10 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/dcb41f496743025a89eacccf6aecbf20.pdf b6b7b4174f8876a58adad4a57603ad0a PDF Text Text Basic Studies on the Western Shipwrecks Discovered in the Ryukyu Archipelago and Their Influence on Modern Society Chiaki Katagiri Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center chiakik0407@gmail.com Yumiko Nakanishi Osaka Prefectural Board of Education NakanishiYum@mbox.pref.osaka.lg.jp Rintaro Ono Tokai University or109423@tsc.u-tokai.ac.jp Hiroki Miyagi Okinawa International University h.miyagi@okiu.ac.jp Abstract Extensive distributional survey of the underwater cultural heritage revealed the disposition of 230 underwater cultural heritage sites in the Ryukyu Archipelago, and 23 sites out of 230 are identified as the wreck sites. Dates of these wrecks vary from the 12th to 20th centuries; nevertheless, all the Western shipwrecks found at six sites are dated to within about 100 years between the latter half of the 18th century to the 19th century. This presentation is about the Western shipwrecks left in the sea area of the Ryukyu Kingdom. From the late 18th century, the ships from the Western powers stared to appear frequently. Historical documents describes that those ships had not intended to come to the kingdom, but were wrecked due to maritime accidents. Such incidents brought opportunities for local population to come into contact with the Westerners though rescuing the wrecks and their crews. Historical documents and local lore, confirmed by the material evidence retrieved from the seabed, show that those contacts in some cases developed to the cultural interaction between local governments, or even nation-tonation. Moreover, the stories of the accidents and rescue efforts by the local have long been handed down from generation to generation as moving tales. In fact, there are some cases that those tales were materialised, for instance in forms of a reconstructed Western ship �facilitated as play equipment in a local park near the wreck site, as well as an amusement park themed under the country of the wreck’s nationality. This research aims to present how the archaeological evidence confirm historical records related to the Western shipwrecks though the result of investigation of underwater cultural heritage, as well as to analyse how those initial contacts with the Westerners though the wreck accidents developed into the cultural interaction which can be influential even now. Key words: Ryukyu Archipelago,shipwrecks, survey Introduction The Ryukyu Archipelago consists of 199 islands, in a stunning vast sea area over 1200km between Kyushu Island, located at southern end of the Japanese Archipelago, and Taiwan. The largest island among the Ryukyu Archipelago is Okinawa Island, where the present prefectural government is seated. It is located almost at the centre of the archipelago (Fig. 1). Being different from the Japanese Archipelago, the islands of Ryukyu are under subtropical climate, warm throughout the year. Surrounded by the amazingly beautiful ocean and coral reefs, the area is also known for scuba diving and other marine sports. �Fig. 1: Ryukyu Archipelago. Various kinds of underwater cultural heritage have been discovered so far and the authors have been continuously undertaking investigations and researches (Katagiri, et al., 2014a and Ono et al., 2016). Results of our distributional survey on underwater cultural heritage and its experimental presentation in the Ryukyu Archipelago were presented at APCONF, Hawaii in 2014 (Katagiri et al., 2014b). Researches on the wreck sites and sea routes of the ships in the Ryukyu Archipelago were presented at IKUWA, Australia in 2016 (Katagiri et al., 2016). This presentation focuses on the Western shipwreck sites among the shipwreck sites discovered in the Ryukyu Archipelago. �Historical Background There once was an independent kingdom in the Ryukyu Archipelago, called the Ryukyu Kingdom from 1429AD to 1879AD. There was the capital palace, Shurijo, in Okinawa Island, the largest among the archipelago. The palace was the hub of the kingdom where the Ryukyu King who rules the islands lived. The Ryukyu Kingdom was a maritime state having thrived during the medieval, the 15th centuries, owing much to the special relationship with the Ming Dynasty China regarding the trades. It greatly flourished on transit trade connecting Japan, Korea, China and Southeast Asia. The international Naha Port was the centre of the international trades (Fig. 1). In the following early modern times from the 17th to 19th centuries, while subordinating to both Qing Dynasty China and Japan, the kingdom prospered many original aspects in their complex culture. On one hand, the kingdom had established domestic trade networks among the islands. On the other hand, the Tokugawa Shogunate prohibited international trades with other countries than China under the policy of national isolation (‘Sakoku’) and the kingdom was becoming isolated from international community. Nevertheless, since the latter half of the 18th century, the ships of the Western great powers started to appear in the sea areas of the kingdom. People in the kingdom started to have contacts with Western ships and the Westerners through rescue of the Western ships stranded in the neighbouring sea areas. In a historical drawing on the folding screen, ‘Suirinahakozubyobu’ (owned by Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum) painted in the 19th century, depicting the prosperity of Naha Port, Western ships are also depicted (Fig. 2). Contrary to the national isolation foreign policy, it is proven that the Western ships frequently appeared in the sea area of the Ryukyu Archipelago and was regularly in contact with the Ryukyu Kingdom. �Fig. 2: Western Ships at Naha Port in the 19th Century Nationalities and Proportions of the Western Ships Discovered in the Ryukyu Archipelago Figure 3 shows the percentage of the shipwreck sites to the entire underwater cultural heritage discovered in the Ryukyu Archipelago, percentage of the Western shipwreck site to the entire shipwreck sites, and percentage of their nationalities. Underwater cultural heritage discovered in the Ryukyu Archipelago includes shipwreck sites, ports, production sites (like quarries, stone tidal weirs and salt pans) and submerged sites due to environmental change. The shipwreck sites total 23 sites, which accounts for ten percent of the whole. �Fig. 3: Percentage of the Shipwreck Sites in the Ryukyu Archipelago. The shipwreck sites according to its nature can be categorized into three groups; those related to the trading, those not related to the trade, and the World War II related sites. The first group of the shipwreck sites relate to trading; this includes those of Chinese trade ships and domestic trade ships. Among the sites of Chinese trade ships, seven sites are dated to the medieval and one to the early modern period, both in total account for 35 percent of the whole shipwreck sites. All eight domestic trade ships sites are dated to the early modern period, which accounts for 35 percent of the whole showing the same proportion as Chinese trade ships. Chinese and domestic trades ships together count 16 sites, which accounts for 70 percent of the entire shipwreck sites in the Ryukyu Archipelago. In contrast, the Western ships appeared in the sea area of the Ryukyu �Kingdom not for trades, but for other purposes. According to the historical documents, they were destined to travel toe different places, but were stranded and sunk in Ryukyu due to typhoons or the like. Six sites with Western shipwrecks were identified so far, which accounts for 26 percent. The date of all six sites are concentrated within c. 100 years between the latter half of the 18th century and the latter half of the 19th century, which does not conflict with the historical background of the kingdom. Nationalities of the most Western shipwrecks were identified through the historical records. Four sites out of six are British ships, one Dutch, and one unidentified. Even though the evidence if limited, the British overwhelm the others. Location of the Western Shipwreck Sites Figure 4 shows location of the Western shipwreck sites found in the Ryukyu Archipelago (No. 1 to 6), as well as the location of the iron stock anchors of the Western ships (A to C) discovered both underwater and on land. Figure 5 is the respective pictures. �Fig. 4: Location of the Western Shipwreck Sites in the Ryukyu Archipelago. Fig. 5: Pictures of the Western Shipwreck Sites. �Three Western shipwreck sites are identified in Okinawa Island (No. 1 to 3) where the capital Shurijo used to be located, two in Miyako Island (No. 4 and 5) and one in Tarama Island (No. 6). In Yaeyama Islands located at the southern border of the Ryukyu Kingdom, no site with Western shipwreck has been discovered so far. Moreover, regarding the iron stock anchors of the Western ships, two are found on land, one in Okinawa Island (A) and one in Tarama Island (B), as well as one underwater in the sea area around Yonaguni Island (C). The Outline of the Respective Western Shipwreck Sites. Ginama Underwater Site (No. 1; A): The site is located off the coast of Kunigami Village in Okinawa Island, on the seabed of about seven meter deep. Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Research Group discovered the site in 2002 (Miyagi et al., 2004). Fragments of the hull, such as copper nails, European ceramics, wine bottles and Chinese pottery pieces were found on the seabed. Historical documents revealed that the ship is a British ship called the Benares, departed from Hong Kong destined to San Francisco (Watanabe and Nii, 2013). Building stones of granite and an iron stock anchor reportedly retrieved from the British ships were left in the neighboring areas on land. Minamiukibarujima Underwater Site (No. 2): The site is located off the Coast of Minamiukibaru Island in Uruma City, Okinawa Island on the seabed of about 17 metre deep. It has been known for long by the local fishermen. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological �Centre identified it as the Western shipwreck sites (Katagiri, 2009). Fragments of the hull, ballast, European ceramics, glass products, bullets and Chinese pottery pieces were found on the seabed. Historical documents descrees that a Western ship was stranded and sunk in the sea off the island in 1876, but its nationality is unidentified (Heshikiya Azashi Henshu Iinkai, 2009). Indian Oak Wreck Site (No. 3): The site is located off the coast of Chatancho in Okinawa Island and found at a depth of about three metres. The Board of Education in Chatancho undertook the underwater investigation in 1984 and retrieved fragments of the hull like copper nails and pieces of copper sheathing, ballast stones, European ceramics, glass products, Chinese pottery pieces and the like were found. Historical documents revealed that the ship was the Indian Oak who had been fighting in the Opium War in 1840. The ship was drifted to the sea area while she had been transporting supplies (Nakamura, 1994). Yabiji Underwater Site No.3 (No. 4): The site is found at a depth of about 13 metres around the coral reef called Yabiji located in the sea area north of Miyako Island. The site was identified by the survey of Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center (Katagiri, 2009). Metal parts of the hull, European ceramics, glass products and iron ingot like products were discovered from the seabed. Historical documents indicate that the ship could be assumed as HMS Providence stranded in 1797 during her exploratory voyage in the North Pacific (Nagamine, 1997). Yoshinokaiganoki Underwater Site (No. 5): �The site is located off Yoshino Coast of Miyako Island, found on the seabed at about five metres deep. The Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre discovered the site in 2008 (Katagiri, 2009). Many pieces of granite stone blocks processed into cuboid shape are scattered on the seabed. Fragments of the hull, for instance copper sheathing, as well as Thai pottery pieces were also found (Arakaki, 2017). Historical documents indicates that the ship could have been a British ship stranded and sunk in 1853 on the way from Guangzhou in China to San Francisco. The document shows that only 6 crew out of 30 and 24 Coolies out of 243 survived, and thus 243 people died of this accident (Taira, 2001). Takadakaigainoki Underwater Site (No. 6): The site is located off Takada Coast of Tarama Island. Many pieces of pottery are scattered on the seabed at about 25 metre deep. The place was reportedly known among the islanders as the site where a Dutch ship had been stranded and sunk. The Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center undertook the first underwater survey in 2008 and identified that the site covers large area (Katagiri, 2010). Fragments of the hull, including copper nails, metal products, and Chinese ceramic pieces were found on the seabed (Arakaki, 2017). Historical documents reveal that the ship was a Dutch ship called Van Bosse, stranded and sunk in 1857 on the way from Shanghai to Singapore (Kaneda, 2001). There is an iron stock anchor reported to be retrieved from this ship (B) left on land, as well as a ceramic piece incised as ‘AMSTERDAM’ and Chinese pottery assumed to be the cargo (Miyagi et al., 2004). Education and Kyushu National The Tarama Village Board of Museum recently undertook comprehensive investigation and the use of metal detector revealed that the fragments of the hull were still buried in the sandy seabed (Sasaki, 2017). �Iron Stock Anchor off the Coast of Irizaki, Yonaguni Island (C): It is not identified as a Western shipwreck site, but an iron stock anchor of Western design was discovered off the coast of Irizaki at Yonaguni Island, on the seabed about 26 metre deep (Katagiri and Yamamoto, 2014). Its nationality and other details are unknown. Influence on the Contemporary Society It is generally said that Captain Basil Hall was the first Westerner visited Ryukyu and introduced to Europe geography, customs, political and economic states and the like of Ryukyu based on his careful observation. On his way going back to Britain, he interviewed to Napoleon Buonaparte at St. Helena Island. It is a famous story that he told Buonaparte that people of Loo Choo (Ryukyu) had no arms, used no money and knew nothing of Europe and His Majesty Napoleon Buonaparte (Hall, 1851 and 1986). Interestingly, Hall was convinced that the people in Ryukyu did not use money as they did not receive payment of any kind from Hall’s company for gratitude to all good things sent on board (Hall, 1851). This description coincides with descriptions often seen in the historic document of the western sides that shows surprise on Ryukyu people’s hospitality with no expectation in return. Since then, Western ships coming to Ryukyu dramatically increased. The phenomenon was not only reported by oral histories and historical records, but also proved by the material evidence at many underwater wreck sites of the Western ships by their discoveries around the Ryukyu Archipelago. The influence of those Western shipwrecks is seen even now. There is a park near the wreck site of Indian Oak (No.3), a British ship joined the �Opium War in 1840, and the play equipment set there in the design of the reconstructed Indian Oak (Fig. 6). Moreover, there is a theme park caller ‘German Village’ in Miyako Island near the reportedly wreck site of a German ship, the R. J. Robertson (even though the site not mentioned above in this presentation as was not identified in the sea). The theme park is run by the municipality of Miyako City and people of the island are proud of the history of the rescue. Triggered by those rescue stories, the UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and the German Prime Minister Gerhard Schröder visited Chatancho and Miyako City respectively to strength cultural exchanges when a summit conference had been held at Okinawa in 2000. In case of HMS Providence, although no park nor theme park, the local volunteers organised a group to commemorate HMS Providence (HMS Providence wo Kataru Kai). The group promotes cultural exchanges with England as the country of her origin and Hokkaido where she called at. Fig. 5 (left): Picture of the Western Shipwreck Sites. �Curiously, it is often said in gossip that many beautiful women with fair skin were born in the villages near the sites where the Western ships had stranded and the Westerner crews were rescued. Those incidents prove that history of shipwrecks and their rescue stories dated back to more than a hundred years ago still has great influences on current society as bridging cultural exchanges between the Western world and Okinawa. Shipwreck sites in Okinawa are the valuable heritage as the material evidence of those incidents. In the future, further investigation and research on the Western shipwreck sites could promote cultural exchanges of the related countries and local places through exchanging and sharing information. The result of such activities could even be a trigger to develop large-scale international cultural interactions which could be a leading model-case project representing current globalised society. References Arakaki, T., (Ed.), 2017. Okinawaken no Suichu Iseki, Engan Iseki, Ennganchiiki Iseki Bunnpu Chousa Houkokusho. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre, Naha (in Japanese). Hall, B., 1818. A Voyage of Discovery, West Coast of Corea: The Great Loo-Choo Island. London; John Murray. Hall, B., 1986. A Voyage of Discovery, West coast of Corea: The Great Loo-Choo Island by Basil Hall, Trans. T. Haruna. Iwanamibunko, Tokyo (in Japanese). Hall, B., 1851. Narrative of a Voyage to Java, China and the Great LooChoo Island, with Accounts of Sir Murray Maxwell’s Attack on the Chinese Batteries, and of an Interview with Napoleon Buonaparte at St. Helena. William Teggs &Co., London. Hall, B., 1986. A Voyage of Discovery, West coast of Corea: The Great �Loo-Choo Island by Basil Hall, Trans. T. Haruna. Iwanamibunko, Tokyo (in Japanese). Heshikiya Azashi Henshu Iinkai (Ed.), 2009. Heshikiya Azashi. Heshikiyaku Jichikai, Uruma (in Japanese). Katagiri, C. (Ed.), 2009. Engan Chiiki Iseki Bunpu Chousa Gaihou, Vol. II: Miyako Yaeyama. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C. (Ed.), 2010. Engan Chiiki Iseki Bunpu Chousa Gaihou, Vol. III: Gaiyo Iseki Chizu. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Miyagi, H., Arakaki, T., Yamamoto, Y. and Watanabe, M., 2013. Research studies of Ginama foreign shipwreck sites in Kunigamison, Okinawa, Japan. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, No. 6: 31-53 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Miyagi, H. and Watanabe, M., 2014a. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Okinawa: Pieces of History in the Blue (Okinawa No SuichuBunka-Isan: Aoi Umi ni Sizunda Rekishi no Kakera), Borderink, Naha (in Japanese).. Katagiri, C., Yamamoto, Y. and Nakanishi, Y., 2014b. Distributional survey of underwater cultural heritage and its experimental presentation in the Ryukyu archipelago, Okinawa, Japan. In H. van Tilburg et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Vol. 2, APCONF 2014, Honolulu: 655-668. Katagiri, C. and Yamamoto, Y., 2014. An iron stock anchor of the Western style discovered off the south coast of Kubura, Yonaguji Island, Okinawa, Japan. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, No.7: 43-50 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Ono, R., Yamamoto, Y. and Miyagi, H. 2016. Researches on the wreck sites and sea routes of the ships in the Ryukyu archipelago. �Oral Presentation at IKUWA VI, Freemantle, Australia. Kaneda, A., 2001. Taramajimaoki de nanpa shita oranda shosen Van Bosse go no rekishiteki kosho. Nichiran Gakkai Kaishi,Vol. 26(1):79-98 (in Japanese). Miyagi, H., Katagiri, C., Arakaki, T. and Higa, N., 2004. Preliminary investigation into discovering sunken ships in the southwest islands: underwater artifacts and marine transportation. Bulletin of the Archaeological Study of Okinawa, No.2: 43-60 (in Japanese). Nagamine, T. 1997. Tankyu. HMS Providence wo Kataru Kai, Miyako (in Japanese). Nakahara, G., 1994. Indian-Oak go no zashochi. In Chatancho Board of Education (Ed.), Chatancho no Iseki, No.14, Chatancho Board of Education, Chatan: 22 (in Japanese). Nakamura, S., 1994. Indian-Oak go no zashochi. In Chatancho Board of Education (Ed.), Chatancho no Iseki, No.14, Chatancho Board of Education, Chatan: 20 (in Japanese). Ono, R., Katagiri, C., Kan, H., Nagano, N., Nakanishi, Y., Yamamoto, Y., Takemura, F. and Sakagami, N., 2016. Discovery of iron grapnel anchors in early modern Ryukyu and management of underwater cultural heritages in Okinawa, Japan. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 45(1):75-91. Sasaki, R., 2017. Field research. In Taramason Board of Education (Ed.), Takadakaigan Site, Taramason Board of Education, Miyako: 9-17 (in Japanese). Taira, K., 2001. Chugoku coolie sen to Ryukyu shoto. Amami Kyodo Kennkyu Kaiho, No. 37:6-12 (in Japanese). Watanabe, M. and Nii, Y., 2013. Ginama hyochaku no igirisusen Benares nitsuite no chosaseika. In Asian Research Institute of Underwater �Archaeology, Association for Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group and Kagoshima University The Faculty of Law, Economics and Humanities, (Eds.), The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Nansei Shoto, ARIUA, Fukuoka: 174-197 (in Japanese). Biographies Chiaki Katagiri is a senior archaeologist at Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center. He was born in Nagano Prefecture, Japan in 1976, graduated from Okinawa International University in 1999 majoring in archeology. He is specializing in the anthropology of the islands, carrying out anthropological and archaeological fieldwork throughout Asia. He has been actively engaged in investigation and many research projects of underwater cultural heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago. He is a co-author of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Okinawa: Pieces of History in the Blue or Okinawa No Suichu-Bunka-Isan: Aoi Umi ni Sizunda Rekishi no Kakera (Borderink, Naha, 2014). Yumiko Nakanishi is a senior archaeologist working at Cultural Properties Protection Division, Osaka Prefectural Board of Education. She obtained MPhill in Archaeology at Cambridge University in 2001 and is currently a PhD candidate, specializing on heritage management and public archaeology, as well as the final phase of Kofun Period in Kinki region of Japan. She has been involved in projects on underwater cultural heritage in Okinawa area. Her publication includes ‘The Great East Japan Earthquake and Cultural Heritage: Towards an Archaeology of Disaster’, Antiquity, Vol. 87: 258-269, ‘Archaeological Administration and Japanese Archaeology’, Japanese Journal of Archaeology, No. 4 (2017): 171-184, and so on. �Dr. Rintaro Ono is an Associate Professor of School of Marine Science and Technology at Tokai University, Japan. His research is focused on Maritime Archaeology and Anthropology, and specifically: human maritime adaptation process, human migration into Island Southeast Asia and Pacific Islands, human maritime exploitation history, and maritime trade history. He has been involved in many research projects in Japan, Indonesia, Philippines, Palau, and Vanuatu. He has been visiting researcher or collaborator with some national and international laboratories and universities. He is author of more than 50 academic papers, two books, and editor of Prehistoric Marine Resource Use in the Indo-Pacific Regions. (ANU E Press, 2013). Hiroki Miyagi is a lecturer at Osaka International University. He has worked at Board of Education in Nakijinson and Nago City from 1999 until 2015. He was born in 1975 and obtained graduated from Okinawa International University in 1999, majoring in archaeology, as well as obtained MA in 2009. He is a co-author of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Okinawa: Pieces of History in the Blue or Okinawa No SuichuBunka-Isan: Aoi Umi ni Sizunda Rekishi no Kakera (Borderink, Naha, 2014) and an author of ‘Gusukujidai ni Otozureta Daikibona Shima no Keikanhenka’ in H. Takamiya, H. and S. Ito, S. (Eds.), Senshi, Genshi Jidai no Ryukyu Retto: Hito to Keikan (Rokuichishobo, Tokyo, 2011). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Basic Studies on the Western Shipwrecks Discovered in the Ryukyu Archipelago and Their Influence on Modern Society Description An account of the resource Extensive distributional survey of the underwater cultural heritage revealed the disposition of 230 underwater cultural heritage sites in the Ryukyu Archipelago, and 23 sites out of 230 are identified as the wreck sites. Dates of these wrecks vary from the 12th to 20th centuries; nevertheless, all the Western shipwrecks found at six sites are dated to within about 100 years between the latter half of the 18th century to the 19th century. This presentation is about the Western shipwrecks left in the sea area of the Ryukyu Kingdom. From the late 18th century, the ships from the Western powers stared to appear frequently. Historical documents describes that those ships had not intended to come to the kingdom, but were wrecked due to maritime accidents. Such incidents brought opportunities for local population to come into contact with the Westerners though rescuing the wrecks and their crews. Historical documents and local lore, confirmed by the material evidence retrieved from the seabed, show that those contacts in some cases developed to the cultural interaction between local governments, or even nation-tonation. Moreover, the stories of the accidents and rescue efforts by the local have long been handed down from generation to generation as moving tales. In fact, there are some cases that those tales were materialised, for instance in forms of a reconstructed Western ship facilitated as play equipment in a local park near the wreck site, as well as an amusement park themed under the country of the wreck’s nationality. This research aims to present how the archaeological evidence confirm historical records related to the Western shipwrecks though the result of investigation of underwater cultural heritage, as well as to analyse how those initial contacts with the Westerners though the wreck accidents developed into the cultural interaction which can be influential even now. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chiaki Katagiri Yumiko Nakanishi Rintaro Ono Hiroki Miyagi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Chiaki Katagiri Yumiko Nakanishi Rintaro Ono Hiroki Miyagi Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/097d8ca340195da89c1ef1e8f3cf194e.pdf bfc869a70600bc34c26f2ea60bc1758a PDF Text Text Beads on boats: testing the relation of expected cargo to Philippine maritime activities Jennifer Craig1 Abstract What must be considered in an attempt to critically analyse beads? Multiple historic period shipwrecks ranging in dates from the 11th century to the 18th century have been archaeologically excavated from Philippine waters. Past studies have either placed these shipwrecks in the larger network of shipping activities or singled-out one particular ship’s function. In this doctoral developing study the context of shipping activities in the wider Philippineoriented community was identified through style-types previously established in studies in Terrestrial Archaeology, Coastal Landscape and Historic Records; the core of which was revealed to be the material culture of navigation. Maritime Archaeology methodology was used to approach the tools and symbols used in pilotage by the four main cultural groups to have settled in the Philippines – Austronesian, Arab, Chinese and Spanish. This revealed that pilots may have shared a common language in mathematics. With this potential explanation for communication across the groups the research turned to the shipwreck collections to find a shared commodity, ubiquitously expected – BEADS. The hypothesis that particular beads, representative of specific cultural groups pointed to a probability of beads on all the shipwrecks. This is to be tested by objectively recording the beads in a database. It is expected the end result of which will point to the identification of the bead style, manufacture and provenance which in turn will then be used as indicators to strengthen known stylistic features and shipping activities associated with the th cultural groups. Preliminary results indicate this is not the case. The 16 century shipwrecks contain very few to no beads. This critical analysis will continue into the other Periods represented by shipwreck assemblages in the Museum’s collections. Could this study be a direct challenge to preconceived ideas of past Southeast Asian economic models? Introduction This paper lays out the methodology in the early development of the doctoral thesis ‘Historic Period Maritime Archaeology in the Philippines: A critical analysis of bead assemblages from shipwrecks and the coastal landscape of developing trade economies’ (Craig in-prep). It aims to reveal how an analysis of beads could interpret aspects of the negotiation between incoming groups and existing populations of the Philippines and how this was played out in the wider interdisciplinary maritime sphere. The framework is largely a critical analysis of beads archaeologically excavated from historic shipwrecks ranging in date from the 11th century to the 18th century. The general hypothesis is that beads recovered from underwater sites would compliment the terrestrial record. Record here refers to the documents with indicative settlement structures identified by names of the main cultural groups which occupied the archipelago. The stylistic 1 DPhil Candidate, Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, jennifer.craig@arch.ox.ac.uk �features of the associated built heritage and any remaining ‘footprint’ was further studied through text, photographs and visits to relevant coastal areas. Archaeological investigation in these areas has ranged from intensive to nonexistant. In the areas of intense analysis this work was discussed with local specialists and they have shared their expertise and publications. In the areas of no historic archaeology I have gone back into the records of previous archaeological investigation in proxy to the main sites of interest and kept record of what beads were found where. These separate approaches will all come together in one visual reference of mapping software. The main critical analysis for this project is to occur on artefacts recovered from shipwrecks, it is therefore relevant to have a background knowledge in the influential environmental science. Maritime Archaeology is the study of humankind with a directional focus from water to land. Geographic perameters of this paper will therefore adopt this vantage point. The Philippines is located in the centre of Southeast Asia, the far west of the Pacific Ocean and far east of the Indian Ocean. The natural oceanic phenomena of these areas run multiple currents along and through the archipelago of 7,142 islands (number from Oxford Philippine Society, based on Philippine National Tourism Statisitics). Context The material culture recovered from terrestrial archaeology throughout the AsiaPacific region points to large scale and long term trade (Glover and Bellwood 2006). These networks can be extended over the adjacent and proximal waters of the Philippines (Dizon and Ronquillo 2010). The South China Sea connects the shores of China (Bellwood 1978) and Taiwan (Campos et al 2009/10); Indochina/Malay Peninsula (Andaya 2010; Barnes and Parkin 2002) along the Maritime Silk Route to East Africa (Boivin-SEALINKS; Horton and Middleton 2000; Lane-HEEAL; Robinson and Wilson forthcoming), through Arabia (Hourani and Carswell 1995; Lunde 2005) and India (Carswell 2010; Cherian 2010; Varadarajan and Shah 2011). Across the Philippine Sea to the northeast is Japan (DeMorga translated by Cummins 1971). The Pacific Ocean opens to the islands of Micronesia, Macronesia, Polynesia (Clark et al. 2001) and the American Continents (Anderson et al. 2010)2. Changes in the scale and nature of this maritime trade can be seen in indigenous coastal landscapes, which for example in the Philippines has changed from roofed shelters along soft-sandy beaches (Pharma 2011; Stewart 2009) to the construction of piers and wharves to accommodate bulkier shipments (Levinson 2006). The main historic record of the Philippines is Blair and Robertson’s ‘The Philippine Islands’. These 55 volumes are a synopsis of the known historic accounts of Spanish occupation in the Philippines. Its review, along with other cartographic evidence in the Bodliean Library, noted relevant archive locations 2 This is a non-exhaustive list of references. There are of course many other Social Scientists to whom I could refer. �and specific coastal areas of intense activity related to Philippine marine trade. Awards granted by the Society for Nautical Research, Brasenose College, Friends of Darshak Itiahas Nidhi, the School of Archaeology and Study Abroad Department at the University of Oxford provided the funds and encouragment to travel and conduct anthropological fieldwork. Specifically, the opportunity to note stylistic preferences in architectural features of coastal infrustructure. This exercise has helped to point out culturally indicative patterns transmitted to the Philippines. Archaeological, anthropological, and historic document studies of past peoples indicate multiple cultural groups inhabited the Philippines during the historic period between 9th to 19th centuries (adapted from Beyer 1947: 2083). Historiography indicates Philippine Regions were periodically inhabited by Chinese, Spanish and Arab-Indian diasporas. Archaeologists who worked on the islands have produced monographs and publications identifying culturally distinct artefacts and features of Philippine inhabitants over time4. Attempts to pull together the cultural evidence from various environments and disciplinary approaches has been ongoing in the Philippines for decades (Dizon 2004:1363). To date, the most comprehensive book on economics based on archaeological-evidence is Laura Junker’s (1999) ‘Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Cheifdoms’. It compares historic, anthropologic, and archaeologic records spanning over two millenia from 1061 B.P to the end of the 15th century. Her fifteen years of experience working in Philippine archaeology, at the time of publication, connects the coastal and mountain people through their trade to reveal complex chiefdoms operated from the mountain tops to the coastal settlements across the whole of the archipelago. Wilhelm Solheim (1984-5) suggests a severance between marine and inland people and produced decades of publications on the coastal people of the archipelago, coining the term ‘Nusantao’ for maritime traders throughout Southeast Asia5. In fact, his work is based on beads dated to 2650 B.P.(Dizon 2004: 1362 based on Soliheim and Higham 1996). Anthropological methods have recorded a group of people severed from the land by choice - the Bajao (Hoogervorst in-prep; PCCO 46) - continuing to live as they have for centuries, perhaps millennia. Since the early 20th century Archaeology and Anthropology activities in the archipelago have been headed by the National Museum of the Philippines. An attempt to conduct thorough research on the Philippine culture lead to a reconnaissance trip to Manila6, courtesy of the Brasenose College Annual Fund 3 Henry Beyer dates these horizon's as Porcelain Age: (Pre-Spanish: 9th to 16th century A.D.); and Spanish Period Remains: (Historic; 17th-19th century). 4 Especially works by the Head of the Archaeology Division in the National Museum of the Philippines: Henry Otley Beyer, Robert Fox, Wilfredo Ronquillo; and at the University of the Philippines - Wilhelm Solhiem and William Scott. 5 Solheim first introduced the ‘Nusantao’ term in the Asian Perspectives journal in 1975 18(2):151-158. He expanded on the hypothesis in the same journal in 1984/5 26(1):77-88. 6 Meetings revealed that the publication record is wide-reaching as the staff travel abroad often to deliver papers or are invited to write chapters for books. A visit to the Archaeological Studies Program of the �and the Society of Nautical Research’s Tomlin/Anderson Fund. Meetings were held with the director and staff of the Museum, Head of the Archaeology Division, and the professionals within the Underwater Archaeology Section. Professionals within this department are now gathering the geographic information of underwater sites into a visually comprehensive medium (Ligaya Lacsina pers. comm.). This adds specific context information on provienence to other geographic focused projects within the country and surrounding Regions. For example, in the Philippines linguistic patterns (see www.muturzikin.com) largely parallel the archaeological record and can be identified in the poster map, ‘The Filipino People: Differentiation and Distribution based on Linguistic, Cultural and Racial Criteria’. Natural Science Science of the natural phenomena over sea-scapes can help to point-to optimum locations for settlements. Oceanographic data can indicate shallow-water currents (Bonjean and Lagerloef 2002) that run consistently due to natural universal laws. Meteorological studies point out regular weather patterns such as Monsoon Seasons when the winds move in particular directions. The Philippines have the Southwest Monsoon Season from June to September when winds blow profusely diagonally across the archipelago from the southwest to the northeast. The technology of marine-craft would have harnessed these phenomena so as to move as swiftly as possible over the water. The main logistical concerns when sailing are the speed at which vessels travel and the amount of people on board. With the domestic needs of food, water and sleeping facilities met, aside from warfare equipment, the rest of the craft can be used for cargo. Terrestrial/Coastal Forts with specific stylistic features were built by culturally distinct groups of people to defend their important economic transport features – ports. What constitutes a port can be widely debated according to the needs of the vessels7. To understand the phases of occupation of people on any island of the archipelago then it is useful to investigate the architectural features of their harbour structures. In keeping with the disciplinary vantage point we will turn to the maritime technology to define the terrestrial needs for the cultural groups. Specifically I will discuss the needs of the hull. The super-structure of masts, sails and rigging are more for use at sea and often tied-down and set-aside by sailors when porting. Nusantao sailed in outrigger-canoes (Galang 1941; Scott 1981; Scott 1994; Stead in-prep). These are long, narrow, shallow boats with one or two stablizer(s) off the port or starboard that can be sailed by one individual or the larger ones University of the Philippines indicated the program’s library to be a rich deposit for publications in Philippine social and natural sciences. 7 This is a major object of inquiry within the Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology. A large contributing factor to choosing this Centre for this doctoral research is due to this subject-oriented community of scholars. �can accommodate small groups of people (Eusebio Dizon – Anuta Lapita project notes; Hontiveros forthcoming). When beaching the boats are sailed in as far as the waves will naturally bring the boat; then carried, pushed and/or pulled ashore by man-power onto soft sandy beaches so as not to destroy the hull. To keep the wood of the vessel from too much sun exposure and therefore destructive dryingout it may be brought under the protection of a roofed hut-like structure (Pharma 2011). These boats are still used today and the hut-structures can be viewed along the edges of soft-sandy beaches (Pharma 2011). When the Spanish arrived in the 16th century they came on galleons. These are large, deep, wide ships8. Hundreds of people could sail aboard this vessel. It required deep harbours with wind-protected anchorages; and lighters to bring the sailors ashore (until wharves and piers were built). Various landscapes were built upon to accommodate these deep-hulled ships. Star-shaped forts were built on the raised land next to deep waters; examples include a hill-top next to a river billabong (Fort Santiago, Manila, Metro Manila Province, Philippines), a complex bathymetric approach (Fort St.Augustine, St.Augustine, Florida, USA) or a mountain encased deep-water harbour (Fort San Diego, Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico). These structures were made of brick, stone, wood and plaster. Their characteristic feature being the compass-needle-like pointed bastions on which sat large guns to fire cannon-balls on foes. Arabs sailed markab (or the better known term daw/dhow), the smaller of which would have been of similar dimensions to the outrigger-canoe, or larger double-ended boats ending with pointed stern and bow (Hourani and Carswell 1995: 89) probably similar in size to the galleon. The terrestrial structures required for these vessel-types probably varied between the structures built by the Nusantao to the Spanish forts. Arabs occupied Manila before the Spanish and had built a wooden structure (Bacus 2004: 207). What this exactly entailed is still to be investigated. However, in order to get a sense of the possibilities I traced the Arab background to Arabia via Gujarat, India (Craig 2011). At the Darshak Itihas Nidhi Conference held in Mandvi (within Kutch, Gujarat, India) I had the opportunity to walk around the river-side harbour with reporter and curator Sarah Bancroft9, where boatbuilding facilties loomed along the edge of the estuary. Perhaps the wooden structures Bacus (2004:207) refers to were not fortifications as descibed by the 16th century Spanish governor Antonio deMorga (trans. by Cummins 1971: 281) but instead the large boat-encased frameworks as noted along the littoral of the River Tapi of Mandvi. The Chinese from China sailed into Manila on somas and junks (deMorga trans. Cummins 1971: 305); while sampans were used to lighter from the larger ships to shore the cargo of mainly silks, spices, metals and beads (deMorga trans. Cummins 1971: 306,307). Those who lived in the Philippines10 sailed small 8 According to the Oxford English dictionary ships are defined as ‘a sailing vessel with a bowsprit and three or four square-rigged masts’ (Soanes and Stevenson 2008:1329). 9 Sarah Bancroft curator for ‘Gujarat and the Sea: the Theatre of the World’, Darshak Itihas Nidhi, Exhibition on ‘Gujarat and the Sea’ in Mandvi, Gujarat, India, 1-3 October 2010. 10 The Spanish called them Sangley and forced them to live outside the Spanish quarters and in their own ‘suburb’ called parians. This is where the main Chinese trade within the Philippines was conducted. The �shallow-hulled sampans (deMorga trans. Cummins 1971: 314; for description see Worcester 1971) so for this reason the coastal landscape boat-needs were similar to the Nusantao. The Chinese also traded with the Muslim-run southern islands of Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago and the Calamianes, especially for their pearls (deMorga trans. Cummins 1971:261-2). The main harbours in the Southern Region were Butuan of Mindanao and Cebu of Cebu. Both of these harbours are naturally safe, large and at the estuaries’ mouth of the Butuan/Agusan River and the complex southeast coastline due to the proximity of Mactan Island. These conditions seem similar to the needs of the Spanish galleons so perhaps this trade was conducted by the larger somas (perhaps in conjunction with sampans but the sailors aboard the smaller vessel would not have been the main trader and instead facilited the porting of sailors from the larger vessel to trade with the islanders). Historical One of the benefits to working during the historical period is the ability to turn to historic records to locate sites of occupation. Keeping in mind the needs of the marine technology (as described in the previous section – Terrestrial/Coastal) and the scientific data of the natural phenomena (see Natural Science section) we can largely view charts and read rutters to find exact areas to then survey. The formulation of charts has also become an important point of investigation but this has been severed from the doctoral study and instead is being developed as part of the major-collaboration of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada project ‘The Indian Ocean World: The Making of the First Global Economy in the Context of Human-Environment Interaction’ headed by Gwyn Campbell at McGill University11. Underwater If vessel stylistic features are known and partnered with scientific data, historic records and terrestrial/coastal architecture one can narrow down the location of culturally specific clusters of shipwrecks (Craig 2004). In the Philippines variations of this approach have been undertaken and resulted in large-scale bathymetric survey (Goddio 2009) and site-specific archaeological excavation (Dizon and Ronquillo 2010; Goddio 1988; Goddio 1994; Goddio 1996). Of which the indicative artefacts have been stored at the National Museum of the Philippines. term was also adopted in Mexico City, and is still used today, for the trade of goods from the ManilaAcapulco Galleon Trade. 11 In this major collaboration I am a Research Assistant to Professor Brendan Gillon of the Philosophy Department at McGill University. We are undertaking research in how navigation tools reveal sailors’ metaphysics and their transmission of ideas over the Indian and Pacific Oceans. �Further Research I have noticed a gap in the knowledge on artefacts recovered from ship’s cargo. I intend to address this gap by running a parallel seriation study to ceramics - on beads. Beads and ceramics are ubiquidous objects throughout the world. Ceramics has had much attention and now with the identification of pottery in an archaeological site one can date the site as clearly as using numistics. The Philippines is an excellent location for this study due to its established terrestrial/coastal Type Collection of Beads at the National Museum of the Philippines. The main foci of this research are the nautical archaeology sites of the Philippines. These include the 11th century junk Breaker; the 13th century junk Investigator; the 15th century 12 junks Lena Shoal, Santa Cruz, and southeast asian boat Pandanan; the 16th century13 southeast asian boat San Isidro, and galleon San Diego; and 17th century galleon the San Jose. Depending on the volume of materials this project may extend to include the 18th century galleon Santo Christo and East Indiamen Griffin and Royal Captain. The general hypothesis is that beads recovered from underwater sites would compliment the terrestrial record. In order to appreciate the terrestrial record I am currently researching the extent of known historic period sites within the Philippines and gathering descriptions of each sites’ beads. This is possible through publications and reports produced by archaeologists and anthropologists associated with the National Museum of the Philippines and the University of the Philippines. The reviews largely focus on works produced by Robert Fox and Rey Santiago as their discussions figure largely on beads recovered from terrestrial and coastal Philippine sites. I am also conducting a literature review of known historic sites with bead assemblages throughout the the Asia-Pacific Region. Much work has been done on this due to the prevalence of bead enthusiasts in the region. The review includes multiple journals, books and websites. Standard Database This research aims to add a database of bead-artefacts from archaeologically excavated shipwrecks of Philippine waters to the established Type Collection of Beads in the National Museum of the Philippines. A preliminary visit to the National Museum of the Philippines confirmed beads recovered from the above mentioned historic shipwrecks are included in the Museum’s archaeological inventories. However, this database is currently incomplete. The database to be produced from this thesis work will add to the Museum’s larger site database. In order to conduct this work I plan to travel to the Philippines and analyze the beads. First the beads will be gathered from storage. All the beads are in plastic baggies with labels indicating where in the shipwreck they were excavated. Keeping the beads associated to these labels is of utmost importance in 12 I will also look at the Española site artefacts but this is not a wreck site (pers. comm. Gay Lacsina and Bobby Orillaneda). 13 I also considered the Royal Capitan Shoal site but this is not a wreck, its only ceramic concretion (pers. comm. Gay Lacsina). Comment [GL1]: San Isidro is a southeast Asian boat �understanding their archaeological context. So the beads will be analyzed baggie by baggie. Headings will be adapted from the Type Collection of Beads in the National Museum of the Philippines. The specifics of the analysis are still to be confirmed as I am to undergo a training internship at the Western Australian Maritime Museum14. This internship will result in transferable skills with which I can successfully record the beads in a database, analyze their material and appreciate the context of this study in the larger Material Culture Studies and historical sea-scape of shipwrecks in the surrounding seas of the Philippines. Once the typology is complete an analysis comparing the beads from the shipwrecks to contemporary sites will be conducted. Jun Cayron’s (2006) ‘Stringing the Past: an archaeological understanding of early Southeast Asian glass bead trade’ is the first work in the Philippines to show strong evidence of similarities in beads excavated from shipwrecks to land sites. Peter Francis Jr’s (2002) ‘Asia’s Maritime Bead Trade: 300BC to present’ also discusses comparison of shipwreck assemblages with terrestrial finds in an attempt to connect vast networks of shipments over the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Large assumptions of the marine activities have been proposed based on very few examples of critical analysis of underwater sites. Further critical analysis of beads recovered from shipwrecks is required to test the ‘Francis hypotheses’. The examples Francis relies on are of the work produced by Laure Dussubieux’s Lazer Ablation - Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) Laboratory at the Field Museum in Chicago, Illinois. My thesis work will include review of this work as well as debates outside of chemical analysis. It will include the work of Bérénice Bellina-Pryce (2003; 2004:74), of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, on craft-style-identification theory for generally connecting networks from India to Southeast Asia. Preliminary results Research of the 16th century shipwrecks indicate that beads were not found as abundantly on all shipwrecks as suspected. It was assumed that boats transporting goods from the home port would be of the same cultural characteristics as the original manufacturing sites. However, this is not the case and it seems the Philippines may have been a mix of entrepôt and knowledgebased-item-trade. These results are inconclusive and require further investigation. The comparison to historic periods before and after the 16th century may also indicate presently unknown patterns. 14 In my career progression I have not conducted a formal analysis on a finite collection of categorically similar objects (i.e. pottery, beads) held in museum stores to note patterns in styles and materials; nor have I formulated a database to record such information. Through the literature and discipline’s network I have identified the strongest institution as the Department of Maritime Archaeology at the Western Australian Museum. I will train in a four month internship on a Southeast Asian pottery collection recovered from an underwater site. This transferable skill in database construction to record archaeological analysis will occur under the guidance of respected professionals in Maritime Archaeology. This arrangement is bilaterally beneficial in that it provides the Museum with a formal analysis of a collection previously not examined. �Remarks What is the significance of beads and what can it tell us about past peoples? The terrestrial context of beads can point to sites of manufacture or deposition. For example, part of what distinguishes the Manila Chinese settlement, or parian, from the Spanish quarters are the preference of beads as indicated in the archaeological record by type and quantity (Beyer 1947; Fox 1977). Rawmaterial sources can be deciphered from chemical analysis (Dussubieux et al. 2010; Pollard et al. 2007). Direct trade connections have been postulated by comparison of beads on shipwrecks to terrestrial manufacture centers (Cayron 2006; Francis 2002). This approach has indicated potential connections between the making of a bead and delivery to its intended destination (Cayron 2006; Cuevas unpublished; Dussubieux and Gratuze 2000; Francis 2002). By understanding the context of beads this small object can point to larger studies in the social sciences and humanities. Subjects centering on economic wealth, social-cultural preferences in fashion, and trade networks through cultural connections are some. Thus far, pottery is the only material culture capable of such world-wide and longue-durée intricate information. Local typologies of pottery and ceramics now expand across the globe and can be used to date sites, origins, indicate cultural connections and point to stylistic preferences. Could beads be as reliable a record as ceramics for the formulation of the trade routes and dating of archaeological sites? The cross-sections of this could reveal new connections, and cultural preferences hitherto unknown. Acknowledgments Without the many conversations with Dr Eusbio Dizon this project would not be possible, I would like to thank him for his wisdom and for sharing information on the underwater cultural heritage of the Philippines. I would like to thank my doctoral supervisor Damian Robinson for all his input and patience with my work. I am thankful to Gay Lacsina for her knowledge and kindness. I would also like to include thanks to Mark Staniforth for the opportunities I have had during the development of this conference and to Analyn Salvador-Amores for her assistance. Bibliography Andaya, L., 2010 Anderson, A., Barrett, J. and Boyle, K., 2010 Bacus, E., 2004 Barnes, R. and Parkin, D., 2002 "Malay Port Polities and Gujarati Traders in the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Centuries", Conference paper in Gujarat and the Sea. Darshak Itihas Nidhi, Mandvi. The Global Origins (and Development) of Seafaring, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge. 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Pollard, M., Batt, C. and Stern, B., Analytical Chemistry in Archaeology, Cambridge 2007 Manuals in Archaeology Series, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Quirinos, C., Philippine Cartography: 1320-1899, 2nd edition, 1963 Nico Israel, Amsterdam. Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Riddell, P., Transmission and Responses, University of Hawai’i 2001 Press, Honolulu. Robinson, D., “Shipwrecks and Sunken Cities – the work of the 2009, November 17 Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology”, presentation organized by Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, in Corpus Christi College, University of Oxford, Oxford. Scott, W.H., “Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic 1981 Philippine Society”, in Anthropological Papers, no 9, National Museum of the Philippines, Manila. Barangay, Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Scott, W.H., Society, Ateneo de Manila University of the 1994 Philippines, Manila. �Soanes C. and Stevenson, A., 2008 Solheim, W., 1984/5 Solheim, W., 1996 Stead, R., In-prep Stewart, D., 2009 Varadarajan, L. and Shah, H., 2011 Worcester, G.R.G., 1971 Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th edited edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford. “The Nusantao Hypothesis: The Origin and Spread of Austronesian Speakers”, in Asian Perspectives, vol. 26, no. 1, pp.77-88. "The Nusantao and North-South Dispersals", in Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin Chiang Mai Papers 15, no. 2. PhD thesis, Department of Maritime Archaeology, Southampton University, Southampton. "The Incredible Human Journey", 59 minute documentary, British Broadcasting Corporation, Bristol. Gujarat and the Sea, Darshak Itihas Nidhi, Mandvi. The junks and sampans of the Yangtze, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Beads on Boats: Testing the Relation of Expected Cargo to Philippine Maritime Activities Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure. Description An account of the resource What must be considered in an attempt to critically analyse beads? Multiple historic period shipwrecks ranging in dates from the 11th century to the 18th century have been archaeologically excavated from Philippine waters. Past studies have either placed these shipwrecks in the larger network of shipping activities or singled-out one particular ship’s function. In this doctoral developing study the context of shipping activities in the wider Philippine-oriented community was identified through style-types previously established in studies in Terrestrial Archaeology, Coastal Landscape and Historic Records; the core of which was revealed to be the material culture of navigation. Maritime Archaeology methodology was used to approach the tools and symbols used in pilotage by the four main cultural groups to have settled in the Philippines – Austronesian, Arab, Chinese and Spanish. This revealed that pilots may have shared a common language in mathematics. With this potential explanation for communication across the groups the research turned to the shipwreck collections to find a shared commodity, ubiquitously expected – BEADS. The hypothesis that particular beads, representative of specific cultural groups pointed to a probability of beads on all the shipwrecks. This is to be tested by objectively recording the beads in a database. It is expected the end result of which will point to the identification of the bead style, manufacture and provenance which in turn will then be used as indicators to strengthen known stylistic features and shipping activities associated with the cultural groups. Preliminary results indicate this is not the case. The 16th century shipwrecks contain very few to no beads. This critical analysis will continue into the other Periods represented by shipwreck assemblages in the Museum’s collections. Could this study be a direct challenge to preconceived ideas of past Southeast Asian economic models? Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer Craig Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Inaugural Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Electronic Publication by The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Berenike Crossroads: The Integration of Information Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource W.Z. Wendrich R.S. Tomber S.E. Sidebotham Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2003 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author W.Z. Wendrich R.S. Tomber S.E. Sidebotham Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2003 Issue 1 Pages 46-88 Publication Title Journal of the Economic & Social History of the Orient Title A name given to the resource Berenike Crossroads: The Integration of Information Volume 46 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Biography of Huang Ch’ao Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Howard S. Levy Howard S. Levy Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Howard S. Levy Translator Howard S. Levy Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Place Berkeley Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Title A name given to the resource Biography of Huang Ch’ao China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Biography of Huang Chao Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xiu Ouyang Howard S. Levy Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Xiu Ouyang Translator Howard S. Levy Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Place Berkeley Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Title A name given to the resource Biography of Huang Chao China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Black Boats of Magan: Some Thoughts on Bronze-Age Water Transport in Oman and Beyond from the Impressed Bitumen Slabs of Ra’s al-Junayz Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cleuziou, Serge Maurizio Tosi A. Parpola P. Koskikallio Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available AASF Ser. B 271 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Cleuziou, Serge Maurizio Tosi Editor A. Parpola P. Koskikallio Item Type Book Section Book Title South Asian Archaeology 1993 II Pages 745-61 Place Helsinki Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available AASF Ser. B 271 Title A name given to the resource Black Boats of Magan: Some Thoughts on Bronze-Age Water Transport in Oman and Beyond from the Impressed Bitumen Slabs of Ra’s al-Junayz https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b4f701055fe57ab42712a2cfcae5f19a.pdf 4f75de46e0df9e700df7b591bb621353 PDF Text Text Boat and ship Archaeology in Gilan Province (Iran) Hossien Tofighian Iranian center for archaeological research (ICAR) htofighian@yahoo.com Ramin Adibi Archaeological Maritime Landscape Online Magazine Ramin.adibi2012@gmail.com Abstract Gilan province is one the northern states of Iran which is located in south west of Caspian Sea and has relatively long coastlines. According to historical and geographical location of Gilan, in 2017, Maritime archaeology group of Iranian Center for Archaeological Research (ICAR) decided to do a project as "Archaeology of maritime landscapes of Gilan Province". Main goal of perform this project was identifying immaterial and material of maritime culture across of Gilan province maritime landscape. Our Research area was from "Astara" county to "Rudsar" county in Gilan province. We were surveying about navigation and Boatbuilding in rivers, Lagoon and coastlines of Caspian Sea. For example: in "Estil" Lagoon in Astra county we observed a kind of Simple Watercraft which is more look like to a Dugout canoe. During this project, we observed and investigated about wooden boats with simple construction in different sizes that locals called "lutka/lodka" or "Nodonbal". Nowadays, fishermen use flatbottomed, double-ended vessel (in local dialect called "karaji") that linked to past period. So we were investigating on remains of "Ghorogh" wooden shipwreck in "Talesh" County and wooden shipwreck "Lalehrūd" in "Rudsar" County. We visited Traditional Wooden Boat Factory and interviewed with locals. This article based on desk and field research on traditional and historical boat and ship in each city of Gilan province. Key Words: Caspian Sea, Gilan province, boat and ship. 1. Introduction According to Iran Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization (ICHTO) is responsible for Cultural heritage in Iran. Recently, in 2017 Iranian Center for Archaeological Research (ICAR) issued a license titled �as "Archaeological survey of maritime landscapes of "Gilan" Province relying on pervious assessments and some Main principles of Convention on Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and identifying potentials in order to do future protection measures. "Hossein Tofighian" is the director of archaeological survey. The main goals of the Project were: 1. In Situ Preservation, as first option. 2. Obey legal protection of archaeological sites. 3. Organizational and archaeological monitoring in order to avoid of material culture for further degradations. 4. Necessary measures about protection of sites. 5. Making Reports and documents of archaeological finds. 6. Support ratification and compliance with the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the UCH. 7. Protect underwater cultural heritage for future generations. We used "Christer Westerdahl's approach" - the Maritime cultural Landscape - that published in international journal of nautical archaeology in 1992 for Maritime archaeological surveys in Gilan province. Because his approach, we can get to our holistic understanding about this subject. Our Research area was from "Astara" county to "Rudsar" county in Gilan province. We were surveying about shipwrecks, local maritime culture, navigation and Boatbuilding in rivers, Lagoon and coastlines of Caspian Sea. This article derived from this project and shipwreck as a time capsule and dating instrument mixed with historical report. 2. Maritime Archaeological studies in Caspian Sea Based on Encyclopedia of Lakes and reservoirs: "The Caspian Sea is the largest closed water body in the world. Five states are situated on its banks: Russia, Azerbaijan, Islamic republic of Iran, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. The area of the sea at present equals to 0.4 million km �making 18% of the total area of lakes of the Earth. The volume of water equals to 79,000 km. The maximal extension of the sea from north to south equals to 1,200 km, its width varies from 200 up to 450 km, and the greatest depth equals to 1,025 m. The Caspian Sea accepts water of 130 rivers from the catchment area which is approximately ten times greater than its own one (3.5 million km2) ( Fig. 1). The main feature of the hydrological regime of the Caspian Sea is significant fluctuation of its level which is the reason of significant damages and ecological accidents" (Bolgov, 2012) and This is why various archaeological monuments were inundated by the Caspian Sea water (Okorokov, 1993). Caspian Sea and its coasts have many important aspects such as Strategic, Environmental, social and economic (fisheries, transportation and tourism) factors. In these days, we should have added maritime archaeological significance to the Caspian Sea. Fig. 1: Caspian Sea; (Rucevska and Simonett, 2006) �There are some of historical and considerable reports that mentioned to the Caspian Sea, include: Herodotus (5th cen. BC), Ptolemy (AD 2 cen.), Estakhri (AD 10th cen.), Masʿudi (AD 10th cen.), Al-Idrisi (AD 12th cen.) , Abu Zeyd al-Balkhi (AD 9th cen.), Adam Olearius (1599-167), Jan Janszoon Struys (1630-1694), Captain John Elton(1751), Jonas Hanway (1712-1786), Guillaume-Antoine Olivier (1756-1814), Pierre Amédée Jaubert (1779–1847), James Baillie Fraser (1783-1856), charles ferancis Mackenzie (1788–1862), bohler(1853-?), Grigoriy Valerianovich Melgunov (his travel to southern coast of Caspian sea:1858-1860), Jakob Eduard Polak (1818-1891), Madame Carla Serena (1824-1884), Ernest Orsolle (1858-?), Henry Binder (1886-?), Frederick Charles Richards (1878–1932), Wipert von Blücher (1883- 1963) and etc. (Zonn and et al.,2010; Nikouyeh, 2007). Also, we have many reports from Medieval Islamic travel writers about Relations between "RUS" and Iran on that time when Volga maritime route was open. Some of these writers include: "AlMas‘udi, Ya'qubi, Yaqut al-Hamawi, Gardezi, Al-Muqaddasi, Ibn Rustah, Ibn Khordadbeh, ibn athir al jazari", particularity "Ahmad ibn Fadlan" and current western scientists' researches such as Thorir Jonsson Hraundal are very important for our maritime archaeological researches. Also, in 1870, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar in "Ruznameh-ye safar-e Gilan" mentioned a list of many different types of watercrafts which are located in southern of Caspian sea called: "karaji"(a kind of barge), "Navid"(kind of watercraft),"ka(e)šti ātaši"(a kind of Steamboat), "Nāv"(a kind of cruiser), "ka(e)šti bozorg tojjāri"(a kind of Merchant vessel), "ka(e)šti muzik"(Musical watercraft), "ka(e)šti boxār bozorg v kuča(e)k" (Big and small Steamboat ), "Qāyeq lotke/Lodka"(a kind of Russian boat), "ka(e)šti dudi"(a kind of Steamboat) and so on. �Maritime Archaeological researches on coastal and marine regions of the southern part of the Caspian Sea do not date back to long ago. For example, a couple of them are as follow: In the early eighteenth century, several Russian scholars wrote their observations of stone structures in the coast of Baku. In 1840, an attempt to locate the submerged town was undertaken. It did not succeed, although two Russian naval brigs took part. In 1933, the Azerbaijan Academy of Sciences conducted underwater investigations in the area by "I. M. Djiafar-Zade" and "E. A. Pakhomov". Totally, 636 frieze fragments with tile decorations were raised and their inscriptions deciphered. In 1961, the Leningrad Branch of the Institute of Archaeology headed by L. N. Gumilyov started exploration of the underwater part of "Derbent" Fortress. The expedition examined about 300 m of the fortress wall underwater. These investigations confirmed the abrupt variations of the Caspian Sea-level (Okorokov,1993). According to "Viktor Kvachidze" says: "in 1968, I had the idea to create an underwater archaeological expedition in conjunction with the Azerbaijani History Museum and the first dive was organized in 1969" (Kvachidze, 2006). The expedition lifted a lot of very valuable material culture from the seabed some of them included: The remains of settlements of "Bandovan I" and "Bandovan II", swallowed by the Caspian Sea. They were found in ancient channels and on the bank of the Kura River. Bandovan I, is ruins of "Gushtaspi" city, which existed in the 11th-13th centuries, and "Bandovan II" is ruins of "Mugan" city (9th12th centuries), too (Ibrahimov, 2016). In 1982, underwater specialists examined a ship which sank with the Russian Army treasury in the Bay of Baku at the beginning of the 19th century (Okorokov, 1993). In 2000, a fishing company observed the wrecked body of an old ship and some objects such as samovars, porcelains and some hardware artifacts obtained from there. Objects obtained from the shipwreck of "Amir Abad �of Lahijan" confirmed the issue that the vessel had been a “cargo ship”. These retrieved artifacts from the vessel were made in Russia include porcelains made in "Kuznetsov Factory" (Mirsalehi, 2001). In 2003, it was reported a shipwreck appeared in the north of "Zaghmarz" Village in 17 Km away from the north of "Neka" Town (Sourtchi, 2004). In 2006,"Zhenya Anichenko" published a report of her short research trip to Azerbaijan. She wrote reasons of this short scientific trip: collecting additional data about "Sababyil" submerged Castle based on writings of middle-age historians, investigating submerged lands, Caspian Sea archeological potentials and the history of this region (Anichenko, 2006). Between 2007 and 2009, Julian Jansen Van Rensburg et al, investigated "Tammīsheh" and "Gorgān" Underwater Walls (Rensburg and et al, 2013). In 2013, the recording form of "Ghorogh" shipwreck on Talesh coastlines prepared and submitted to Cultural Heritage Administration of Gilan Province. In 2016, remains of wooden ship appeared to seem that belong to the Afsharid Era, has recently explored on "Rudsar" coasts in "Gilan" Province (Alizadeh, 2015) (Fig 2). In 2016, the divers of the Russian Geographical Society’s (RGS) expedition found an object, which looked like an anchor in the Caspian Sea near the coast of Derbent. Presumably, it belongs to one of the ships flotilla of the Peter the Great, the press-secretary of the Tatarstan branch of the Russian Geographical Society "Irina Sadykova" says (RIA Dagestan, 2016). �Fig. 2 (left): Maritime archaeological researches around the Caspian Sea (Authors,2017) 3. Study area Gilan is one of the Circum-Caspian Iranian provinces (Ostan). This province is situated on north of Iran and located in southwestern shore of the Caspian Sea. Gilan has about 14044 kilometers extent area and population – 2.4 million people with 16 Counties (in Persian: Shahrestan). Gilan connects to the Caspian Sea in north, to the Mazandaran Province in east, to the Ardabil Province in west, to the Zanjan and Qazvin Provinces in south. It also has borders with the Republic of Azerbaijan in the north as well as Russia via the Caspian Sea. The main city is Rasht and The main river is the "Sefid Rud" (Zonn and et al.,2010) (Fig 3). It has the best type of weather and climate in Iran with a moderate and humid climate that is known as the moderate Caspian climate. The effective �factors on such climate include the Alborz mountain range, direction of the mountains, the height of the area, and the Caspian Sea, vegetation surface, local winds, as well as the altitude and weather fronts (Kazemi Rad and Mohammadi, 2015). Our Research area was from "Astara" county to "Rudsar" county in "Gilan" province. We were surveying about local maritime culture, navigation and Boatbuilding in rivers, Lagoon and coastlines of Caspian Sea. Fig. 3: Location of "Gilan" Province. A: "ASTARA"; H: "HAŠTPAR" (Ṭāleš ); BA: "BANDAR-E ANZALĪ"; Lh: "LĀHIJĀN"; Lr: "LANGARUD"; Rs: "RUDSAR" (Authors,2017) 3.1 ASTARA In 1843, "Keith Edward Abbott" mentioned: "Astara" as "dehkade dahne kenār" which is situated in the mouth of the "Astara River". Also, Astara hasn't any harbor and cargo of ships were unloaded via boat nearby Astara water (Sotuda, 1995). There are many subjects about maritime archaeological and ethnographical studies in Astara. One of them is "Estil Lagoon". We observed a kind of Simple Watercraft which is more look like �to a Dugout canoe (Logboat) around the Lagoon (in local dialect called "Lodka"), Also, traces of axe observed on hull's Dugout canoe (Fig4). Undoubtedly, dugout canoe is one of the oldest vessels (Okorokov, 1995). According to Sean McGrail (2004): “Dugout canoe are shell-built". The technique of Dugout canoe building as: "The trunk of a heavy tree was carved out with a crude stone knife or axe: the men would then plug up both ends of the hollow trunk with some form of boarding" (Agius, 2008:123). The use of this boat building technique, dated back to Mesolithic (McGrail, 2001:11). It should be noted that boats are first known among settled peoples-farmers and fishermen. Hunters seem to have confined their water transport to occasional ‘vessels’, such as tree trunks, and primitive rafts. To have confined their water transport to occasional ‘vessels’, such as tree trunks, and primitive rafts. Many such these Dugout canoe observed and recorded in Russia, Ukraine and Latvia (See, Okorokov, 1995; Burov, 1996). During our investigation in study area, we observed and recorded plank boats with simple construction in different sizes that locals called "lutka/lodka" or "Nodonbal" or "Karaji". �Fig. 4: A. Esteel lagoon Map. (Gharibkhany,2009); B. Estil Lagoon Dugout canoe. (Authours); C. Small Canoe. ( Holmes, 1845) 3.2 HAŠTPAR (or Šahr-e Ṭāleš “Ṭāleš City”) A city in the western part of "Gilān" Province, center of the "šahrestān" (sub-provincial district) of "Ṭāleš" (or Tāleš). The city is located at lat 37°48′ N, long 48°55′ E, at the head of the delta of the "Kargānrud" River (Bazin, n.d.). Natural dynamic of "Talesh" coast area has caused “unstable conditions” in this region during different periods. Hence, “several water level fluctuations” in the Caspian Sea has led to “emerging or submerging of the neighbor lands."Kargan-Rud" constitutes the biggest Caspian Sea water basin in Western Gilan. It should be noted that there is considerable wooden shipwreck in Ghorugh Village of Talesh County. Here is the exact location of this vessel, according to geographic coordinate system. It is located on the latitude of 37°51´20.88"N and longitude of 48°57´27.77" E with the elevation of -28 below the sea surface. The shipwreck is accessible through "Anzali-Talesh-Astara" road. In this area, the forest is closer to the shoreline, as if the sea and �the forest are intertwined. At the present, only some parts of the vessel’s keel and hull are remained. it is more than 28 meters long and about 6 meters wide. It is not clear yet what method used for construction of Ghorogh's hull. However, according to observations, a complex method, strong timbers and wooden pieces used to construct this vessel. Also, long and robust metal nails were used to fasten the wooden elements. The ship’s file is prepared for national registration. It is probable this vessel played an important role in wood trade during the Qajar era between Iran and Russia. In 1880, "Aḥmad Ibn-x̮udāwirdī Lankarānī" in "Ax̮bārnāma"; tārix-i Tālišān az salṭanat-i Nādir Šāh tā salṭanat-i Muḥammad Šāh Qāǧār" said: "There was a naval warfare between Iranian Navy and Stepan Razin". Also he mentioned: "There were some exchanges cargo such as Timbers and Cereals from Gilan to Russia". Also, we were investigating on remains of "Ghorogh" wooden shipwreck in Talesh County by helishot and Details of shipwreck were mapping (Fig 5.). In these days, Fishermen use flat-bottomed double-ended vessels (in local dialect called "karaji") in this area linked to past period. Those watercrafts look like flat-bottomed double-ended vessels were using in 18 and 19 centuries. �Fig. 5 (left): Photo and drawing of "Ghorogh" shipwreck. (Authors, 2017) 3.3 Anazali A city and sea port as well as an Iranian naval base on the Caspian Sea in Gilan Province (Zonn and et al., 2010). After the 1979 Iranian revolution, the name of the place reverted to its original name of "Anzali". In 1860, "Grigoriy Valerianovich Melgunov" reports: "The Melgunov party aboard the "Lankoran/ Lankara" arrived off Anzali at half past the hour of eleven in the morning on October 7, 1860. The “famed tower” of Anzali was in plain view. The breeze did not permit the ship to draw any closer and so the ship dropped anchor at some distance from the shore. The local karaji came out competing among themselves to reach the ship, hoping to sell their goods to the passengers and crew and provide transportation back to shore. As it turned out, on that day, only two passengers were due to disembark at Anzali, and there was no cargo to land. Even though it was called a “town,” Melgunov observed, Anzali consisted of two villages, one at each side of the straits that separated the sea from the lagoon. Tiny sea shells, reeds, and shifting sand bars marked the southern approaches �to Anzali. On each side of the straits stood a tower set in about a mile from the water’s edge. The tower on the west or northern part of Anzali stood some 94 feet tall and the smoke from its signal could be seen as far east as "Piri Bazar". Anzali itself consisted of some 200 houses and 160 shops, 2 bathhouses, 3 mosques, and 3 shrines. Each house boasted a garden often bearing citrus trees. In the southern part of the lagoon lay "Miyanposhteh" Island, mostly covered in reeds. The inhabitants wove straw goods, grew silk and melons, and drove "karajis". The ships from Baku and Astrakhan, chiefly carrying consignments of coal and petroleum, would anchor offshore opposite the Russian trading houses, as Anzali itself did not have much of an anchorage. Melgunov observed that Anzali had the Caspian’s worst harbor; its bottom was rocky and storms arose in its vicinity without much warning. Steamers were prohibited from approaching the shore and were obliged to anchor some three miles off. The trade of Gilan, including Rasht and Anzali, according to Melgunov, consisted chiefly of silk and fisheries. The silk, in particular, was exported to such destinations as Constantinople in Turkey, Marseilles in France, and Russia. Among the foreign trading houses active in Gilan at the time were Riley and Company, which dealt in silk; the House of Diner, belonging to a Swiss entrepreneur; and the Kavkaz and Mercury Steam Navigation Company (Mirfendereski, 2001). During archaeological survey around the Anazli, we observed a few Shipbuilding factories where they are still building wooden fishing vessels in different size for navigating �in the sea and river (Fig 6). It should be noted that, today, a number of such these factories were decreased than previous periods. Fig. 6: Small Shipbuilding factory. (Authors, 2017) 3.4 Lahijan A city in the province of Gilān, located at 37°12′ N, long 50°0′ E, to the east of the lower reaches of Safidrud at an altitude of 4 m. (Bromberger, 2012). Around the coastline of Amirabad village in Lahijan that connect to Caspian Sea found the remains of wooden shipwreck. According to artifact recovered confirms the vessel has used as a cargo ship. The objects recovered from the vessel are mainly made in Russia and include some porcelain objects made by Kuznetsov Factory (Fig 7) (Mirsalehi, 1380). the porcelain factory took its name from the merchant and founder Terenti Kuznetsov. He established the factory in 1832 in Dulyovo [present Likin-Dulyovo]. Soon after, the factory’s �products became very popular and products exclusively produced since that time, they were known as “Imperial Porcelain Factory” in Russia. Kuznetsov porcelain designed and produced based on Eastern and Western tastes; so it had many customers. The factory had a wide range of products. For example, it produced 150 different types of lunch, tea and coffee sets and about 370 types of cups and various types of teaspoons, butter dishes, fruit dishes, sugar bowl, ashtrays, candlesticks, money boxes and other products (Torchinsky, 2010). The ship’s cargo recovered in 2001 and part of the cargo is currently displayed on Lahijan Anthropology Museum. Fig. 7: The cargo and hull of the Amirabad shipwreck. (Mirsalehi,2000) 3.5 Langarud A city and sub-provincial district (šahrestān) in Gilān located at lat 37°11′ N, long 50°09′ E on the Langarud River, which cuts through the city. From 1611 to 1899, Anthony Jenkinson and other Englishmen report: “Langroe (Langerud) is situate in low, swampy ground, and at the time of Gmelin's �visit, was in a ruined state; nothing but a few reed hovels were to be seen, and a half -ruined bridge and a masque. It was near here that the remains of the ship built by John Elton for Nadir Shah were to be seen. — Holmes' Sketches on the Shoi'es of the Caspian. (Jenkinson et al.,n.d ). "(t)he city owes its fame to the commercial and administrative functions it has performed throughout history. Located in the heart of a region that produces rice and silk, with the nearby quarter of Čamḵāla functioning as its commercial port, Langarud witnessed strong growth late in the 19th and early in 20th century when Iran’s trade with Russia and Europe was flourishing (Fig 8)(Bazin and Bromberger n.d). Chaf and Chamkhaleh is a city in the Central District of Langarud County, in Gilan Province northwest of Iran. The city is located on the Caspian Sea. In this area, we visited a Traditional Wooden Boatbuilding Factory, which they are building in different sizes that locals called "lutka/lodka" or "Nodonbal"(Fig 9). Fig. 8 (left): River landscape of Langarud. ( Holmes, 1845) and Fig 9. Traditional Wooden Boat Factory in Chaf and Chamkhaleh (Authours, 2017) �3.6 Rudsar A city and sub-provincial district (šahrestān) in eastern Gilān. The city is located at lat 37°08′ N, long 50°18′ E, at the place where the Caspian coastal highway crosses the small river Rudsar or Kiārud, 14 km southwest of Langarud (Bazin, n.d.). River "Shalman Rud" passed through Rudsar and flows into the Caspian Sea. Around the river where "Lalehrūd or Allah Rūd" village is suited; there are remains of a grounded wooden shipwreck. It is very significant for archaeological research. There are some clues in historical accounts on this matter, for example: "Jonas Hanway" reports as titled "an historical account of the British trade over the Caspian Sea": "Elton with locals built many warships for Nader Shah in a place that called "Langroud". It should be noted that the site of shipwreck is near to this location. Maybe this shipwreck belongs to Afsharid Era? Also, we were investigating on remains wooden shipwreck's Lalehrūd Rud in Rudsar County. Group members were recording all details' shipwreck in a special recording form (Fig. 10). We got some wooden samples from shipwrecks for dendrochronological studies. In relation to this matter, we are staying in touch with international scientists. �Fig 10. Rudsar shipwreck. (Authours,2017) 4 Conclusion Unfortunately, over several Decades of forming maritime archaeological studies in the world in this area of Iran is intact and need more maritime archaeological survey. In the nascent stage of maritime archaeological survey in Gilan province, we tried to identify maritime archaeological potentials and some historical accounts that mentioned to maritime spaces of Gilan province. It should be noted that in this paper we tried to mix historical accounts with archaeological records to clarify dating maritime culture heritage, but there are many hypotheses about seafaring in this area based on archaeological records. According to historical accounts, it is clear to us, there were seafaring activities in the Caspian Sea region since AD 9th century contemporary with Opening "Volga maritime trade" route until today. Also, it is noticed that, different kinds of watercrafts from shell-built to skeleton-built were used in this area. �Unresolved hypotheses of this issue move forward us to use of Multidisciplinary Studies and international contacts. References Agius, D. A. (2008). Classic ships of Islam from Mesopotmia to the Indian Ocean.berlin: LEIDEN. Boston. Alizadeh, R. (2015). The wreck of a Russian ship was explored in Rudsar. Retrived from Mehr News Agencey, 2015. News number: 2953226. Anichenkoa, Zh. (2006). Underwater Archaeology in the Caspian: Past, Present and Hopefully Future. Retrieved 2015, from AZER.com: http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai144_folder/144_articl es/144_zhenya.htmI Bazin ,Marcel and Bromberger, Christian, " LANGARUD " Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2012, available at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/langarud (accessed on 12 July 2017). Bazin, Marcel." HAŠTPAR" Encyclopedia Iranica, online edition, 2012, available at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hastpar (accessed on 12 July 2017) Bazin, Marcel." RUDSAR" Encyclopedia Iranica, online edition, 2012, available at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/rudsar (accessed on 12 July 2017). Bolgov, M. V., 2012. Caspian Sea. In: L. Bengtsson, H. W. Reginald & F. Rhodes, eds. Encyclopedia of Lakes and Reservoirs. Netherlands: Springer. Bromberger, Christian."Lahijan". Encyclopedia Iranica, online edition, 2012, available at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/lahijan (accessed on 12 July 2017). Burov, G.M., 1996. On Mesolithic means of water transportation in northeastern Europe. Mesolithic Miscellany 17(1):5–15. Hanway, J. (1753). An historical account of the British trade over the Caspian Sea: with a journal of travels from London through Russia into Persia; and back again through Russia, Germany and Holland. To which �are added, the revolutions of Persia during the present century, with the particular history of the great usurper Nadir Kouli. London: Sold by Mr. Dodsley [etc.]. Holmes, W. (1845). Sketches on the shores of the Caspian. London: Richard Bentley . Hraundal, T. (2013). The Rus in Arabic Sources:Cultural Contacts and Identity. Centre for Medieval Studies, Phd Dissertation Unverstiy of bergen. Ibrahimov, K., 2014. Hazar Denİzİ’nİn sualtı tarİhİ | History under the waters of the Caspian Sea. IRS Heritage , 4(12), pp. 58-63. Iranian center for archaeological research (ICAR), Iran, Underwater Cultural Heritage and It's Share in Maritime Archeological Studies, 26 November 2016, available at: http://farhangdarya.com/EN/2016/11/26/booklet-underwater-cultural-heritage-irandownload/ [accessed 20 April 2017] Jenkinson, A. (190?). Early voyages and travels to Russia and Persia by Anthony Jenkinson and other Englishmen, with some account of the first intercourse of the English with Russia and Central Asia by way of the Caspian Sea. (E. Morgan, & C. Coote, Eds.) New York: B. Franklin. Kazemi Rad, L., & Mohammadi, H. (2015). Climate Change Assessment in Gilan province, Iran. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences,8(2), pp. 86-93. Kvachidze, V. (2006). Under the Sea Hidden Treasures First Expeditions beneath the Caspian Sea. Retrieved 2015, from AZER.com: http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai144_folder/144_articl es/144_viktor_index.html Lankarānī, Aḥmad Ibn-x̮udāwirdī. Ax̮bārnāma : tārix̮-i Tālišān az salṭanati Nādir Šāh tā salṭanat-i Muḥammad Šāh Qāǧār. Editor: Hossein Ahmadi, Center for International Research and Education of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tehran, 2004. McGrail, S.( 2004). Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to Medieval Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press. �Mirfendereski, G. (2001). A Diplomatic History of the Caspian Sea: Treaties, Diaries and Other Stories. New York: PALGRAVE. Mirsalehi, M. (2001). Reports of the shipwreck off the coast of Amirabad. Rasht: Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Gilan Province. Unpublished. Nikouyeh, Mohmoud, the guilan at the travelogues of foreigner exploration. Rasht: Farhang Elia. Okorokov, A. V. (1995), Archaeological finds of ancient dugouts in Russia and the Ukraine. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 24: 33– 45. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1995.tb00709.x Okorokov, A.V. 1993. Development of underwater archaeological investigations in Russia and the former Soviet Union. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 22(3), pp. 270-269. Qajar, Naser al-Din Shah (1831-1896). Ruznameh-ye safar-e Gilan. Emendation and annotation: Manouchehr Sotodeh, Jahangiri art and cultural institution, gilan, 1988. Rensburg, J. v., Caputo, F., Omrani Rekavandi, H., Sauer, W. E., Shabani, B., & Ratcliffe, J. (2013). The Underwater Survey of the TAMMĪSHEH and Gorgān Walls. Oxbow. British Institute of Persian Studies Monograph, 425. Riadagestan. (2016, September 29 ). Anchor of sunken ships flotilla found in the Caspian Sea. Retrieved from REPUBLICAN INFORMATION AGENCY Dagestan: http://www.riadagestan.com/news_en/society/anchor_of_sunken_ships_ flotilla_found_in_the_caspian_sea_/ Rucevska, I., & Simonett, O. (2006). Vital Caspian Graphics 2 : Opportunities, Aspirations and Challenges. Zoï Environment/GRIDArendal. Sotuda , Manučeher,(1995). Az Āstārā tā Estārbād I: āṯār wa banāhā-ye tāriḵi-e Gilān Biapas, Tehran: publication of Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance. �Sourtchi, Saman. (2004). Archaeological studies on the ship aground on the coast of the Caspian Sea. Sari-Mazandaran: Archives Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization of Mazandaran Province. Torchinsky, O. (2010). Kuznetsov's "Porcelain Empire". Retrieved 14 Agust, 2015, from lastochka-fromrussiawithlove: http://lastochkafromrussiawithlove.blogspot.com/2010/01/kuznetsovs-porcelainempire.html Westerdahl, C. (1992), The maritime cultural landscape. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 21: 5–14. doi:10.1111/j.10959270.1992.tb00336.x Zonn , I. S., Kostianoy, A. G., Kosarev, A. N. & Glantz, M. H., 2010. The Caspian Sea Encyclopedia. Berlin : Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Biographies Hossein Tofighian Ph.D. is a member of faculty and assistant professor of Research Institute of Cultural Heritage & Tourism (RICHT). His field of study is about Sassanid period around Persian Gulf. He has been working on maritime archaeological studies in Iran particularly underwater cultural heritage of Persian Gulf for 15 years. Ramin Adibi M.A. has a M.A. in archaeology and a member of 'PADI', focused on Caspian Sea as "maritime archaeological studies", especially about Maritime Cultural Landscape of Caspian Sea. Runs a magazine called "Archaeology of Maritime Landscape". � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 5: Iran's Maritime Cultural Landscape Description An account of the resource The country of Iran benefits from having a long coastline. Sea spaces and coastlines were attractive settlements for humans throughout history. These extensive maritime landscapes have resulted in interactions between human and sea along the northern (Caspian Sea) and southern (Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman) coastlines of Iran. Iran’s rivers and lakes contain a great deal of evidence of human habitation and interaction. Due to the country’s long history of maritime culture, we can also observe sea effects on coastal communities in Iran. Maritime archaeological studies in Iran, however, are at a nascent stage. In the 1990’s, a small group of archaeologists from the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research (ICAR) investigated in the north of Persian Gulf to decode its unknown history. In 2000, the first coherent and planned activities of that group produced the "Underwater Surveys around the shores of Siraf Port in Bushehr Province". After that, the team surveyed "Bandar-e Rig"(Rig port), Portuguese castles in Siraf port, Southern Shores of the Bushehr Peninsula in the Persian Gulf. The team has worked on sites from "Shushtar’s Band-e Mizan"(Shushtar barrier), "Takht-e Suleiman" Lake, and the Amir Abad and "Zaghmarz" shipwrecks; the "TammÄ«sheh and Gorgān" Underwater Walls, and the "Ghorogh" and "Rudsar" shipwrecks. These projects were published in Persian by a domestic magazine. The team then prepared and distributed a booklet titled of "Iran, Underwater Cultural Heritage and It's Share in Maritime Archeological Studies" for the annual meeting of States Parties of The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2016. Next, UNESCO and ICHTO held "Training Workshop on Underwater Archaeology with a Focus on the UNESCO 2001 Convention" in Iran. These activities are continuing and we hope for some continued progress in maritime archaeological studies and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hossien Tofighian Research Institute of Cultural Heritage & Tourism (RICHT), Iran Ramin Adibi Higher Institute of Marlik University, Iran Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Boat and ship Archaeology in Gilan Province (Iran) Description An account of the resource Gilan province is one the northern states of Iran which is located in south west of Caspian Sea and has relatively long coastlines. According to historical and geographical location of Gilan, in 2017, Maritime archaeology group of Iranian Center for Archaeological Research (ICAR) decided to do a project as "Archaeology of maritime landscapes of Gilan Province". Main goal of perform this project was identifying immaterial and material of maritime culture across of Gilan province maritime landscape. Our Research area was from "Astara" county to "Rudsar" county in Gilan province. We were surveying about navigation and Boatbuilding in rivers, Lagoon and coastlines of Caspian Sea. For example: in "Estil" Lagoon in Astra county we observed a kind of Simple Watercraft which is more look like to a Dugout canoe. During this project, we observed and investigated about wooden boats with simple construction in different sizes that locals called "lutka/lodka" or "Nodonbal". Nowadays, fishermen use flatbottomed, double-ended vessel (in local dialect called "karaji") that linked to past period. So we were investigating on remains of "Ghorogh" wooden shipwreck in "Talesh" County and wooden shipwreck "LalehrÅ«d" in "Rudsar" County. We visited Traditional Wooden Boat Factory and interviewed with locals. This article based on desk and field research on traditional and historical boat and ship in each city of Gilan province. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hossien Tofighian Ramin Adibi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Hossien Tofighian Ramin Adibi Asia-Pac Session 5 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/779bfc67e84459b29291b623f43572d6.jpg 1e358f69411f0e41a80cf9ca8e430a5a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Poster Session 2014 Description An account of the resource Posters presented at the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Boats of Central Vietnam: Maritime ethnography and European archives Description An account of the resource Poster presented at the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Charlotte Minh Ha PHAM Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/9/2014 Asia-Pac Poster 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Book of Travels [Safarnama]. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Khusraw Nasir-i Wheeler M. Thackston Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Mazda Publishers Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Khusraw Nasir-i Translator Wheeler M. Thackston Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Place CostaMesa, CA Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Mazda Publishers Title A name given to the resource Book of Travels [Safarnama]. https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b7b29178461cc24bda6359dca26ae1cf.pdf 6175e5512607e95311461a44dc54f568 PDF Text Text Border and Shaping of Identities: The Fort of Nuestra Señora del Pilar of Zamboanga, Mindanao (Philippines)1 Miguel Luque-Talaván Complutense University of Madrid, Geography and History Faculty Department of American History I, C./ Profesor Aranguren, s/n C.P. 28040. Madrid, Spain Email: mluque_t@ghis.ucm.es Abstract At the end of the 15th century, Southeast Asia underwent a process of islamisation. Muslim presence in Southern Philippines was strongly fought by the Spaniards since 1570 and until the end of their presence in this archipelago. They named these Muslims moors, due to the similarity they established between them and the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula. The Philippines was a border territory and the Philippine society was used to live at the edge of the Imperial possessions. The Sulu Sea was a real border zone from a geographical, cultural and historical point of view, whose study allows us to analyse the relations between the Spaniards and the local powers, and vice versa. Within this context, we will focus on the analysis of the history of the Hispanic forts in the island of Mindanao, in particular of the Fort of Nuestra Señora del Pilar of Zamboanga, a really strategic settlement in Southern Philippines, whose historical development allows us to analyse the different policies introduced by the Hispanic Monarchy in these regions subjected to its nominal sovereignty. Key words: Mindanao, Zamboanga, Fort of Nuestra Señora del Pilar, Piracy, Sulu Sea Mindanao, Sulu and Northern Borneo in the context of the Governorate and Captaincy General of the Philippine Islands, Border Issues At the end of the 15th century, Southeast Asia and China had begun their process of islamisation. Generally speaking, it can be said that commercial trade was what brought Islam to these regions via the commercial routes that crossed Northern Africa and Asia (Dupuis, 1975: 274; Al Faruqi and Lamya Al Faruqi, 1986; Robinson and Brown, 1992: I, 88-95; Guermon Prez, 1996: 392-395). Since 1500, there were Muslim population centres established along the Burmese coast, northern Sumatra and Malacca. And it was from that last place from where they established themselves in northern Borneo, the islands of Sulu, and Mindanao; as well as in the northern coast of Java, southern Borneo and the islands of Ternate and Ambon - in the Archipelago of the Moluccas - (Montero y Vidal, 1888: I, 88-95; Luque Talaván, 1998; Majul, 1999: 39-88). Muslim presence in the southern Philippines would be fought by 1 �the Spaniards. It was a conflict that, in a certain manner and in the minds of many Spanish people of the age, prolonged the fight against Islam that had been developed in the Peninsula from 711 to 14922. Particularly because of the pressure exerted by the Spaniards, the islamised Philippine indigenous population was reduced geographically speaking and in the 19th century - to a few isolated settlements in the south-eastern coast of Mindanao, a coastal strip located at the south of the same island than then connected with a territory called Cotabato, larger in area, that narrowed again until it came to the Spanish settlement of Zamboanga, close to which some small Muslim emplacements were located. The Sulu Archipelago was under complete Muslim authority, except for the three spots that Spain kept under control: the village of Isabela and an inland fort - both in the island of Basilan -, and another emplacement in the northern coast of the island of Sulu. It was also Muslim territory all the southern coast of Paragua or Palawan, the island of Balabac and the Cagayan Sulu, as well as the northern coast of Borneo. It can be seen how their presence especially in Mindanao was interrupted by the existence of small Spanish settlements usually military settlements; which were more abundant in the northern coast of the island than in the southern coast; as well as by large areas occupied by the insular indigenous groups3. Muslim piracy in the Philippines as an origin of border tension The hostile activity of many Philippines’ Muslim leaders marred the relationships between them and the Spanish authorities who considered them to be pirates; who used force in order to terminate a conflict that never came to an end. Hundreds of lives were lost in these costly armed conflicts, which also turned out to be, from an economic point of view, very expensive for the Spanish treasury. From the beginning of its presence in the Archipelago, the ongoing concerns that Spain had about this conflict were felt by several Spanish authors who wrote various books about this matter. Those writings, heavily eurocentric, intellectually fed entire generations that came to identify every Philippine Muslim known as moros with pirates, slave traders, cruel, bloodthirsty individuals, etc. This assessment led, in turn, to a whole new historiography and literature in which the perception of the other, the different, in this 2 �case the Muslim, deserves a new in depth analysis that is still pending (Luque Talaván, 1999: 57-86). Fortresses for a border It was not only historiography that reflected this matter, but in the Philippine coasts, out of the necessity of protecting themselves from pirates, a whole architecture for defensive-offensive purposes arose. It was composed of small forts for protection and watchtowers on high places to prevent attacks (Javellana, 1997; Caulín Martínez and Luque Talaván, 2002: 205-215). From an anthropological perspective, this architecture shows the border tension and the sense of insecurity and intolerance against what was considered to be different, strange and diverse (Lisón Tolosana, 1997: 141). Those defences, which we can refer to as static, coexisted with the dynamic defences depicted by the coastguard vessels in Philippine waters. These tasks, that showed little effectiveness in most of the cases, were already represented in the second half of the 18th century by a squad created in 1775 by the Governor and Captain General Simón de Anda y Salazar (1770-1776). Sometime after that, the same squad, under the governance of his successor José de Basco y Vargas (1778-1787), would be baptised as marina sutil (Montero y Vidal, 1888: I, 73-75; Martín Onrubia, 2006/2007: 155-159). All this contributed to make the Philippines a border territory in which society was used to live at the edge, or at the forefront, of the Imperial possessions, with all the associated risks. Therefore, the Sulu Sea became a real border zone from a geographical, cultural and historical point of view. These Muslim states had a strong maritime nature, with a very peculiar organisational system that had to be in contact with the international economy present in the area Chinese and Spanish, mainly and the rapid progress of the European colonialism and modernity. Its strategic position in an area of high commercial value progressively turned Mindanao, and especially Sulu, into a well developed area with a very vital economy where Europeans and Chinese traders too sought to acquire swallows’ nests, pearls, sponges, among other products; whereas the Muslims got in exchange goods they appreciated more, like firearms, textiles, etc. (Spoehr, 1968: 177-185; Warren, 1999; Warren, 2000: 7-8; Ollé, 2002; Malcampo, 2007; Crick, 2013: 86-97). 3 �Several campaigns against the Philippine Muslims were carried out already since the 17th century; even if it was during the first half of the 19th century, and more specifically during the mandate of Lieutenant General Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa, Count of Manila (1844-1849), when piratical activity took its biggest blows. In our view, Spain was interested in the eradication of piratical activity in Philippine waters for three main reasons: first, to protect the islands’ internal and external trade; second, to safeguard the christianised and hispanised Philippine villages that were usually under attack; and third and last, to avoid that other European powers like France or England, under the pretext of eradicating piracy, took control of the southern Philippines, as they had tried to do a few times before. To these reasons could be added the Crown’s intentions to harm the trade routes existent in the Muslim regions, in order to take away resources, and hence autonomy of action, from them. Hispanisation and construction of the Hispanic space in the southwest of the Philippine Islands, Life in military prisons During the second half of the 16th century and even afterwards, it can be considered that, in zones like the Philippine Islands, missions and prisons formed systems vanguard and protection of the Hispanic possessions4. The military occupation of the archipelago always suffered from a chronic lack of men and, for that reason, it was often necessary to enlist local natives. For example, we can mention that on 21 April, 1609, the Governor and Captain General of the Philippines Juan de Silva, only had five Spanish infantry companies; and on 26 June, 1626, the interim Governor Juan Niño de Tábora took 600 Spanish infantry soldiers and some veteran captains from the Flanders campaigns (Alía Plana, 1993: 18, note number 11). Many of the men sent to serve as soldiers in the archipelago had arrived to that destination to serve sentences for crimes committed: homicide, estupro, bigamy, sodomy, adultery, concubinage, and domestic abuse among others. There were also crimes such as vagamundeo, gambling, or desertion of the army. Some of these crimes were also accompanied by, apart from harsh destinations in Zamboanga or the Mariana Islands, spiritual punishments given by the Spanish Inquisition. Given the different types of offences, the time of punishment of duty in the islands was variable. The longer periods of sentence that have been documented correspond to ten years, and they often punished a sexual 4 �type of crime committed in New Spain. In the prisons, the psychological pressure exerted by the environment and the hard conditions of life to which the soldiers were subjected (badly supplied, late payments, poor diet, etc.) put them in extreme situations that caused different responses. One of the cases that the Spanish authorities watched the most was that of those prisoners who renounced the Catholic faith and converted to Islam. This was then a border society that certainly gave origin to a new kind of man yet to be studied (García de los Arcos, 1996: 118-119; Luque Talaván, 2011: 165-190). The Fort of Nuestra Señora del Pilar of Zamboanga (Mindanao) As it usually happens with other cases, the history of this fortress perfectly summarises the situation of the Philippines during the Spanish rule. Since its establishment in 1635, it had to be abandoned in 1662 - together with the prisons of Terrenate, Calamianes and Iligan - by order of the then Governor and Captain General Sabiniano Manrique de Lara (1653-1663). The reason was the necessity to concentrate the few insular forces in Manila, with the objective of reinforcing the defences of the capital regarding a possible attack of the Chinese senior official Coseng or Cogsenya. A Real Cédula [Royal Decree] of 30 December, 1666 promulgated by Mariana of Austria, Queen Regent of Spain, ordered its restoration. The measure could not be applied until 1718, though (Ortiz de la Tabla Ducasse, 1974: 197-201; Molina, 1984: I, 127; Prieto Lucena, 1985: 116-140)5. In this section, we will examine its situation at a particular time of its history. For that purpose, we will make use of a very interesting written and illuminated work, product of the initiative of the Governor and Captain General Fernando Valdés Tamón (1729-1739), that gave a description of the state of the fortifications of the Philippines; and that was made in 1739 (Cuesta Domingo and Infante, 1995; Luque Talaván, 2010: 239-255). In 1739, the Fort of Nuestra Señora del Pilar of Zamboanga, under the command of a Governor, was built with lime and pebble, rectangular shape and four bastions. It had a rampart at the entrance to the town, by the sea, that encircled it from the east and the south; where it externally had a stockade too. To the west, where there was a door, it had a marsh acting as a moat. To the north, where it faced the town, there was a man-made moat. On the other hand, the annexed town had its own and well planned fortification system. 5 �The defensive system of Mindanao also had, at that time, the forts of San José of Cagayan, San Francisco Javier of Iligan, Santiago of Dapitan - these three under the jurisdiction of the province of Cebu -; and the ones of San José of Tandag, San Francisco of Cateel and San Juan Bautista of Linâo - these three in the province of Caraga6. A new list of the state of the islands’ fortresses made in 1753 by order of Francisco José de Ovando y Solís, Marquis of Ovando, Governor and Captain General of the Philippine Islands (1750-1754), allows us to know that the fort of Zamboanga had 586 soldiers and seventy three cannons back then; being the one with the biggest number of personnel after the fort of the insular capital, which gives us a precise idea of its importance in the Philippine fortifications system (Ortiz de la Tabla Ducasse, 1974: 180-181)7. This was a border territory in a constant state of conquest that was at the same time both vanguard and preliminary position of the territories subjected to the sovereignty of the Spanish Monarchy. The strategic interest of this position is obvious; but we have to remember once again that its location was a busy commercial trade zone between the southern Philippines and the Moluccas, Borneo, China and other Southeast Asian places. Final thoughts Under some of the parameters set out above it is not difficult to imagine that the relationships with the indigenous populations of the area not only were not fluid, but in many cases difficult. With more detailed studies of the existent documentation we will undoubtedly be able to start assessing their exact terms. There is no uniform culture. And the space that is the focus of the attention in this current work is good proof of that. This environment would be a multicultural space, where a juxtaposition of human groups in a specific space of contact existed (García Canclini, 2005: 15-16, 29-Ss., y 101)8. The perception of the moro as an enemy was discussed by some Hispanic authors at the end of the 19th century. Thus, José Nieto Aguilar maintained that the Malayan-Muslim “(…) until today, has only met the castila as a soldier or as an intolerant friar and enemy of his religion”. Hence his hostile attitude and that Nieto Aguilar held that a change in the policy towards them was needed (Nieto Aguilar, 1893: 159; Luque Talaván, 1999: 57-86). 6 �It might perhaps be time for us experts to start to reinterpret the sources and the old historiography in order to stop seeing the Malayan-Muslim attacks to the Hispanic interests in the Philippines as mere piratical attacks. More than that, it is probable that the Muslim states of the southern Philippines, eager to maintain their independence, used these attacks to destabilise the castilas and slow down their expansion in the territories of Mindanao and Sulu. Towards that goal, some European powers supported the Muslims in their purposes, not because they were interested in their sovereignty, but because they wanted, on the one hand, to weaken the Spanish power in the region and, on the other hand, to take advantage of one of the most active and rich markets of Southeast Asia. Fortresses, like the one of Nuestra Señora del Pilar of Zamboanga, served as both offensive and defensive emplacements; as well as living and imprisonment spaces, depending on the circumstances. Life in the border was not simple for the soldiers stationed there. Its distance from the metropolitan and viceroyal centers of power and its proximity to the feared Muslim enemy must have activated survival mechanisms in the soldiers that remain to be revealed. The study of the border, and of its other side, enables a better understanding of ours. As Carlo Lisón Tolosana maintains: “The encounter, the communication, are given in the privileged space of the border. In reality, we are always at the border, we are a border. We constantly need to cross the wall in order to anthropologically see us from the outside and at distance and begin to get to know and re-know us. From the other side, we see us as incomplete, unfinished, surmountable. Border tension enriches us, it is a source of knowledge, it humanises us” (Lisón Tolosana, 1997: 141). And while this is true, it is nevertheless clear that the border is much more than that: it is a space of polysemy, of territories division, of conflict, of relationships of varying intensity, of cultural, symbolic exchange, etc. cultural confrontations that, sometimes, caused differences; and, sometimes, contributed to the homogenisation (Grimson, 2000; García Canclini, 2005). In the case of the military prisons of Southern Philippines, that “clash” served to mark differences and configure an identity among the Spanish community in confrontation with the native populations, considered to be enemies. 7 �Acknowledgements I am particularly grateful for the commentaries of José María Fernández Palacios, and the translation of José Luis Sedano Rosa. Endnote 1 This investigation is part of the research project: “Atlas etnohistórico y topogenético de las islas Filipinas” -reference: HAR2010-21063-HIST-, funded by the Ministry of Economy and Finance (Spain). 2 A testimony of this was given on July 3, 1753 by friar Pedro de la Santísima Trinidad Martínez y Arissala, archbishop of Manila: (“Asia/ Breve/ Resumen y Discurso/ en que se prueba ser el unico medio/ y el menos costoso y el mas/ util para librar las/ islas Philipinas/ de la Piratería y gravisimos males/ que cada año hacen los/ Moros/ convecinos en ellas/ en lo Sagrado y Profano/ La Guerra continua/ en sus Casas y tierras sin oir jamas/ tratado alguno de/ Paz, Alianza, ni Tregua/ con una Armada de quatro Galeras/ y ocho ó diez Pancos, que comanda-/se un General practico con in-/depedencia del Governador/ del Presidio de/ Samboangan. //”. The British Library (London). Manuscripts Room. Add. 17, 624, folios 78 recto – 89 recto). 3 Although the Spaniards gave the generic name moros to all the islamised groups inside the Philippine territory, under that generic name existed and exist several different groups. The most well known are the Tausug, the Samai, the Yakan, the Bajau, the Maranao, the Magindanao and the Ilanon. In Mindanao, the non-islamised populations are grouped under the generic name Mindanao Iumad, formed by eighteen ethinic groups (Zamora, 1992: 311). 4 About another border area of the novohispanic viceroyalty, see Páez Flores, 2002: 28. 5 Archivo General de Indias (Seville) —from now on AGI—, Filipinas, 201, N. 1, “Expediente sobre el restablecimiento del presidio de Zamboanga” (1665-1686). 6 Relacion en que, de orden de su Magestad Catholica (Dios le guarde) se declaran las Plazas, Castillos, Fuerzas, y Presidios de las Provincias sugetas à su Real Dominio en las Yslas Philipinas … Formada por el mariscal de campo don Fernando Valdès Tamon, à cuio cargo es el Govierno de dichas Yslas. Año 1739 (Real Biblioteca. Palacio Real. Madrid, folios 28 recto – 39 recto, y 61 recto y vuelto). 7 AGI, MP-Libros-Manuscritos, 81, “Descripciones con planos y figuras de la capital de Manila, puerto de Cavite, fuerzas de los presidios y otras fortificaciones en todo el distrito de las provincias que sugeta el real dominio en las Yslas Filipinas … Año de 1753”, XIV: Fuerza de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Zamboanga en la isla de Mindanao, folios. 53 vuelto - 59 vuelto. 8 About the border and the ethnic groups, see Barth, 1982. References Al Faruqi, I. R., L. Lamya Al. Faruqi, 1986. The Cultural Atlas of Islam. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York. Alía Plana, J. Mª., 1993. El Ejército Español en Filipinas. El periodo romántico. Tabapress, [Madrid]. Barth, F., (Ed.), 1982. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. The Social Organization of Culture Difference. [2nd Reprint]. Universitetsforlaget, Oslo – Bergen – TromsØ. Caulín Martínez, A., M. Luque Talaván, 2002. Don Francisco Ramos y Bascuñana (1845-1917): un General de Brigada hellinense en Filipinas. In VV.AA., Segundo Congreso de Historia. Volumen IV. Edad Contemporánea, Instituto de Estudios Albacetenses “Don Juan Manuel”, Excma. Diputación de Albacete, Albacete: 205-215. 8 �Crick, M., 2013. L´archipel philippin et le commerce du Nanhai (IXe – XVIe siècle). In VV.AA., Philippines, archipel des échanges, [Ouvrage publié à l´occasion de l´exposition “Philippines, archipel des échanges”, présentée au Musée du Quai Branly à Paris, du 9 avril au 14 juillet 2013], Musée du Quai Branly, Paris: 86-97. Cuesta Domingo, M., Infante, V., (Ed.), 1995. Report in which, by order of His Catholic Majesty (May God protect him), the strongholds, castles, forts and garrisons of the provinces under his Royal Dominion in the Philippine islands are listed by Fernando Valdés Tamón. Editorial Turner: Banco Santander de Negocios, Madrid / Manila. Dupuis, J., 1975. Asia meridional. Editorial Ariel (Colección Elcano. La geografía y sus problemas. Serie de Geografía Universal. Serie II; núm. 4), Barcelona. García Canclini, N., 2005. Diferentes, desiguales y desconectados. Mapas de la interculturalidad. Editorial Gedisa (Colección CLA.DE.MA), Barcelona. García de los Arcos, Mª F., 1996. Forzados y reclutas: Los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808). Potrerillos Editores, México, D.F. Grimson, A. (comp.), 2000. Fronteras, naciones e identidades. La periferia como centro. Ediciones Ciccus La Crujía (Colección Signo. Serie Comunicación y Cultura), Buenos Aires. Guermon Prez, J. F., 1996. “Insulindio (mundo)”. In P. Bonte, M. Izard, Diccionario de Etnología y Antropología, Akal Ediciones, Madrid: 392-395. Javellana, R. B., 1997. Fortress of Empire. Spanish Colonial fortifications of the Philippines. 1565-1898. Bookmark, Inc., Makati City. Lisón Tolosana, C., 1997. Antropología de la frontera. In C. Lisón Tolosana, Las máscaras de la identidad. Claves antropológicas. Editorial Ariel (Ariel Antropología), Barcelona. Luque Talaván, M., 2011. En las fronteras de lo lícito: vida privada de los militares destacados en el suroeste de las islas Filipinas (siglos XVII-XVIII). In M. Mª. Manchado López; M. Luque Talaván (coord.). Fronteras del mundo hispánico: Filipinas en el contexto de las regiones liminares novohispanas. Prólogo de A. García-Abásolo. Universidad de Córdoba, Servicio de Publicaciones, Córdoba: 165-190. Luque Talaván, M., 2010. Iberoasia y el Pacífico español. Su imagen a través de los siglos. In M. Cuesta Domingo; M. Luque Talaván (Ed. and Coord.), Imago Mundi. 9 �Mapas e imprenta. [Catálogo de exposición. Biblioteca Histórica “Marqués de Valdecilla”, de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 11 de noviembre de 2010 a 18 de febrero de 2011], Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid: 239-255. Luque Talaván, M., 1999. La piratería malayo-mahometana en Mindanao, Joló y norte de Borneo y su reflejo en la historiografía (siglos XVII-XX). Perspectivas Históricas. Historical Perspectives. Perspectivas Historiques (México, D.F.), 4 (enero-diciembre): 57-86. Luque Talaván, M., 1998. Mindanao, Joló y Norte de Borneo en la obra de Don Nicolás Enrile. El “Estracto Histórico de los Hechos más Notables que han Tenido Lugar al Sur del Archipiélago en el presente Siglo” (1800-1850). In VV.AA., 1ª Conferenza Internazionale di Studi sulle Isole Filippine: “Le Filippine tra Oriente ed Occidente: passato, presente e futuro”, Associazione Culturale “Italia-Filippine”, Reggio Calabria (Italia). [Actas no publicadas]). Luque Talaván, M., 1997. Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa: Gobernador y Capitán General de las islas Filipinas (1844-1849). Revista Complutense de Historia de América (Madrid), 23: 209-246. Majul, C. A., 1999. Muslims in the Philippines. University of the Philippines Press, Diliman, Quezon City. Malcampo, H. P., 2007. History of Zamboanga. Pre-Spanish and Spanish Period, 14001900. Western Mindanao State University Press, Balisawan, Zamboanga City. Martín Onrubia, M., 2006/2007. La actuación gubernamental contra la piratería malayomahometana de Filipinas durante el mandato del mariscal de campo Pascual Enrile (1827-1835). Revista Española del Pacífico (Madrid), 19-20: 153-173. Molina, A. M., 1984. Historia de Filipinas. Ediciones Cultura Hispánica del Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana, Madrid, Volume I. Montero y Vidal, J., 1888. Historia de la piratería malayo-mahometana en Mindanao, Joló y Borneo. Imprenta y Fundición de Manuel Tello, Madrid, volume I. Nieto Aguilar, J., 1893. Colonización de Filipinas. Estudios prácticos acerca de la colonización con elementos peninsulares, de nuestras posesiones oceánicas. Reseña geográfico-geológico-minera de las mismas. Prólogo de A. Sáenz de Urraca. Establecimiento Tipográfico de Alfredo Alonso, Madrid. 10 �Ollé, M., 2002. La empresa de China. De la Armada Invencible al Galeón de Manila. Qaderns Crema (El Acantilado, 60), Barcelona. Ortiz de la Tabla Ducasse, J., 1974. El Marqués de Ovando, Gobernador de Filipinas (1750-1754). Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, Sevilla. Páez Flores, R. G., 2002. Pueblos de frontera en la Sierra Gorda queretana, siglos XVII y XVIII. Presentación de Stella María González Cicero. Archivo General de la Nación, México, D.F. Prieto Lucena, A. Mª., 1985. Filipinas durante el gobierno de Manrique de Lara (16531663). Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Escuela de Estudios HispanoAmericanos de Sevilla (Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla; CCCIV): Universidad de Córdoba, Departamento de Historia de América, Sevilla. Robinson, F., and Brown, P., 1992. Atlas culturales del Mundo. El Mundo Islámico. Esplendor de una Fe. Ediciones Folio: Ediciones del Prado, Madrid, Volume I. Spoehr, A., 1968. Archaeological Survey of Southern Zamboanga and the Sulu Archipelago. Asian Perspectivas, Vol. 11: 177-185. Warren, J. F., 2000. The Global Economy and the Sulu Zone. Connections, Commodities and Culture. [Second Impression]. New Day Publishers, Quezon City, Philipines. Warren, J. F., 1999. The Sulu Zone 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Zamora, M. D., 1992. Los indígenas de las islas Filipinas. Editorial Mapfre (Colecciones Mapfre 1492. Colección Indios de América), Madrid. Miguel Luque-Talaván is a lecturer at the Department of American History I of the Complutense University of Madrid. He has directed and taken part in several research projects, the last one under the title "Ethnohistoric and Topogenetics Atlas of The Philippine Islands". He has received several grants that allowed him to conduct researches in Mexico, Peru, Great Britain, USA, Portugal and the Philippines. His principal areas of specialization are the Derecho Indiano and the Iberoasia's History. As author or publisher, has published fourteen books and more than one hundred works. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Introduction interview with session chair María Cruz Berrocal and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Research on early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region makes a fundamental contribution to the study of Global History. In the last decades, historians are highlighting the region's relevance in the transformation of global economy through its role in far-reaching trade networks. The early beginnings of colonialism in the region, as well as the role of non-Angloamerican colonial agents in the shaping of modern world have been also highlighted. Although these debates have been driven largely from history, archaeology must become more prominent for the study of early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region through the study of consumption patterns, environmental effects, demographic impacts, transformation of gender systems brought about by contact, the role of material culture in these first colonial endeavours, and specifically, the important evidence that maritime archaeology can bring to the fore. It is argued in this session that new lines of evidence and argumentation will be found through a history- archaeology joint collaboration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. María Cruz Berrocal Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Border and Shaping of Identities: The Fort of Nuestra Senora del Pilar of Zamboanga, Mindanao (Philippines) Description An account of the resource At the end of the 15th century, Southeast Asia underwent a process of islamisation. Muslim presence in Southern Philippines was strongly fought by the Spaniards since 1570 and until the end of their presence in this archipelago. They named these Muslims moors, due to the similarity they established between them and the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula. The Philippines was a border territory and the Philippine society was used to live at the edge of the Imperial possessions. The Sulu Sea was a real border zone from a geographical, cultural and historical point of view, whose study allows us to analyse the relations between the Spaniards and the local powers, and vice versa. Within this context, we will focus on the analysis of the history of the Hispanic forts in the island of Mindanao, in particular of the Fort of Nuestra Señora del Pilar of Zamboanga, a really strategic settlement in Southern Philippines, whose historical development allows us to analyse the different policies introduced by the Hispanic Monarchy in these regions subjected to its nominal sovereignty. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Miguel Luque-Talaván, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 5 2014