philippines. Formal zooarchaeological analysis of faunal remains also serves as preparation for future in-depth analysis of animal remains using biomolecular approaches such as stable isotope analysis and ancient DNA (e.g., Guiry et al. 2015; Díaz-Lameiro et al. 2022), which can contribute to improving the resolution of our inferences regarding animal translocation, husbandry practices, and land use during the Spanish colonial period. SELECTED HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF ANIMAL TRANSLOCATION TO THE PHILIPPINES Several historical accounts of the early Spanish colonial period have mentioned various animals that were translocated to the Philippines. Antonio de Morga noted large scale cattle farms reared in several parts of the archipelago, with breeds coming from China and New Spain. In addition, he mentioned other animals and their introduction to the Philippines: ‘There are no ewes or rams, for though frequently brought from New Spain, they never increase because so far the climate and pasturage seem unsuitable. There were neither horses, mares nor asses in these islands until the Spaniards had them brought over from China and New Spain’ (Morga 1609, 255). However, there may have been horses already present in the Philippines before the colonial introductions, especially in Mindanao (Bankoff 2004; Amano et al. 2021). Morga also mentioned that ‘tame buffaloes, geese like swans in appearance; horses, mules, and donkeys, even caged birds some of which talk, while other sing, and make them play lots of tricks’ (Morga 1609, 306) were brought to the Philippines from China before loading them into the galleons bound for Acapulco. 2 �Similarly, Fr. Ignacio Francisco Alcina (or Alzina), a Jesuit friar who recorded a detailed natural history of the Visayas in the seventeenth century (Arcilla 1996), recorded that several animals were brought to the Philippines during the early Spanish colonial period, likely via the Galleon Trade. Some of the animals include cattle, goats, donkeys, and horses. He also mentioned how some of these animals were not readily accepted by the people in the islands and how some did not survive in their new environment. Alcina also mentioned that the cattle from New Spain interbred with those from China (Alcina 1668). Doeppers (2016, 137) mentioned that the “local breed of horse evolved in the archipelago in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries from larger imported stock and, though small, was well adapted to the available forage supply”. The resulting breed was described as medium-sized, strong, vigorous, and hard workers (Bankoff 2004). This is in comparison to those from China, which Morga described as “small, strong, long steppers, but treacherous, vicious and ill conditioned” (Morga 1609, 255). RESEARCH FRAMEWORK The initial objective of this study was to identify the animal taxa present in colonial sites and infer from the faunal assemblages the taxa that could have been translocated to the Philippines, based on available historical data and chronological information. With this goal in mind, faunal remains from the 2020 Archaeological Impact Assessment (AIA) of the Intendencia Ruins, Intramuros, Manila (Paz et al. 2020) and some bones from the 1992 and 1993 excavations of the San Diego wreck (Desroches, Casal, and Goddio 1996) were examined. Skeletal elements with diagnostic features were identified to the highest taxonomic level using the available comparative reference collection at the University of the Philippines School of Archaeology (UPSA) Zooarchaeology Laboratory, atlases, and online databases (e.g., “Anthro - Dynamic Imaging Engine” n.d.; “Digital Resource Platform for Archaeozoology” n.d.; Cornwall 1956; Gilbert, Martin, and Savage 1985; O’Connor 2000; Reitz and Wing 2008). To improve the resolution of the taxonomic identification, measurements of diagnostic features (Driesch 1976; Gilbert, Martin, and Savage 1985) were also taken using a digital calliper, and the summarised values were compared with those in the literature. In cases of limited features that can be used to identify a specimen, taxonomic identification was performed to the genus, or at least the family, level. The faunal remains were also subject to in-depth taphonomic examination to identify the presence of anthropogenic modifications (e.g., cut marks, chop marks, and burning). The specific taphonomic features were compared with those from the collection in the UPSA Zooarchaeology Laboratory as well as those available in atlases and other literature (e.g., Behrensmeyer 1978; Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews 2016). 3 �CASE STUDIES Figure 1. Map of the sites and other relevant locations. (Left) Map of the Philippines. (Inset) The San Diego wreck and Intendencia ruins are marked with a yellow pin. San Diego Wreck (Nasugbu, Batangas, Philippines) The San Diego wreck site is located northeast of Fortune Island, off the coast of Nasugbu, Batangas (Figure 1). San Diego was initially a merchant ship that was retrofitted into a warship during the battle against the Dutch led by Oliver van Noort in December 1600. The San Diego was commanded by Antonio de Morga, whose accounts of the event were scrutinized for their inaccuracy and exaggeration (Dizon 1993; Goddio 1996a; 1996b). An initial survey and exploration were conducted in 1991 to determine the site of the wreck, as there were contradicting historical accounts as to the approximate location where the vessel sunk (Dizon 1993; Goddio 1996a). The first phase of the excavation was undertaken in 1991 followed by the recording of the ship hull in 1993. The diving activities were headed by Franck Goddio with the supervision of the National Museum of the Philippines, who did the accessioning, cataloguing, inventory, and recording of the archaeological materials recovered. Hundreds of ceramics (in the form of dishes, plates, bottles, pots, and jars), some cannons and muskets, navigational instruments, silver coins, two anchors, and many bone fragments were recovered from this site (Ronquillo 1993; Cuevas 1996). For this study, a fraction of the animal remains from the San Diego wreck were accessed from the repository of the National Museum of Anthropology. Of the reported 2,727 skeletal remains (combined number of animal and human bones), only 44 were accessed and confirmed as animal bones; some of the animal bones were fragmented and commingled with human bones, which made it difficult to sort them, while some of the bones may have been stored elsewhere. Among the bones analysed, 14 were pig bone fragments (Figure 2A), likely from the species Sus scrofa. The third lower molar (Figure 2A, topmost) is a good anatomical feature for identifying this species (Ingicco et al. 2017). The bovines in the assemblage were entirely represented by rib fragments (Figure 2B). Interestingly, anthropogenic modifications in the form of cut and chop marks (Figure 2B, arrows) were mostly observed on these bones, suggesting that bovines may have been butchered before they were loaded onto the galleon. The meat from the butchered animals was usually preserved in either brine or salt and then stored in barrels or jars (Guiry et al. 2015; Migaud 2011). Aside from pig and bovine bones, chicken (Gallus gallus) bones were also present in the faunal assemblage of the San Diego. Complete long bones of these birds were recovered from the site, with abrasions of the epiphyseal ends being observed due to the preservation underwater. 4 �Figure 2. Faunal remains from the San Diego wreck. (A) Pig skeletal remains, likely Sus scrofa (not necessarily from the same individual): (from top to bottom of panel A) a left mandible fragment with an intact third lower molar (m3), a humerus distal end, and a thoracic vertebra. (B) A bovine rib fragment with chop marks (arrows) at the sternal end. (C) A complete chicken (Gallus gallus) femur. Given the limited number of bones available from the original collection, it is difficult to make further inferences regarding the site. In the reports from the San Diego wreck survey and excavation, Secuya (1993) and Migaud and Pérez (in Veyrat 1996) provided insights into life on board the San Diego based on historical records and the initial analysis of the faunal remains from the site. According to the list of provisions for the San Diego, which consisted of live chickens and preserved pork and beef, there was a “certain predilection for pork hams, sides of beef, and chicken drumstick” (Veyrat 1996, 174). The presence of live chickens, specifically laying hens, was demonstrated by the presence of remains of a chick and eggshells, the major cortical ossification of certain long bones, as well as the accounts of the battle (Veyrat 1996). However, the initial zooarchaeological analyses focused only on the life on board the ship and did not provide possible explanations on the source of these animals (i.e., whether they were raised in the vicinity of the port, or transported from nearby provinces) and any clues on animal husbandry practices of that time (Migaud 2011; Veyrat 1996). More information regarding the origin of these animals may be generated using biomolecular approaches such as ancient DNA and stable isotope analyses. Intendencia Ruins (Intramuros, City of Manila) Not all shipwrecks will yield faunal remains for systematic zooarchaeological analysis. Aside from the San Diego wreck, other underwater excavations in the Philippines recovered mostly ceramics and metals, with almost no mention of faunal remains (Jago-on and Orillaneda 2019). Aside from the difficulty in recovering and collecting animal bones underwater, they may not always be preserved because they can be significantly eroded by tides and sea currents and are often used as substrate by certain aquatic organisms (Migaud 2011). In addition, faunal remains from shipwrecks may not necessarily represent the animals meant as livestock, but food rations and supplies of the passengers of the galleon. Thus, it is also necessary to investigate inland and coastal sites to expand our understanding of animal translocations and integration of introduced taxa to Philippine landscapes. 5 �In December 2020, an AIA was done on the Intendencia building inside Intramuros (Figure 1) to guide the reconstruction and development plan of the National Archives of the Philippines. Intendencia, or a building for offices, is a structure inside the Intramuros of Manila initially built as an aduana (customs house) in the nineteenth century. The excavation revealed some artefacts from the nineteenth century such as ceramic sherds, tiles, metal implements, coins, and faunal remains (Paz et al. 2020). The Intendencia Ruins faunal assemblage consists of several animal taxa including pig, cattle, buffalo, dog, and chicken. Furthermore, bones recovered from this site include a right tibiotarsus belonging to a wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) (Figure 3A). Currently, there is only limited evidence of an early introduction of turkey in the Philippines prior to the American period. Several turkey bone fragments were excavated from an AIA in Sta. Ana, Manila, although these were likely modern based on the associated materials in the sediment layer (Barretto-Tesoro et al. 2018). The discovery of a much older turkey bone from a nineteenth century site suggests an earlier introduction of this animal to the Philippines, possibly from the Americas which is considered the center of domestication for this bird taxa (Manin et al. 2018). The presence of cut marks (not shown in the figure) suggests consumption of this animal as early as the nineteenth century (Doeppers 2016). Figure 3. Faunal remains from the Intendencia Ruins. (A) Right tibiotarsus of a turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). (B) A bovine tibia with chop marks (arrows). The abundance of bovine bones, either from cattle (Bos taurus) or water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), was also observed in the faunal assemblage of the Intendencia Ruins. Evidence of butchery such as cut and chop marks (Figure 3B, arrows) on the bovine bones was also recorded. However, it is yet to be elucidated whether these animals were reared within or in the vicinity of Intramuros, or were supplied from nearby provinces such as Batangas and Laguna (Doeppers 2016). It will be important to explore archaeologically whether the practice of importing cattle and buffaloes from nearby provinces was in place since the early Spanish colonial period, if not before, and if this network of inland trade had supplied the food provisions of the Manila Galleons. 6 �Summary, Recommendations, and Future Analyses Historical accounts record the introduction of certain animal taxa, such as cattle and horses, to the Philippines during the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade. Currently, there is limited direct archaeological evidence for these introductions, as this aspect of Philippine history is yet to be explored and examined from the perspective of zooarchaeology. This academic paper presents two pilot studies of zooarchaeological assemblages of potential relevance to the Manila Galleon Trade; however, it is imperative to do further analyses of colonial sites, especially those of the early Spanish colonial period, regardless of whether the archaeological materials come from underwater/coastal sites or from inland sites. In addition, archaeological sites of the later Spanish colonial period should also be explored because they may provide archaeological records of the adoption/rejection of certain animal taxa. Such studies will provide a bigger picture of the extent of animal translocations and will improve the resolution of our inferences about the integration of introduced taxa to local environments and human lifestyles in the Philippines (Amano et al. 2021). Genetic studies will also help in tracing the ancestry of the domestic animals from colonial sites, given the historical accounts of interbreeding of animals, whereas isotopic data can provide insights to animal husbandry practices and how these contributes to changing landscapes (e.g., Manin et al. 2018; Thornton, Emery, and Speller 2016; Conrad 2022; Morandi et al. 2021; Freiwald and Pugh 2018; Guiry et al. 2015). Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the following for their help in realizing this study: Rachelle Ureta of the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Division of the National Museum of Anthropology (NMA), for assisting in accessing the reports and materials from the San Diego wreck; Marian Reyes of the Archaeology Division of the NMA, for doing the initial assessment of the bones from the San Diego wreck in their repository; Jane Carlos of the UP School of Archaeology (UPSA), for coordinating the access to the animal remains from the Intendencia Ruins; Ian Cartalaba of the UPSA for taking photos of some bones presented in this paper; and Diego Rebato, Jr. for sharing several reference materials on the Manila Galleon Trade. This study is also supported by a thesis grant from the European Research Council through the PANTROPOCENE Project of the Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alcina, Francisco Ignacio. 1668. 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Paris and New York: Association Française d’Action Artistique, Fondation Elf, and Elf Aquitaine International Foundation, Inc. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 12: The Archaeology of the Manila Galleon at the APCONF: past, present and new interpretations. Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 12 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Developing a zooarchaeological approach to studying the impacts of the Manila Galleon Trade on the landscapes and cultures of the Philippines Description An account of the resource After the discovery of the tornaviaje, or return trip to New Spain (Mexico), numerous galleons sailed from the Philippines to Mexico and back again for nearly two and a half centuries (1565–1815 CE). The Manila Galleon Trade played a major role in solidifying a maritime trade network between East and Southeast Asia and the Americas during the Spanish colonial period, stimulating the introduction of plants and animals that had major ramifications for the environments, economies, and societies of the Philippines. However, formal archaeological analyses of animal remains from the Spanish colonial period remain limited. Most studies related to the Manila Galleon Trade focus on shipbuilding, tradeware ceramics, and plants. Historical accounts have provided clues as to what animals may have been introduced to the Philippines during the Manila Galleon Trade and how they were integrated into the local economy and society. Demonstrating these introductions archaeologically is nevertheless an ongoing effort. By undertaking zooarchaeological research (study of faunal materials), we seek to improve the level of detail about the animals that arrived on Philippine shores during this time period. We recommend that extending the study of the Manila Galleon Trade to explore its impact on the landscape and culture of the Philippines will yield novel insights to animal translocations, animal husbandry practices, land-use, and changes in dietary preferences during the Spanish colonial period. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Joan Quincy Lingao Eduardo Corona-M Grace Barretto-Tesoro Patrick Roberts Maricar Belarmino Mary Jane Louise Bolunia Bobby Orillaneda Leee Anthony Neri Victor Paz Noel Amano Juan Rofes Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Lingao, Joan Quincy, Eduardo Corona-M, Grace Barretto-Tesoro, Patrick Roberts, Maricar Belarmino, Mary Jane Louise Bolunia, Bobby Orillaneda, Leee Anthony Neri, Victor Paz, Noel Amano, and Juan Rofes. 2023. “Developing a zooarchaeological approach to studying the impacts of the Manila Galleon Trade on the landscapes and cultures of the Philippines.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Roberto Junco. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1958 Asia-Pac Session 12 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b7c8c219a602ac2c781c95dff2f2069a.pdf cfde28b30785e5d92c7d742ed96c3b44 PDF Text Text A Study on the Restoration of Hull Shapes in the Early Goryeo Dynasty: Focusing on the Case of Sibidongpado Shipwreck Kang Won-Chun (Curator, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT The Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392 CE) was a period when marine activities were very active centering on Byeokrando. The Sibidongpado and Wando shipwrecks are important data that can show marine activities in the early Goryeo Dynasty. It is characteristic that most of the accompanying artifacts are celadon produced in the Haenam region, and that curved longitudinal member was confirmed in the hull structure. To investigate the shape variables necessary to identify hull shape of the Sibidongpado shipwreck the shape and structure were reviewed from a shipbuilding engineering point of view. First, through 3D scanning of the remaining hull such as the bottom plate, curved longitudinal member, and outer plate, the main dimensions were calculated, and 19 shape variables necessary for hull restoration were extracted. Next, the data of each part of the ancient shipwrecks of similar period was made into statistics, and the geometric dimension ratio was applied, or each pre-calculated shape variable was defined based on the modeling data. Based on the defined shape variables, the hull shape was restored, and the corresponding displacement and restorability were derived, and the ship restoration was attempted from the point of view of shipbuilding engineering. Finally, based on the data of the excavated ancient shipwreck, the structure of each part of the ship was reproduced in 3D shape. It is not easy to restore the original form of an ancient ship based on the limited remaining hull fragments and historical sources. As ancient shipwrecks are an essential element in identifying marine activities of the time, future research is expected. Keywords: Goryeo Dynasty, ancient ship, Sibidongpado shipwreck, restoration of hull shape List of Tables and Figures [Table 1] Main shape parameters of Sibidongpado shipwreck [Figure 1] Result of restoration of hull shape of Sibidongpado shipwreck [Figure 2] Shape diagram of Sibidongpado shipwreck [Figure 3] Hydrostatics Curve of Sibidongpado shipwreck INTRODUCTION In Korea, from the underwater excavation of Sinan shipwreck artifacts in 1976, and to the most recent Daebudo no. 2 shipwreck, a total of 16 ancient shipwrecks have been identified in Korean waters. Ten of these ancient ships are Goryeo Dynasty shipwrecks, along with celadon, grains and salted fish, and coal spoons. Sibidongpado and Wando shipwrecks are important data that can show marine activities in the early Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392 CE). It is characteristic that most of the accompanying artifacts are celadon produced in the Haenam region, and that curved longitudinal member was identified in the hull structure. It is not easy to presume the overall scale only with the limited remaining hull fragments, which are mainly concentrated on the bottom of the ship. The shape variables necessary to identify the hull shape of the Sibidongpado shipwreck were examined from a shipbuilding engineering point of view. The process of 3D scanning and calculating major dimensions of the remaining hull, such as the bottom plate, was reviewed, and 19 shape variables required for hull restoration were extracted and data of each part was made into statistics or each shape variable was defined based on geometric dimension ratio and modeling data. We attempted restoration of the hull shape according to shape variables, deduction of displacement and stability through hydraulic calculation, review of the hull shape from the point of view of shipbuilding engineering, and 3D shaping. CALCULATION OF MAJOR DIMENSIONS BY 3D SCANNING The remaining hull found in the excavation investigation of Sibidongpado shipwreck is a total of 11 including six bottom plates in three rows, two curved longitudinal members in portside and three bow 1 �materials, showing the flat bottom structure of a traditional Korean ship (National Maritime Artifacts Museum 2005, 50-66). For the bottom plates, the two central bottom plates were connected by a concave-convex tenon joint method, and the left and right bottom plates were connected by a shiplap method. It is highly likely that one member was added to the center bottom plate, and there must have been more materials connected butt-to-butt on the left and right bottom plate. As for curved longitudinal member, only two members of the first stage were recovered from the portside. We assume two stages of curved longitudinal member. The bow members are in three fragments, vertically butted together and fixed with a long line, and on the left and right sides, grooved jaws that meet the outer plate have saw tooth markings. For these 11 members, 3D scanning was conducted to estimate the shape of the lost parts of the shipwreck after securing the exact size, connecting methods, and data about the hull shape of the excavated hull pieces. Individual hull pieces are photographed at 24 to 26 locations with a broadband scanner and photogrammetry, and the acquired data are individually made into surface modelling through post-processing such as noise removal, matching, and mapping, and the merged modeling data was regenerated. After that, the image of the scan data was used to calculate the main dimensions and the basic shape of the ship by picking the inner and outer lines, patterns, cracks, and damaged parts. EXTRACTION AND DEFINITION OF SHAPE VARIALBES For the Sibidongpado shipwreck 3D scanning, variables were selected from a statistical point of view using data from ancient ships of a similar age. As the main variables constituting the shape of the shipwreck, the following 19 variables were selected, and among them, the length, bottom width, and bow length of the ship were fixed to the values of the excavated hull pieces from reports of Mado no. 1, Anjwado, and Wando shipwrecks. Subject Value Subject Value Subject Value Length (LOA) 14.5 m Height of a bow structure 2.84 m Angle of hog sheer 0.94° Table 1. Main shape parameters of Sibidongpado shipwreck Deadrise Bottom Bottom Beam Depth Bow angle angle length width 5.41 m 2.45 m 26° 11.2 m 1.81 m 21.67° Height Angle of a Length of Length of Angle of a tail Width of a of a tail bow a bow a tail structure bow structure structure structure structure structure 2.58 m 68° Displacement 45° 1.7 6m 2.48 m 1.18 m/1 m Stern angle 14.67° Width of a tail structure 138 m/1.07 m Waterline 1.25 m The shipwreck is estimated at 14 to 15 meters (m) (NRIMCH 2005). As for the width and the depth of the shipwreck, they were estimated at geometric dimension ratios at 2.45 m respectively. The deadrise angle is the dimension of the slope from the bottom plate to the side of the ship. Sibidongpado shipwreck has a large angle of deadrise as there are two curved longitudinal members. As the exact dimensions of the second stage of curved longitudinal member is not identified, the deadrise of the bottom plate and curved longitudinal member was identified. The bottom plate is identified as the straight-line distance from the part where the bow material and bottom plate are connected to the part where the stern is connected. It is difficult to identify the exact size of the Sibidongpado shipwreck, as the bow and stern parts are lost, although three rows of bottom plates were excavated. In particular, in the process of precise measurement and hull restoration, traces of mortise were confirmed at the stern end of two central bottom plate members, confirmation that the central bottom plate was composed of three members. 2 �The bottom length of the remaining hull is about 6.8 m from the bow end of center bottom plate of one member to the stern end of left bottom plate of two members. However, there is one more central bottom plate, estimated to be larger. Therefore, based on the length of a ship and the width of the bottom of the bow member, installation angle and height of the bow member and the stern member, the profile of the side of the bottom plate was restored, and the length of the bottom plate was estimated 11.2 m. The bow and stern angles are from the baseline to the part where the bottom plate touches the bottom of the bow or stern members. The value is not uniform because the bottom plate does not extend at an exact angle from the baseline to the bow and stern members but is bent round. To estimate the angles of bow and stern, the values of Mado no. 1, Anjwado and Wando shipwrecks, whose structures remain, were made into statistics and 21.67˚/14.67˚ were applied. The stem length is estimated at 1.65 m from 3D scanning results. Whereas the stern length is estimated at 2.5 m. For this latter length we calculated the stern angle, stern member angle, and stern height (see table 1). As the dimensions of the upper and lower surfaces of the bow and stern members are different, they were defined separately. The widths of the top and bottom of the bow members are 1.18 m and 1 m, and the widths of the top and bottom of the stern members are 1.38 m and 1.07 m, respectively. The angles of bow and stern were defined as the angle between the bow and stern members and the baseline. It was estimated based on the V-shaped processing traces on the bottom of two remaining members of the stem and the value of Mado no. 1, and the angle of the bow material is 68˚. In order to estimate the angle of stern member, the data of Mado no. 1, Anjwa, and Dalido shipwrecks were statistically applied and resulted in the value 45˚. As the heights of bow and stern members were estimated through the height ratio of the core and bow and stern members of Mado no.1 and Dalido shipwrecks, and the heights of the Sibidongpado shipwreck are 2.83 m and 2.34 m, respectively. The hog sheer angle is the ratio between the curve formed by the upper deck and the distance from the bow to the stern, or LOA, when the hull is viewed from the side. Among the ancient shipwrecks excavated underwater, the ship whose hog sheer angle can be measured is the Mado no. 1, which is about 0.95 m. The Sibidongpado shipwreck is estimated with similar dimensions. Draft is a dimension representing the vertical distance from the position where the ship's midship touches the water surface to the bottommost part of the ship when the ship is afloat. The draft was determined from the bottom plate to the modeled side profile at 1.25 m. It means the weight of the ship, which indicates the weight of the water displaced when the ship is afloat. When the weight of the ship and the load are unclear, the displacement can be estimated according to the draft. We use the draft. 3 �REALIZATION AND REVIEW OF SHAPE OF SIBIDONGPADO SHIPWRECK Based on the major dimensions above we produced a 3D model using CATIA V5. Figure 1. Result of restoration of hull shape of Sibidongpado shipwreck Figure 2. Shape diagram of Sibidongpado shipwreck Hydrostatics calculations was performed to estimate displacement according to draft. This calculation estimates various linear coefficients and hull characteristics. The hydrostatics curve from the baseline to the range including the draft of 1.25 m are provided in figure 3. 4 �Figure 3. Hydrostatics curve of Sibidongpado shipwreck CONCLUSIONS Sibidongpado shipwreck is an example of marine activities in the early Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392 CE). Most of the accompanying artifacts are celadons produced in the Haenam region, and that curved longitudinal member was identified in the hull structure. Nineteen shape variables necessary to identify the hull shape and structure were examined. Three-dimensional scanning was performed on the excavated hull, including a bottom plate. Statistical data of each part of ancient ships belonging to the similar period of the Sibidongpado shipwreck, or 19 shape variables necessary for restoration of the shape of a ship, were extracted and defined based on geometric dimension ratio and modeling data. Based on the defined shape variables, the Sibidongpado shipwreck hull shape was estimated. As a result, the bottom plate of the structure of each part of Sibidongpado shipwreck shows a flat bottom structure like other traditional Korean ships, and the bow and stern show a gently curved line. The bottom plate is composed of three pieces in a row, and the center bottom plate is connected by a tenon joint, and the left and right bottom plates are connected by a butt joint and a shiplap method. The ‘Lshaped’ curved longitudinal member is raised in two stages with a chin cut out on the outer upper surface 5 �of the bottom plate, and a hole connected to the bottom plate is made in the part where it rests on the chin, and it is joined with a pisak. Each stage of curved longitudinal member consists of three pieces and is connected by a shiplap method. The bow is structured with three members vertically, and on the left and right are sawtooth-shaped grooves. The shape of the lower part connected to the bottom plate was processed into a ‘V’ shape, and a concave jaw was cut out on the upper surface of the bottom plate, and the bow member was erected at an angle of 68˚. Excluding the curved longitudinal member, all the outer plates are raised in five layers, and each layer is composed of three to four members. lateral outer plates curve gently up toward the bow and stern. From a plan view the central part was about three times wider than the bow and stern. The stern structure was formed by removing concave chins on the inside of the outer plate and the upper surface of the end of the bottom plate, with plates horizontally raised. As the garyong was identified in the curved longitudinal member that came out, the interior of the ship was divided into four sections by referring to the garyong spacing. Wando and Dalido shipwrecks shown in port side curved longitudinal member 1-1 and 1-2. Chagaryong was installed on the first and third layers of the outer plate, and the curved longitudinal materials and the rest of the outer plate were reinforced with a garyong and a yoke. As the upper structure has been lost, it is not clear to what extent the deck was installed, but it is assumed that it was installed in the space for sailors' activities that are essential for navigation, and basically protects cargo inside the ship. Therefore, the deck was installed in the stern space where the boatman manipulates the key, and in the central part of the hull and the bow space where the sail and anchor can be raised and lowered. An anchor is essential in the process of anchoring and departing a ship, and a lantern that raises and lowers it too. A cylindrical member thought to be a lantern tube, and a pedestal supporting it, were excavated. The pedestal was connected to the structural wood connecting the square groove on the inner side of the bow member and the garyong. As for the sail, a wood groove on the center bottom plate 2 and a mast structure from Mado no. 3 were applied. A Dang-a horn was installed on the chagaryong on the third layer of the outer plate, this holds the mast in the wood groove. The mast was likely located in front of the garyong in the wood groove of the curved longitudinal member. Through the Okchi structure that goes inside the hull, based on the angle of the stern and the structural stability of a key, the structure and shape of the ship in the early Goryeo Dynasty were identified. Bibliography Cultural Heritage Administration of the Ministry of Culture and Public Information, Underwater Artifacts of Wando, Mokpo: Sanwa Printing Co., 1985 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Dalido Shipwreck, Mokpo, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 3, Mokpo: National Maritime Museum, 1999 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 1 Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 20, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2010 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 2 Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 22, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2011 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Report on Conservation and Restoration of Dalido Shipwreck, Shipbuilding Technique of Traditional Vessel I. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2012 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Report on Restoration of Jo-un ship (Mado No. 1 shipwreck), Shipbuilding Technique of Traditional Vessel V. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2015 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, The Underwater Excavation of the Sea off Sibidongpado, Gunsan, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 8, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2005 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, The Excavation of Anjwaship, Sinan, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 9, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2006 (In Korean). 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Study on the Restoration of Hull Shapes in the Early Goryeo Dynasty: Focusing on the Case of Sibidongpado Shipwreck Description An account of the resource The Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392 CE) was a period when marine activities were very active centering on Byeokrando. The Sibidongpado and Wando shipwrecks are important data that can show marine activities in the early Goryeo Dynasty. It is characteristic that most of the accompanying artifacts are celadon produced in the Haenam region, and that curved longitudinal member was confirmed in the hull structure. To investigate the shape variables necessary to identify hull shape of the Sibidongpado shipwreck the shape and structure were reviewed from a shipbuilding engineering point of view. First, through 3D scanning of the remaining hull such as the bottom plate, curved longitudinal member, and outer plate, the main dimensions were calculated, and 19 shape variables necessary for hull restoration were extracted. Next, the data of each part of the ancient shipwrecks of similar period was made into statistics, and the geometric dimension ratio was applied, or each pre-calculated shape variable was defined based on the modeling data. Based on the defined shape variables, the hull shape was restored, and the corresponding displacement and restorability were derived, and the ship restoration was attempted from the point of view of shipbuilding engineering. Finally, based on the data of the excavated ancient shipwreck, the structure of each part of the ship was reproduced in 3D shape. It is not easy to restore the original form of an ancient ship based on the limited remaining hull fragments and historical sources. As ancient shipwrecks are an essential element in identifying marine activities of the time, future research is expected. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kang Won-Chun Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Won-Chun, Kang . 2023. “A Study on the Restoration of Hull Shapes in the Early Goryeo Dynasty: Focusing on the Case of Sibidongpado Shipwreck.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kury Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1957 Asia-Pac Session 10 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cda25a5ee1f58f6c8cedc8f6c1b6254c.pdf 66140c195e001e808eb95c1b88f07ff7 PDF Text Text Medieval Ships of East Asia Illustrated in Goryeo Dogyeong Jin Ho-shin (National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT The paper focuses on the ships in the Middle Ages of East Asia. Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong1 illustrates the early period of Goryeo, a time that lacks of historical records. The book contains information of official ships that envoys took and private ships in Song dynasty. It details their shape, weight, length, passenger capacity, and ship accessories. Illustrations include a patrol vessel, official vessel, Songbang 2 , Makseon 3 , hhaeseon 4 , etc., according to the regions and usages of Korean shipping. The study is carried out by analyzing features of official and private ships represented in Goryeo Dogyeong, comparing them to features of hhinese ships and their accessories recovered from underwater, and figuring out their scantling lists. Also, usages and measurements of ships in the Goreyo period represented in the historical records, such as Songbang and Makseon, were compared with shipwrecks discovered underwater. The research on ships in the Middle Ages of East Asia is expected to flourish information of vessels in the early Goryeo period (918–1392 hE) as well as vessels in Song dynasty (960-1279 hE). Similarities and differences are in the vessels of the Middle Ages discovered from underwater of East Asia. The research is focused on analyzing types and features of vessels used at that period, according to the countries and regions, based on Goryeo Dogyeong. Keywords: Gwanseon, Songbang, Goryeo Dogyeong, Sunseon INTRODUCTION This paper is about ships of East Asia in the twelfth century. Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong contains abundant data on ships of the time when historical data on early Goryeo period is scarce. Therefore, the ships of the Song Dynasty in Goryeo Dogyeong correspond to Shenzhou ships and Kezhous ships that the envoys took and it contains lots of information on Chinese ships in the twelfth century. In addition, the Goryeo ships that appeared at the reception ceremony for the delegation on June 6, 1123 CE, when Seogeung and a party of envoys from Song arrived at Gunsan Island, were Sunseon, Gwanseon, Songbang, and Makseon. It would have basically taken the form of a Hanseon5. So far, researches on sunken ships such as Wando shipwreck, Dalido shipwreck, Anjwa shipwreck, Taean shipwreck and Mado shipwreck excavated from the seas of Korean Peninsula were conducted mainly in terms of the information on Korean ships during Goryeo period; but it seems that various kinds of ships existed given the Korean ships mobilized for the welcoming ceremony at Gunsando in Goryeo Dogyeong. Therefore, this paper examines various kinds of ships utilized on the Korean Peninsula in the early Goryeo period (918–1392 CE) through the records of Goryeo Dogyeong in addition to Kezhous ships that the envoys took from Song Dynasty in 1123 CE. 1 2 3 4 5 Full name of Goryeo Dogyeong Big vessel made up of bamboos Vessel closed by curtains Vessel used for the performance Korean ship 1 �SHIPS OF GORYEO ILLUSTRATED IN GORYEO DOGYEONG Sunseon (Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong, volume 33) Sunseon is a flat-bottomed ship, which has very simple structure as it is said that a mast was erected in the middle, there was no boathouse on the deck, and only oars and rudder. Ten Sunseon were at the gateway to the northern island of Seonyoodo from Namhaemun gate between southern island of Seonyoodo and Munyeodo. It seems that Sunseon was a ship that local officials near Gunsando used to welcome envoys and for regular tours of the jurisdiction. Judging from the fact that there is only one mast on the deck and no pavilion, it is presumed to be a Goryeo ship used as a ship for sailing with the size of Chonmaseon or small flat-bottomed ship. It seems that the ships were mobilized from the nearby area for welcoming and escorting envoys. Gwanseon (Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong, volume 33) Gwanseon has a pavilion covered with a roof on the deck and there were doors and windows below them. There were handrails around the deck and the place prepared by connecting the crossbar (yoke) to the plate to stretch it to the outside and deck is wider than lower plate. The hull did not have plate6 and it is considered that the bent log was fixed like a wedge by straightening it (to the left and right plates). On the bow is a wheel for winding the anchor line and a large mast was on the deck. One-fifth of the uppermost sail was laid out (punched) without stitching and it is for the preparation of the sailing against the wind. When envoys enter the territory of Goryeo, more than ten ships called Jeopban, Seoneon, Gwangu, and Gongju come from the east. The size is the same, but the tent was installed only on Jeopbanseon. Ships in the records of the Goryeo Dynasty included the Nuseon and the Gwaseon as Gunseon and the Chomaseon and the Pyeongjeoseon as Jowoonseon. There are no detailed records about the size, structure, and decoration of the ship including the mast. However, the following records provide some relevant detail: 1. There is a record of ‘增治舟舸百餘艘, 大船十數, 各方十六步, 上起樓櫓, 可以馳馬’ in the Goryeosa. In History of Ships by Kim Jae-geun, the size of Nuseon was measured about 30 meters in length. 2. In the record of Goryeosa, ‘定十二倉, 漕船之數, 石頭·通陽·河陽·永豐·鎭城·芙蓉·長興·海龍·海陵·安興, 各船六艘, 並哨馬船, 一船載一千石. 德興二十艘, 興元二十一艘, 並平底船, 一船載二百石.’ is mentioned, which means 160,000 kg can be loaded on one Chomaseon and 32,000 kg can be on one Pyeongjeoseon. 3. In the Japanese historical record of Shoyuki (1019 CE), the tenth year of King Hyeongjong that a Japanese woman captured by pirates was rescued by Goryeo naval forces and returned to Japan: ‘Goryeo ships had four oars on left and right sides respectively and there were seven to eight oars on one side and various tools and weapons were stored in the middle of the ship. It was said that there were five to six boatmen and 20 soldiers on the ship. In addition, it was recorded that a horn made of iron was attached to the front of the battle ship. Some information was described incorrectly from the perspective of a woman who does not have professional knowledge on ship and some characters are hard to interpret, limiting correct understanding of the information but what is clear is that it refers to Gwaseon of Goryeo. ‘上爲茅蓋, 下施戶牖’ in Goryeo Dogyeong mentions Gwanseon refers to post of Panokseon in Joseon period, which refers to Nuseon in the Goryeo historical record. As mentioned in the first reference above, 6 Bulkhead, in the case of hhinese ships, attached outer plates by making a number of watertight compartments 2 �the full length is about 30 meters. However, it is considered to be Nuseon with simple post structure on the deck as there was no description on the structure of upper deck of Panokseon in Joseon period. In Goryeo Dogyeong, it is said that ‘six ships carrying soldiers escort envoy ships’ so Gwanseon recorded by Seogeung is Gwaseon of Goreyo. Songbang (Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong, volume 33) Songbang is a ship of Gunsando. It has straight bow and stern and there are five cabins covered with a belt and there were small rooms on the front and back sides. A table and shade were placed. At the center was silk mat situated, which is the most splendid. Only high-ranking officials could be on that place. In the record of history of Korean ships, there was no information on Songbang and it is shown only in Goryeo Dogyeong. While Segeung used ‘船’ to describe Suncheon, Gwanseon and Markseon, he used ‘舫’ which is very unfamiliar for Songbang. Given the type of record in Goryeo Dogyeong, given the fact that ‘船’ was used to consider functions and operation of the ship, ‘松’ and ‘舫’ should be considered separately. First of all, ‘舫’ is called a double-hulled ship in the Chinese dictionary and it is described as ‘舫就是一種將兩船併爲一體的單體船’ in the ancient shipbuilding section of the Fujian Provincial Agency for Cultural Affairs. It is interpreted to be a single ship that combines two ships. And in the painting of Nakshinbudo drawn by Gao Ji in the Song Dynasty, a picture of a painting in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and it is a ‘double-body ship’. Then, it is a question of what meaning the ‘松’ character has. The connection between the pine tree ‘松’ and the pear is not immediately connected. If so, Seogeung called Songbang ‘a ship from Gunsando’ and it is reasonable to assume that this word was made for a one-time event to suit the purpose of the event. Therefore, Songbang can be considered as a ship specially designed for welcoming ceremony in Gunsando for high-ranking officials from Song Dynasty. Likely a double body ship, where two flatbottomed ships are connected with broad deck for the convenience of the highest-ranking officials. In addition, Chaebang shown in the drawings of Gunsando are a kind of Songbang, which is more specially decorated. There is a painting called Feast for Pyeongyang Governor in Joseon period and it shows the feast for Pyeongyang governor together with citizens on the background of Daedonggang River and Pyeongyangseong. At that time many ships and people on the ship were drawn in the order of the social ranking and ranking of government officials. On the back of the largest ship a main character is located at the center, there is a ship where three ships are connected and three people rowing. This ship can be recorded with the Chinese character ‘舫’. Makseon (Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong, volume 33) Makseons are placed on all three islands, and middle and lower ranking envoys are carried on them. The roof was made of blue cloth at the top, and poles were used as pillars at the bottom, and the four corners were each tied with colored strings. It is a ship decorated with a design with four pillars erected on the deck of the ship and covered with a blue cloth roof. The three islands refer to Gunsando, Mado, and Jayeondo, which were anchored during the course from the time Seogeung and his party entered the Goryeo Sea to the Yeseonggang River. 3 �CHINESE SHIP ILLUSTRATED IN GORYEO DOGYEONG Specifications and structure of Kezhou Transportation with the Korean Peninsula was blocked by Liao and Jin during the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE), so the transportation to Goryeo mainly used the sea route. In the fifth year of Seonhwa (1123 CE), senior envoy No Yun-jeok and assistant envoy Bu Muk-gyeong rented and remodeled Gaekseon to carry the government officials and attendants among the double boats built as civilian ships in Fujian Province. Seogeung said, ‘Shenhou Ships and Kezhou Ships were similar in terms of shape’, and recorded Kezhou as Gaekju. Gaekju is said to be ‘其長十餘丈, 深三丈, 闊二丈五尺’, and if you look at the specifications, it is about 31 m in length, about 9.3 m in height and 7.7 m in width. The depth of the ship is recorded at 9.3 m, which is a big difference compared to other double ships of the same time. 1. Nanhai ship 1 of Song Dynasty was 30 m in length, 3.5 m in depth and 9.8 m in width 2. Shipwreck excavated from Cheonju in Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) was 34 m in length, 4 m in depth and 11 m in width 3. Sinan shipwreck from Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 CE) was 34 m in length, 3.7 m in depth and 11 m in width 4. Hai fanchuan (the escort ship for Ryukyu Kingdom) from Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 CE) was 30 m in length, 3.5 m in depth and 7.4 m in width. Kezhou of Seogueng, Nanhai shipwreck no. 1, Sinan shipwreck and Cheonju are double ships from the same time with similar length and width but Gaekju has twice higher depth than other ships. That is considered that Seogeung referred to the eight areas of stern. Segeung used the word ‘division’ while explaining the internal structure of Kezhou. The word division is used for dividing plane structure and lateral structure. Therefore, it is necessary to look at the spatial division first. First of all, plane structure is divided as follows. From the bow are pointed area, square area, mast place, area for tools for ships, area for food and area for water as well as crew room and room for living goods, firing and weapons and wheelhouse. Side structure is divided at the lowest bottom, stones, coins and windows were placed to put load for utilizing the space as ships’s blast. The second floor was for crew activity space and the third floor had cooking room and place for storing mast, sail and other items. The fourth floor was place for high-ranking officials such as senior envoy and assistant envoy. According to the division mentioned in Goryeo Dogyeong, fire pit and water pot were placed in the outer window on plane side and the first floor on the lateral perspective. The rooms for soldiers are located on the second floor. There are four rooms on the second floor. It has double deck structure on the third and fourth floor. Accessory of Kezhou At the center of the side pillars of the bow is a wheel and a rattan rope on top of it and its length is 500 cheok7. At the bottom is an anchor stone and both sides of the anchor stone had wooden anchor support. If there is a big wave, Yujeong was added and the method of use is similar to that of Daejeong. It is placed on the both sides of the anchor. While sailing, it is withheld by wheeling. At the stern of Kezhou are small and large two wooden structures and they are changed depending on the depth of sea route. Upon sailing in open ocean, two oars are lowered to the sea and this is called the third control. In addition, large bamboo baskets were placed at the sides of the ship to block waves and water flowing into the 7 Measuring unit for length (1 cheock is similar to 30.3 cm) 4 �ship. Each ship has 10 oars. The main mast is about 10 jang8 in height and bow mast is about 8 jang in length. When the wind is not strong, 50 pieces are spread and when there is a side wind Yibong sail is used. The wind strength is controlled by adjusting the sail from left and right. When there is a mild wind, Pobeom added to the top of the main mast is used. However, if there is a reverse wind from the front side, the ship cannot move forward. After placing post, the wind direction is identified with bird’s feather, which is called Oryang. CONCLUSIONS As explained above, there were various shapes and kinds of ships in East Asia in the twelfth century based on Goryeo Dogyeong. Senzhou is Gwanseon made into big and splendid ship by Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) for diplomatic purpose and Kezhou was improvement of private vessel used in Zhesiang and Fujian regions and used for envoy ships. The way of making Shenzhou and Kezhou seemed to continue in the tradition of making Jeonghwaboseon in Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE) and Bongju when envoy from Ming Dynasty went to other countries. The escort ship used when envoys from Song Dynasty arrived included Gwaseon, Nuseon, Chomaseon and Pyeongjeosun which succeeded the traditional Goryeo ship pattern. Seogeung expressed the shape of Nuseon and Gwaseon, utilized in Gunsando as Gwanseon and expressed Chomaseon and Pyeongjeoseon as Sunseon. What is noteworthy is Songbang and Chaebang. As explained earlier, Songbang is a special purpose ship for escort by connecting two ships for spacious area. All Goryeo ships shown in Goryeo Dogyeong were Korean ships that succeeded the tradition of Goryeo Ship and its style continued to Panokseon and Jowoonseon in Joseon period (1392-1897 CE). Bibliography Primary sources Goryeosa The Goddess of the Luo River Xuānhwafengshi Gaolitujing Shoyuki Celebrations for the Governor of Pyeong-an Secondary sources Kim, Jaegeun. A Study on History of Korean Vessels. Seoul: SNUPress, 1998 (In Korean). Kim, Jaegeun. History of Korean Vessels. Seoul: SNUPress, 1999 (In Korean). Kim, Jaegeun. Korean Vessels. Seoul: SNUPress, 2002 (In Korean). Heo, Il., Kim, Seongjun., and Choi, Unbong. Chinese Vessels. Busan: Jeonmang (2005). Jang, Seok., and Ban, Seokho. Comprehension of Ships. Ansan: Korea Ocean Research & Development Institute (2002). Mun, Gyung-Ho. Gunsando Island and Gunsanjeong Pavilion, As Seen in Goryeodogyeong, Journal of Local History and Culture 18, no. 2 (2015): 1-73 (In Korean). Mun, Gyung-Ho. The International Situation throughout the East-Asian Region in the 12th hentury and the Shenzhou’s Seaway to Goryeo, Journal of Korean Medieval History 55, no. 55 (2018): 11-46 (In Korean). 8 Measuring unit for length (1 jang is similar to 3.03m) 5 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Medieval Ships of East Asia Illustrated in Goryeo Dogyeong Description An account of the resource The paper focuses on the ships in the Middle Ages of East Asia. Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong1 illustrates the early period of Goryeo, a time that lacks of historical records. The book contains information of official ships that envoys took and private ships in Song dynasty. It details their shape, weight, length, passenger capacity, and ship accessories. Illustrations include a patrol vessel, official vessel, Songbang2 , Makseon3 , hhaeseon4 , etc., according to the regions and usages of Korean shipping. The study is carried out by analyzing features of official and private ships represented in Goryeo Dogyeong, comparing them to features of hhinese ships and their accessories recovered from underwater, and figuring out their scantling lists. Also, usages and measurements of ships in the Goreyo period represented in the historical records, such as Songbang and Makseon, were compared with shipwrecks discovered underwater. The research on ships in the Middle Ages of East Asia is expected to flourish information of vessels in the early Goryeo period (918–1392 hE) as well as vessels in Song dynasty (960-1279 hE). Similarities and differences are in the vessels of the Middle Ages discovered from underwater of East Asia. The research is focused on analyzing types and features of vessels used at that period, according to the countries and regions, based on Goryeo Dogyeong. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jin Ho-shin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Shin, Jin Ho. 2023. “Medieval Ships of East Asia Illustrated in Goryeo Dogyeong.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1956 Asia-Pac Session 10 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7f4221a12526523dd542a543130f7e97.pdf c2115accb6ed88866daebe1183e29455 PDF Text Text Types and Characteristics of Ships in the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392 CE) Jeong Hong-il (Curator, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT Ships of Goryeo come in various types and purposes, such as military ships like the large Taejo Wang Geon, Jounseon1 merchant ships used for trade with China, Gwaseon2 that defeated pirates from Jurchen, ships used for Japanese expedition and coastal carriers. This paper intends to examine the types, size, and structure of ships depending on internal and external impacts through literature review on archeological ships in Goryeo area, and note changes of ships by period. Based on the literature review and analysis on the use of ships of the Goryeo Dynasty in historical materials, the existence of ships in various types and sizes at that time was confirmed. The size and structure of ships changed due to internal and external influences after the early Goryeo Dynasty. In naval activities the number of ships in operation gradually increases as the types of ships diversify and the role of large ships increase. Jounseon experienced structural developments and decreased in size. These factors of change can be confirmed through frequent naval activities at the time. The change in the naval force was also an important cause of external influences such as Yuan's intervention, Three Elite Patrols’ rebellion, and invasion by Japanese pirates, as well as internal factors such as the maintenance and strengthening of the naval organization and the development of shipbuilding technology. Jounseon appeared as a result of external factors such as Japanese pirates and internal factors such as corruption including private use. Various usages of ships in Goryeo Dynasty could be identified. Through literature review, it was possible to confirm types and changes of ships by period in Goryeo and accordingly, social and economic changes can be identified as well. Military ships operated by the naval forces of the Goryeo Dynasty were not active in the early days and their uses were not mentioned much. However, ships operated by the naval forces have various uses and shapes in the later period. Jounseon and envoy ships appeared in the later period. We expect to hypothesize socio-economic changes of the time based on the changes in the type, size, and structure of ships. Keywords: Goryeo Dynasty, ships, military, cargo INTRODUCTION Goryeo conducted naval activities actively with Later Baekje during the Later Three Kingdoms period. Through these maritime activities, it unified Three Kingdoms and shipping to transport grains to the capital through sea transportation. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Goryeo established trade with China during the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE). In the latter half of the thirteenth century, worked with Mongolia to visit Japan and conducted various maritime activities. This paper examines the nautical archaeology literature to note the pattern and causes of changes including size and structure of ships, and aligns these changes with internal and external influences of Goryeo period. Various usages, types and changes of ships in Goryeo dynasty were identified; and accordingly, social and economic changes. TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHIPS IN THE EARLY GORYEO DYNASTY Military ships Daeseon of Goryeo Taejo Taejo used various warships in the naval battle with Gyeon Hwon during the Later Three Kingdoms period. From 903 to 932 CE, the size of the naval forces mobilized by both sides was generally between 70 and 100 ships and around 2,000 to 3,000 soldiers during several naval battles. There is a record of 1 2 Ships used for carrying tax to the capital Ships equipped with spears. 1 �the size of Taejo Wang Geon's battleship in The History of Goryeo I. A) Taejo governed 100 military ships, 10 of which were large Daeseon with the size 16 bo3 to the extent that were big enough to ride a horse. He went to Naju with 3,000 soldiers. The historical record above stated that Taejo had 100 ships built, 10 of which were large ships, and a watchtower was built on the deck to run horses. In addition, even though it is said that the size of the Daeseon was 16 bo4 (Kim 1984, 37), as the length and width cannot be same, the length is assumed to have been 16 bo (96 cheok). Gwaseon After the eleventh century, Goryeo was invaded by the Jurchens from the northeast, and for its defense, the navy was deployed and the Seonbyeongdo department was set up to prepare for the invasion of the Jurchens (History of Goryeo 5. 20th year of King Hyeongjong. Feb.). At that time, the military ship operated by the Goryeo naval forces was Gwaseon. Gwaseon was a representative ship of Goryeo military ships during the reign of King Hyeonjong, and spears were inserted throughout the hull to prevent enemy soldiers from climbing to the deck during close combat. In addition, iron horns were attached to the bow to collide with the enemy ship, breaking the hull and causing it to sink, serving as an assault ship. Jounseon and underwater excavation ship From the beginning of the country, Goryeo installed 13 warehouses throughout the country to transport local taxes. In the 10 warehouses adjacent to the coast had Chomaseons that can carry 1,000 seok5 and 21 and 20 Pyeongjeoseon were placed that can carry 200 seok. The specific size of Jounseon can be assumed from Gyeonggukdaejeon in Joseon Dynasty. Pyeongjeoseon is generally a middle-sized ship and Chomaseon is a large ship. Since the first Goryeo ship was discovered on the seabed of Wando in 1985, several Goryeo ships have since been discovered. Most of these ships sank on route to their destinations, carrying various cargoes including ceramics. The upper structure of the Sibidongpado shipwreck was lost, and only parts of the ship, such as bottom plate, shell plate, bow materials were found (see Kang Won-Chun this session). The ships discovered from underwater showed slight differences by time. In the ships from earlier Goreo period L-shaped connection member exists at the center between lower and external plates, holes were made through half of the lower plate without penetrating the whole lower plate.6 Except for these, the bottom plates are flat and the size of ships are adjusted by row of the bottom plate and connection member. Through the structure of these ships, it is possible to check the changes in shipbuilding technology by comparing the changes in structure with that of ships in later Goryeo Dynasty. TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICIS OF SHIPS IN THE LATE GORYEO DYNASTY Military ships Various types of military ships appeared with various naval activities such as Yuan's intervention, Three Elite Patrols’ rebellion, and invasion by Japanese pirates in the later Goryeo period (late thirteenth to fourteenth centuries). Yuan made two expeditions in 1274 CE and 1281 CE together with Goreyo. The ships built at that time 3 Measuring unit to count the distance. 1 bo = 6 check (1 cheok = 30.3 cm). 5 Measuring unit of volume. 6 Ships excavated from underwater in later Goryeo showed structure that penetrates through the lower part of bottom plate. 4 2 �were made in Goryeo and there were 300 large ships called Gyeongkwaeseon and Geupsusoseon respectively (Kim 1984, 32). The ships for expedition to Japan would be different from existing warships as the ships should cross the ocean far from Goreyo. The first expedition of combined Jurchen and Mongolia forces had 900 warships, and composition and shipboard crews are mentioned in the following historical sources (The History of Goryeo 29. Sixth year of King Chungyeol. Nov.): B) There are a total of 900 military ships and 18,000 should be on 300 ships. The population was decreasing so how did were 300 ships filled? To Japan 126 large ships were not filled. The population was at 15,000 people, including farmers. If these were all mobilized how were the remaining 3,000 people recruited? The record B) is about the military ships and crews preparing for the expedition to Japan in 1281 CE. It is stated that about 18,000 people were required for 300 large ships, indicating that about 60 crews were required per ship. Records confirmed the number of Goryeo military ships at the time include 100 military ships led by Nase and Choi Mu-seon and the oppression of the Mukho Rebellion in Jeju Island during the reign of King Gongmin (The History of Goryeo 44. 23rd year of King Gongmin. Jul.; 113. Choi Young): C-1) Kim Yu was made to the commander to defeat Jeju. There were 314 warships and 25,605 elite troops. C-2) It is said to officials: “If a marshal in a distant region loses with the small number of soldiers, he will be referred to military law. What about those who ran away without fighting, with 50 large warships and 1,000 fighters? Various kinds of military ships in addition to Daeson were utilized in later Goryeo period. Mongchoong7 was used in the naval warfare with Sambyeolcho. It refers to ships damaging the enemy by hitting it, which is one of the representative warships of China with pointed and long hull. Kwaeseon8 is assumed to be small and speedy ship. Geomseon prevented enemies from climbing up the ship by inserting knife without empty space on the board (Goryeosajeolyo 30. third year of Sinwoo. Mar.). Cargo and underwater excavation ships In the Later Goryeo Dynasty, it is shown that small cargo and envoy ships were used. Small cargo ships were developed structurally to minimize the damage from Japanese pirates. It is thought that it was probably transported in several ships rather than transporting a large amount at once. When rice was transported at the request of King Chungryeol, it seems that an average of 100 seok per ship were loaded. This boat is smaller than a pontoon with a capacity of 200 seok. These changes in carriers appear after the latter half of the thirteenth century, when the invasion of Yuan, Three Elite Patrols’ Rebellion, and the plunder of Japanese pirates became extreme. Ships presumed from the late thirteenth century including Mado no. 3 shipwreck (after 1265 CE), Dalido shipwreck (thirteenth to fourteenth centuries), and Anjwado shipwreck (late fourteenth century). Those built in the late Goryeo Dynasty has lower and external plates connected directly without any 7 When general Yang Dong-mu rushed toward enemies with Mongchoong, they were scattered and fled and he could escape as the position was collapsed (History of Goryeo. 104, Kim Bang-gyeong) 8 As Japanese pirates were on defensive, many people fell off the cliff and died. Remaining pirates fled to the sea and stole small ships to run away. Jeon Soyoon and Na Gongeon chased after them with Kwaeseon and killed all enemies and captured 13 (History of Goryeo 134, seventh year of King Woowang Apr.) 3 �connection unit. Over time, the thickness becomes thin and stern became narrow to have sharp hull shape. This shape is related to the speed of ships. This is because advancement of shipbuilding technology possibly related to increased ship speed, in case of robbery of Japanese pirates. FACTORS IN CHANGING SHIPS IN THE GORYEO DYNASTY Ships of Goryeo period changed types and size with internal and external influences such as activity of naval force in Late Goryeo Dynasty, role of Daeseon and way of dealing with Japanese pirate. In Early Goryeo Dynasty, Jounseon belonged to warehouse with Chomaseon and Pyeongjeoseon with its regulations. However, the change in the naval force was also an important cause of external influences such as Yuan's intervention, Three Elite Patrols’ rebellion, and invasion by Japanese pirates, as well as internal factors such as the maintenance and strengthening of the naval organization and the development of shipbuilding technology. Coastal cargo ship was developed to have the sharp shape compared to those in the Early Goryeo Dynasty to minimize the damage from Japanese pirates. The capacity per carrier was about 150 seok in Late Goryeo Dynasty. It was equivalent to or smaller than the loading capacity of Pyeongjeoseon (200 seok). In 1350 CE, at the end of Goryeo period, the raids by pirates became severe nationwide and damage to Jounseon and other cargo ships9 was severe, so transportation was conducted between June and November, which is different from operation rule (February to April). Shipwrecks discovered on the coastal route of the Southwest Sea show structural changes in ships based on the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. First, the existence of L-shape that connects the lower and external plates as shown in the ships in the Early Goryeo Period. Second, existence of Chagaryong. Chagarong is the member of longitudinal strength shown in ships in the Late Goryeo Period. The differences and structural method can be identified as Garyong and Chagaryong holes, these remain in the Dalido shipwreck (the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries) and Anjwado shipwreck (the fourteenth century). Anjwado shipwreck indicates changes in shipbuilding technology in the Early and Late Goryeo period. As reviewed above, Anjwado shipwreck comes with a similar structure to Dalido shipwreck, yet more advanced. Pointedly, the outer plate method and the mast reinforcement. The bottom plate becomes narrow and the line becomes sharp. These changes in shipbuilding technology are attributed to both external reason of expedition to Japan and pirate10 issues and internal of development of shipbuilding technology. CONCLUSIONS In this paper, the types and changes of ships in Goryeo period were examined. Ships in the Goryeo Dynasty changed in terms of size and shape due to internal and external influences around the thirteenth century. First, cargo ships including Jounseon became smaller with structural advancement after the thirteenth century. This seems to be related to external factors such as raid by Japanese pirates as well as internal factors such as accumulation and development of shipbuilding technology. Second, in the naval activities, the types were diversified into Mongchoong, Kwaeseon and Geomseon and the role of Daeseon increased. Such changes were related to external factors such as Japanese pirate in late Goryeo and internal factors such as maintenance and reinforcement of navy. 9 Betrayers of Jeju invaded port of Heoheyongheyon, Haejehyeon and Haenamhyeon in March and April this year to raid Jounseon of the area and raided in large scale in May in Hoeryeonghyeon and Tamjinhyeon. 20 ships and 3,200 seok of grains were stolen and 12 were killed and 24 were abducted (History of Goryeo 27, thirteenth year of Wonjong. Jun.). 10 If we are armed with warships and defend key areas by king off the enemies along the sea route, how can they cross the sea even though they are accustomed to water? If the situation becomes advantageous, we can eradicate the enemies (History of Goryeo) 4 �As such, the diversification of the types and sizes of ships in the Goryeo Dynasty and the changes in their shapes should be considered from various aspects. Shipbuilding technology of Goryeo inherited past technology, and coped with social changes. This is reflected in the technological advances such as structural changes. It is found that examining changes in ship structure in relation to social context is important in understanding the size, shape and structural changes of ships. Bibliography Cultural Heritage Administration of the Ministry of Culture and Public Information. Underwater Artifacts of Wando. Mokpo: Sanwa Printing Co., 1985 (In Korean). Hong, Sun-jae. “Change in the Structure and production Technology of Goryeo Shipwrecks.” The Journal of Maritime Cultural Heritage 4 (2011): 233-288 (In Korean). Kim, Byung-keun. “Study on Structure and Chronicling of Goryeo Vessel Excavated Underwater.” The Journal of Maritime Cultural Heritage 3 (2010): 5-50 (In Korean). Kim, Geon-su. “Study of ships on Three Kingdom Period through boat-shaped vessel.” The Journal of Marine and Island Cultures 42 (2013): 81-103 (In Korean). Kim, Jae-geun. “Problems of Korean Shipbuilding and Shipbuilding Technology.” The Journal of the Society of Naval Architects of Korea 7 no. 2 (1970): 97-103 (In Korean). Kim, Jae-geun. A Study on the History of Korean Ships, The General Administration of Cultural Research in Korea 24, Seoul: Seoul National University Pres,1984 (In Korean). Kim, Seong-beom. “Two Goryeo Wrecks Unearthed from Penglai Shuicheng in China.” The Journal of Korean Medieval History 27 (2009): 233-184 (In Korean). Kwak, Yu-seok. “A Study on Ship and Shipbuilding of Goryeo Period.”Department of Korea Regional History Graduate School of Mokpo National University (2010) (In Korean). Lee, Jun-hyuk. “The Change of Ship in the Goryeo Period and Its Meanings.” The Journal of the History & the World 38 (2010): 145-177 (In Korean). Lee, Jun-hyuk. “The Development of Shipbuilding Technology in the Early Joseon Period and Mado Shipwreck No.4.” The Journal of the Chiyeok Kwa Yeoksa 42 (2018): 199-227 (In Korean). Mun, Gyuung-ho. “A Study on the Structure and Cargo of Tonsinsa Ship in 1811 via Sinmitongsinilrok .” The Journal of Korean Classics 58 (2021): 203-244 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum. The Underwater Excavation of the Sea off Sibidongpado, Gunsan, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 8. Mokpo: National Maritime Museum, 2005 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum. The Excavation of Anjwaship, Sinan, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 9. Mokpo: National Maritime Museum, 2006 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 1 Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 20. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2010 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 2 Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 22. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2011 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Report on Conservation and Restoration of Dalido Shipwreck. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2012 (In Korean). 5 �NRIMCH. Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 3 Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 27. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2012 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Incheon Ongiingun Yeongheungo Shipwreck Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 35. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2014 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 4 Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 40. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2016 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Ansan Daebudo Shipwreck No. 2 Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 42. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2016 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Traditional Shipbuilding Technology No. 6: Chief Envoy’s Ship of Joseon, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 55. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2018 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Shipbuilding Technology of Korean Traditional Ship No 7: Academic Restoration Research Report on Panokseon, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 64. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2021 (In Korean). 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Types and Characteristics of Ships in the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392 CE) Description An account of the resource Ships of Goryeo come in various types and purposes, such as military ships like the large Taejo Wang Geon, Jounseon1 merchant ships used for trade with China, Gwaseon2 that defeated pirates from Jurchen, ships used for Japanese expedition and coastal carriers. This paper intends to examine the types, size, and structure of ships depending on internal and external impacts through literature review on archeological ships in Goryeo area, and note changes of ships by period. Based on the literature review and analysis on the use of ships of the Goryeo Dynasty in historical materials, the existence of ships in various types and sizes at that time was confirmed. The size and structure of ships changed due to internal and external influences after the early Goryeo Dynasty. In naval activities the number of ships in operation gradually increases as the types of ships diversify and the role of large ships increase. Jounseon experienced structural developments and decreased in size. These factors of change can be confirmed through frequent naval activities at the time. The change in the naval force was also an important cause of external influences such as Yuan's intervention, Three Elite Patrols’ rebellion, and invasion by Japanese pirates, as well as internal factors such as the maintenance and strengthening of the naval organization and the development of shipbuilding technology. Jounseon appeared as a result of external factors such as Japanese pirates and internal factors such as corruption including private use. Various usages of ships in Goryeo Dynasty could be identified. Through literature review, it was possible to confirm types and changes of ships by period in Goryeo and accordingly, social and economic changes can be identified as well. Military ships operated by the naval forces of the Goryeo Dynasty were not active in the early days and their uses were not mentioned much. However, ships operated by the naval forces have various uses and shapes in the later period. Jounseon and envoy ships appeared in the later period. We expect to hypothesize socio-economic changes of the time based on the changes in the type, size, and structure of ships. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jeong Hong-il Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Hong-il, Jeong . 2023. “Types and Characteristics of Ships in the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392 CE).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1955 Asia-Pac Session 10 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a5c3b6411cd8249bd858ee23b89d2629.pdf eb3ef74cd7be526c45bb3fc6ceba8a58 PDF Text Text A Study on the Structure of the Fourteenth Century Chinese Merchant Ship (Sinan Shipwreck) Hong sun-jae (Curator, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT Further research on Sinan shipwreck structure is required. The questions raised by Lee Cheol-han and Lee Changeok in Report on Sinan Ship Conservation and Restoration and those in the new edition of Sinan Shipwreck are summarized in this paper. They are summarized as follows: First question is about the understanding of bar keel; second is the combining structure and inclination angle of bar keel and plate stem; third is whether additional side plate was possible and major measurement of hull and molded depth; fourth is whether to consider the deck side structure as deck as before; fifth is the recognition of the sectional shape of the hull center - if the four questions above are solved; sixth is whether oars were installed; seventh is the other mast legs and liquid tank. To address these questions, I first organized terminology and corrected incorrect terms, I then examined the literature on analysis of structural characteristics. For methodology, my lens was that of a professional shipbuilding engineer. I considered major structures in the excavation reports, conservation and restoration reports, and original shape estimation report. I added missing structures that have come to light since these reports were produced. I aim to identify the comprehensive structure of ancient Korean merchant ships for comparative studies with Chinese and Japanese ships and development of ships by period. Keywords: Sinan shipwreck, keel, floor, shell plating INTRODUCTION Sinan underwater excavation (Office of Cultural Properties of Ministry of Culture and Information 1983; 1984; 1985; 1988; National Maritime Museum 2004; National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 2018) began on August 20, 1975 when Chinese ceramics (six items including a celadon vase) were caught by fisherman Choi Pyeong-ho’s net. Excavation was conducted by the Cultural Heritage Administration in cooperation with the Navy for nine years from 1976 to 1984 CE. Sinan shipwreck sank 4 km away from Imjado Island and Hoedo Island in the offshore of Heodo-myeon, Sinan-gun, Jeollanam-do, likely due to maritime weather and environmental factors while sailing from China to Japan. Sinan shipwreck is a V-shaped pointed bottom type that was produced a lot during Song and Yuan Dynasties (960-1368 CE) of China. The coins and copper mirrors arranged in the Big Dipper in the middle of the keel followed the traditional ritual for a safe return and wellbeing of ships in China, this detail leads us to presume it is a Chinese trade ship. In addition, the hull is made of Krempf’s Pine and Pinus massoniana, red pine and black pine; and internal structure is Cinnamomum spp; fendering apparatus is Cunninghamia lanceolata. The analysis of such materials showed that it was a Chinese trade ship made about 700 years ago (National Maritime Museum 2004, 16-25). In 1981, Kim Jae-geun conducted study on Sinan shipwreck by comparing the structure of ships of Goryeo and China and he presented the hull structure and specifications and tested his ideas by making miniature model. In 1989, Lee Cheol-han examined the process of making it to restore original shape of hull of Sinan shipwreck and its significance. In 2004, Kim Yong-han classified hull pieces and identified structural characteristics for shape and restoration scale of Sinan shipwreck. He compared and reviewed literature and data on old Chinese ships. In 2004, Choi Hang-soon analyzed Sinan shipwreck by making 3D images to see displacement, weight, deadweight, resistance performance and structural strength from the perspective of shipbuilding engineering. This presented major specifications of Sinan shipwreck. In 2004, NRIMCH treated hull pieces for conservation, restored remaining condition and published reports. Further studies on 3D precision measurement of restored Sinan shipwreck in 2018, 3D printing model, basic and detailed design, ship engineering analysis, and model to estimate original shape. However, despite all the research, the questions raised by researchers about structure of Sinan shipwreck are not clearly answered. 1 �REVIEW ON THE STRUCTURE OF SINAN SHIPWRECK The structure can be divided into four: main body, reinforcement, design and auxiliary. Main body Keel Keel is the most important structure of the hull. In likeness to the spine in human body, it is composed of three connected materials. The way of connecting three materials is scarf joint for mutual joint and in order to harden the scarf joint, wedge was used. In the joint of keel, it has a hole for inserting coins indicating that it is a Chinese ship and a shallow circular hole was dug between bow and center keel to put circular mirror made of cupronickel. Nine holes were made on horizontal section of the central and stern keel and bronze coin called Tai Ping Tong Bao was put in each hole and covered with wooden stopper. There is elevated structure with floor to separate the areas on the top surface of keel. In particular, the keel at the center, out of three keels, have elevated central part with slight curve at the edge downwards. It is designed to improve the navigation performance intentionally rather than external shock during sailing or wreckage. Floor Floor is a structure located between the keel and bulkhead. The shape is same as bulkhead but it is thicker. Because thicker material was used, the bulkhead and frame are placed on the floor and connected each other. In addition, frame is installed to divide the front and back sides based on bulkhead. The frames are installed on the front side from I to IV (to the direction of bow) and on the back side from V to VII (to the direction of stern). The way of connection and fixing was traditional Chinese style to strengthen the structure by placing floor at the groove on the top of keel. One of the important features of floor structure is a square hole at the center that prevents the water inflow between compartments. This structure applies sophisticated shipbuilding technology to prevent sinking due to flooding by blocking holes. However, the excavation report mentioned this structure as ‘waste water corridor’ where water accumulated on the floor passes. Therefore, additional study is required. Transom floor Transom floor is a structure that is located at the stern and connected to the keel. The shape of the first stage of stern has the same floor type and connection structure but it does not have square hole at the bottom center. However, it has elevated structure on a half of the top surface to install floor. The member of the hull is recorded as stern frame structure. The research shows that the stern frame structure is installed on the floor like bulkhead, it is reasonable to consider the structure installed at the stern area on top of keen as transom floor and the thinner plate than lower stages was placed on top of the floor. Garboard strake Garboard strake is located between keel and the first stage of shell plating. Its shape is similar to that of shell plating but its thickness is about 20 cm, which is significantly thicker than shell plating whose thickness is 12 cm. Keel, floor, and garboard strakes are connected by placing the keel whose sectional shape is square and L-shaped groove is made on both sides of the top side to attach garboard strake. The floor is attached to the top of the keel and inside of the garboard strake. For fastening each member, iron bar was used to maintain enough strength. Bulkhead Bulkhead is composed of seven bulkheads and eight windows from the shell plating (it is estimated to be deck structure at that time) with eight compartments in total. Bulkhead is a major member that composes frame of the hull, serving as the basis for ship shape. It serves as the fixing framework for the assembly of shell plating. It maintains the same interval to prevent trim phenomenon and improve lateral strength. Fourth, it secures space to be used for different purpose. Bulkheads I-VI are installed vertically straight but stern bulkhead is connected with inclination toward stern direction and bulkhead VII is 2 �connected to the bow direction with more inclination. The section between bulkhead I to bulkhead IV has frame to the direction of bow while stiffener structure is located to the stern direction. The frame of bulkhead V-VI is located in the stern direction while stiffener is located in the bow direction. The bulkhead fixing method is to use iron bar on the front and back side. Shell plating The shell plating is located between garboard strake and deck and is the body of the ship that composes the final shape. This accounts for the highest share among remaining hull pieces and 176 pieces of 13 starboard and four port sections remain. The shell plating joint method is divided into longitudinal and transverse joint. The longitudinal joint method is based on rabbeted clinker joint 1 while the bow direction has half-lap miter joint2. Traverse joint uses tongue and groove joint3 method and half-lamp miter joint and the plate is added and fixed by nailing. The way of connecting shell plating is one of the representative characteristics of Sinan Ship. Pointed stem Pointed stem is a structure located at the very front of the ship. The shape of the bow is two-layer flat plate structure in the shape of trapezoid close to inverted triangle. At the left and right edge of pointed stem, L-shaped groove was made to be connected to shell plating and inner side was added by plate for reinforcement. The thickness of pointed stem is about 11-12 cm and structural characteristics is to use half-lap miter joint. Bulwark Bulwark is located on the upper starboard side of the central of Sinan shipwreck. Bulwark has a clinker joint structure like the joint structure of shell plating. The material made of cedar tree with the thickness of 1.5-2 cm to protect the structure. This is to have sea water inflow and be released through the same circular holes. The upper bulwark has the same circular hole, making it reasonable to interpret it not as the bulwark structure but as structure of shell plating. The reason can be assumed that, as it is lower than waterline comparing to the dead weight and gross weight based, it is far away from the bulwark structure which is side plate of the board. Bulwark Stay Bulwark stay is located at the top of shell plating and connected to bulwark (assumed to be the fourteenth-fifteenth stages of the shell plate). This structure plays the role of bulkhead. Three members of this structure were lifted from the starboard side. It is composed of thick wooden plate with 13 cm in thickness and root was connected between structures so each angle was maintained. The bulwark stay is located before and after circular hole located at the center of bulwark. The structure and role as well as interpretation of terms for bulwark stay are required. Deck Analysis of bulwark and bulwark stay showed that deck is estimated to be the structure that support fourteenth-fifteenth stages of shell plating. Therefore, it is reasonable to interpret the structure of deck as structure of shell plating inside. In addition, the plate made of cedar tree with the thickness of 1.5-2 cm is added to the top side. The thickness is 10 cm and width 43 cm. There is groove 10 cm wide at the bottom of the outer side area that is connected to the top of the thirteenth stage of the shell plating of bulwark. At the end of the inner side area, scarf joint structure is designed to connect it to the board. As Sinan shipwreck is estimated to be 4.0 m, the shell plating free board is estimated to be 1.5-1.9 m in Way of joining by making L-shaped groove on the top of the shell plating and groove was made inside the bottom part of the top shell plating. 2 Joining two members with the same thickness by digging half of the thickness of the plate and then joining them together (Architecture dictionary) 3 Connection to prevent the timbers from being pushed to the side (architecture dictionary) 1 3 �height. Then it is known that the deck should be installed at a sufficient height. Reinforcement Butt Strap Butt strap was used to maintain the strength to reinforce the joint area by connecting joint structure to make the length of shell plating member. The method of connection is to put 1-18 iron bars, nine on left and right sides of the joined member respectively. The but strap has fished joint structure. Stiffener Stiffener is a structure that firmly fixes shell plating member attached to the bulkhead to prevent it from being pushed to the outside. Each stage of each section has this stiffener. Stiffener reinforce shell plating and bulkhead has a trapezoidal shape4, and the part attached to the bulkhead has a small shape about a quarter of the size of the trapezoid. The fixing method was made strong by driving iron pins. Bulkhead Frame and Forward Cant Frame Bulkhead frame is installed on one side of each bulkhead to connect the bulkhead and shell plating firmly. Forward cant frame is located between VII bulkhead and pointed stem. The forward cant frame has twice wider gap compared to I-VII bulkhead. The bigger the space of the section, the weaker the strength of the shell plate so it is assumed that forward cant frame was installed to reinforce shell plating. Bulkhead frame continues from the floor to the deck rostrum and the shape is like stair type according to the shell plating. Iron bar was used for firm fastening. Scarf-skin Scarf-skin protects keel, shell plating, bulwark and deck. The thickness is 1.5-2 cm and it is made of cedar and it seems that scarf-skin was added to protect it from harmful insects. Design Mast Mast is located on the front side of IV and VII bulkheads. The structure of the mast is divided into mast, mast leg, mast leg support and cross bar as well as mast leg press (Office of Cultural Properties of Ministry of Culture and Information 1984, 138-139). However, the floor is wider than the floor located at the bottom of bulkhead as it is aligned with the size of the mast and width of the mast leg, a support structure. The role of the floor structure is the basis to pile up the upper structure and support the keel. Moreover, in the report, it is said that floor is the lower structure together with keel and strake (Office of Cultural Properties of Ministry of Culture and Information 1984, 129). However, the mast support at that time played the role of supporting mast leg and that is why it is called mast leg support as it was considered to be part of the mast. Auxiliary Liquid tank Liquid tank is located between IV and V bulkheads and is placed on the left and right shell plating. The shell plating is placed on the front and back direction of the liquid tank support and the bottom plate is placed according to the inclination of the liquid tank support; side plates are placed on four sides. It is watertight to prevent water leakage. In order to erect bottom plate and site plate, the structure same as bulkhead is applied for reinforcement. 4 A quadrilateral with two sides (upper and lower) parallel 4 �CONCLUSIONS The examination on structural characteristics confirmed that the ship has important characteristics from the perspective of the history of shipbuilding technology. 1. It has a V-shaped pointed-bottom hull, which enables the ship to withstand deep water, high and rough waves and swell, wind waves and to perform fast navigation and stability. 2. It secured durability by planning seven bulkheads and eight windows for the space where trade items are piled to secure durability and it has the structure of compartment to store trade items safely. 3. It is equipped with two or more propulsion structures, it has a ‘sailboat structure’ that can sail against the wind. 4. The front of the ship is equipped with an inverted triangular ‘trapezoidal structure’ to minimize wave resistance during sailing. 5. It has the water tank structure at the center and left and right of the ship for drinking water supply and balance of the ship. 6. It has the reinforcement structure that has double or triple connection through butt strap, stiffener, frame and cant frame. 7. It has the waterproof and watertight structure to prevent the inflow of water from one compartment to another. 8. The shape is to have a narrow bow and wide stern in order to improve sailing performance. 9. It is equipped with the hull protection structure where a scarf-skin is attached to the outer side of the shell plating, penetrating sea bugs from entering into the hull. The nine characteristics showed that the ship is equipped with the best shipbuilding technology and structure in Song and Yuan Dynasties of China. Bibliography Cultural Heritage Administration of the Ministry of Culture and Public Information, Sinan Underwater Artifacts, Sourcebook I. Mokpo: Cultural Heritage Administration, 1983 (In Korean). Cultural Heritage Administration of the Ministry of Culture and Public Information, Sinan Underwater Artifacts, Sourcebook II. Mokpo: Cultural Heritage Administration, 1984 (In Korean). Cultural Heritage Administration of the Ministry of Culture and Public Information, Sinan Underwater Artifacts, Sourcebook III. Mokpo: Cultural Heritage Administration, 1985 (In Korean). Cultural Heritage Administration of the Ministry of Culture and Public Information, Sinan Underwater Artifacts, Comprehensive Edition. Mokpo: Cultural Heritage Administration, 1988 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Conservation and Restoration Report of Shinan Ship. Mokpo: National Maritime Museum, 2004 (In Korean). NRIMCH, A Study on Restoration of Original Shape of Sinan Shipwreck. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2018 (In Korean). 5 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Study on the Structure of the Fourteenth Century Chinese Merchant Ship (Sinan Shipwreck) Description An account of the resource Further research on Sinan shipwreck structure is required. The questions raised by Lee Cheol-han and Lee Changeok in Report on Sinan Ship Conservation and Restoration and those in the new edition of Sinan Shipwreck are summarized in this paper. They are summarized as follows: First question is about the understanding of bar keel; second is the combining structure and inclination angle of bar keel and plate stem; third is whether additional side plate was possible and major measurement of hull and molded depth; fourth is whether to consider the deck side structure as deck as before; fifth is the recognition of the sectional shape of the hull center - if the four questions above are solved; sixth is whether oars were installed; seventh is the other mast legs and liquid tank. To address these questions, I first organized terminology and corrected incorrect terms, I then examined the literature on analysis of structural characteristics. For methodology, my lens was that of a professional shipbuilding engineer. I considered major structures in the excavation reports, conservation and restoration reports, and original shape estimation report. I added missing structures that have come to light since these reports were produced. I aim to identify the comprehensive structure of ancient Korean merchant ships for comparative studies with Chinese and Japanese ships and development of ships by period. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hong Sun-jae Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Hong, Sun-jae. 2023. “Study on the Structure of Shinan Shipwreck, the Chinese Merchant Ship in the 14th Century.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1954 Asia-Pac Session 10 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/21b85026ba78a611e6393862e2c057a8.pdf 17a017301c97ef5a4a9beba050d6669d PDF Text Text Maritime Ritual Ruins of Korea Tahk Kyung-Baek¹ ¹National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, Korea. Corresponding Author: jsa461@gmail.com ABSTRACT Since ancient times, the sea has been an important transportation route and a place where food can be obtained. However, there were various dangers, which were personified as a fear of supernatural beings. As supernatural beings were gradually elevated to gods who ruled over danger, humans relieved their fears and gained comfort for themselves through the rituals. Rituals include all activities of praying for a wish to a god they are reasonable (Yu 1997, 1-2). The space where the ritual ceremonies took place is the ritual rite site, and the ritual site related to the sea can be called the maritime ritual ruins. The remains of marine ritual ruins are formed by a tangible space where sacrifices are held while worshiping gods, and a jejang (a limited site related to sacrifice), an intangible space around it. So far, studies on the remains of ritual ruins have been conducted, focusing on archaeological sites, historical records, excavated artifacts, and intangible elements of ritual ruins. However, only the intangible space was maintained as a heritage of the village community, and the altar and other facilities were changed several times, so research on them was difficult to conduct. However, the sacred building continued to be maintained despite the change in appearance. Accordingly, this study focused on the rituals and identified the meaning of the ritual ruins along with the rituals by dividing them into one-building and two-building types. Keywords: Maritime, Ritual ruins, Altar, Records LISTS OF TABLE Table 1: Characteristics of ritual ruins 1. INTRODUCTION Since ancient times, maritime rituals have been performed in the area of maritime activities. People wanted to overcome danger by praying for safety and a good catch of fish. The space where the ritual ceremonies took place is the ritual rite site, and the ritual site related to the sea can be called the maritime ritual ruins. In Korea, many maritime ritual ruins have been confirmed along the coast, showing many forms of ritual faith. Maritime ritual sites can be classified into three types: sites where ritual ruins are held at sea: remains where ritual ruins are held in the open air on land close to the sea; ruins where ritual rites are held in designated spaces with buildings such as altars. Archaeological excavations of the ruins of Susungdang in Jukmak-dong, Buan, revealed ritual ceremonies had been performed from the second half of the third century to the present. A sacred building where the god is believed to have settled was constructed close to where the ritual ceremonies were held. Two types were adopted: one-building and two-building types. These systems were found within the ruins of Jukmak-dong of Buan, Oryongmyo shrine, Sangdea harbor ruins, etc. The systems involved construction with mostly one- or two-sided three-fronts. It was minimal in size compared to traditional Korean buildings. However, the space of influence is extended towards the sea in addition to the space where the ritual ceremony is held, and it appears as a sacred space with considerable dominance. The sacred building had an important role in maritime ritual ruins and can be considered central to maritime ritual heritage. 1 �2. TYPES OF MARITIME RITUAL RUINS There are many maritime ruins that can be classified into three types in Korea, which is surrounded by the sea on three sides. Among them, there are ritual ruins revealed through excavation and research, including shell mounds in Gungok-ri, Haenam, Neuk Island in Sacheon, Yongdam-dong in Jeju Island, and Jukmak-dong in Buan (Jeonju National Museum 1995, 8-13).In addition, ritual ruins and various auxiliary facilities are set up at Wondang on Dae-ri Wi Island, where ritual ruins related to the sea are held, and at Yeongdang in Hwang Island’s Big Fish Festival. Or, using the difference between the high tide and the low tide, some ritual ceremonies are performed in the open air on the seashore. As such, maritime ritual sites can be classified into about three types: relics where ritual ceremonies are held at sea; remains where ritual ceremonies are held in the open air on land close to the sea; The ruins where ritual rites are held in designated spaces with buildings such as altars. Among them, buildings such as altars were built, and where ritual ruins were held, they have been maintained by village residents or groups praying to gods. It is mostly found on the west coast, and it is thought to be a phenomenon that has been used as a sea route to China for a long time. Considering the excavated relics, Suseongdang in Jukmak-dong can be known to have begun in the late third century. And it is possible to estimate the time when the ritual started through the origin of the gods enshrined in some altars. 3. TYPES OF SPACES FOR ALTARS The altar is a space where gods related to the sea are enshrined and where rituals are still held, and it is the core space of the ritual ruins. However, until now, altars have been regarded only as a part of folk religion, and research has been incomplete. The marine ritual ruins with nine altars were investigated, and the ritual ruins built in these ritual remains will be reviewed. 3.1 Sizes and Structures A total of 13 altars in nine ruins were identified, including cases where only one altar was installed in the ritual ruins site and where two were installed. The number of bays generally does not exceed one to three bays on the front and two bays on the side. However, when viewed from the side, Cheonghaejincastle, Wan Island, consists of a half-bay open to the outside, Wondang Dae-ri, Wi Island of a half-bay divided into spaces from the inside, and Jeonhoeng Shrine in Dangsan, Oeyeon Island, of one and a half bays. In particular, the smaller the altar is, the larger space is, and the case of one altar is generally larger than the case of two. Columnar brackets are mostly Mulikgong-style (undecorated in Korean), while Jangjwa-ri Cheonghae Castle Shrine is Choikgong-style (one-sided decoration in Korean). Wondang, the main shrine of the Yeongdang for the festival of good catching of fish is two-Ikgong-style (double-sided decoration in Korean), and Sanshin-dang, the vice-shrine is Choikgong-style. However, it is somewhat difficult to classify it as a typical columnar bracket form because the form is excessive and used as a subtraction. 2 �Table 1: Characteristics of ritual ruins Location Jukmak-dong, Buan Name Susungdang Dongho-ri, Gochang Yeongshindang Cheonghaejin-castle Wan Island Sadang Size (front× side) Size of one bay (m) 2×1 front: 2.1 side: 3.1 3 purlins west on the cliff ○ Gaeyanghalm i Grandmother (1801) 1996 3×2 front: 1.85 side: 1 3 purlins west on the hill ○ Soulgod 1841 3×1.5 front: 1.5 side: 1/2.8 5 purlins west on the hill × Jang Bo-Go 2009 5 purlins west top of Mt. ○ 8 gods 2000 Structure Direction Situation OpenWorshiped Construction air god date (CE) altars Dae-ri Wi Island Wondang 2×1.5 front: 2.6/2.4 side: 1.1/2 Gyodong Island Sashindang 1×1 unknown unknown north on the hill ○ Oryongmyo (Araetdang) 3×2 front: 1.8 side: 1.52 3 purlins east below the ridge × Witdang 1×1 unknown unknown east below the ridge × Wondang 1×1 unknown unknown on the hill × Sanshindang 1×1 unknown unknown northwest northwest on the hill × Mt. god After 1945 Jinridang (Bd. Near gate) 3×1 unknown 3 purlins north on the hill ○ Danggaksi Bride et al. 1938 2009 Yongshindang 1×1 unknown unknown east on the hill ○ unknown 2009 Jeonhoeng sadang 1×1.5 front: 3.3 side: 0.6/1.6 3 purlins unknow n in the forest × Jeon Hoeng et al. 1936 Sanjedang 3×1 unknown 3 purlins unknow n in the forest × unknown unknown Seonyu Island Yeongdang Hwang Island Dangsan Heuksan Island Dangsan Oeyeond Island Jashindang halabuji 1969 Grandfather Ohguyuwan (Before 1123) g king et al. 1947 Lim family from unknown Naju City Im GyeongAfter 1945 Eop General While the structure is generally three purlins when the side has one bay, Yeongsindang in Dongho-ri, Gochang has two sides but three purlins. In addition, Cheonghaejin castle, Wan Island, and Daeri Wondang and Wi Island have a side of one and a half bays and a structure of five purlins. Gable roofs are generally dominant, but Yeongsindang in Dongho-ri, Gochang, Oryongmyo in Seonyu Island, and Wondang in Yeongdang andHwang Island have gablet roofs. Witdang in Seonyu Island has a hip roof, and Sanshindang in Yeongdang, Hwang Island, has a pyramid roof. 3.2 Locations and open-air altars The direction is generally westward, and the reason is assumed to be to look at the West Sea. However, Sashindang on Gyodong Island faces north, and you can see the sea while looking at the altar. It is 3 �located on the top of a hill or mountain with a good view of the sea. Open-air altars are usually present when only one altar is situated, but only Dangsan on Heuksan Island has two of those. 3.3 Records of constructions interpreted through worshiped god The gods enshrined in the ritual ruins are different for each ritual rite, and the objects in the ruins vary by region. First, a record indicates that Suseongdang was built in 1801, so the construction record is different from the actual excavated artifacts. It is presumed that the ritual ruins were reused after they stopped being used. Gaeyanghalmi’s grandmother is the main sea deity of the Chilsan Sea seen from Suseongdang. Jangjwa-ri Shrine is said to have held ritual ceremonies with the portraits of great monks, including Song Jing, Jeong Nyeon, and Hye Il, but it has now been changed to the portraits of Jang Bogo. The current altar was built in 2009, but its location is within Cheonghaejin Castle (installed in 828), so its origin is presumed to be old. Wondang on Dae-ri Wi Island is located facing Suseongdang and is also a place where ritual ceremonies are held to pray for a good catch in Chilsan Sea. Originally, there were paintings of 11 gods, but now only paintings of eight gods remain (National Folk Museum 1984, 10). Oryongmyo on Seonyu Island, where Ohguyuwang, whose name means five dragons, is enshrined, unlike other shrines that pray for the safety of the sails and success in trade. In particular, the record remains in Xuānhwafengshi Gaolitujing (宣和奉使高麗圖經) (Seo 1124, 1-7). Originally, the main hall of Yeongdang on Hwang Island was dedicated to the snake god, but it was changed to enshrine General Im Gyeong-Eop in the seventeenth century. There are two theories: one that it was made after 1945, when it was demolished during the Japanese colonial period, and the other that it has been there for 140 years. Dangsan on Oeyeon Island is related to Jeon Hoeng (? - BCE 202), and the current altar was built in 1936. 4. CONCLUSIONS So far, the value of cultural heritage has been relatively underestimated in Korea. In this paper, the characteristics of nine altars were reviewed, and the records of their establishment were examined, especially through the enshrined god. In the future, it is expected that the cultural heritage value of ritual ruins in Korea can be re-evaluated by conducting research on ritual ruins throughout the country. BIBLIOGRAPHY Seo, Gung. Xuānhwafengshi Gaolitujing, Hangzhou, 1024. Ha, Hyo-Gil. Folklore of Wido Island-Ritual ceremony of Wondang, Dae-ri, Seoul: National Folklore Museum, 1984. Jeonju National Museum. Relics of Ritual ceremony of Jukmak-dong, Buan, Jeonju: Jeonju National Museum, 1994. Jeju National Museum. Sea and Ritual ceremony- Relics of Ritual ceremony of Jukmak-dong, Buan, Jeonju: Jeonju National Museum, 1995. National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. Sea routes in the Southwest Sea region seen through maritime exchanges, Mokpo: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2014. Yu, Byung-Ha. Sea god and ancestral rites of Relics of Jukmak-dong, Buan - Focused on a comparative review of the ancestral rites-, Master's, Seoul: Seoul National University, 1997. Korean Society of History and Folklore. History and Folklore, Seoul: Korean Society of History and Folklore, 2005. Choi, Jung-Gi. Gyodongdo Island, Seoul: Folk Garden, 2015. 4 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Ritual Ruins of Korea Description An account of the resource Since ancient times, the sea has been an important transportation route and a place where food can be obtained. However, there were various dangers, which were personified as a fear of supernatural beings. As supernatural beings were gradually elevated to gods who ruled over danger, humans relieved their fears and gained comfort for themselves through the rituals. Rituals include all activities of praying for a wish to a god they are reasonable (Yu 1997, 1-2). The space where the ritual ceremonies took place is the ritual rite site, and the ritual site related to the sea can be called the maritime ritual ruins. The remains of marine ritual ruins are formed by a tangible space where sacrifices are held while worshiping gods, and a jejang (a limited site related to sacrifice), an intangible space around it. So far, studies on the remains of ritual ruins have been conducted, focusing on archaeological sites, historical records, excavated artifacts, and intangible elements of ritual ruins. However, only the intangible space was maintained as a heritage of the village community, and the altar and other facilities were changed several times, so research on them was difficult to conduct. However, the sacred building continued to be maintained despite the change in appearance. Accordingly, this study focused on the rituals and identified the meaning of the ritual ruins along with the rituals by dividing them into one-building and two-building types. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tahk Kyung-Baek Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Kyung-Baek, Tahk . 2023. “Maritime ritual ruins of Korea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Wijerathne Bohingamuwa. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1953 Asia-Pac Session 8 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/167845435431d0e11a9c6cfcbce5c821.pdf 35043b80c0f8652a8ab01976aed09ee7 PDF Text Text Prehistoric Community, Maritime Interaction, and the Development of Southeast Asian Shipbuilding: A Case Study from Material Cultures Discovered in Thailand Sira Ploymukda1 1 Center of Maritime Archaeology, University of Southampton, UK. Corresponding Author - sp2u14@soton.ac.uk ABSTRACT Southeast Asian people have been involved in maritime interaction since prehistoric times. Although Neolithic archaeology in mainland Southeast Asia revealed that people might have sailed in open seas for marine resource gathering, second century Before Common Era (BCE) watercrafts were considered the oldest empirical evidence of sailing in the Thai-Malay peninsula. Elsewhere in the Bronze-Iron Age of Southeast Asia, there was an adoption of bronze-iron production technology. This was confirmed by the presence of bronze drum crucibles from Nong Nong Hor, Thailand, and the geographical distribution of third century BCE iron smelting sites in northern Thailand. Shipwrecks made from local and foreign building techniques dating back to approximately the second century BCE have been found in the Thai-Malay peninsula. This research is designed to provide supported evidence with regards to the approach that, apart from an intensive cross-continent maritime interaction in the early stages, by integrating technologies, cultures, and materials of prehistoric communities played an important role in the development of Southeast Asian shipbuilding. To achieve the research question, boats, boat burials, dugout coffins, bronze-iron tools, and material culture from bronze-iron production sites, as well as ethnographic research in Southeast Asia, have been accounted for. As a result, the study confirms Southeast Asian people were skilled craft specialists as they made use of simple metal implements for their carpenter work. Further, insights in either boatbuilding or bronze and iron production also yield an understanding of relevant factors of cultural development within the Thai-Malay peninsula. Keywords: Southeast Asian shipbuilding, Shipwright tools, Iron-bronze age, Traceology LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS PKK Pak Khlong Kluay KSK Khao Sam Khaew PKT Phu Khao Thong LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: A sample image of preserved identification at the Pak Khlong Kluay Shipwreck 1. INTRODUCTION In Southeast Asian waters, archaeological research at the Kok Phanom Di and Nong Nor sites revealed a large number of marine resources during the Neolithic period at around 4,500 BP (Higham 2004, 42). Linguistic studies by diffusionism point out that the massive cross-ocean migration of Neolithic people who speak Austro-Asiatic and Austronesian languages into mainland Southeast Asia was done using watercraft (Bellwood 2004, 29). However, it can be argued that at this moment, there is no empirical evidence of a pre-Metal Age Southeast Asian ship older than around the second century BCE (Ploymukda 2020, 57). Moreover, the development of Southeast Asian shipbuilding has usually been linked to maritime contacts when the region played an important role in establishing maritime trade networks (Kimura 2022, 99). Although ancient port sites in the Thai-Malay peninsula have developed within this 1 �period, as well as the presence of shipwrecks dated to the second century BCE (Ploymukda 2020, 57; Bellwood et al. 2007, 16; Kimura 2022, 98), questions can be proposed, such as what factors should be counted as major considerations in Southeast Asian shipbuilding development. This paper intends to expand an understanding of how metal tools contributed to the development of Southeast Asian shipbuilding technology during the transition from prehistoric to historical periods. 2. METHODOLOGY This paper concerns the integration of multi-disciplinary subjects in maritime archaeology. First, mainland Southeast Asian archaeological records and publications during the metal period and early-stage settlement at around the second century BCE had been assessed, and historical archives were reviewed. Secondly, an investigation into ethnographic resources provides many aspects of shipbuilding sequences and tools among people who can be traced back through their language use and their unique sea trail culture through time. Furthermore, a comparative study between samples of actual tools recovered from ancient port sites and the traceology of tools from shipwrecks has been done simultaneously. Traceology, the study of preserved tool marks from shipwrecks, wood, and timber, might provide insights into the measurements of the marks, angle of marks, direction of marks, and depth of marks (Maragoudaki 2017, 236). The discipline aids archaeologists in identifying or reconstructing types, dimensions, and functions of shipwrecks (Maragoudaki and Kavvouras 2012, 205-207). However, this paper presents only reviews of specific sites and time scales from the Metal Age to early-stage settlement within the Thai-Malay peninsula. The results from traceology will be confined to the basics such as shapes, dimensions, and functions. The results beyond these points will be mentioned in the future, as the research is still being developed at this moment. 3. RESULTS 3.1 Southeast Asian shipbuilding from prehistoric-protohistoric communities In northern Vietnam, a fifth century BCE (Before the Common Era) Vietkhe boat-shaped coffin has been discovered. The coffins and associated finds revealed a link between the coffin and the Dongson culture (Van Liem 2007, 117- 119). Moreover, the Dongxa boat burial also in Northern Vietnam illustrated the recycling of the dugout boat by turning the actual boat into a coffin. Significantly, a boat dated to 200 BCE represents the use of a mortise and tenon joint with a peg at its’ gunwale edge (Bellwood et al. 2007, 16- 17). Another example of pegged mortise and tenon can be found in the second century BCE planked boat discovered in 2019 at the Pak Khlong Kluay (PKK) site in Ranong province, Thailand. The boat has been found near the ancient port site called Phu Khao Thong (Ploymukda 2020, 42; Kimura 2022, 100). Both the port site and the ship shared the same chronological order. The ship featured 10cm width x 24cm height x 2cm thickness tenons with 2- 2.5cm diameter pegs. Moreover, wood identification revealed that all ship components have been made from Southeast Asian wood species (Ploymukda 2020, 49-50). Despite the idea of wood jointing by mortise and tenon, as can be seen from the Han Dynasty architecture in China (Jiao 2007, 1021-1022), the mortise and tenons do not show the exact same characters compared to the boat joints (Bellwood et al. 2007, 19). 2 �The PKK joinery seems completely matched to the technique in various shipwrecks in the Mediterranean region as well as the Han dynasty boat in at Wei River in Shaanxi, China (Shaanxi Academy of Archeology 2015, 3). The joinery and tools have been depicted in terrestrial sites, for example, the Tomb Ti Saqqara dated to the twenty-fifth – twenty-fourth century BCE in Egypt (McGrail 2015, 4-5), the Khufu I boat burial deck house (Cheops), (Lipke 1984, 106; McGrail 2015, 5; Ward 2004, 14), The Mersa/Wadi Gawasis timber from around the nineteenth century BCE, (Ward and Zazzaro 2010, 27), in Egypt. Moreover, the fourteenth century BCE Uluburun shipwreck has a pegged mortise and tenon technique adopted for its plank fastening (Bass 1986, 270; Pulak 2012, 870). This technique in the Mediterranean lasted until around the seventh century CE and was used in many shipwrecks. For example, Kyrenia (fourth century BCE) (Katzev and Swiny 2019, 8), Ma’agan Mikhael (fifth century CE), (Kahanov, Doherty, and Shalev 1999, 277-278), and Yassi Ada (seventh century CE) (Bass and Van Doorninck 1982, 4). 3.2 Tools from boat-shaped log coffin cultures In Mae Hongson, Thailand, boat-shaped log coffin culture and carpenter tools left marks in the shape of axes, adze, chisels, and picks (Shoocongdej 2014, 88) have been discovered within the site of a fifth century BCE – first century CE (Wannasri, Pumijumnong, and Shoocongdej 2007, 11-13; Gorman 1970, 93). These tools may have belonged to the people of log coffin culture who specialized either in woodworking skill or tool handling ability (Shoocongdej 2014, 75), as the coffins had been decorated by curving technique into animal figures (Anantawetayanon 1987, 53). They were produced by wrought iron that had been smelted by the direct smelting technique (Shoocongdej 2014, 90). Moreover, within the area of 50 km from where the boat-shaped log coffin culture settled, a massive cluster of 50 iron smelting sites were condensed at Li- Ban Hong Basin, Lamphun (Sukkasem 2022, 16). These sites consist of furnace constructions, waste smelting slags from the direct smelting process, and iron ores, which can be dated back to the third century BCE (Sukkasem 2022, 16). Another 230 BCE boat-shaped log coffin and iron implements had been detected inside the Ong Ba cave (Sorensen 1973, 138; Anantawetayanon 1987, 33). Iron implements have been found in the shape of an ax, adze, chisel, hack, and pick (Sorensen 1973, 159 163). Significantly, a fragment of the Heger type 1 Dongson drum has been found within the cave, which shows the possibility of either local bronze production (Sorensen 1973, 168), or internal contact within Southeast Asia. Even though Dongson’s iconic drums can be found across the region, some types of Dongson drums have been made locally. The crucible from the Non Nong Hor archaeological site matches perfectly with the actual drum found in the same area. These findings pointed out that commodities and metal production technology were transferred during the Bronze - Iron Age at around the third century BCE within Southeast Asia (Sanguanwong 2021, 48). 3.3 Tools from ancient port sites In 200 BCE, at the Khao Sam Kaew ancient port site in Chumphon, Thailand (Pryce, Bellina-Pryce, and Bennett 2006, 297), iron smiting slags were recovered from the excavation alongside 60 tools (Biggs et al. 2013, 312). The multiple shapes of Khao Sam Kaew’s tools made from iron and bronze implements consist of an axe, an adze, and a pick (Pryce, Bellina-Pryce, and Bennett 2006, 298 - 300). An in-depth study of the tool’s chemical identity reveals that the tools were made from direct smelting processes; thus, the tools might have been smitten at the site (Biggs et al. 2013, 326). It is important to note that at both the Khao Sam Khaew (KSK) and Khaosek sites, there have been fragments of bronze drums found within 3 �these ancient port sites (Pryce and Bellina-Pryce, 2017, 2; Pryce, Bellina-Pryce and Bennett 2006, 303 – 304; Murillo-Barroso et al. 2010, 1765). At the Phukhao Thong archaeological complex, a cluster of archaeological sites was identified as an ancient second-century BCE port site (Chaisuwan and Naiyawat 2009, 129 – 139; Kangked 2009, 126). The excavations revealed the mixing of local artifacts with foreign artifacts from India, Persia, and China (Kangked 2009, 49 – 50; Chaisuwan and Naiyawat 2009, 107). Apart from iron implements made from the direct smelting process, a nail has been recovered from the sites that were chemically analyzed. The result shows that the nail has been made of the supplied iron smelted in an indirect process (Biggs et al. 2013, 326). In the Khao Ta Plai (KTP) hinterland port site, the excavations reveal multiple periods of human occupation from 13,000 BP (Before the Present) to 2,230 BP (Bowonsachoti 2023, 53). The site consisted of numerous imported artefacts such as glass beads, stone beads, potteries, and iron implements in the shape of a chisel, knife, and pick (Bowonsachoti 2023, 4). 3.4 Sea Gypsies, boats, and tools Ethnographic research from living sea people, or sea gypsies, in this case referred to Moken, Moklen, and Urak Lawoi. Although they are people who live and spend most of their life at sea, they have their own culture, beliefs, lifestyle, and wisdom (Arunotai et al. 2006, 1-2). The significance of these sea gypsies has been confirmed by tracing their language, as they speak a branch of Austronesian and Austro-Asiatic language (Dancause et al. 2009, 86). Moklen’s boat (Kabang boat) is characterised by a distinctive notched bow and stern (Ivanoff and Bountry 2017; Hogan 1972, 222-223). The Moken made use of simple tools for boat building. The axe is one of the most multi-purpose tools, as it has been used for cutting trees, felling trees, splitting logs, plank shaping, and clearing pathways. Adze has been used for dugouts and shaping the timber by removing any waste or excess from the middle of the canoe. Notably, a side-folded adze has been used for trimming or smoothing the timber in the final phase of building. Although the Moken made use of measuring sticks and measuring lines, they invented their measuring system based on their body parts. For instance, arms, fingers, and the height of the body. Moreover, they also use tree leaves as an indicator for the log roasting process (Na Pompetch, Arunotai, and Bantaotook 2006, 17-29). To sum up, ethnography illustrated a clear vision of the process of boatbuilding and provided beneficial insights into the shipwright tool kit of the Thai-Malay peninsula. 3.5 Traceology of preserved marks At this stage of the research, the paper discusses preserved marks from one shipwreck, which is the PKK shipwreck. These marks provided rough details of tools as they depicted blade shapes, blade measurements, angles, dimensions, and locations (Maragoudaki and Kavvouras 2012, 200; Maragoudaki 2017, 239). 3.5.1 Pak Khlong Kluay shipwreck Adze marks featured a flat 4-5 cm, blade width and 0.5 mm depth. The angle of mark is remarkably noticeably less than ten degrees; this points out that the handling position of adzes is almost aligned side-by-side with the timber, which can be deduced that adzes function as the tool for smoothening in the finishing stage of building (See Figure 1 PKK1-2M5). Turning to the mark of the chisel, two different sizes of flat shape with 1 cm and 2 cm blade marks have been recorded. The marks showed that the tools had been handled vertically while the boat was built, as they left a 90-degree angle mark with 1.5-2 mm. 4 �depth of the wood. The function of a chisel with a narrow blade (1 cm) is to cut across the wood grain. For example, mortises require cutting deep holes (See Figure 1 PKK1-2M7). The wider chisel (2 cm) may function as a shaping tool or digging tool (See Figure 1 PKK1-2M2). Marks from gouges with a 5 – 1 cm blade have been detected around the peg holes (See Figure 1 PKK1-2M6). They have been specifically designed for hole-cutting purposes, as the trace showed gouge marks settled around only the rim of the peg hole. Figure 1: A sample image of preserved mark identification at the Pak Khlong Kluay Shipwreck, Thailand 4. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY The paper raised the possibility of Southeast Asian shipbuilding development, which, although it could develop within the time period when Southeast Asians adopted iron production technology from either India or China through maritime contact. The integration of local and foreign technology through maritime exchanges should be included as a major consideration that pushed Southeast Asia to become a more complex society. This can be seen for many reasons, as follows: First, tools made of iron from the direct smelting technique were discovered within mainland Southeast Asia, showing that the production technique was considered comparable with an Indian iron smelting technique and an early-stage Chinese iron smelting tradition (Higham 2014, 198). 5 �However, the nail from the Phu Khao Thong (PKT) site has probably been linked to Chinese indirect smelting technology (Biggs et al. 2013, 326). Secondly, due to a lack of evidence on the development stage of bronze production in Southeast Asia, the bronze product showed a significantly high level of complexity at the beginning, which is considered an obvious indicator of an adoption of matured technology from China (Higham et al. 2011, 264). Throughout Southeast Asia, both bronze artefacts and their technology probably have been transferred, as bronze drums were distributed within the region. Simultaneously, bronze production in Thailand has been confirmed by crucibles from the Non Nonghor site in northeast Thailand (Sanguanwong 2021, 48). Furthermore, since the third century BCE, several iron production sites have been reported to exist within Thailand, such as the Mae-Lan, and Lamphun sites (Sukkasem 2022, 16). This can be roughly as follows: at least during the fifth century BCE, iron production technology has been adopted, regardless of its origins. Iron implements, boat burials, and boat-shaped coffins from log coffin cultures illustrate that the craft specialisation of highland people have been done by using just simple carpenter tools as coffin decorations but showing high woodworking quality (Shoocongdej 2014, 75). This means that iron implements have been widely built and used by prehistoric people in Southeast Asia for a long period of time, since at least the third century BCE. The proposal can be drawn that the development of bronze and iron production in Southeast Asia occurred a bit before or at the same time when the region fully stepped into the rich transoceanic exchange network since the second century BCE, as evidenced by the many ancient port sites found during this period (Pryce, Bellina-Pryce, and Bennett 2006; Chaisuwan and Naiyawat 2009; Bowonsachoti 2023; Kangked 2009). Somehow, foreign mortise and tenon shipbuilding techniques from the Dong Xa boat burial and PKK shipwreck have been considered indicators for maritime exchanges (Kimura 2022, 100). Wood identification pointed out that these ships have been constructed from Southeast Asian wood species (Ploymukda 2020, 42). This can be implied that Southeast Asian people integrated new imported boat building technology with simple tools and materials that had been taken locally, as they not only made use of watercrafts but were skilled carpenters and boat builders. The traceology from shipwrecks revealed that simple tool kits in the shape of an axe, adze, chisel, and gouge have been used in various shipbuilding sequences. This also supports the proposal for the development of shipbuilding technology within the region that there is no requirement for the use of advanced tools for shipbuilding technology in the early stages of Southeast Asia, as these simple tool kits adequately provide practical functions to serve either locally developed or adopted shipbuilding technology in cases of dugouts, and mortise and tenon. This can be seen from the similarity of the tool shapes that have been observed at different archaeological sites across the region. Furthermore, ethnography provided a reasonable perception of the tool’s function as it points out that sea people made use of simple tools for their boat building (Ivanoff and Bountry 2017; Na Pompetch, Arunotai, and Bantaotook 2006, 17-18). This might indicate the integration of cultures, wisdom, insights, materials, and technologies of people who settled in mainland Southeast Asia during the early stages of settlement. 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Ward, Cheryl, and Chiara Zazzaro. “Evidence for Pharaonic Seagoing Ships at Mersa/Wadi Gawasis, Egypt.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 39, 1 (2010): 27–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2009.00229.x. 9 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Prehistoric Community, Maritime Interaction, and the Development of Southeast Asian Shipbuilding: A Case Study from Material Cultures Discovered in Thailand Description An account of the resource Southeast Asian people have been involved in maritime interaction since prehistoric times. Although Neolithic archaeology in mainland Southeast Asia revealed that people might have sailed in open seas for marine resource gathering, second century Before Common Era (BCE) watercrafts were considered the oldest empirical evidence of sailing in the Thai-Malay peninsula. Elsewhere in the Bronze-Iron Age of Southeast Asia, there was an adoption of bronze-iron production technology. This was confirmed by the presence of bronze drum crucibles from Nong Nong Hor, Thailand, and the geographical distribution of third century BCE iron smelting sites in northern Thailand. Shipwrecks made from local and foreign building techniques dating back to approximately the second century BCE have been found in the Thai-Malay peninsula. This research is designed to provide supported evidence with regards to the approach that, apart from an intensive cross-continent maritime interaction in the early stages, by integrating technologies, cultures, and materials of prehistoric communities played an important role in the development of Southeast Asian shipbuilding. To achieve the research question, boats, boat burials, dugout coffins, bronze-iron tools, and material culture from bronze-iron production sites, as well as ethnographic research in Southeast Asia, have been accounted for. As a result, the study confirms Southeast Asian people were skilled craft specialists as they made use of simple metal implements for their carpenter work. Further, insights in either boatbuilding or bronze and iron production also yield an understanding of relevant factors of cultural development within the Thai-Malay peninsula. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sira Ploymukda Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ploymukda, Sira . 2023. “Prehistoric community, Maritime Interaction, and the development of Southeast Asian shipbuilding: Case study from material cultures discovered in Thailand.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Bobby C. Orillaneda, and Wijerathne Bohingamuwa. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1952 Asia-Pac Session 8 2023