10 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World 589-1276 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bielenstein, Hans Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brill Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Bielenstein, Hans Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Place Leiden Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brill Title A name given to the resource Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World 589-1276 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8dcc145c0d68e506a96edfc6d7f3c7db.pdf d6373b77f2f2069061deaafe3742bb10 PDF Text Text Rocks, Wrecks and Relevance: Values and Benefits in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Bill Jeffery1 Abstract A small limestone outcrop is located on part of Tanzania‟s coastline on the island of Kilwa Kisiwani (now a World Heritage Site). Local folklore depicts this as an Arab dhow, turned to rock following prayers offered by the local residents, fearful that the crew of the dhow were coming to harm them. This folklore was recorded during some oral history work in a maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) project at Kilwa Kisiwani. It was a reminder of what the local people valued and equally, if not more important, to their cultural identity. This presentation will use three locations, from Chuuk and Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia to Kilwa Kisiwani in Tanzania to explore their tangible and intangible maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and how they are valued.. In all these cases local communities know what are the significant MUCH sites and stories, yet other site types and/or other (non-local) values can dominate management programs. This is compounded by international agreements such as the United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) giving prominence to more dominant cultural values and in pursuing management processes that marginalize local sites and values. This causes some indifference in developing MUCH programs in some countries which is further influenced by the fact that not all countries can afford or want to implement MUCH programs, particularly if the programs do not provide real benefits to communities and stakeholders. Within this context, the presentation will explore what forms of empowerment programs have been used or are being considered in realising the MUCH aspects of a community‟s cultural identity. Chuuk Chuuk (formerly Truk) is located in the Western Pacific Ocean 3,700 kilometers (km) south-east of Tokyo and is made up of the central most populated area Chuuk Lagoon, and five coralline atoll groups. Today it forms one of the four States of the independent Nation, the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). Chuuk has been inhabited for about 2,000 years and the inhabitants were initially coastal dwellers living in stilt houses who produced a simple undecorated pottery from local clays (Rainbird 1993). As time moved on, Chuukese moved from being coastal dwellers to hill top inhabitants. Edward Hall and Karl Pelzer (1946:22) state that, „Truk society is divided into three large groups: chiefs, chief‟s people and common people or low-class people‟. Land ownership has been and continues to be very important to Chuukese. The Chuuk landscape has spiritual associations known through traditional stories. Many landscape features provide spiritual connections to Chuukese history, mythology and settlement of the islands as well as in a metaphorical manner, through the Itang language (Figure 1). The sites and stories are still a strong and tangible part of Chuukese society in the same way as land ownership. 1 Coordinator, Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Program, CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities, billfjeffery@gmail.com 1 �Figure 1. Tonaachaw, viewed as a supernatural octopus, kuus, whose tentacles stretch out across Chuuk Lagoon to the outer islands (King and Parker 1984:55), Photograph by Arimichy Rudolph, 2006. Chuukese cultural practices, customs and traditions are inherent in every part of daily life. Aspects of these cultural practices can be manifested in what is sometimes called tangible heritage but much is intangible. All constitute an important part of being Chuukese. In contrast to western, scientific construction of heritage, tangible heritage is of less value in relation to Chuukese cultural identity. Colonial history Chuuk, as with all of Micronesia, had Spanish (only as a presence from 1565 but formally as a colonial ruler from 1885-1898), German (1899-1914), Japanese (19141945) and the United States of America USA (1945-1991) colonial rulers, with the Japanese and Americans having the greatest influence on current lifestyles. In 1919 under the League of Nations (the forerunner to the United Nations) Micronesia (apart from Guam which remained as an American territory) was entrusted to Japan to administer as a Mandated Territory. Given the vigor and size of the Japanese bureaucracy involved in this administration and the ineffective restrictions placed on it by the international community, Japan was able to, „Japanize the islanders through education, propaganda, intermarriage, and in general the promotion of cultural changes‟ (Mirrer 1971:23). World War II (WWII) The Japanese Navy wanted to expand further south to the resource-rich lands of Indonesia, Malaysia and Borneo so Micronesia was seen as stepping stones to this region. In 1939, the Japanese Navy established the Fourth Fleet to guard Micronesia establishing Chuuk as one of four Micronesian headquarters (Peattie 1988:251). Japan considered that Chuuk Lagoon‟s natural fortifications made it one of the best anchorages in the world and a „formidable naval base‟ (U.S.SBS 1947:2). 2 �The later development of the military base in Chuuk Lagoon meant great changes to the islands, particularly around the coastline. Three airstrips were built on the islands of Weno, Etten and Param (for fighter and bomber aircraft) and two seaplane bases located on Tonoas and Weno. Major facilities were constructed to cater for the various naval fleets. The main island of Tonoas had over 1,200 buildings erected on it in addition to Dublon Town for civilians and many coastal defence guns were established on the majority of the islands (JICPOA 1994:10). In February and May 1944 a total of 3,450 aircraft bombing flights from an American Carrier Task Force of over 50 ships sunk more than 60 Japanese navy and merchant ships located within Chuuk Lagoon, and destroyed over 300 aircraft, and the airstrips and many of the buildings on the islands in Chuuk Lagoon. Chuukese suffered the greatest loss of life in all the Caroline Islands from the almost daily bombing (Poyer, et al. 2001:147). Initial USA plans for Chuuk were for a USA fleet anchorage and recreation centre (Blake 1945). Within a short time, and a change of plans not to proceed with the recreation facilities, USA impacts and aims became similar to earlier Japanese time—imposition of another official language, alienation of land, manipulation of the traditional political and social structures, and acquisition of the territory through a United Nation system leading to independence with strings attached. “Japanizing” Micronesia was replaced with “Americanizing” Micronesia. Yap Yap (Waab, the traditional name) is located 840 km south west of Guam.. Yap is one of the four States of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) and like Chuuk it contains a more populated region of high volcanic islands (Yap proper) and some outer coralline atoll groups. The population today is about 11,700. Traditions, customs and cultural practices remain a core of Yapese society. The outer islanders are famous for their canoe building, sailing, navigation and related customs and practices (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010). In Yap proper, stone money still plays an important role in Yapese cultural practices and traditional dances are performed to honour the spirits and ancestors, and tell of the suffering during World War II, amongst other things (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010). German administrators had a significant impact on Yapese society although it was Japanese emigrants who arrived in great numbers that dominated Yapese. The biggest impact during the Japanese times was in the decline of the number of Yapese; the population dropped to 2,400 from an estimated 27,000 pre western contact, and about 7,800 in 1899 (Adams 1997:16; Hunter-Anderson 1983; Useem cited in Takeda 1999:4). Kilwa Kisiwani Kilwa Kisiwani is a small island located on the southern coast of Tanzania, East Africa, about 270 km from the capital city of Dar es Salaam. 3 �Kilwa Kisiwani was a prominent, perhaps a pre-eminent Swahili port and city during much of its time but primarily during the 12 th-15th centuries (Sutton 1998). The Swahili Coast of East Africa covers 3000 km of Kenya and Tanzania and was linked to Persian traders seeking gold, ivory and slaves in Africa and bringing back to Africa cloth, silver, perfumes and jewelry from India, and ceramics from China (see Bita this volume). As a result the Kiswahili language developed from the mix of the African Bantu language and Arabic and Persian words, and other key aspects of the Swahili culture greatly developed, including Islam, Arabic art and architecture. The Portuguese attacked Kilwa in 1505, bringing decline along with loss of control of the gold trade (Pollard 2009). Kilwa Kisiwani had periods of decline after the Portuguese, then great activity mainly through the slave trade operated by the Omanis from Zanzibar up until the mid 19th century (Sutton 1998). A reminder of Kilwa Kisiwani‟s importance, prosperity and culture can be seen in the ruins of palaces, residences, a fort, about 80 small and large mosques, and a number of cemeteries (Figure 2). Figure 2. The great mosque on Kilwa Kisiwani, Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2010. 4 �2001 Convention The 2001 Convention contains a number of general articles on the best practice of underwater cultural heritage management. It applies to „heritage sites‟ not just „shipwrecks and artefacts‟ which means it should be the catalyst for many broader based programs that have relevance to and benefit many people. The 2001 Convention should therefore, as a priority, actively promote these broader based programs especially where traditional sites and traditional cultural practices are strongly developed and maintained in a country or region and they contribute to a local cultural identity. Project implementation Kilwa Kisiwani Since 2009, a four-phased capacity building program developed by Centre for International Heritage Activities CIE has been implemented in Tanzania. A phased program implemented over a period of time was considered appropriate for a number of reasons. It provided the necessary time for teams to build the skills (in many cases this needed to start with swimming and diving training)and it gave the trainers time to build a relevant and beneficial local program (Parthesius and Jeffery 2009). The program has involved many theoretical and practical sessions, from learning to dive through to the implementation of a non-disturbance survey of a shipwreck off Zanzibar, and reporting on their activities (see Mahudi this volume). An Action Plan subsequently developed by the Tanzanian Stakeholders called for more advanced training in association with the implementation of a project to survey the MUCH sites at Kilwa Kisiwani. It was considered that the project would raise the awareness of the value of MUCH sites and the need for ratification of the 2001 Convention, in addition to helping to sustain the MUCH Unit as the Competent Authority. The Kilwa Kisiwani project was also recommended due to the need to assist in the Integrated Approach to the Protection and Safeguarding of Cultural Heritage of the Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, Endangered World Heritage sites which had as a major aim, „to improve living standards and ensure long-term sustainability of the site‟ (UNESCO Tanzania 2008)2 The project was implemented in November 2011 with the major activities being site investigations, building a relationship with the local community, collecting oral histories. The team also gained experience in the use of a magnetometer and searching for some ship remains, and an anchor possibly from one of the three 16th century Portuguese ships wrecked in the area was located during the project (Theal 1898:40; Theal 1901:390-391, 476-477) Of great interest with many of the residents of Kilwa Kisiwani was a site called Jiwe la Jahazi (English translation is „stone dhow‟). Local folklore depicts the site as an Arab dhow turned to stone following prayers offered by the local residents, fearful that 5 �the crew of the dhow were coming to harm them. The dhow and the crew changed form and were therefore unable to harm the residents of Kilwa Kisiwani and it is now a significant site in the maritime cultural landscape of Kilwa Kisiwani (Figure 3). Figure 3. Jiwe la Jahazi „stone dhow‟ on Kilwa Kisiwani, Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2010. In a meeting with Kilwa Kisiwani‟s elders, they expressed interest and some reservations about the MUCH project. They were very keen to obtain some lasting tangible benefits in collaborating with researchers at the World Heritage Site and from their experience with previous researchers, ongoing benefits were rare. In the MUCH program, community engagement priorities from the elders were training in new skills, ongoing employment and economic benefits. Chuuk A comprehensive survey was used in identifying the sites and in gaining an understanding of their nature, integrity, condition and value (Jeffery 2007). This work included a range of methods in order to gain an appreciation of who maintains a „sense of belonging‟ to the submerged WWII sites. This included many participant observations in Chuuk and the collection of oral histories from Chuukese which provided broad socio-historic and socio-political views of Chuuk (Jeffery 2007).The type of underwater surveys employed combined with an emic approach 6 �made it possible to interpret information about different societies and their relationships without employing any destructive site analysis3. It was revealed that the submerged WWII sites contain both tangible and intangible heritage aspects but the management focuses on the tangible aspects according to a dominant Euro-American perspective. This is related to the iconic pedestal that the tourism industry has placed the sites on which is widely promoted through websites, and primarily American publications. To Chuukese, the tourism industry centred on the submerged WWII sites brings considerable economic benefit to the government and tourist operators, as does dynamite fishing and artefact recovery to many Chuukese families. Although these activities do conflict in relation to the management and longevity of the sites, the government appears powerless to stop it. Although the submerged WWII sites are used as mnemonic devices by some Chuukese to remember when the war started, it is the terrestrial WWII sites that have family and suffering connections and reflect elements of a Chuukese identity (Jeffery 2007).It is contended however, that the submerged WWII sites do not provide Chuukese with a sense of place, meaning there is no sense of belonging (Jeffery 2007). The investigation of the Chuuk Lagoon submerged WWII sites has shown that the value and use of the sites from a Chuukese perspective, and from a Japanese and American perspective as well as how they imposed their values on the Chuukese, has provided an understanding of Chuukese identity, and the impacts of colonialism in Chuuk. It provides concepts of empowerment for the Chuukese in constructing local identities using foreign material culture, as well as empowering them to manage these sites but not with a marginalized voice. Chuukese and other Pacific Islanders have expressed an indifference to, or a reaction against the global hegemonic view of what constitutes underwater cultural heritage as highlighted in a comment made at a UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972 meeting of Pacific Island Nations in Vanuatu in 1999: “Protection of Underwater Heritage”, within the Pacific, at the moment seems to refer more often to underwater wrecks from World War II, despite the existence of other underwater sites such as sacred cultural sites existing in many areas of the Pacific. The meeting urged the protection of these sites as well as those on land that may be protected by the World Heritage Convention. (WHC 1999) Yap Traditional sites are a primary focus for heritage management in Yap. The Yap Historic Preservation Office (HPO) is very interested in their fish weirs (aech). During the last few years, funding had been provided to some aech owners for aech restoration. It was considered that a comprehensive survey of the aech, many of which are unknown to Yap HPO, was warranted to assist in prioritising further restoration work and revitalising what Yapese saw as a sustainable fishing practice. An estimated 700-800 aech are thought to be located on the reef flat. 3 Knowledge about cultures can be gained through an emic approach; a subjective, insider’s perspective about what things mean to members of a society, and/or an etic approach which is an objective, analytical interpretation of the same customs. 7 �In 2008-2009, the author in collaboration with Yap HPO, with US National Park Historic Preservation funding commenced a survey of the aech in association with the aech owners, village chiefs and Yap HPO staff. The project was completed in August 2009 and the location of 432 aech, together with detailed surveys of 46 aech were implemented (Figure 4) (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010). This work demonstrates that maritime archaeology, if implemented in a broad and contemporary manner can help in some important social, cultural and environmental issues. Figure 4. Yapese artist Luke Holoi‟s impression of an aech, based on site and oral information Conclusions The 2001 Convention is a significant step forward in the management of underwater cultural heritage sites around the world. The impetus came from effective systematic and scientific archaeological work, as well as from the conflicting and detrimental commercial salvage work on shipwrecks, which were pursued by affluent western nations and nationals. This 2001 Convention and its best practices are now being promoted for implementation around the world including countries that have no background in implementing maritime archaeology, although they have a significant maritime cultural heritage and identity. 8 �The types of heritage sites that some developing countries are more concerned with are their traditional cultural sites. There are also local values in many foreign sites as has been highlighted in this paper. However, many provisions of the 2001 Convention focus on sites that are not a priority from a local perspective or are valued from a dominantly foreign cultural perspective. For example, a number of countries can have an interest in a shipwreck, e.g. the owner of the ship, where it was built, where cargo was collected, where it was destined for, and the nationality of the crew are just a few examples of the different nationals that can be involved in shipwrecks. It may or may not have value to the local community but there are a number of provisions in the 2001 Convention that encourage and support these many national interests and the funding that could possibly flow. Traditional cultural sites however do not have other interests and therefore the 2001 Convention does not as comprehensively support the management of these sites as there is not the potential funding benefit that could come through international collaboration. And in developing countries that need money for the basics; health, food, housing, education, this means money for MUCH is a low priority. It is gratifying to see an account or „fund‟ has been established to support the 2001 Convention and for supporting developing nations manage their traditional cultural sites although how much and when money will be available is still not clear4. In regard to some specific issues that come out of this paper, in Yap, the broad community (politicians, government agencies, citizens) led/directed what they wanted in regard to maritime archaeological investigations rather than outside researchers directing what type of investigations should be implemented. In Kilwa Kisiwani there is great potential for maritime archaeology with little having been done which, with the same approach as in Yap, could lead to relevant projects being implemented that achieve realistic benefits for the community. I attempted to go into greater detail about Chuuk to highlight the complexities that can be inherent in a region‟s history and what this greater level of understanding can lead to. Amongst other things, it helps to understand the relevant sites to a community. Sites that need protection and intangible heritage are part of the cultural heritage and identity of all stakeholders. It also illustrated how foreign heritage sites could be used to reveal information about local cultural identities. It is my view that researchers in the field of maritime archaeology need to have an emic approach—to spend time with communities in understanding the many, perhaps complex social issues—as well as having an etic approach. Even more appropriate would be to have local citizens implement projects and ongoing programs. Hence the need to develop programs in building capacity for the many different stakeholders who could pursue local approaches and reveal information about relevant sites and their histories, and provide tangible benefits for their citizens. Bibliography Adams, (ed.), W.H., Yap Archaeology. Archaeological survey of Gachlaw village, Gilman municipality, Yap, Federated States of Micronesia. 4 Resolution from UNESCO Convention of the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001: Second meeting of State Parties, Paris, 1-3 December 2009 9 �1997 Micronesian Resources Study, Micronesian Endowment for Historic Preservation, Federated States of Micronesia and U.S. National Park Service, San Francisco. Blake, R., Engineering Assistance, Truk. Memorandum from Prospective Brigadier General, Island Commander to Island Commander, Guam. 2 September 1945a 1945. NARA Project No. NW 23238. Record Group No. 313, NARA Washington Hall, E.T., and The economy of the Truk Islands: An anthropological and economic study, Micronesian Seminar, Pohnpei. Pelzer, K.T., 1946 Yapese Settlement Patterns: an Ethno-archaeological Approach, Hunter-Anderson, R.L., Pacific Studies Institute, Agana, Guam. 1983b War graves, munition dumps and pleasure grounds: A postJeffery, W.F., colonial perspective of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II 2007 sites. Doctoral dissertation, James Cook University, Townsville. Jeffery, B., and The aech of Yap: a survey of sites and their histories. Yap State Pitmag, W., Historic Preservation Office, Yap. 2010 Joint Intelligence “Information Bulletin, General Survey Truk Islands, No. 41-44, Center Pacific April 1, 1944”, in Military Intelligence in the Pacific 1942-46: Ocean Areas Bulletins of the Intelligence Center, Pacific Ocean Area; Joint Intelligence Center, Pacific Ocean Area; and the Commander-in(JICPOA), Chief, Pacific Ocean Area, Microfilm Roll 10, Menzies Library, 1944f Australian National University, Canberra. King, T.F., Parker, P.L., 1984 Mirrer, B.M., 1971 Parthesius, Jeffery, W., 2009 Peattie, M.R., 1988 Pollard, E., 2009 and Pisekin Nóómw Nóón Tonaachaw. Archaeology in the Tonaachaw Historic District, Moen Island. Occasional Paper No. 3., University at Carbondale, Center for Archaeological Investigations, South Illinois Educational Change in Truk, Micronesia, Master of Arts dissertation, University of Ohio. R., “Universal rules, local approaches: Reflections on capacity building programmes to support the implementation of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001”, in Paper presented at two UNESCO Conferences; in Cape Town, South Africa and in Honiara, Solomon Islands in 2009. Nan’yō: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 18851945, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. “Settlement Adaptation to a Changing Coastline: Archaeological Evidence from Tanzania, during the First and Second Millennia AD”, in Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 4, 1, pp.82107. 10 �Poyer, L., Falgout, S., Carucci, L.M., 2001 Rainbird, P., 1993 Rainbird, P., 2001 Sutton, J. E. G., 1998 Takeda, J., 1999 Theal, G.M., 1898 Theal, G.M., 1901 UNESCO Tanzania, 2008 United States Strategic Bombing Survey (U.S.SBS), 1947 World Heritage Committee (WHC), 1999 The Typhoon of War: Micronesian experiences of the Pacific War, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Report on the Cultural Resource Management in the Coastal Area of Chuuk Lagoon, Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. “Round, Black and Lustrous: A View of Encounters with Difference in Truk Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia”, in (eds.) Torrence, Rick and Clarke, Annie, The Archaeology of Difference: Negotiating Cross-Cultural Engagements in Oceania, Routledge, London, pp. 32-50. “Archaeological sites of East Africa”, in Azania, Special Volume 33, The British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Fishing-gleaning activities on reef flats and/or reef margins in coral ecosystem in Yap, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Article with Yap Historic Preservation Office. Records of South-Eastern Africa Collected in various Libraries and Archive Departments in Europe, Volume II, The Government of the Cape Colony, Cape Town Archives. Records of South-Eastern Africa Collected in various Libraries and Archive Departments in Europe, Volume V, The Government of the Cape Colony, Cape Town Archives Kilwa draft comprehensive project document, January, UNESCO Dar es Salaam “The Reduction Of Truk”, in Pacific War Series No. 77, U.S. Navy, Washington. Second World Heritage Global Strategy Meeting for the Pacific Islands region, UNESCO, Vanuatu, Accessed online 12 June 2007: http://whc.unesco.org/archive/vanuatu99.htm. 11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Rocks, Wrecks and Relevance: Values and Benefits in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource A small limestone outcrop is located on part of Tanzania’s coastline on the island of Kilwa Kisiwani (now a World Heritage Site). Local folklore depicts this as an Arab dhow, turned to rock following prayers offered by the local residents, fearful that the crew of the dhow were coming to harm them. This folklore was recorded during some oral history work in a maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) project at Kilwa Kisiwani. It was a reminder of what the local people valued and equally, if not more important, to their cultural identity. This presentation will use three locations, from Chuuk and Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia to Kilwa Kisiwani in Tanzania to explore their tangible and intangible maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and how they are valued.. In all these cases local communities know what are the significant MUCH sites and stories, yet other site types and/or other (non-local) values can dominate management programs. This is compounded by international agreements such as the United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) giving prominence to more dominant cultural values and in pursuing management processes that marginalize local sites and values. This causes some indifference in developing MUCH programs in some countries which is further influenced by the fact that not all countries can afford or want to implement MUCH programs, particularly if the programs do not provide real benefits to communities and stakeholders. Within this context, the presentation will explore what forms of empowerment programs have been used or are being considered in realising the MUCH aspects of a community’s cultural identity. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2d22cdde5706926f61a8de9ee607a084.mp4 ad6d50925a971a265c6819450cb71c83 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 11: World War II and Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 11 chair Dr. Bill Jeffery and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) from World War II is extensive throughout the Asia/Pacific Region. It encompasses numerous warships from many Nations, thousands of merchant ships commissioned to support the war effort, and also many other types of sites and objects such as aircraft, docks, lighthouses. A database of World War II shipwrecks for the Asia/Pacific Region stands at around 3,800 and many of them have not been explored. In 2014, World War I’s underwater cultural heritage will begin to fall under the full scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, and although it will be several more years for World War II sites to fulfill the Convention’s 100 year-old provision, sections of the Convention such as the Annex are now applicable in their management. The UCH relating to WW II has a great historical importance. It is a reminder of the existence of the war and its horrible consequences. The majority of the UCH lying on the seabed are also grave sites still containing human remains. One of the goals of preservation and research must therefore be to make the public understand their historic significance and to raise the public awareness of the historical testimony these remains constitute. Many World War II sites are also popular diving sites, lending themselves to cultural tourism, and through effective in situ management and interpretation, they are significant sites in conveying many stories and reaching many people. The UCH of WW II are an important historical source of information. They can represent the peak of technology at that time. They can also contain multi-vocal values—different groups of people perceiving and valuing them differently—particularly in regard to local indigenous communities who were innocent bystanders in the war but their world, their culture and heritage changed forever. The management of UCH relating to World War II contributes to the efforts in undertaking research reminding present and future generations of the importance of peace. The objectives of the session are to: • Advance knowledge of related UCH in the Pacific, • Identify priority actions in terms of research, preservation and education, • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Bill Jeffery Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video interview with Session 11 chair Bill Jeffery. Description An account of the resource Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) from World War II is extensive throughout the Asia/Pacific Region. It encompasses numerous warships from many Nations, thousands of merchant ships commissioned to support the war effort, and also many other types of sites and objects such as aircraft, docks, lighthouses. A database of World War II shipwrecks for the Asia/Pacific Region stands at around 3,800 and many of them have not been explored. In 2014, World War I’s underwater cultural heritage will begin to fall under the full scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, and although it will be several more years for World War II sites to fulfill the Convention’s 100 year-old provision, sections of the Convention such as the Annex are now applicable in their management. The UCH relating to WW II has a great historical importance. It is a reminder of the existence of the war and its horrible consequences. The majority of the UCH lying on the seabed are also grave sites still containing human remains. One of the goals of preservation and research must therefore be to make the public understand their historic significance and to raise the public awareness of the historical testimony these remains constitute. Many World War II sites are also popular diving sites, lending themselves to cultural tourism, and through effective in situ management and interpretation, they are significant sites in conveying many stories and reaching many people. The UCH of WW II are an important historical source of information. They can represent the peak of technology at that time. They can also contain multi-vocal values—different groups of people perceiving and valuing them differently—particularly in regard to local indigenous communities who were innocent bystanders in the war but their world, their culture and heritage changed forever. The management of UCH relating to World War II contributes to the efforts in undertaking research reminding present and future generations of the importance of peace. The objectives of the session are to: • Advance knowledge of related UCH in the Pacific, • Identify priority actions in terms of research, preservation and education, • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/12/2014 Asia-Pac Session 11 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/fd8eb683ee8649f7b735e530bbf99194.pdf b7e2fe268a55548ea311db4d90801a78 PDF Text Text A history and archaeology of fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia Bill Jeffery, PhD (Associate Professor Anthropology, College of Liberal Arts and Social Science, University of Guam) ABSTRACT Tuna fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is currently a sustainable and profitable fishing industry and part of the leading world tuna fishing industry in the western Pacific. This paper will outline how the FSM got to this position and what related tangible and intangible heritage exists today. It begins with how indigenous people from the region implemented their fishing practices, using techniques that were implemented in balance and harmony with their marine environment. When Japan colonised the region, they were aware of the rich marine resources, proclaiming Micronesia had about ‘one-tenth of the total known fish in the world’. In 1918 they enthusiastically began to develop a fishing industry, which included exploiting shellfish, beche de mer, mackerel, different species of tuna, and skipjack tuna that became the dominant species exploited, for the benefit of Japanese people and the Japanese economy. However, local people in Micronesia were not actively encouraged to be part of this industry. The Japanese established a research station and imposed several regulations in how the industry should be developed and implemented. This activity occurred pre-World War II, and during the war many of the fishing vessels were converted to assist in the war effort, then lost during the war. Following World War II, the U.S. attempted to revive the tuna fishing industry in association with local people, having limited success, but today tuna is the FSM’s top export, and part of a sustainable billion-dollar industry that provides benefits to local people. Coupled with the extensive tangible and intangible heritage of indigenous fishing before Japanese times, a holistic picture of the cultural landscape and seascape associated with fishing will be provided in this paper. Keywords: Tuna fishing, Micronesia, Japan, World War II List of Figures Figure 1: Locality map of various places mentioned in this paper. Chuuk Lagoon is shown as ‘Chuuk Islands’. Figure 2: Two aech (fish weirs) on the reef flat in Yap at low tide. Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2018. Figure 3: Memorial on Tonoas dedicated to the fishermen from Okinawa who died in Chuuk (Truk). Figure 4: Photograph of the bowsprit of the Tonoas dock boat looking back along the vessel. INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is relevant to this session that focuses on the sea-people of Oceania, and their cultural identity that is reflected in their maritime cultural landscapes and seascapes. These landscapes and seascapes encompass not just the tangible cultural heritage, being the ‘things’, such as sites and objects, but also the living heritage, the intangible cultural heritage including cultural practices, customs, and folklore associated with their marine environment. Central in the lives of islanders has been the exploitation of the coast and sea for their food—predominantly the vertebrate and invertebrate fish. Fish for islanders has been the major source of protein for thousands of years. Many practices and living heritage in acquiring fish developed, including pelagic offshore fishing, and fish weirs and traps for inshore fishing. The paper commences with a discussion on the traditional Indigenous cultural heritage associated with fish and fishing practices. When foreigners came into Oceania in 1521, they impacted many lifestyles, cultural practices, and their fishing practices through not allowing indigenous people to use their canoes such as in the Caroline and Mariana Islands. When Japan took control of greater Micronesia in 1914, they enthusiastically established an industry exploiting the region’s fish for their benefit, and Indigenous people’s fishing practices were greatly marginalised. Local people were not supported in the Japanese 1 �fishing industry, which soon became a viable and profitable industry for Japan, and in conjunction with other industries focusing on sugar, phosphate, and copra, this made Micronesia self-sufficient. A large influx of people from Japan, including those from Okinawa assisted in the development of the fishing industry through their involvement in pole-and-line fishing for mainly bonito (skipjack tuna, Katsuwonis pelamis), and employment in the canneries. Through the use of oral sources, primary historical documents (from the pre, during, and post-World War II periods) and secondary historical literature, together with examples of several sites and living heritage, the extent of the cultural landscape and seascape associated with fish and fishing practices in the FSM and in Micronesia is highlighted in this paper. The aim in highlighting this significant sea heritage is to raise awareness of its many attributes including the cultural, historical, and archaeological values being as valuable to land-based heritage. Many sacred and spiritual connections with the coast and sea, as well as with fish have developed for many millions of people across Oceania. They should be as important to land-based heritage given the planet is 70% covered with water. This ‘human’ connection and significance needs to be recognized especially in the United Nations Decade 2021-2030 of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. MICRONESIA AND THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA The Federated States of Micronesia is made up of four states (from west to east), Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae, with Pohnpei containing the capital of the FSM, Palikir. It comprises 607 volcanic, and predominantly coralline islands that stretch 2,736 km west to east, and Chuuk Lagoon, which is approximately at the centre is located at 7° 25’ North and 151° 50’ East. Micronesia is the broader region of the north-west Pacific that includes FSM as well as the independent nations, Palau, Marshall Islands, Nauru, and the Gilbert Islands in Kiribati, and the U.S. territories of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and Wake Island (Figure 1). The Micronesia term (meaning small islands), was used to distinguish between other regions of Oceania, being Melanesia (islands of black people) and Polynesia (many islands), all 19th century colonial terms for the more than 10,000 islands located in what is now called Remote Oceania (Kirch 2010, 133). It was through the expansion of Austronesian speaking people, originally from Taiwan, through Island Sea East Asia (ISEA), primarily the Sulu and Sulawesi Seas (Wallacea) that people came into Oceania (Bellwood 2006, 113). The oldest inhabited islands are those in the Mariana Islands (c. 3,500 BP), Palau, and the Bismarck Archipelago (3,350 BP) (Carson 2014, 1; Spriggs 2013, 1). The Gilbert Islands, Marshall Islands, Pohnpei, and Chuuk were settled later (from 2,800 to 2,000 BP), through a northward migration via the Solomon Islands into the Gilbert Islands, Marshall Islands, Kosrae, then westward to Chuuk (Blust 1976, 29). A stimuli Bellwood (2006, 110) promotes as to why people moved from Taiwan into ISEA, then into Oceania, was because of their: ‘predilection for rapid coastal movement and exploration, probably to find the most favorable environments for cultivation and sheltered inshore fishing.’ 2 �Figure 1: Locality map of various places mentioned in this paper. Chuuk Lagoon is shown as ‘Chuuk Islands’. Source USDA-NRCS National Cartography & Geospatial Center, Pacific Basin Area, 1:20,000,000, Fort Worth Texas, 1999. TRADITIONAL INDIGENOUS FISHING It is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a comprehensive perspective of the significance of fish and fishing practices to indigenous Micronesians. Throughout Micronesia, fish are valued as part of the living heritage for many Indigenous communities, and they connect people: ‘Fish and other marine animals are not only aspects of many Ocean mythologies, they are also objects of exchange between clans from the sea and the land for ceremonial purposes’ (Hilmi et al. 2016, 178). The authors found that Pacific Islanders in exchanging goods, including fish, were doing so primarily for their social, cultural, and political interactions, and the economic values were of secondary importance (Hilmi et al. 2016, 176). Many traditional Indigenous conservation and management systems are carried out throughout the FSM, such as in the pwaaw in Chuuk, where a reef section would be closed off following the death of the reef owner (Rauchholz 2016, 57); traditional bans such as ‘harvesting at specific times the resources needed for feasts and customary exchanges’ (David 2016, 239); and how certain fish collected from a Yapese aech are only to be eaten by certain individuals ((Jeffery In Prep; Jeffery & Pitmag 2010, 5). Micronesians also developed extraordinary skills in catching fish, such as in CNMI, where Driver (1983, 15) related a story from a Micronesian man named Suñama told to a Spanish Priest Fray Juan Pobre in the early 17th century about catching a marlin (Amesbury 2013, 44): …a very large blue marlin took the hook. His line was very thin and, as he did not want to break it, he hesitated to pull it in. Yet he was very anxious to land the fish; therefore he very cautiously began playing and tiring it. Meanwhile, a large shark appeared and attacked the marlin in the midsection of its back. In order not to let go of his line, the fisherman allowed his boat to capsize. Then he tied the end of the line to the capsized boat, followed the line through the water to the shark and diverted him from his catch. He then brought the marlin back to his boat, righted the craft, and sailed home, flying a woven mat as a banner from the masthead. 3 �Amesbury (2013, 40) has documented the range of fish bones found in various archaeological sites on Guam, testifying to the importance of pelagic fish in the diet, although reef fish remains are dominant. What she discovered was that this quantity of pelagic fish remains were unique when compared to a database of 75 Pacific Islands archaeological sites. Flying fish were also a very popular fish to catch throughout Micronesia, either as a source of food, or as bait during pelagic fishing. In discussing fishing practices using canoe in Yap, I learnt that the Yapese outer islanders would fish without a canoe by floating in the water dangling a line and hook to catch shark, and there are many other stories related to the extraordinary fishing skills of Micronesians (W. Pitmag, personal communication, 2008). Other fishing practices can include using spears, nets, fishing poles, poisons, and traps, activities implemented by both men and women (Merlin 2002, 27-31). Fish traps and fish weirs were extensively used throughout Micronesia for catching reef fish on the reef flats (inshore fishing). Several styles made of different materials such as wood, bamboo and rocks have been used, and it is the fish weirs made of basalt or coral rocks, called aech in Yap that is extensive today and indicative of their value in FSM. The first seven aech in Yap were built by spirits, guiding the Yapese in how to build and catch fish in a sustainable manner, and there are about 800 around the volcanic islands of Yap. They reflect a Yapese cultural identity, highlighting Yapese ingenuity and the harmonious, spiritual, and sustainable relationship they have with the marine environment, through building and utilising the Traditional Ecological Knowledge they built up (Figure 2) (Jeffery 2013). Figure 2: Two aech (fish weirs) on the reef flat in Yap at low tide. Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2018. JAPANESE COLONIAL PERIOD The FSM had Spanish, German, Japanese and the U.S., colonial rulers, which all greatly impacted the lives of Indigenous people. During the Japanese period (1914-1945) a fishing industry, as compared to Indigenous subsistence fishing, was first developed. 4 �The Japanese commercial fishing industry was administered by a Marine Industry Section of Nan’yō-chō, which established licences, regulations, and penalties for all commercial fishing, including Indigenous people although their licensing was simplified if using traditional techniques (USFEA) 1944, 20). They declared closed seasons for certain types of fishing, provided subsidies for the construction of fishing vessels, the manufacture or purchase of new and improved fishing implements, and the construction of processing plants, amongst other things. In addition, they provided several subsidies to assist Japanese fishers, including the provision of boats to groups of 30-40 men who would implement bonito fishing (USFEA 1944, 21). The commercial fishery was a Japanese industry developed for the benefit of the Japanese government and people (USFEA 1944, vii). Subsidies for Indigenous fishers amounted to just 0.02% from 1922-1937 (Purcell 1976, 207). A Marine Products Experiment Station was established in Palau in 1931 and was equipped to implement fisheries research, with surveys of tuna implemented across Micronesia with two vessels Suiho Maru (180 tons), and Haku Maru (10 tons) (Gillet 2007, 4; USFEA 1944, 20). Chuuk and Palau were the centres for this fishing industry with over 640 fishing vessels between them, and 4,750 predominantly Japanese, and Micronesians engaged in the industry in 1937. The pole-and-line bonito fishing vessels employed in the industry had distinctive features, with ‘angling racks extending around the entire outside of the bulwark, and in most cases they are detachable. Live-bait tanks are placed fore in some boats, aft in others’ (USFEA 1944, 8). Okinawan fishermen migrating to Chuuk commenced the fishing industry, and together with Palau and Saipan, the export value of bonito climbed substantially (Hezel 1995, 188; Kawashima 2008, 52) (Figure 3). A total of 23 factories implemented the drying and manufacturing process for export to Japan: eight in Chuuk, and seven in Palau, all operated by Nan’yō Kōhatsu Kaisha in 1933 (USFEA 1944, 15). In addition, two canneries were operating in 1937, one in Chuuk run by Nankō, and one in Palau, but only 50 of the 6,305 tonnes were processed into cans. Figure 3: ‘Memorial on Tonoas (formerly Dublon, and Natsushima) dedicated to the fishermen from Okinawa who died in Chuuk (Truk).’ Inscription reads ‘Tamashiro Shoei (玉城松榮) [and] Shoutokuhi (頌徳碑) [memorial]’. Photograph taken during U.S. General Robert Blake’s inspection on the island on October 4, 1945. Source: Okinawa Prefectural Archives. http://www2.archives.pref.okinawa.jp/opa/SearchPicsDetail2.aspx?pid=63260&kword=Truk 5 �Remains of land-based fishing-related activities, such as the docks, the drying factories and canneries, as well as the fishing vessels can be found throughout Micronesia. In Chuuk, the well-preserved remains of a pole-and-line fishing vessel, and several documented by Holly (1999, 2000, 2006) in the Marshall Islands are a legacy of this type of tuna fishing and a significant link to the present day profitable and sustainable tuna fishing industry (Figure 4). During World War II, both traditional Indigenous fishing and the profitable Japanese fishing industry essentially based on tuna greatly declined. Many fishing boats were adapted to serve in the Japanese military, with some being destroyed during the war together with the land-based facilities. Immediately following the war, the USA attempted to revive the tuna fishing industry, but resources were so badly damaged, and local people had such a minor role in the industry that it was not possible. A United Nations mission report to the Pacific Islands in the 1950s, partly blamed in a neocolonial tone, the characteristics of local people for the poor post-war economic advancement, in addition to ‘extensive transport requirements and a dearth of economic resources’ (United Nations Trusteeship Council 1950, 3). In the early 1950s, restrictions on Japanese vessels fishing in Micronesia were lifted and they resumed commercial fishing. In the 1960s both Japan and the U.S. established tuna bases throughout the Pacific Islands (Gillett 2007, vii). Since then, tuna fishing based on skipjack tuna, has now developed into a profitable and sustainable industry for the FSM, Palau, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Tuvalu. They have come together ‘to coordinate and harmonise the management of fisheries with regard to common stocks within the Fisheries Zones, for the benefit of their peoples…in the world’s largest sustainable tuna purse seine fishery’ as provided in the ‘Nauru Agreement’ (PNA (Parties of the Nauru Agreement) 2021). Figure 4: Photograph of the bowsprit of the Tonoas dock boat shipwreck, looking back along the vessel. Photograph by Bill Jeffery, 2006. 6 �CONCLUSIONS The most important value of the legacy of the Japanese in developing the tuna fishing industry is the well-regulated approach to research and management of the fishery. However, the Japanese commenced and pursued the industry for Japanese personnel and as a Japanese commercial endeavour with minimal support for Indigenous Micronesians. Fortunately, this has now changed with good local employment in the industry, and good revenue for Micronesians, although the Japanese still have the largest fleet of fishing vessels. From the time the commercial fishing industry in Micronesia commenced in 1922, when 16 tonnes of tuna were caught across greater Micronesia, the industry has developed where in 2020 a total of 174,476 tonnes of tuna (skipjack, yellowfin, bigeye and albacore) were caught in the FSM Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ) alone (Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) 2020). The highest catch of tuna in the FSM EEZ was in 2017, with 272,580 tonnes. In 1937, there was a total of 644 vessels employed across greater Micronesia, and in 2020, it was 312 vessels (142 purse seiners; 149 long-liners; and 21 pole-and-line), of which 69 were FSM fishing vessels, and 243 foreign vessels (NORMA (National Oceanic Resource Management Authority) 2019). Modern day fishing vessels have got much larger, with the purse seiners ranging from a few hundred tonnes up to 1500+ tonnes; and the long-liners from 50-500+ tonnes. The World Wildlife Fund (2021) regard skipjack stocks as healthy, and ‘resilient, [but] could easily slip into a vulnerable state due to overfishing if improperly managed,’ a situation the fisheries managers are aware of through lowering the maximum catches and limiting the number of long-liners and purse seiners. This paper has briefly revealed a holistic maritime cultural landscape and seascape related to fishing over many centuries in the FSM. Traditional Indigenous fishing and the pre-World War II tuna fishing industry, all of which incorporate tangible cultural heritage, and intangible cultural heritage (living heritage), is a sea heritage reflecting a cultural identity of indigenous people. It is an important focus for maritime heritage/archaeological studies in Micronesia, and throughout Oceania. BIBLIOGRAPHY Amesbury, J.R. “Pelagic Fishing in the Mariana Archipelago: From the Prehistoric Period to the Present.” In Terra Australis 39 Prehistoric Marine Resource Use in the Indo-Pacific Regions, edited by R. Ono, R, A. Morrison, and D. Addison, (2013): 33-58. Bellwood P. “Austronesian Prehistory in Southeast Asia: Homeland, Expansion and Transformation.” In The Austronesians, Historical and Comparative Perspectives, edited by P. Bellwood, J. Fox, and D. Tyron D., 103-118. Canberra: The Australian National University Press, 2006. Blust R. “Austronesian culture history: some linguistic inferences and their relations to the archaeological record.” World Archaeology 8, no.1 (1976): 19-43. Carson M. “Conclusions and Implications of Earliest Marianas Sites.” In: First Settlement of Remote Oceania, edited by M. Carson, 135-147. Springer Briefs in Archaeology, 2014 David, G. “The challenge of sustainability for Pacific Island village fisheries, a historical perspective.” In Fishers in the Pacific: the challenges of government and sustainability, edited by S. Pauwels, and E. Fache, 221-253. Marseille: Pacific-credo Publications, 2016. Driver, M.G. “Fray Juan Pobre de Zamora and his account of the Mariana Islands.” Journal of Pacific History 18, no. 3 (1983): 198-216. Gillett R A short history of industrial fishing in the Pacific Islands. RAP Publication 2007/22. Bangkok: Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 2007. Hezel F.X. Strangers in Their Own Land: A Century of Colonial Rule in the Caroline and Marshall Islands. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995. Hilmi N., Bambridge T., Safa A., Quinquis B., and P. D’Arcy “Socioeconomic significance of fisheries in the Small Island Developing States: natural heritage or commodity?” In Fisheries of the Pacific: The challenges of governance and sustainability, edited by E. Fache E, and S. Pauwels, 175-197. Marseille: Pacific-credo Publications, 2016. 7 �Holly M.B. “Archaeological Survey and Inventory of Submerged Resources in the Lagoons of Majuro and Kwajalein Atoll.” Part II Kwajalein Report. Kwajalein Sites on the South and Eastern Sides of Kwajalein Atoll. Republic of the Marshall Islands: Historic Preservation Office, 1999. Holly M.B. “Archaeological Survey and Inventory of Submerged Cultural Resources in the Lagoons of Majuro and Atoll.” Republic of the Marshall Islands: Historic Preservation Office, 2000. Holly M.B. “Submerged Cultural and Historic Resources of Maloelap Atoll, Marshall Islands.” Micronesian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 5, No. 1/2 (2006): 162-200. Jeffery B “Tidal Stone-Walled Fish Weirs in Asia-Pacific: An Austronesian Cultural Identity and its Relevance in Marine Ecology Conservation.” In An Archaeology of Human Resilience: Sustainability in Indigenous Island Societies edited by S. Fitzpatrick, J. Erlandson and K.Gill University Press of Florida, (In Prep). Jeffery B, Perrin M. Yamafune, K. “From small beginnings to a leading world industry: the connection of Micronesian underwater cultural heritage with its Tuna fishing industry.” J Mari Arch (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-023-09352-9 Jeffery B. “Reviving community spirit: furthering the sustainable, historical and economic role of fish weirs and traps.” J Mari Arch, no. 8 (2013): 29-57 Jeffery, B., & Pitmag W. “The aech of Yap: A survey of sites and their histories.” Unpublished report. Yap: Yap State Historic Preservation Office, 2010. Kawashima A. “Teikokushi Kenkyu to Okinawa Shusshin Nanyo Imin: Okinawa to Iu Genba Kara.” Komazawa Shigaku, no. 71 (2008): 48-69. Kirch P. “Peopling of the Pacific: A Holistic Anthropological Perspective.” Annual Rev. Anthropology, no. 39 (2010): 131-148. Merlin M. “Documenting fishing practices.” SPC Women in Fishing Information Bulletin, no. 11 (2002): 27-31. www.iclarm.org/Pubs/Wif/pub_wifglobal.htm check URL National Oceanic Resource Management Authority (NORMA) “Annual Report 2017-2019.” 2019. https://www.norma.fm/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/NORMA-Annual-Report-2017-2019-FINAL.pdf Accessed 2 October 2021 Parties of the Nauru Agreement (PNA) “Nauru Agreement.” 2021 https://www.pnatuna.com/index.php/content/nauru-agreement Accessed 2 October 2021 Purcell D.C. “The Economics of Exploitation: The Japanese in the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands, 1915-1940.” The Journal of Pacific History, 11, no. 3 (1976): 189-211 Rauchholz M. “Resources, boundaries and governance: What future for marine resources in Micronesia?” In Fisheries of the Pacific: The challenges of governance and sustainability. edited by E. Fache E, and S. Pauwels, 49-76. Marseille: Pacific-credo Publications, 2016. Spriggs M. “Oceania: Lapita Migration.” The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration, (2013): 1-6. Wiley-Blackwell https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm839 Accessed 11 October 2021 United Nations Trusteeship Council (U.N.TC) “Major Problems of Administration in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.” NARA Record Group No. 313, Washington, NARA, 1950. United States Foreign Economic Administration (USFEA) “Civil Affairs Guide. The Fishing Industry of the Japanese Mandated Islands.” OPNAV P22-20, US Chief of Naval Operation, 1944. Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) “Annual Report to the Commission: Part 1: Information on Fisheries, Research and Statistics.” 2020. https://meetings.wcpfc.int/node/11601 Accessed 2 October 2021. World Wildlife Fund (WWF) “Skipjack Tuna.” 2021 https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/skipjack-tuna Accessed 8 September 2021. Personal Communications William Pitmag, former Yap State Historic Preservation Office Technical Officer 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 16: The significance of Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Seascapes and Living Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Session 16 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 16 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A history and archaeology of fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource Tuna fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is currently a sustainable and profitable fishing industry and part of the leading world tuna fishing industry in the western Pacific. This paper will outline how the FSM got to this position and what related tangible and intangible heritage exists today. It begins with how indigenous people from the region implemented their fishing practices, using techniques that were implemented in balance and harmony with their marine environment. When Japan colonised the region, they were aware of the rich marine resources, proclaiming Micronesia had about ‘one-tenth of the total known fish in the world’. In 1918 they enthusiastically began to develop a fishing industry, which included exploiting shellfish, beche de mer, mackerel, different species of tuna, and skipjack tuna that became the dominant species exploited, for the benefit of Japanese people and the Japanese economy. However, local people in Micronesia were not actively encouraged to be part of this industry. The Japanese established a research station and imposed several regulations in how the industry should be developed and implemented. This activity occurred pre-World War II, and during the war many of the fishing vessels were converted to assist in the war effort, then lost during the war. Following World War II, the U.S. attempted to revive the tuna fishing industry in association with local people, having limited success, but today tuna is the FSM’s top export, and part of a sustainable billion-dollar industry that provides benefits to local people. Coupled with the extensive tangible and intangible heritage of indigenous fishing before Japanese times, a holistic picture of the cultural landscape and seascape associated with fishing will be provided in this paper. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jeffery, Bill . 2023. “A history and archaeology of fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2029 Asia-Pac Session 16 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/71370ad13bac87073e6e6674f0b09da8.pdf c7baa8179255d64d143c47cb35c86169 PDF Text Text Seabee Junkyard: A holistic and locally inclusive approach to site management and interpretation Kalle Applegate Palmer University of Guam, University of Guam Marine Lab, Mangilao, Guam 96923 Email: kalleerin@gmail.com Bill Jeffery Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, South Australia Email: billjeffery@gmail.com Abstract The United States of America (U.S.) Navy’s Construction Battalion called ‘Seabees’ were born in January 1942 from the demand for a unique set of both engineering and combat skills: “We Build, We Fight”. The Seabees were instrumental in the Pacific theater, and played a significant role in rebuilding Guam. Known as the Seabee Junkyard due to the dumping of Seabee materials and equipment after the war, the site located within Apra Harbor, Guam is a popular dive site amongst local and visiting divers. Research on the significance of the site has revealed that it also represented the rapid demobilization of U.S. Navy after World War II (WW II). In July 2012, the University of Guam conducted a Nautical Archaeology Society maritime archaeology training course funded by the Guam Preservation Trust, which resulted in the material identification and surveying of the site. Further site investigations have taken a holistic and locally inclusive approach to the management and interpretation of the site. This includes non-disturbance wreck diving and underwater cultural heritage education in association with developing site preservation strategies, and compilation of a nomination to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Additional activities in promoting the site and educating the diving public will include underwater dive guides, development of a comprehensive site plan and an underwater cultural heritage trail. Engagement with various government agencies and community groups are being implemented to gauge their various levels of interest and assistance in managing and interpreting the site. Baseline environmental assessment surveys are to be conducted to determine the differences in natural communities with significant man-made substrates and those without. Further outreach proposals are being investigated to see if it can fulfill a role as an Educational and Interpretive Park. Key words: Seabees, Apra Harbor, Guam, Marianas archipelago, Micronesia Introduction Guam is the largest and most populated island of the Marianas archipelago. Exposed to European contact since the 1500’s and administered by the U.S. since 1898, the island has been heavily influenced by its colonizers. During WW II, Guam came under the 1 �possession of Japan from 1941 until 1944, at which time the U.S. rapidly developed its military facilities on the island including Advanced Base Guam. Largely responsible for this build-up were the U.S. Navy Construction Battalions, popularly known as the Seabees. With the Seabees came vast amounts of equipment required to conduct such a massive and rapid build-up. At the end of the war, equipment was arriving on island in its largest quantities (Hammer, 1947). When the war ended, men on the front and families at home demanded their immediate return. Large amounts of equipment were dumped in the jungles and oceans of Guam. One dump site known as the Seabee Junkyard contains a large and dense area of submerged equipment in seemingly good condition. The site is positioned at the end of the Glass Breakwater of Apra Harbor; of which the building was one of the highest priority projects undertaken by the Seabees upon repossession in 1944. Little is known about the specifics of when and how the equipment was dumped. Much of the material was unidentified until a July 2012 site survey. The large quantity of man-made substrate provides an opportunity to describe and monitor the natural environment in contrast to other sites lacking the unnatural substrates but with otherwise comparable environmental conditions. The site provides a unique opportunity for a first of its kind holistic management and interpretative project on Guam as it is regularly accessed by recreational divers and exposed to commercial and military activities. Sites on Guam are protected from looters and salvagers today through recent legislation, but they have been plagued by them since the end of WW II. The state of such sites is of concern on the island but difficult to manage because of the ease of access to them and lack of on-site regulatory management. The holistic management and interpretative approach would be inclusive of educational outreach, a U.S. National Register of Historic Places nomination pending the confirmation of its historical significance, as well as the establishment of environmental and site baseline monitoring. Historical Overview The Marianas archipelago is a chain of 15 islands in the Pacific which includes Rota, Saipan and Tinian. Anthropological and archaeological evidences support the biological and cultural diversity of pre-contact Micronesia from around 3,500 BCE, which includes the Chamorro group of people (Dixon et al., 2013). Ferdinand Magellan’s arrival in 1521 2 �marked the beginning of Guam’s European contact and colonization. Spain officially claimed Guam in 1565 and occupied the island until the U.S. took possession in 1898 following the Spanish, American War (Rogers, 2011). A seaplane base was established in Apra Harbor, in 1921, where the most suitable anchorage was located (Hammer, 1947) (Fig. 1). In 1938, the Hepburn report recommended Guam as a location for an advanced base, a fortified base with airfields and naval facilities that could be used to keep combatant forces on the move during future wars (Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1947). The development of Apra Harbor was prioritized, including building a breakwater along the northwest side of the harbor to protect it from exposure to the natural environment and potential attacks (Hammer, 1947). A mile of the breakwater had been completed when the Japanese bombed Guam on December 8, 1941. The attack resulted in the Japanese occupation. Advanced base work was halted (Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1947) and pre-existing U.S. documents on the island were destroyed by the Japanese (R. Glass, personal communication, 2013). Fig. 1 Apra Harbor including the location of Seabee Junkyard and Sumay Village. (Sean Newsome, 2012) 3 �Guam was liberated on July 21, 1944 and occupational a Japanese presence on the island ended officially on August 10. The liberation of Guam marked the beginning of the end for Japanese forces. Arriving with the Marines and Army Corp of Engineers were conceived to the Seabees, support combat Fig. 2 Seabees at work on Guam in the 1940‘s. (Bill Jeffery, forces while building advanced 2013) bases in military-active areas (Hammer, 1947). Seabees were organized in ‘Lions’ which provided all support needed to build an advanced base, including multiple battalions and great quantities of equipment. Lion Six, the Lion responsible for work in Guam, began movement on May 1, 1944 (Hammer, 1947). Liberation marked the beginning of a rebuilding period for Guam that resulted in the largest base west of Pearl Harbor and the second largest base in the world (Hammer, 1947). Possession of Apra Harbor was among the invasion objectives. The harbor developments resulted in the 17,000 linealfoot breakwater, 7,500,000 cubic feet of inner harbor dredging and 26,000 lineal-foot quay wall (Fig. 2). The Seabees can be credited with 75 percent of the total construction on Guam with 37,000 construction troops used in the completion of the Advanced Base Guam (U.S.N., 1946). Much of the Seabee’s work did not appear to be the product of any pre-planning and consequently was completed regardless of property lines particularly with the production of Marine Corp Drive (one of Guam’s main and longest roads) (Rogers, 2011). Much of the land used by the military was private land and was not properly rented or paid for by the military. Previous occupants of Sumay village actually remained in refugee camps during this time (Rogers, 2011). The ’Magic Carpet’ operations to get troops home began shortly after the end of the war due to demand and public outcry that forces were not needed any longer (Hammer, 1947). The result was a rapid pace and scale 4 �demobilization resulting in disorganization, misconceptions and infighting. The Truman administration sought post war foreign policy aimed at establishing economic not military power. Truman avoided the increase in deficits and military expenditures, prioritizing the balancing of the budget and ’dismantling the military machine’ (Pollard, 1985). At the time of the end of the war, Seabee equipment was being shipped out to the Pacific in its highest quantities and could not be sent back without contributing to the chaos (Hammer, 1947). As they demobilized on Guam, the Seabees dealt with their equipment by dumping tractors in the jungle and tearing roofs off storage sheds, exposing it to the elements and hastening deterioration (Hammer, 1947). Seabees ruined their material for two reasons. The first was that it was too expensive to ship home; many of the Seabee locations during WWII were very far from the U.S. mainland. The second was that not returning it home created the demand for continued production in the domestic market; returning tractors and dozers that could be re-purposed after their use in the war effort did not stimulate the economy (J. Sprengle, Personal Communication, 2013). The Seabees were among those severely reduced in the post war period. By 1946, more than half of the men on Guam had been sent home and the Naval Operating Base was falling apart (Hammer, 1947). At least thirty-one known locations of submerged material are in Apra Harbor. Among them are two Nationally Registered Historic Places (NRHP) and Guam Register of Historic Places (GRHP), Tokai Maru, a Japanese passenger-cargo freighter struck down by a U.S. submarine in 1943 and SMS Cormoran, a German ship destroyed in 1917 (Dixon, personal communication, 2013). A number of sites in the area qualify as NRHP and or GRHP but have not yet been nominated. Natural Environment Guam is 32 miles long and varies from 4 to 8 miles wide. It differs in its natural environment with a higher Fig. 3 Unidentified material at the Seabee Junkyard in 2012. (Bill Jeffery, 2012) 5 �limestone plateau occupying the northern half and red clay volcanic soil in the southern half which is vulnerable during the regular heavy rains. The island is surrounded by a reef system (Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1947). Changes in the natural environment have occurred since WW II. Apra Harbor has been predominantly used by the U.S. Navy for the naval station and naval supply depot but is also accessed commercially and recreationally. Commercial uses include the Port Authority, the Cabras power plant and recreational uses include diving, snorkeling, fishing, and jet skiing. Recreational, military and commercial activity in the area can be considered a human disturbance that may affect coral reef health. Currently, 27% of the world’s coral reefs are at high risk and 31% at moderate risk due to human disturbance (World Resources Institute, 2013). Confirmed disturbances that are factors at the Seabee Junkyard include coastal development, port installation, recreational activities, tourist facilities, and nuclear activity (Chabanet et al., 2005). The Seabee Junkyard is located at a depth of eight meters, 200 meters inside of Apra Harbor along the Glass Breakwater (Fig. 1). The site covers an estimated two acres of benthic surface area which includes four tractors, an amtrac, ten pontoon outboard motors, cranes, vehicle remains and hundreds of meters of one steel piping (Figs. 3-5). Fish found at the site can include Porcupinefish, Diodon nicthemerus; Moorish idols, Zanclus cornutus; Blue chromis, Chromis cyanea; and Yellow tangs, Zebrasoma flavescens. Invertebrates at the site may include Day octopi, Octopus cyanea; blue Linckia, Linckia laevigata; and Cnidarians including jellyfish and corals. The coral community at the site appears to differ in diversity, quantity and size from those at similar sites without material but this has not yet been confirmed quantitatively. Existing Underwater Archaeological work Since 2002, the National Park Service gave WW II sites a threatened status as a result of the ’significant deterioration, vandalism and looting’. WW II sites on Guam comprise about 20 percent of the islands submerged cultural heritage sites (Jeffery, 2013). Natural and cultural processes at submerged sites ’intermingle’ with each other and may be interpreted and managed simultaneously. Environmental processes which affect a site are specific to the environment they are located in and are inclusive of regional 6 �biology, water movement and quality (Keith, 2004). Multidisciplinary studies surrounding mid-20th century underwater cultural resource sites and the hazards to the environment are emerging. A study on the USS Arizona which was sunk during the battle of Pearl Fig. 4 One of four dozers at the Seabee Junkyard in 2012. (Bill Jeffery, 2012) Fig. 5 Unidentified material at the Seabee Junkyard in 2012. (Bill Jeffery, 2012) Harbor in 1941 was geared towards monitoring the rate of oil release into the ocean as well understanding the nature of and rate of deterioration of the vessel (NPS, 2013). Baseline monitoring was designed and completed to quantifiably assess the changes 7 �over time. Diverse disciplines of research were investigated simultaneously; each related directly or indirectly to overall project objects (Russell et al., 2004). Similarly, an Earthwatch Project in 2006-2008 was completed in Chuuk comparing reef communities, coral and fish diversity, at natural sites with shipwrecks (Jeffery, 2012). Guidelines for monitoring the natural and cultural attributes of submerged historic sites were for the National Historic Preservation Office (HPO) Federated States of Micronesia, Pohnpei (Jeffery et al., 2007). They were intended for use throughout Micronesia and aimed to promote education and training so that additional culturally significant sites could be studied using the same guidelines. Guidelines encompass maritime archaeology, marine biology, corrosion surveying, site conservation and conservation components and stress regular, locally based monitoring for the best management. The development of a database with files on each submerged site was also among the recommendations from the report (Jeffery et al., 2007). There is no existing comprehensive framework for assessing risk and managing polluting wrecks although a series of regional frameworks exist according to Landquist (2013) which sought to analyze risk assessment methods and suggest a framework for risk assessment. Factors in coral reef and resource decline include complications inhibiting abandoned vessel removal as well as vessel impact resulting from contact with reefs according to a 2003 National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration Damage Assessment Center by Smith et al., 2003. The study promotes the need for a data collection identifying abandoned vessels linked to a Geographic Information System. Risks from WW II wreck pollution exist and continue to increase. Thirteen million tons of vessels are reflected in the Pacific WW II information database that consists of 3,800 shipwrecks. Pollution results from leaking oil, fuel, chemicals and unexploded ordinance. Many of these sites are rapidly deteriorating. The Pacific Ocean Pollution Prevention Program of the South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP) developed a regional strategy to investigate ways of minimizing environmental damage resulting from these sites while also preserving site sanctity (Monfils et al., 2006). Creating artificial reefs by sinking de-fouled ships or other materials has been increasingly popular. The Victorian Artificial Reef Society in Australia scuttled the ex HMAS Canberra in 2005 to develop an artificial reef dive site. A biological assessment 8 �of the site conducted in 2006 established that the wreck may still be less diverse than the natural reef in the area nearby although home to multiple fish and invertebrate species. The study was intended as a baseline study for which future assessments could be compared (Schlacher-Hoenlinger et al., 2006). Project Focus In July 2012, the Seabee Junkyard was mapped and surveyed by a Nautical Archaeology Field School at the University of Guam funded by Guam Preservation Trust. The field school recommended the distribution of the site plan (Fig. 6) as well as community outreach, and further historical research to improve site interpretation and management. The site survey resulted Fig. 6 Seabee Junkyard Site Map. (Bill Jeffery, 2013) in the positive identification of WW II Seabee material at the site. Funded by Guam Preservation Trust, an intensive program of community and stakeholder engagement was conducted in July 2013. The program collected feedback on potentially renaming the site as well as further developing it as an underwater educational and interpretive park. This project is being conducted in conjunction with the program. Outcomes from stakeholder engagement included the production of educational and recreational tools for divers, tourists and community members. This project will take a holistic approach to in situ interpretation and management that incorporates the site history, site value, and environmental baseline studies of sites. This will promote protection of both the history and the environment with nondisturbance diving techniques promoted throughout the region. The easy accessibility of the site and diversity of substrates, both man-made and natural as well as its exposure to human disturbances in a relatively protected natural environment provides a unique opportunity for research, monitoring and education. Gaining a better understanding of the natural environment at the site can give insight as to the impacts of the WWII 9 �material on the environment. Studying the secondary depositional process of the salvage of a site after wreckage, predominantly by looters, which alters the archaeological record left since the primary depositional process of the actual wreckage of the material can complement interpretation of the site (Keith, 2004; Muckelroy, 1978). At the site, there is little to no material that may be lifted by hand with much of it removed by local and visiting looters (M. Beggs, Personal Communication, 2013). Local management of these sites has not been effective in preventing the extensive looting from cultural sites and damage to both natural and cultural heritage. In contrast, in Chuuk, dive guides generally help in curbing looting and there for the protection of these submerged cultural heritage sites (Jeffery, 2012). There is some legal protection in place; permits administered by Guam Historic Preservation Office are required to recover material under Title 21 (Real Property) Chapter 76 (Historical Objects and Sites). The U.S. protects the sovereignty of sunken government vessels, aircraft and spacecraft. Recovery of such craft is not allowed without permission (Federal Register, 2004). The U.S. Navy does not allow recovery or disturbance of the material nor alteration of the site which is on land managed both by either the U.S. Navy or the Guam Historic Preservation Office. Studies carried out on the Seabee Junkyard have to be approved by both entities. Methods Establishing and conducting the environmental baseline assessment requires preliminary surveys of the water column and the benthic community will be conducted. The assessment for all categories will record down to the lowest taxon possible. The water column study will be conducted using the Stationary Point Count (SPC) method which is optimal for monitoring large and mobile species. Three cylindrical areas in the research site and the control site will be assigned and fish, mobile invertebrates, and mega fauna will be tallied in the area. The cylindrical area will be five meters in diameter and data collected will reflect all fish in the entire water column with only those penetrating the area recorded for species. Surveying will start with five minutes of observation and species listing before counting for five minutes (Ayotte et al., 2011). Data collected will also include bottom current, visibility, transect depth and 10 �slope. Rugosity measurements will be made dissecting the SPC monitoring zones along a 10 m transect tape. The benthic community survey data will be collected using quadrats and line-intersect transects. Data collected will be in two parts: the substrate type, and what is on the substrate. Categories for substrate type are man-made or natural. Man-made substrates include wood, metal, plastic. Natural substrates include pavement, dead coral, sand patches, rubble, and rock. Growth on substrate may be categorized as live hard coral, soft coral, coraline algae, macroalgae, other, recently killed/dead coral, rubble, pavement, and sand. Benthic community data will be statistically analyzed using a one-way ANOVA and a Cluster Analysis, hierarchically grouping data by similarity, will be applied for the results of the SPC survey. This preliminary analysis is a question driven monitoring framework which will assist in determining the survey design (Houk and van Woesik, 2013). Conclusion In order to meet the project objective of holistically interpreting and managing the site in situ, the following outputs are being developed: U.S. National Register of Historic Places Nomination, Environmental Baseline Assessment, and development of public outreach and education including a dive map, presentations to schools and tourism operators. Research to produce a NRHP nomination for Seabee Junkyard is being conducted to ascertain the site’s historical significance. Interpreting and nominating the site promotes awareness about the lasting effects of WWII dumping, moving undesirable goods out of sight and out of mind at the likely expense of the natural environment. Revealing the site’s history helps to understand the site’s value, which may be utilized as an educational and tourism oriented asset for present day Guamanians. The baseline environmental assessment will provide a snapshot (Chabanet et al., 2005) of the site by describing the benthic community, invertebrate populations, and fish populations. Findings from the site will be compared to that of another site without material but similar conditions, depth and proximity along the Glass Breakwater. Information obtained from the assessment includes fish community descriptors, coral morphological diversity, and the ratio of dead and live standing coral on man-made as 11 �opposed to natural substrates. This comparison which is yet to be undertaken will help to understand the impact of the manmade material on the environment as well the impact of the environment on the material. Questions to be investigated also include the quantity and diversity of species at the site as well as the settlement success of coral on the man-made material. The assessment is intended to establish a method for surveillance monitoring (Houk and van Woesik, 2013) of the site that can be conducted with its continued management. This assessment would be the first of its kind conducted on submerged cultural heritage sites on Guam and can act as a model for future monitoring design on other sites on island and in the region. Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge my graduate advisor, Dr. Laurie Raymundo with the University of Guam Marine Lab and graduate committee member, Dr. John Peterson, Director of the University of Guam Micronesian Area Research Center. Additional thanks to the Guam Preservation Office for funding the July 2012 underwater archaeology course resulting in the detailed survey of the Seabee Junkyard. References Ayotte, P., McCoy, K., Williams, I., and Zamzow, J., 2011. Coral Reef Ecosystem Division Standard Operating Procedures: Data Collection for Rapid Ecological Assessment Fish Surveys. Pacific Island Fish. Sci. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI. Pacific Islands Fish. Sci. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-11-08, 24, accessed online 17 October 2013, <http://www.pifsc.noaa.gov/library/pubs/admin/PIFSC_Admin_Rep_11-08.pdf> Chabanet, P., Adjeroud, M., Andrefouet, S., Bozec, Y., Ferraris, J., Garcia-Charton, J., and Schrimm, M., 2005. Human-induced physical disturbances and their indicators on coral reef habitats: A multi-scale approach. Aquatic Living Resources, Vol. 18: 215-230. Department of the Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks. 1947. Building the Navy’s Bases in World War II: History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and the Civil Engineer Corps, 1940-46, accessed online <http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/Building_Bases/index.html> 28 February 2013. 12 �Department of State, 2004. Federal Register 69-24, 5 February 2004. Federal Register online via the Government Printing Office, accessed online <www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2004-02-05/html/04-2488.htm> 1 September 2013. Dixon, B., Gilda, L., and Mangieri, T., 2013. Archaeological Identification of Stone Fishweirs Mentioned to Freycinet in 1819 on the Island of Guam. The Journal of Pacific History, Vol. 48 (4): 349-368, DOI: 10.1080/00223344.2013.856666. Hammer, D, H., 1947. Lion Six. United States Naval Institute. Menasha, Wisconsin. Houk, P., and van Woesik., 2013. Progress and Perspectives on Question-Driven CoralReef Monitoring. BioScience, Vol. 63 (4): 297-303. Jeffery, B., Beger, M., MacLeod, I., Richards, V., Hengeveld, M., and Carpenter, J., 2007. Guidelines in Recording and Monitoring the Natural and Cultural Attributes of Submerged Historic Sites in the Federal States of Micronesia. National Historic Preservation Office Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei, September 2007. Jeffery, B., 2012. The future of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged WWII sites. Bulletin of the Australiasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 36: 15-30. Jeffery, B., 2013. Concept Plan, Seabee Underwater Heritage Park. Unpublished Report for Guam Preservation Trust, Hagatna, Guam. Keith, M., 2004. A Model for Studying Wolrd War Ii-era Lcms in the Archaeological Record. Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 3240, accessed online <http:diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd> 12 Dec 2013. Landquist, H., 2013. Environmental risk assessment of shipwrecks: A fault-tree model for assessing the probability of containment release. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, Vol. 9-3: 537-538. Monfils, R., Gilbert, T., and Nawadra, S., 2006. Sunken WWII shipwrecks of the Pacific and East Asia: The need for regional collaboration to address the potential marine pollution threat. Ocean and Coastal Management, Vol. 49: 779-788. Muckelroy, K., 1978. Maritime archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. National Park Service. 8 September 2013. World War II Valor in the Pacific Frequently Asked Questions, accessed online <http://www.nps.gov/valr/faqs.htm> 30 September 2013. 13 �Pollard, R, A., 1985. Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945-1950. Columbia University Press, New York: 20-23, accessed online <https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pollard.htm> 12 September 2013. Rogers, R. F., 2011. Destiny’s Landfall: A history of Guam. University of Hawaii Press, (First edition 1995), Guam. Russell, M. A., Murphy, L. E., Johnson, D. L., Foecke, T. J., Morris, P. J., and Mitchell, R. 2004. Science for Stewardship: Multidisciplinary Research on USS Arizona. Marine Technology Society Journal, Vol. 38 (3): 54-63. Schlacher-Hoenlinger, M. A., Walker, S. J., Johnson, S. T.A., and Hooper, J. N. A., 2006. Final Report on Biological baseline survey of the ex-HMAS Brisbane artificial reef. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): 110. Smith, A., Helton, D., and Zelo, I., 2003. Developing a Database to Support and Prioritize the Removal of Abandoned Vessels Impacting Coral Resources. International Oil Spill Conference: Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Restoration- Perspectives for a Cleaner Environment, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, American Petroleum Institute publication No. I 4730 B: 575-578. World Resources Institute. 2013. Status of the world’s coral reefs. Washington, DC, accessed online <www.wri.org/publication/content/8354> 30 September 2013. Biography Kalle Applegate Palmer is a Master of Science student in the University of Guam Environmental Science Management Program completing her work through the Marine Laboratory. She completed her undergraduate degree at the University of Washington, College of Architecture and Urban Planning in 2006 majoring in Community, Environment and Planning and minoring in History and Finnish Language. Kalle received a certificate in Aquarium Science from Oregon Coast Community College in 2010 and has worked at Oregon Coast Aquarium, Birch Aquarium and Underwater World Guam. She is a PADI Open Water SCUBA instructor, American Academy of Underwater Sciences Certified Diver and currently working on her Level Three Nautical Archaeology Certification. Bill Jeffery has been working as a maritime archaeologist for over 30 years. Bill formulated and coordinated a maritime heritage program for a state government agency, Heritage South Australia from 1981-2001. He went onto working with the Federated States of Micronesia National Historic Preservation Office and completing a PhD in maritime archaeology at James Cook University. He is a consulting maritime archaeologist to ERM Hong Kong, the CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities 14 �and the Hong Kong Maritime Museum and has implemented various types of archaeological and heritage management programs in Australia, the Pacific Islands, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka and various countries in Africa. He has conducted maritime archaeology field schools with the Flinders University, University of Guam and James Cook University in addition to teaching Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training programs in nine different countries. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development Subject The topic of the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 with links to the papers presented in Session 3. Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Seabee Junkyard: A holistic and locally inclusive approach to site management and interpretation Description An account of the resource The United States of America (U.S.) Navy’s Construction Battalion called ‘Seabees’ were born in January 1942 from the demand for a unique set of both engineering and combat skills: “We Build, We Fight”. The Seabees were instrumental in the Pacific theater, and played a significant role in rebuilding Guam. Known as the Seabee Junkyard due to the dumping of Seabee materials and equipment after the war, the site located within Apra Harbor, Guam is a popular dive site amongst local and visiting divers. Research on the significance of the site has revealed that it also represented the rapid demobilization of U.S. Navy after World War II (WW II). In July 2012, the University of Guam conducted a Nautical Archaeology Society maritime archaeology training course funded by the Guam Preservation Trust, which resulted in the material identification and surveying of the site. Further site investigations have taken a holistic and locally inclusive approach to the management and interpretation of the site. This includes non-disturbance wreck diving and underwater cultural heritage education in association with developing site preservation strategies, and compilation of a nomination to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Additional activities in promoting the site and educating the diving public will include underwater dive guides, development of a comprehensive site plan and an underwater cultural heritage trail. Engagement with various government agencies and community groups are being implemented to gauge their various levels of interest and assistance in managing and interpreting the site. Baseline environmental assessment surveys are to be conducted to determine the differences in natural communities with significant man-made substrates and those without. Further outreach proposals are being investigated to see if it can fulfill a role as an Educational and Interpretive Park. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kalle Applegate Palmer Bill Jeffery, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 3 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5d54c49c94b4eaf859c5d005ee1b042a.pdf f197e10839385a7748049588499783ca PDF Text Text The underwater cultural heritage of the Federated States of Micronesia Bill Jeffery Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, South Australia Email: billfjeffery@gmail.com Abstract Of all the United Nation member states, the Federated States of Micronesia’s (FSM) total land area is one of the smallest (191st out of 193 UN member states), yet the length of its coastline connecting its 607 islands ranks 21st in the world - after India and Chile. The people from the FSMare world-renown navigators and boat builders and they have developed and maintain many cultural practices, customs and legends associated with the sea. The FSM contains a variety of tangible heritage related to their traditional use of the sea and coast, material remains of foreign traders, pirates, colonial powers, and from World War II. This presentation will provide details about this significant heritage related to the sea and the FSM’s recording and training programs, in context with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001, and the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003. Key words: Federated States of Micronesia, Pohnpei State, Underwater cultural heritage, UNESCO Background The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a recently formed nation - formally recognized by the United Nations in 1990 - comprising the island states of Yap (9º30’N; 138ºE) in the west, Chuuk (formerly Truk), Pohnpei (comprising the FSM capital, Palikir), and Kosrae (5º20’N; 163ºE) in the east. It covers an area in the Western Pacific of over three million sq km, of which only 702 sq km is land and is home to about 110,000 people (Fig. 1). ‘Micronesia’ is a recent (c.200 years old) European term given to some of the many tiny islands in the western Pacific Ocean to differentiate them from Melanesia and Polynesia (Meller, 1998: 1). The Micronesian region includes the group of islands known as the Caroline Islands (the FSM and the Republic of Palau), the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Republic of Nauru and the Republic of Kiribati. These islands have been occupied at various times dating back to about 3,500 years ago (Dixon et al., 2013: 351). Starting with the Spanish, Micronesia has had a succession of colonial rulers 1 �Fig. 1 Location of the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae. (Magellan arrived in Guam in 1521). From 1919, Micronesia was formally recognized as a mandated territory of Japan by the League of Nations. Following World War II, the US was granted a strategic trusteeship of the region by the United Nations (UN), and the region became known as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI). Over the next 40 years, the Marshalls, Palau and the North Mariana Islands left the federation, leaving Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae to form the FSM, accepting a Constitution in 1979 and entering into a Compact of Free Association with the US in 1986. Tangible and Intangible Underwater Cultural Heritage Many of the initial inhabitants of the FSM were coastal dwellers living in stilt houses (Rainbird, 1993). They have been building and using canoes for short and long distance voyaging for a long time, providing Micronesians with a ‘certain cohesiveness’ (Kiste, 1999: 434). The FSM coral atoll dwellers are some of the most renowned Pacific Island navigators and many cultural practices, customs and legends are associated with building and sailing canoes. They include the early settling of places such as Chuuk, which is reputed to have been settled from either Pohnpei or Kosrae, ‘from whence the 2 �first woman arrived pregnant, sailing on a coconut frond’ (Gladwin, 1970: 4). Dances, chants and storyboards convey information of these many Micronesian legends and customs (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Dancing is carried out in all the FSM states - this one is of Yapese dancing and chanting near a (Faluw) men’s meeting house/stone money bank. (Bill Jeffery, 2009) Tangible UCH in the FSM range from c. 2,000 year old indigenous habitation sites; sacred, cultural sites; fish weirs; seventeenth century Spanish ships; 19th century trading and whaling vessels; and Japanese and American World War II remains (aircraft, naval and merchant ships) (Bailey, 2000; Carrell, 1991; Hezel and Graham, 1997; Jeffery, 2012a) (Fig. 3). Some of the oldest underwater cultural heritage sites (stone tools) have been found off Fefan (an island in Chuuk Lagoon, which Rainbird (2004: 89) dated between 2350 and 1650 years ago, and Craib (1997: 13) argues that they are the oldest pottery-bearing sites in central and eastern Micronesia. Pacific Island countries have pointed out that their UCH is extensive and argued for international recognition and protection of this wide remit of UCH at a UNESCO Meeting in Vanuatu in 1999: "Protection of Underwater Heritage", within the Pacific, at the moment seems to refer more often to underwater wrecks from World War II, despite the existence of other underwater sites such as sacred cultural sites existing in many areas of the 3 �Pacific. The meeting urged the protection of these sites as well as those on land that may be protected by the World Heritage Convention (UNESCO 1999) (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 World War II Japanese aircraft in the hold of the Fujikawa Maru. (Bill Jeffery, 2004) FSM Underwater Cultural Heritage programs and legislation The FSM states are committed to maintaining their traditions and customs, in addition to using them to preserve terrestrial and underwater cultural heritage sites and they have enshrined relevant provisions in their Constitutions and state codes. Some examples of these aspects can be found in Pohnpei State where the Government of Pohnpei respects and protects the customs and traditions of Pohnpei1. In Yap, two councils made up of traditional chiefs, the Council of Pilung and Council of Tamol, have been established to advise the governor and legislature, and to promote and preserve the traditions and customs of the people of the state in a manner consistent with the Constitution of the FSM and the Constitution of the State of Yap2. The Kosrae State Code 1997 (Title 11: Land and Environment, Chapter 14: Antiquities) provides for impact assessments on ‘antiquities and traditional culture’ located on land and in state waters to be reported to the governor3. In Chuuk, in addition to the protection of local customs and traditions and the roles of traditional leaders,’ the Chuuk 4 �State Constitution recognizes all traditional rights and ownership over all reefs, tidelands, and other submerged lands subject to legislative regulation of their reasonable use4’. The only specific UCH law in the FSM is found in Chuuk. It forms part of the Chuuk State Code and is known as Title 25: Maritime and Marine Resources, Chapter 8: Chuuk Lagoon Monument5. This law applies only to Japanese World War II sites located underwater, whereas the other FSM state laws are generic ones that cover the identification, protection and preservation of indigenous and non-indigenous sites and traditions on land and underwater. To assist the FSM in implementing UCH activities, the US Submerged Resources Unit spent some time in Micronesia and the FSM during the 1980s and early 1990s primarily conducting site surveys and developing a catalogue of sites and strategic plans for site management in association with the National and State Historic Preservation Offices (HPO) (Carrell, 1991). More recent UCH programs including capacity building programs have been carried out by the authorin Guam from 2006 to 2012 (Jeffery 2012b). Additional UCH surveys have been implemented (see Applegate-Palmer this volume), by the author (Jeffery and Drew, 2007; Jeffery and Moran, 2007) and a number of other types of UCH surveys and research have been implemented such as that on fishing and the associated intangible and tangible heritage (Dixon et al., 2013; Jennison-Nolan, 1979). Building and using traditional Guamanian and Micronesian boats is being maintained by a Traditional Seafaring Society in Guam (Cunningham et al., 2006). In Chuuk, through the FSM National Historic Preservation Office a program of documenting Chuuk’s UCH has been implemented by Jeffery (2006, 2007). This has included the development of tourism/community awareness raising through production of signs and a booklet, as well as building the capacity of staff at the Chuuk HPO although the office has now been closed (Jeffery, 2003, 2004b). Staff from Pohnpei, Kosrae and Yap HPO also participated in this training which included development of a document in recording and monitoring the natural and cultural heritage values of UCH sites as well as the corrosion/conservation aspects, and all four offices gained equipment to assist in implementing these activities (Jeffery et al., 2007). From 20062008, an Earthwatch Institute funded project was implemented in Chuuk to assess the values and health of the submerged World War II sites and to assist the Chuuk 5 �government in their management (Emslie et al., 2007; Jeffery, 2012a: 25-28). This included discovery of oil leaking from one of the shipwrecks, an issue the President of the Federated States of Micronesia, H.E. Emanuel Mori raised at the 66th United Nations General Assembly in New York on 23 September 201 (Jeffery, 2012a: 27-28). As a result of this work in Chuuk, three television documentaries have been produced and shown world-wide about the values and issues associated with the World War II sites (Prospero’s ‘Shipwreck Detectives’; the French television series ‘Thalassa’ and the Australian Broadcasting Commission’s series ‘Foreign Correspondent’). In recent times, canoes built in the traditional manner, and a traditional canoe house have been built in Chuuk (pers. comm., Meter, T., 2011). In Pohnpei, reconnaissance surveys have been carried out on some its fish weirs and the remains of whaling activities (Jeffery, 2013), and extensive research and surveys have been implemented at Nan Madol. Covering an area of about 100 ha, located in the inter-tidal area on the eastern coast of Pohnpei, the complex of 90+ enclosures (islets) built of massive column-shaped basalt rocks, is considered to be an important political, residential and ritual center that dates back about 1,000 years BP (Ayers, 1983) (Fig. 4). The site is being documented for World Heritage listing together with the Lelu ruins on Kosrae. Traditional canoe building is also being revived in Pohnpei. In Yap, in association with the HPO, a comprehensive survey has been implemented on its extensive fish weirs (aech), a program that was directed by HPO and aimed at reviving their construction, use, maintenance and associated cultural practices (Jeffery and Pitmag, 2010; Jeffery, 2013) (Fig. 5). Maintaining Yap’s traditional boatbuilding, navigation and sailing heritage is being supported by groups and are a feature of annual event ‘Yap Day’, and the Yap Traditional Navigation Society hold an annual two-day celebration of building and sailing traditional canoes (Fig. 6). Yap and Palau HPO are working together on a World Heritage nomination of the Yapese stone money quarries (in Palau), and banks (on Yap, and underwater between the two islands which are still greatly valued by people in Yap). In Kosrae, where 19th century whaling and trading era shipwrecks form the majority of the shipwrecks, the SRU implemented a survey of ‘pirate’ Bully Hayes’s vessel Leonora to confirm its identity and recommend a management strategy. Kosrae also contains Lelu, a basalt built rock settlement similar 6 �to Nan Madol located in the inter-tidal area and consisting of about 100 enclosures (islets) that were used by the chiefs, as mortuary compounds, and for commoners from about 800 BP. There are still strong known oral history connections with this site, although as with Nan Madol, the construction techniques used are not known. Fig. 4 One of the dominant enclosures at Nan Madol. (Bill Jeffery, 2004) Fig. 5 Fish Weir (Aech) Daqoloch in Gagil, Yap. (Bill Jeffery, 2008) Issues arising from FSM programs in context with UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 The FSM’s Historic Preservation Offices, supported by the US National Park Service’s Micronesia and American Samoa Historic Preservation Program implement a range of historic preservation activities, including UCH, archaeological and anthropological research and surveys, which have been published with the assistance of a Micronesian NGO6. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 (2001 UCH Convention) at March 2014 has been ratified by 46 countries and is aimed at preserving ‘”Underwater cultural heritage” [being] all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years…’ Some of the main aims of the UNESCO Convention 2001 are to preserve sites in situ, as a first option; to stop commercial exploitation of sites and artifacts; facilitate international collaboration; encourage public access; maintain sovereign rights; and to ensure that - where excavation is permitted - it is carried out in accordance with international best practice, i.e. the Rules contained in the Convention’s Annex. These 7 �aims are consistent with how sites in the FSM and particularly the World War II sites in Chuuk should be managed given dive tourism is an important industry in the economy of the region. In fact, it could interpreted that the management of shipwrecks is the overriding aim of the 2001 UCH Convention, even though the term ‘shipwrecks’ is not used in it. ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage’ is used in an attempt to have the 2001 UCH Convention cover all types of UCH although many of its aims do not seem appropriate to non-shipwreck sites. There are a number of other issues in how potentially inappropriate the 2001 UCH Convention is to the FSM, greater Micronesia, in fact many other countries that value traditional sites over colonial shipwrecks (see Jeffery 2004a, 2006, 2011), although this needs to be considered on a case by case or country by country basis. For example in Chuuk the Japanese World War II shipwrecks are not valued historically by local residents - there is no sense of place or belonging to these sites. They are valued economically through dive tourism, souveniring, and through the fish that can be caught using dynamite - causing considerable damage to the shipwrecks and the environment. Souveniring has contributed to many artifacts being removed from Fig. 6 Drawing of Yapese transporting stone money from Palau to Yap using a traditional canoe. (Unknown Yapese artist) the shipwrecks and the Chuuk government, even with their legislation, seem powerless to control it. In Palau, souveniring of the Japanese World War II shipwrecks has brought swift legal action and two individuals were fined and imprisoned for this activity in 20067. The government of Palau regards these sites as an important part of their history and heritage and warrant protection. Neither the FSM nor any other Pacific Island nation has ratified the 2001 UCH Convention. The FSM ratified the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003 ICH Convention) on the 13 February 2013, and the Republic of Palau, ratified it on 2 November 20118. In the 2003 ICH Convention, the definition of intangible cultural heritage is seen as ‘the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, 8 �skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage’ (emphasis by the author)9. Some of the main aims of the 2003 ICH Convention are to: safeguard the intangible cultural heritage through ‘the identification, documentation, research, preservation, protection, promotion. This heritage is ‘constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity’ (emphasis by the author). On its own, the 2001 UCH Convention would not appear to be an answer in terms of managing FSM’s diverse UCH given much of what FSM and other Pacific Islanders value is intangible heritage associated with the sea and UCH. Even some tangible sites which have strong intangible aspects, such as fish weirs, if they are in use, may not be ‘protected’ under the 2001 UCH Convention (pers. comm. Azner-Gómez, M.J., 2013). Western constructs of heritage and the separation of intangible and tangible heritage in research and management, much like the separation of natural and cultural heritage is not appropriate with Pacific Island nations. A way forward for UCH management in FSM Effective management of UCH in the FSM should be implemented in context with the broad tangible and intangible heritage of FSM. This would give relevance to all the different types of UCH and assist in their management. Development of a strategic management plan outlining how this could all come together and be implemented would be a good first step. Given the doubts about intangible cultural heritage and the associated objects of UCH being covered under the 2001 UCH Convention (such as fish weirs), but their appropriateness under the 2003 ICH Convention, the strategic management plan should outline the most pragmatic approach to managing UCH incorporating the most appropriate laws and agreements. The World War II shipwrecks and aircraft located throughout the FSM, particularly in Chuuk Lagoon, should be promoted and managed in context with the broad history of the region, in addition to their management as dive tourism sites, something which is catered for in the 2001 UCH Convention. This could mean the FSM developing agreements with Japan and the 9 �US about the best way to manage the sites, which should mean gaining a better understanding of all the different values from the three stakeholder perspectives. In 1989, the US National Park Service implemented the Truk (Chuuk) Lagoon Historical Park Study and made a number of recommendations about the future management of the shipwrecks (USNPS, 1989) which I believe are still relevant today. This report appears to be the first document which discusses any social values of the submerged World War II sites and the war in general from a Chuukese perspective. It concluded that Chuukese had been overlooked in commemorating their losses from the war: ‘unfortunately nothing tangible remains of this aspect [how the war affected Micronesians] of World War II except the graves of the Nauruans on Tol. The establishment of an historical park provides a means to preserve these intangibles and, through interpretation, pass them on to others’ (USNPS, 1989: 64). An aim of the study was to consider if the Chuuk Lagoon sites would meet the criteria for designation as a Historical Park within the USNPS system, and it found a number of management issues that needed to be addressed. It was concluded that the submerged WWII sites ‘are utterly unique’ and ‘for the sunken wrecks, the establishment of a historical park or reserve seems to be particularly appropriate in light of the long-standing concerns over looting and vandalism’ (USNPS, 1989: 61). The report recommended that a national park management agency and approach at a FSM national level be adopted given the significance of the submerged WWII sites. This could mean establishing a group of FSM employees to manage the park in the same manner as the Conservation Rangers of the Palau Rock Islands Southern Lagoon World Heritage area, a system that appears to be working very well. The idea of World Heritage listing of the Chuuk Lagoon World War II shipwrecks is an issue that the author and the Chuuk government have considered (Jeffery, 2004a, 2012: 28).Combining aspects of the 2003 ICH Convention that is community focused, takes a holistic perspective (natural and cultural heritage), and assists in providing a sense of identity, with aspects of the 2001 UCH Convention, would help to develop a relevant and beneficial underwater cultural heritage program for the FSM. 10 �Acknowledgement I would like to thank the people of Chuuk, Yap and Pohnpei for their assistance in this study and the staff of the Historic Preservation Offices in Chuuk, Yap, Pohnpei and Palikir. Endnote 1 Constitution, Article 5, Section 2: see http://www.fsmlaw.org/pohnpei/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 2 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/yap/code/index.htm Chapter 4 of Title 5 of the Yap State Code, known as "State Historic Preservation Act of 1989" (accessed 12 January 2014). 3 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/kosrae/code/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 4 Nimeisa v. Department of Public Works, 6 FSM Intrm. 205, 209 (Chk. S. Ct. Tr. 1993) (accessed 12 January 2014). 5 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/chuuk/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 6 See http://www.mehp.org/(accessed 12 January 2014). 7 See http://pidp.org/archive/2006/May/05-24-12.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 8 No other northern Pacific Island country has ratified the 2003 ICH Convention, although the Philippines, Indonesia, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, Vanuatu, and Papua New Guinea have ratified it. 9 See http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00006 (accessed 7 January 2014). References Ayers, W., 1983. Archaeology at Nan Madol, Ponape. Bulletin of Indo- Pacific Prehistory Association, Vol. 4:135-142. Bailey, D.E., 2000. World War II Wrecks of the Truk Lagoon. North Valley Diver Publications, Redding. Craib, J. L., 1997. Truk Archaeology: An Intensive Archeological Survey of Pwené Village, Dublon, Truk State, Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesian Resources Study, United States National Park Service, San Francisco. Carrell, T., 1991. Micronesia: Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment. Submerged Cultural Resource Unit, National Park Service. Santa Fe. Cunningham, L., Kranz, W., and Sikau, M., 2006. Restoring Traditional Seafaring and Navigation in Guam. Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 5(1-2): 314-319, accessed at http://marshall.csu.edu.au/MJHSS/Issue2006/MJHSS2006_119.pdf on 7 January 2014. 11 �Dixon, B., Gilda, L., and Mangieri, T., 2013. Archaeological Identification of Stone Fishweirs mentioned to Freycinet in 1819 on the island of Guam. Journal of Pacific History, Vol.48 (4): 349-368. Emslie, M., Jeffery, B., MacLeod, I., and Maynard, J., 2007.Chuuk Lagoon World War II submerged sites: Earthwatch project report, July 30 to August 11 2007. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Gladwin, T., 1970. East Is a Big Bird: Navigation and Logic on Puluwat Atoll. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Hezel, F., and Graham, C., 1997.Truk Underwater Archaeology. Micronesia Resources Study. United States National Park Service, San Francisco Jeffery, B., 2003. War in Paradise: World War II sites in Truk Lagoon. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Jeffery, B., 2004a. World War II underwater cultural heritage sites in Truk Lagoon: Considering a case for World Heritage Listing. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 33 (1): 106-121. Jeffery, B., 2004b. World War II sites in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia: A survey of underwater and terrestrial sites. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Jeffery, B., 2006. Federated States of Micronesia. In S. Dromgoole (Ed.), The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: National Perspectives in light of the UNESCO Convention 2001, MartinusNijh off Publishers, Leiden: 145-159. Jeffery, W.F., 2007. War graves, munition dumps and pleasure grounds: A post-colonial perspective of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II sites. Doctoral dissertation, James Cook University, Townsville, http://eprints.jcu.edu.au/2068/ Jeffery, B., 2011. Rocks wrecks and relevance: values and benefits in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. In M. Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings of the inaugural Asia-Pacific regional conference on underwater cultural heritage, Asian Academy for Heritage Management, Manila: 527-539. Jeffery, B., 2012a. The future of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II sites. Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 36: 15-30. Jeffery, B., 2012b. Report on Guam’s Maritime Archaeology Field Schools, 2009-2012. Guam Preservation Trust, Guam. 12 �Jeffery, B., 2013. Reviving community spirits: furthering the Sustainable, Historical and Economic role of fish weirs and traps. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 8 (1): 2957. Jeffery, B., Beger, M., MacLeod, I., Richards, V., Hengeveld, M., and Carpenter, J., 2007.Guidelines in recording and monitoring the natural and cultural attributes of submerged historic sites in the Federated States of Micronesia. National Historic Preservation Office, Pohnpei. Jeffery, B., and Drew, T., 2007.Report on Surveys of Submerged and Maritime Archaeology Sites in Guam. Report for Guam Historic Preservation Office, Agana. Jeffery, B., and Moran, V., 2007.Report on the development of Guam’s Submerged and Maritime Archaeology sites databases. Guam Historic Preservation Office. Agana. Jeffery, B., and Pitmag, W., 2010.The aech of Yap: A survey of sites and their histories. Yap State Historic Preservation Office. Yap, Federated States of Micronesia. Jennison-Nolan, J., 1979. Land and lagoon use in prewar Guam: Agat, Piti and Asan. MARC Working Paper No. 15. Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam. Kiste, R.C., 1999. A Half Century in Retrospect. In R. C. Kiste, and Mac Marshall (Eds.), American Anthropology in Micronesia. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: 433-467. Meller, N., 1998.‘The Congress of Micronesia’ in D. Hanlon Remaking Micronesia. University of Hawaii Press. Rainbird, P., 1993. Report on the Cultural Resource Management in the Coastal Area of Chuuk Lagoon. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Rainbird, P., 2004. The Archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. UNESCO, 1999.Second World Heritage Global Strategy for the Pacific Islands Region, Port Vila, Vanuatu (24 to 27 August 1999). United States National Park Service (USNPS), 1989. Truk Lagoon Historical Park Study. Draft Report for Federated States of Micronesia, State of Truk. Photocopy from Micronesian Seminar, Pohnpei. 13 �Biography Bill Jeffery has been working as a maritime archaeologist for over 30 years. Bill formulated and coordinated a maritime heritage program for a state government agency, Heritage South Australia from 1981-2001. He went onto working with the Federated States of Micronesia National Historic Preservation Office and completing a PhD in maritime archaeology at James Cook University. He is a consulting maritime archaeologist to ERM Hong Kong, the CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities and the Hong Kong Maritime Museum and has implemented various types of archaeological and heritage management programs in Australia, the Pacific Islands, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka and various countries in Africa. He has conducted maritime archaeology field schools with the Flinders University, University of Guam and James Cook University in addition to teaching Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training programs in nine different countries. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The underwater cultural heritage of the Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource Of all the United Nation member states, the Federated States of Micronesia’s (FSM) total land area is one of the smallest (191st out of 193 UN member states), yet the length of its coastline connecting its 607 islands ranks 21st in the world - after India and Chile. The people from the FSMare world-renown navigators and boat builders and they have developed and maintain many cultural practices, customs and legends associated with the sea. The FSM contains a variety of tangible heritage related to their traditional use of the sea and coast, material remains of foreign traders, pirates, colonial powers, and from World War II. This presentation will provide details about this significant heritage related to the sea and the FSM’s recording and training programs, in context with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001, and the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/98ec433002f47a8ecca2eb29ba2fae28.pdf 06d3ef484b0c0c978884a05e24d9df3b PDF Text Text Fishing Weirs and Galo Mythologies from the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas Bina Gandhi Deori (Deputy Director - Research, SAARC, Cultural Centre, Colombo-7) binagandhideori@gmail.com ABSTRACT Traditional hunting and gathering ways of life have existed as the main mode of subsistence for humans since long and continue to be with some indigenous communities despite the onslaught of urbanization. Arunachal Pradesh, the North-easternmost state of India that shares international borders with the Republic of China, Bhutan and Myanmar is home to a large number of indigenous communities who still continue to live in traditional ways of life despite the changes brought by modernization. Traditional and community fishing is still practiced by them and the use of various types of weirs is still common. The weirs come in various shapes and sizes and are made by the community people themselves using bamboo splits and rattan. The making of the fishing weirs needs special skill as some take a longer period for the processing of the raw materials while some are made on the spot at the time of need, in both cases active participation to learn and develop the skill is necessary. What makes these fishing weirs special is the mythology behind it. The Galo indigenous community people hold these fishing weirs with utmost respect because of its importance in their mythology. The folk stories mention how the fishing weirs came to the human and the role played by the weirs in sustaining human life on this Earth. However, as the younger generation do not have much time to spent with their village/community elders, this tradition of making fishing weirs is not easily known to many and the myths behind it. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the different kinds of the fishing weirs and to bring out the importance of the related mythologies associated with them. Key words: fishing weirs, myths, indigenous communities, Himalayas INTRODUCTION Arunachal Pradesh located in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas is home to a number of indigenous people who still practice traditional mode of subsistence. As the land is gifted with numerous rivers and natural freshwater streams, the natives still do fishing on a regular basis using traditional fishing techniques. The data presented here are from a preliminary ethnographic study carried out between 2017-2019 on the subsistence mode of the Galos, one of the well-known ethnic communities mostly inhabiting the Leparada District of Arunachal Pradesh. The principal objective of the research was to provide a database documenting the traditional fishing weirs of the Galos and to explore the associated fishing myths or legends. The research also aims to understand the significance of these traditional weirs in the context of modern fishing equipment readily available in the market. The importance of fish in a Galo society cannot be ignored. As most of the villages are located near a river or stream, fishing is a very important economic activity and fish is an important source of food for them. Fish is not only important as a source of protein but also an important food item in any feast or ritual to entertain the guests. Sharing of fish is important socially and communally. Fish are exchanged during marriage, also offered as gifts when visiting distant relatives. Certain species of fish are only exchanged during marriage, others such as Amblyceps sp. (Tammii), Chaanna punctata (Talo), Pterokryptes afgana (tayek), botia sp. (Ribo-Ringum) etc. are not consumed or offered during weddings for consumption nor for gifting. And during the taboo period also, certain species of fish are not consumed for a stipulated time period. 1 �Galos still practice community fishing when all the community people gather on an appointment day to fish together. Fishing is not only a medium of food supply but it also brings the members of the clan together and through such exercise it binds the community further. For them fishing is not just an economic activity but also an important part of the learning process through which the young ones gain an understanding of the technique of using the fishing gears and learn about the fish behavior from the village elders. Through such on-spot training, the traditional knowledge is being passed on to the successive generations. Community fishing is a part of the cultural heritage of the Galos and it is still practiced by the community members. It is interesting to note that in many of the Galo folklores the mention of rivers, fish and the water world is invariably there. The tales of Jai Bonnw, Anyi-Kari-Karnya, Vmv lama Yo Vmv feature special mention of the water world and different techniques of fishing. It is in the folklore of Jai Bonnw that the first mention of herbal fishing occurs. Religious rites and other marks of respect are integral to the practice of fishing. Galos believe in the sacredness of nature and in the guardian spirits who are in charge of the mountains, hills, sky, streams, rivers, streams etc therefore before any large scale fishing mission or hunting, the shaman performed a ritual called ambin hunam. However, in the present day, this tradition is not strictly followed. In community fishing, men, women, young and even children take part. On the appointed day many families come together with their assorted indigenous fishing gear and whole day fishing is done. Meal is cooked by the river bank with the freshly caught fish and all the community members have their meal together. At the end of the day, the catch is divided among the participants who then either steam the fish in a bamboo receptacle or dry it over fire for preservation and future consumption. Fishing is done mainly during the winter season when there is abundance of fish in the rivers. The Galos are good fishermen and they can travel to far off places on foot, for days together and stay near the river in the forest for fishing. The most common fish consumed by them are Ngoru (Garra annandalei), Riibo (Schistura rupecula), Riingum (Nemacheilus devdevi), Orse (Semiplotus semiplotus) Ngopi (Labeo gonius) etc. (Bagra 2010). Due to the importance of fish amongst them many indigenous techniques have been developed. Some popular traditional methods of fishing are hand-gathering, trapping, stationary enclosures, indigenous basket-shaped wicker traps, bamboo weirs and use of stupefying aids to catch fish. These indigenous techniques are locally called qou nunam (ubnam), `lwwruu ubnam, tahum-kunam, ta`kom `gaanam, w`dwr`gaanam, `riigoo goonam, `higo `tonam, `hwl `monam, `lwwpum `pumnam, `paakam karnam, hi`bok pvnam. Though many new methods and machineries are available in the market, the age-old traditional methods are still used as specific fishing methods are very effective to catch particular species of fish. The indigenous gears used for fishing are made of perishable locally available material, bamboo, wood and cane. The indigenous traps are designed in such a way to make the entry easy and the exit difficult; once the fish enters inside it cannot escape. Traps are culturally almost universal. They make traps with various forms: conical, cylindrical and basket type. Some of the traps are used exclusively by the women and some by the men only. Traps can be either fixed or mobile. However, a number of techniques with various kinds of traps and weirs which can be operated by a single person are also practiced. A Glimpse into various Fishing methods ● Tahum /Tasum Kunam 2 �In this fishing method a conical shaped basket with narrow end and broad mouth, `raajuu is used to catch small fish in the rivers and streams. This gear is made of cane and bamboo. It is used by the womenfolk to fish. `Raajuu is put down in the water and fixed in between two legs, and slowly with both hands the bottom of the stones are searched. Because of the disturbance caused, fish come out of their hideouts and enter the `raajuu. The `raajuu is then lifted up and the catch is put in a small bamboo basket called `ginci, which is tucked under the waist for carrying the catch. The mouth of the basket is covered with ferns and leaves to prevent the fish from coming out of the basket. ● `Riigoo goonam This method is also practiced by womenfolk. In this technique the (cylindrical gear with wide mouth and narrow end) are fixed in the river in a straight line in such a way that the whole width of the river from one bank to the other bank is covered and the corners are sufficiently covered with ferns and other shrubs, so that no space is left for the fish to escape. From a distance of about 10 metres ahead, standing facing the mouth of the `raajuu, women start moving the stones vigorously with the hands or with the help of a stick etc. so that the fish come out of its hideouts and make an escape towards the side where the `raajuu are already fixed. Gradually the fish are herded towards the mouth of the `raajuu. Once the fish enter the `raajuu, they are immediately lifted out of the water and the fish caught in the individual `raajuu are taken. (Fig. 1) Figure 1.`Riigoo goonam ● Ta`kom `gaanam A traditional gear locally called ta`kom which is a hand-woven long funnel shaped wicker, is placed against the water current with some leaves inside it. A simple ta`kom can also be made of split bamboo. It can be kept overnight. As it is fixed against the water current, fish that enters a ta`kom could not turn around to get out. 3 �● W`dwr`gaanam It is a traditional basket weir fish trap about two meters long consisting of two wicker cones, one inside the other which is made in such a way that it is easy for the fish to get inside and hard to get out. It can be set as well as mobile. To catch fish, the trap is buried halfway in shallow water. Sometimes to lure the fish, baits are used. This is the most common gear used by men as it does not require guarding. It can be fixed in the evening or night and can be checked the next morning. Figure 2. `Lwwpum ● `Lwwpum `pumnam It is another traditional method of fishing where flat stones are piled underwater. This is done during the cold months when fish like to remain in holes. Choosing an appropriate site to pile the stones is the most important issue. A site with shallow water, medium current and sufficient sunlight is the most appropriate selection. Big flat stones are piled underwater in such a way that there is sufficient space inside for easy movement of fish. These piled stones are called `lwwpum (Fig.2). These piled stones are left undisturbed for 2-3 months, after which the fish gathered in the `lwwpum are harvested. A circular bamboo screen locally called cwergoo is used to cordon the `lwwpum. It is tightly fixed at the bottom so that fish cannot escape. From a small hole in the bamboo screen, w`dwr is fixed. Gradually, the piled stones are removed. It is practiced mainly from the month of October to February. The Galos also use different types of weirs for fishing. The large fishing weir structure is constructed from wooden posts, wattle fences and with stones at times. The wooden stakes are woven together to create a barrier or temporary dam that traps fish while letting water pass through. All the openings are blocked with traps, baskets or net traps. These are buried halfway in shallow water. In stone weirs, stones are arranged into rectangular walls on the 4 �edge of rivers. At regular intervals the wall is opened. Then the fisherman would wade into the walled trap and seize their catch. Today the government prohibits such massive trapping techniques during the fish breeding season. Herbal poisoning The use of fish stupefying plants is an old practice in the history of humankind all over the globe. Indigenous people using various fish poisons to catch fish are common among many tribes of North-East India. Fish poisons are extracted from several plant species and these are mixed with water which makes the fish numb. Even Galo ethnic community tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, due to their close contact with nature for a long period of time have acquired the knowledge of usefulness of certain plants to be used as fish poisons. The use of fish stupefying plants has historically been used by many hunter-gatherer societies to stun fish, so that the fish become easy to collect by hand. These stupefied fish can be eaten by humans without any adverse reaction. Mostly the plant species used as fish poison by the tribal are harvested exclusively in the wild. Use of herbs as fish stupefying agent (Hi`bok Pvnam) In this technique of fishing, all community members participate. It is performed in a festive mood. This technique requires group involvement where the male group constructs a barrier or a temporary blockage across a river using reeds, tree branches and stones which results in a drop in the water level downstream. For stupefying fish through usage of fish poisons, the selection of a suitable water body is very important. Poisoning or intoxication is generally done in shallow water bodies, slow flowing or stagnant water so that the concentrated poison can be more effective. When the flow of the water reduces, the leaves, roots, seeds or the bark of the plant which is to be used as poison is crushed into a pulpy mass and scattered in and around the base of rocks and into holes where fish might hide. A small opening is made in the blockade to let the water mix with the crushed material or it is simply thrown in the water so that it can thoroughly mix with the poison which starts affecting the fish right after 10 minutes and soon thereafter the fish starts floating belly upwards. The Galos use varieties of stupefying agents. Tamo is the common term for all the poisoned herbs. The use of these poisonous plants does not remain the same throughout the season as their effectiveness also changes. Oxor, `Diik-tamo are mostly used in winter whereas Rwpwk, `Talik, Taataa `puraa, Tanwr, `Rugdwk are used throughout the year. In the case of`Diik-tamo bundles of this bush are laid on stones thereafter pounded and crushed and the juice is mixed well with the water which is done only by men. Women and tabooed people (like people bitten by snakes or who carried a dead body and have not completed a stipulated time period etc.) are strictly restricted from touching such items. It is believed that if such people touch the herbal poison, the poisoning capacity gets reduced. Two to three people beat the plant upstream and the rest of them who are not engaged in beating and mixing the plants gather downstream with `raajuu or even with bare hands to catch the floating fish that succumb to the poison. Thus, the fish poison makes the fish float in a dazed state and come to the surface of water from where they can be captured easily. As the juice of the plant mingles with water the bio-active components present in the plant act on the fish and their activity slowly gets paralyzed. The fish become stupefied and they rise to the bank or the surface of the river, where they are caught with bare hands and thrown on to the bank or put inside a container which is tagged along the waist. The effect of the poison does not last for more than 20 or so minutes. Therefore, the stunned fish are collected immediately and any fish that were washed out of the pools or overlooked in the gathering 5 �would recover and swim away, since the toxins merely stupefied the fish rather than killing them outright. The poison does not adversely change the taste and quality of fish. These stupefied fish can be eaten by humans without any adverse reaction (Fig.3. and Fig.4.). Figure 3. Herbal Poisoning Figure 4. Hi`bok Pvnam The government prohibits such massive trapping techniques during the fish breeding season. Indigenous techniques are eco-friendly and non-destructive at all other aquatic life forms. These traditional methods of fishing do not deplete the stock of fish in the river. The modern 6 �indiscriminate poisoning of creeks and ponds, however, has caused a decline in fish stocks. Presently, modern equipment and techniques like chemical poisoning, blasting and electro fishing for catching fish are also used. Fish are killed by blasting dynamites in the river and then skimmed from the surface and from the bottom. These are responsible not only for fast depletion of the freshwater fish but also causes water pollution, therefore, the state government has very strict regulations regarding fishing. Recording and study of the traditional fishing techniques lead to conclude that all the materials used in fishing are highly perishable. In most of the cases the ecological factors are manipulated or molded to the advantage of the fishermen. In both cases, there is hardly any chance of leaving any trace of any kind. Therefore, the study of the ethnographic data can help us to get an insight into the archaeological gap of the traditional fishing practices of the indigenous community. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bagra, K., Kadu, K., Sharma, K. N., Laskar, B. A., Sarkar. U. K., Das, D. N. Ichthyologic Survey and review of the checklist of fish Fauna of Arunachal Pradesh, India, Checklist 5, no. 2 (2009): 330-350. Dutta, R., Bhattacharja, B. K. An Indigenous community Fishing Practice of Tirap Dist, Arunachal Pradesh, Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 7, no. 4 (2008): 624-626. Gurumayum, S.D. and Choudhury, M. Fishing methods in the rivers of North -East India, Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 8, no. 2 (2009): 237-24. Watters, I. Some Observations on the Material Culture of Aboriginal fishing in the Moreton Bay Area: Implications for Archaeology, Queensland Archaeological Research 2 (1985): 50-57. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fishing Weirs and Galo Mythologies from the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas Description An account of the resource Traditional hunting and gathering ways of life have existed as the main mode of subsistence for humans since long and continue to be with some indigenous communities despite the onslaught of urbanization. Arunachal Pradesh, the North-easternmost state of India that shares international borders with the Republic of China, Bhutan and Myanmar is home to a large number of indigenous communities who still continue to live in traditional ways of life despite the changes brought by modernization. Traditional and community fishing is still practiced by them and the use of various types of weirs is still common. The weirs come in various shapes and sizes and are made by the community people themselves using bamboo splits and rattan. The making of the fishing weirs needs special skill as some take a longer period for the processing of the raw materials while some are made on the spot at the time of need, in both cases active participation to learn and develop the skill is necessary. What makes these fishing weirs special is the mythology behind it. The Galo indigenous community people hold these fishing weirs with utmost respect because of its importance in their mythology. The folk stories mention how the fishing weirs came to the human and the role played by the weirs in sustaining human life on this Earth. However, as the younger generation do not have much time to spent with their village/community elders, this tradition of making fishing weirs is not easily known to many and the myths behind it. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the different kinds of the fishing weirs and to bring out the importance of the related mythologies associated with them. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bina Gandhi Deori Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Deori, Bina Gandhi. 2023. “Fishing Weirs and Galo Mythologies from the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Paul Montgomery, and Bill Jeffrey. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2007 Asia-Pac Session 11 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/34a443bbae1b8e21707aa882599da001.pdf e8152076430d90b8ccd215e5d99e9190 PDF Text Text Synergetic management strategy toward sustainable use of ocean resources and enhancing blue economy Bishnu Pada Bose1, Debashruti Bose2, Diptasri Ghosh3 1 Swami Vivekananda University, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India Symbiosis International University, Pune, Maharashtra, India 3 Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India Corresponding author, E-mail address: bosebishnu@gmail.com 2 ABSTRACT As intensified anthropogenic activities and altered global climate systems impose cumulative pressures on marine biodiversity, their potential to provide tangible and intangible benefits to people and the planet might decrease, causing degrading maritime heritage. The marine environment considers a precious heritage of the global community. A healthy marine environment can boost the resilience of marine heritage. On the other side, the blue economy in the ocean context is strongly gaining international importance. Blue economy cooperation at both global and regional levels will develop a common concept of marine ecosystems and protect underwater marine heritage. The worldwide ocean covers 71% of Earth's surface area. It is expected to become the great economic frontier in the coming future, with tremendous potential for resource generation and development across multidirectional segments. As the oceans are vast and particularly sensitive to ocean trades, coastal economics, marine heritage, and ecosystems need to be preserved, and a balance between trade and commerce and the conservation of the marine ecosystems and heritage must be found. Worldwide, 80% of global trade is achieved using the seas, and 40% of the global population lives near coastal zones. It has been estimated that the annual gross revenue from marine products (GMP) is US$2.5 trillion, and the total value of the ocean resources is at least US$24 trillion; also, the ocean economy is capable of providing a livelihood for over 3 billion people. Pursuing the blue economy sustainably is essential to optimize mutual benefit for the well-being of people and the planet. To enhance the blue economy, we must focus on achieving SDGs goal 14, conserving the maritime cultural heritage and ocean biodiversity. At the same time, stakeholder initiatives, policy formation, and transboundary cooperation are significant. It requires disruptive approaches to eliminate marine pollution and conserve marine ecosystems and heritage to enhance the blue economy at the global level. This paper discusses the threat to underwater cultural heritage caused by anthropogenic sources. It discusses ocean governance, policies, and the proposal to protect marine ecosystems, conserve maritime heritage, and enhance the blue economy. Keywords: Anthropogenic Activities, Underwater Cultural Heritage, Ocean Resources, Blue Economy LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS GMP Gross marine product MCH Marine Cultural Heritage R&D Research and development SDGs Sustainable Development Goals UCH Underwater cultural heritage UNESCO United Nations educational, scientific and cultural organization LIST OF TABLES and FIGURES Table 1 The present threats to UCH Table 2 Presents the definitions of the sustainable ocean economy and blue economy Table 3 Regional Collaboration in Sustainable Ocean Governance Table 4 Summarizes the factors influencing the blue economy Table 5 Marine policy directions adopted by major nations Table 6 Solutions to be coordinated between MCH protection and marine development Figure 1 Marine Ecosystems and economic benefits 1 �INTRODUCTION The literature is evident that the ocean economy consists of living resources, renewable energy, minerals, tourism and recreation, carbon sequestration, transport and trade, and overall marine and coastal zone protection (Ebarvia, 2016; Hussain et al. 2018; Karani and Failler 2020; Choudhary et al. 2021). On the other hand, it has been stated that "UCH is defined as all traces of human existence of a cultural, historical or archaeological nature which, for at least 100 years, have been partially or immersed, periodically or permanently, under the oceans and in lakes and rivers" (UNESCO 2001 Convention; Pearson and Thompson 2023). UCH is not officially a blue economy sector, but it is a field where UCH can be used as a resource of economic benefits, in turn enhancing the global blue economy (Nishikawa 2021; Lamont 2022). Worldwide around 40% of the population is mainly connected in coastal zones, and 75% of the world's major cities are situated near the coastal area (Small and Nicholls, 2003; Mimura, 2006; Lane et al., 2015 Vignudelli et al. 2019). Probably the significant legacy of securing a sustainable ocean economy is that developing measurements to usher sustainable ocean development can gleam the way for the measure to a sustainable blue economy (Fenichel et al. 2020). The ocean economy is under multidirectional risks and stressors, ranging from direct biodiversity damage, unmanaged resource extraction, pollution, and climate change (Ryabinin et al. 2019). Achieving effective sustainability of the ocean environment, biodiversity, and ecological systems in a changing era is a great challenge Anthropogenic (Bigagli 2016; Quirk and Hannah 2016; Fox et al. 2021). The ocean strongly contributes to the global society for our well-being but, at the same time, is severely impacted by human activities (Micheli et al. 2013; Halpern et al. 2015). Oceans provide us with essential natural resources, but the management towards governance is a very complex network, and, as a result, ocean ecosystems. The current protocol of management strategy is seen to have failed to utilize the ocean resources sustainably, and also, there needs to be more efficient in managing other ocean ecosystems, which has been highlighted in the various consequences (Curtin and Prellezo 2010; Henderson 2019) Sustainable development of the ocean ecosystem is possible; still, such growth will depend upon the sustained capacity building of coastal and indigenous communities, stakeholder collaboration, and the resource's long-term sustainability. Based on the literature review data, ocean sustainability is linked with the other sustainable development goal (Claudet et al. 2020). The current ocean governance system must be revised to handle the ocean's challenges. A reconfiguration of ocean management and governance orientation should support a healthy and thriving relationship between the human community and the ocean, enhance the blue economy, and improve sustainable development. UCH (DEFINITIONS) The UCH defines as “all the material and resource evidence of human activities carried on in the ocean environment, particularly as evidenced on the bottom of the sea." (Smith and Couper 2003). According to the UCH Convention of UNESCO (adopted in 2001), “UCH is defined as all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical, or archaeological character, which has been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years” (UNESCO 2021). PRESENT THREATS TO THE UCH Considering the increased interest in ocean heritage in the last few decades, it is vital to emphasize global awareness of the value of UCH and engage stakeholders, leaders, and policy-makers in taking initiatives to protect marine cultural treasures. As per UNESCO, the present threats to UCH are becoming serious and presented in Table 1. 2 �Table 1 The present threats to UCH Threats to the UCH Effects on UCH Climate change Rising sea levels, damaging biodiversity and ecosystems Pillages Due to the modern technological advancement, research interest, and hunting of treasure. Extensive pillage is now also taking place underwater. Commercial and tourist exploitation Commercial exploitation is the legal recovery of artifacts from a heritage site to put them up for sale. Trawling and Fishing Trawling activities are degrading UCH. Its impact on the sea floor is devastating. Economic activities Economic activities in the ocean environment are damaging UCH in multiple directions. Such as marine construction works, mineral extraction, and trading of marine species affect the environment by generating pollution, causing erosion, or modifying currents. In turn, they are degrading UCH. Industrial and commercial work Shipping and other commercial activities causing significant effects on UCH Developing the seabed extraction, pipeline) Extracting sand, gravel, and minerals in the seabed imposes multidirectional effects on UCH. (mineral Source: UNESCO, UCH, 15 February 2023 SUSTAINABLE OCEAN ECONOMY AND BLUE ECONOMY According to the World Bank's report, the blue economy is defined as the "sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the health of the ocean ecosystem." Blue Economy is an economy that "comprises a range of economic sectors and related policies that determine whether the use of ocean resources is sustainable” (According to the United Nations). Table 2 presents the definitions of the sustainable ocean economy and blue economy (Sumaila et al. 2020) Table 2 Definitions of the sustainable ocean economy and blue economy (Sumaila et al. 2020) Asian Development Bank “The economic, societal, and environmental derive economic activity from the ocean.'' Center for the Blue Economy “It uses three related but distinct meanings: (i) the overall contribution of the ocean to economies, (ii) the need to address the environmental and ecological sustainability of the oceans, and (iii) the ocean economy as a growth opportunity for both developed and developing countries." Economist Intelligence Unit “A sustainable ocean economy emerges when economic activity is in balance with the long-term capacity of ocean ecosystems to support this activity and remain resilient and healthy." Economic Cooperation Development and “The ocean economy can be defined as the sum of the economic activities of ocean-based industries and the assets, goods, and services of marine ecosystems." United Nations Development Program “Protecting, preserving, and restoring ocean resources while increasing the economic activity derived from the ocean." World Bank “The sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth and improved livelihoods and jobs while preserving the health of the ocean ecosystem." “A sustainable blue economy provides social and economic benefits for current and future generations; restores, protects, and maintains diverse, productive, and resilient ecosystems; and is based on clean technologies, renewable energy, and circular material flows." Worldwide Fund for Nature 3 �Ocean economy or sustainable blue economy can be enhanced by regional collaboration in Sustainable Ocean Governance (Sumaila et al. 2020). Table 3 describes the Regional Collaboration in Sustainable Ocean Governance. Table 3 Regional Collaboration in Sustainable Ocean Governance (Sumaila et al. 2020) Region Sustainable ocean management (Initiative/Strategy) Africa “African Union’s Blue Economy Strategy United Nations Economic Commission for Africa’s Blue Economy Regional Action Plan” Asia “Asia Development Bank’s Action Plan for Healthy Oceans and Sustainable Blue Economies. Indonesia’s Sustainable Oceans Programme” Baltic Sea Baltic Sea Initiative Europe EU’s Blue economics initiative g Indian Ocean Indian ocean rim association’s blue economy declaration Pacific Ocean Pacific Regional of Oceanscape Program BLUE ECONOMY Oceans are the most expensive ecosystem and a vast economic system and network - a blue economy. Our oceans cover 97% of the world’s water resources, and globally, the blue economy has enormous potential and is an emerging economy. It includes all commercial and economic activities related to oceans, seas, and coastal zones in a broad perspective, regardless of whether the activities occur on the sea or land. To develop the blue economy, we must address the issue of the significant bottleneck toward the sustainability of the blue economy in the global context. Table 4 presents the factors influencing the blue economy. Table 4 Summarizes the factors influencing the blue economy. Factors Affecting the blue economy Description Disasters The blue economy is negatively impacted yearly by natural disasters.  These include Cyclones, hurricanes, Tsunamis, and typhoons.  These disasters damage properties and take the lives of thousands of people. Sea-based terror activities Terrorism, robbery, piracy, trafficking of drugs and humans, illegal arms trade, illegal trade of crude oil, smuggling of drugs, etc. Man-made issues These include problems such as oil spills, war, and aggression, etc. Climate condition The impact of present climatic conditions on the marine ecosystem is immense. Increase of acidity in oceans, unnatural changes in sea temperatures, etc. These negatively affect the oceanic habitat, marine resources, and people that are dependent on them. Marine pollution This includes dumping untreated sewage, runoff from agriculture, microplastic pollution, solid waste disposal, etc. The excess nutrients from waste lead to problems such as low dissolved oxygen levels in the water. Vulnerable resources, such as corals, fish species, etc., are threatened. Unsustainable use of marine resources Use of marine resources in an Unregulated, illegal, and unsustainable manner. 4 �OCEAN GOVERNANCE Ocean governance includes the policy, rules, regulations, affairs, and actions towards sustainable use of ocean resources and to conserve its ecosystems. (Balgos et al. 2015; Stephenson et al. 2019). Considering these challenges is constitutive to developing proper governance towards developing marine ecosystems and improving sustainability leading to protecting UCH (Alexander and Haward 2019). Haas et al. (2021) derived from the SDGs three significant risks in the context of ocean governance as follows: 1. The consequence of the unmanaged use of ocean resources (SDG12, SDG14, SDG16) 2. Improper allocations of access to the benefits from the ocean ecosystem e.g., gender inequalities and technology transfer (SDG1, SDG8, SDG10, SDG16) 3. Lack of awareness of adaptation to changing ocean conditions (SDG1, SDG13, SDG11, SDG16). With the view of the UN SDG goal and for the sake of ocean sustainability, it is rational to jointly work with all nations to protect the ocean environment and biodiversity, leading to sustainable use of ocean resources. OCEAN POLICY CONTEXT As the twenty-first century has progressed the cumulative impacts of unmanaged resource consumption and the exponential growth of the global population are the red alert towards the long-term sustainability of marine biodiversity and the sustainable use of their invaluable resources. There has been an international focus on the maritime context over the past few decades, and we must maintain that motivation. The ocean policy provides strength to protect marine biodiversity and resources, improve coastal economies, preserve UCH, and manage sustainable uses and access. Worldwide few major Nationals have adopted the marine policy for the sake of sustainable development of the ocean, presented in Table 5 (Kaczynski 2011; Wlodzimierz 2011). Table 5 Marine policy directions adopted by major nations (Kaczynski 2011; Wlodzimierz 2011) Country Source Significant policy directions/measures USA Marine education, policy, marine resource, ocean water, and ocean economic Japan Ocean resource, Coastal zone management, conservation of remote islands, Ocean environment, Marine transportation, and Marine security, Carrying R&D and survey for better ocean management. Canada Marine sustainable development, ocean ecosystems, Ocean science development China Ocean-related policy and rights, Conservation of the marine ecosystem, Marine resources, Integrated governance of ocean Korea Secure the ocean environment, protection of the ocean environment, and training of the marine specialists 5 �SYNERGETIC MANAGEMENT STRATEGY TO ENHANCE THE OCEAN BLUE ECONOMY MCH or UCH is closely related to SDG 14, that life below water is a crucial goal of the 2030 global agenda with its stated aim to synergetic management strategy towards sustainable oceans management and sustainable development while, more specifically, a concern with the blue economy in the ocean context. Not only that, but instead, we depend upon ocean ecosystems. Worldwide damaging marine biodiversity and degrading MCH result from sustained human action over millennia. The benefits and advantages provided by the ocean are being eroded rapidly. Figure 1 presents a typical image of marine ecosystems and the general economic benefits and services they provide to global communities (Barbier 2017). Figure 1 Marine ecosystems and economic benefits (Barbier 2017). To enhance the blue economy, all the stakeholders must jointly collaborate to implement ocean policy and governance and step forward to protect MCH and ocean ecosystems; these are the significant elements of the blue ocean economy. As per UNESCO, we must address the six measures to protect UCH, such as i) Awareness Raising Material, ii) Practical Measures of Protection, iii) Contribute to the Fund, iv) Model Implementation Law, v) Ratify the 2001 Convention vi) State Cooperation Mechanism. A synergetic management strategy properly enhances the blue economy to harmonize marine culture development, protect ocean resources, and restore marine biodiversity. (Guilan and Weiwei 2021) Proposed solutions to protect maritime cultural heritage and marine development are presented in Table 6. 6 �Table 6 Solutions to be coordinated between MCH protection and marine development (Guilan and Weiwei 2021) Correlation aspects MCH Protection Marine Development Spatial planning Where is the potential MCH area and MCH protection area? How to include MCH areas in marine spatial planning? Environmental standard What kind of preserved environment is required for MCH with different materials Is there any discharge that will pollute or damage MCH? Management coordination Preserve in situ or excavation and salvage? How to coordinate the schedules of a marine development projection? Laws and policies Are the impacts on marine development activities taken into account? Are the MCH protective provisions fully included? A synergetic management strategy for the ocean environment and economy aims to account for global communities' vast environmental, social, and economic challenges. Unmanaged utilization of ocean resources increases anthropogenic and ecological pressures. This paper highlighted the significant bottleneck towards the development of the blue economy (Table 3). To develop the blue economy, the integration of MCH (MCH) into marine policy has been deemed necessary, and it is part of the blue economy. CONCLUSION The Blue economy has enormous potential to encompass and improve social well-being and sustainability in the ocean context. The risks are close if the uncontrolled uses of ocean resources and coasts continue to be used mainly for commercial and trading purposes. The concept of the blue economy should address the issues and give direction on how cultural heritage can be used sustainably in the coastal and marine sectors. On the other hand, the creative economy is not directly concerned with the blue economy but directly linked with the maritime cultural heritage. In turn, the protection of cultural heritage enhances the blue economy. By 2030, ocean protection areas will be expected to expand from 11 per cent to 30 per cent. At the global level, ocean resources and the sustainability of the blue economy are also coming into focus; it would be a significant area with the green deal. Sustainable approaches to ocean management that can address these cumulative pressures have been the focus of considerable research and agency action. To achieve SDGs goal 14 (sustainable use of the oceans) and conservation of marine biodiversity, stakeholder initiatives, policy formation, and transboundary cooperation are extremely important. It requires disruptive approaches to eliminate marine pollution and conserve marine ecosystems and heritage to enhance the blue economy at the global level, in turn leading to improved sustainable development. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We would like to extend our sincere thanks and gratitude to the Head, Members, Organizers, and Colleagues of the Asia Pacific Conference on UCH for providing us with an excellent platform to exchange our views and ideas and enhance knowledge through this conference with experts from different locations of the globe. We are also grateful to our university and institutions in India for their generous support, motivation, and contributions to our research. We are delighted to be part of the conference and have aspired to remain attached to the organization of “Asia Pacific Conference on UCH” in the future to conduct collaborative research to improve the sustainability of UCH. 7 �. Dr. Bishnu Pada Bose Professor School of Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Swami Vivekananda University Kolkata, India Ms. Debashruti Bose Symbiosis School of International Studies Symbiosis International University Pune, India Ms. Diptasri Ghosh Department of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, India BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Alexander, K. A., & Haward, M. The human side of marine ecosystem-based management (EBM):‘Sectoral interplay as a challenge to implementing EBM. Marine Policy, 101, (2019): 33-38. 2. Balgos, M. C., Cicin-Sain, B., & VanderZwaag, D. L. A comparative analysis of ocean policies in fifteen nations and four regions. In Routledge Handbook of National and Regional Ocean Policies Routledge. (2015): 3-48). 3. Barbier, E. B. Marine ecosystem services. Current Biology 27, no. 11, (2017): R507-R510. 4. Bigagli, E. The international legal framework for the management of the global oceans social-ecological system. 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Major opportunities for blue economy development in Bangladesh. 8 �Journal of the Indian Ocean Region 14, no. 1, (2018): 88-99. 15. Kaczynski, W. The future of the blue economy: lessons for the European Union. Foundations of Management 3, no. 1, (2011): 21. 16. Karani, P., & Failler, P. Comparative coastal and marine tourism, climate change, and the blue economy in African Large Marine Ecosystems. Environmental Development 36, (2020): 100572. 17. Lamont, M. MCH and Sustainable Development. In Critical Approaches to Heritage for Development Routledge.(2022): 144-158. 18. Lane, D. E., Clarke, C. M., Clarke, J. D., Mycoo, M., & Gobin, J. Managing adaptation to changing climate in Coastal Zones. Coastal Zones, Solutions for the 21st Century, eds J. Baztan, O. Chouinard, B. Jorgensen, P. Tett, J.-P. Vanderlinden, and L. Vasseur (Amsterdam: Elsevier), (2015): 141-160. 19. Micheli, F., Halpern, B. S., Walbridge, S., Ciriaco, S., Ferretti, F., Fraschetti, S.,& Rosenberg, A. A. Cumulative human impacts on Mediterranean and Black Sea marine ecosystems: assessing current pressures and opportunities. PloS one 8, no. 12, (2013): e79889. 20. Mimura, N. State of the environment in the Asia and Pacific coastal zones and effects of global change. Global change and integrated coastal management: The Asia-Pacific region (2006): 17-38. 21. Nishikawa, C. UCH in Asia Pacific and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the UCH. International Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies 17, no. 2, (2021). 22. Pearson, N., & Thompson, B. S. Saving two fish with one wreck: Maximizing synergies in marine biodiversity conservation and UCH protection. Marine Policy 152, (2023): 105613. 23. Quirk, G., & Hanich, Q. Ocean Diplomacy: The Pacific Island Countries' campaign to the UN for an ocean sustainable development goal. Asia-pacific journal of ocean law and policy 1, no. 1, (2016): 68-95. 24. Ryabinin, V., Barbière, J., Haugan, P., Kullenberg, G., Smith, N., McLean, C., & Rigaud, J. The UN Decade of ocean science for sustainable development. Frontiers in Marine Science 6, (2019): 470. 25. Small, C., & Nicholls, R. J. A global analysis of human settlement in coastal zones. Journal of coastal research, (2003): 584-599. 26. Smith, H. D., & Couper, A. D. The management of the UCH. Journal of Cultural Heritage 4, no. 1 (2003): 25-33. 27. Stephenson, R. L., Hobday, A., Cvitanovic, C., Fudge, M., Ward, T., Butler, I., & Vince, J. Report of Workshops on integrated management of marine activities.(2019). 28. Sumaila, U. R., Walsh, M., Hoareau, K., Cox, A., Abdallah, P., Akpalu, W.& Sack, K. Ocean Finance: Financing the transition to a sustainable ocean economy. World Resources Institute.(2020). 29. Vignudelli, S., Birol, F., Benveniste, J., Fu, L. L., Picot, N., Raynal, M., & Roinard, H. Satellite altimetry measurements of sea level in the coastal zone. Surveys in Geophysics 40, (2019): 1319-1349. 30. Wlodzimierz, K. The Future of the Blue Economy: Lessons for the European Union. Foundations of Management 3, no. 1, (2011): 21-32. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 25: Environmental implications of underwater cultural heritage degradation and the conservation of marine ecosystems Subject The topic of the resource Session 25 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 25 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Synergetic management strategy toward sustainable use of ocean resources and enhancing blue economy Description An account of the resource As intensified anthropogenic activities and altered global climate systems impose cumulative pressures on marine biodiversity, their potential to provide tangible and intangible benefits to people and the planet might decrease, causing degrading maritime heritage. The marine environment considers a precious heritage of the global community. A healthy marine environment can boost the resilience of marine heritage. On the other side, the blue economy in the ocean context is strongly gaining international importance. Blue economy cooperation at both global and regional levels will develop a common concept of marine ecosystems and protect underwater marine heritage. The worldwide ocean covers 71% of Earth's surface area. It is expected to become the great economic frontier in the coming future, with tremendous potential for resource generation and development across multidirectional segments. As the oceans are vast and particularly sensitive to ocean trades, coastal economics, marine heritage, and ecosystems need to be preserved, and a balance between trade and commerce and the conservation of the marine ecosystems and heritage must be found. Worldwide, 80% of global trade is achieved using the seas, and 40% of the global population lives near coastal zones. It has been estimated that the annual gross revenue from marine products (GMP) is US$2.5 trillion, and the total value of the ocean resources is at least US$24 trillion; also, the ocean economy is capable of providing a livelihood for over 3 billion people. Pursuing the blue economy sustainably is essential to optimize mutual benefit for the well-being of people and the planet. To enhance the blue economy, we must focus on achieving SDGs goal 14, conserving the maritime cultural heritage and ocean biodiversity. At the same time, stakeholder initiatives, policy formation, and transboundary cooperation are significant. It requires disruptive approaches to eliminate marine pollution and conserve marine ecosystems and heritage to enhance the blue economy at the global level. This paper discusses the threat to underwater cultural heritage caused by anthropogenic sources. It discusses ocean governance, policies, and the proposal to protect marine ecosystems, conserve maritime heritage, and enhance the blue economy. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bishnu Pada Bose Debashruti Bose Diptasri Ghosh Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Bose, Bishnu Pada , Debashruti Bose, and Diptasri Ghosh. 2023. “Synergetic management strategy toward sustainable use of ocean resources and enhancing blue economy.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Bishnu Pada Bose. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1971 Asia-Pac Session 25 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/31297f6f47ad018ceea9b6ef4d00d0e8.pdf 14329731c9b45b394babbd33cc25c18c PDF Text Text Back from Oblivion: Deep Water Wrecks of World War II, Commemoration and Protection 1 Blair Atcheson (Naval History and Heritage Command, Underwater Archaeology Branch Program Manager) 2 Frank Thompson (Naval History and Heritage Command, Deputy Director of Collection Management Division) ABSTRACT The paper as part of Session 4, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges, provides an overview of some of the recent high-profile, deep-water World War II shipwreck discoveries in the Pacific and how studying the data collected supports the Naval History and Heritage Command’s long-term management strategies, approaches to policy and protection, and commemorations. The case studies under consideration are the Battle of Midway Japanese aircraft carriers, USS Juneau, and USS Indianapolis. The resources available to conduct the work include the data from surveys conducted by Vulcan LLC and reviewed by the U.S. Navy’s cultural resource managers for sunken military craft. The data set provides a unique opportunity for research and scientific analysis of deep-water wrecks that are remarkably well-preserved and raises questions on how to address, through policy or practice, the new challenges facing submerged cultural resource managers. The results provide an overview of the information learned from reviewing the ROV footage of the wreck sites and how that informs the management approach for other and future deep water U.S. Navy wreck discoveries by third-party researchers. ABBREVIATIONS AUV – Autonomous Underwater Vehicle DON – Department of the Navy NHHC – Naval History and Heritage Command ROV – Remotely Operated Vehicle UA – Underwater Archaeology Branch U.S. – United States of America FIGURES Figure 1. Aerial photograph of the Midway Atoll, 24 November 1941. (Credit: U.S. Navy, 80-G-451086) Figure 2. Image of one of the eight 8inch guns on the wreck of the Japanese carrier Kaga. (Credit: Vulcan LLC) Figure 3. USS Indianapolis, 10 July 1945, with inset wreck images. (Credit: U.S. Navy, Vulcan LLC) Figure 4. A comparison between the ship plan for USS Juneau and the wreck. (Credit: NHHC, Vulcan LLC) 1 �INTRODUCTION In recent decades, the rapid advance and increased accessibility of ocean exploration technology have made public ship wreck discoveries, particularly in deep water environments, more common. One of the more successful groups was the ocean exploration team of Vulcan LLC, founded by Microsoft cofounder Paul Allen to locate and identify World War II ship wrecks. From 2015 to 2020, the team discovered some of the United States (U.S.) Navy’s most iconic ships, such as USS Indianapolis (CA35) and USS Lexington (CV-2). The Vulcan exploration team was forthcoming, cooperative, and responsible in their approach to locating WWII shipwrecks and provided the survey data to the responsible government agency or museum. For U.S. Navy wrecks, the data was provided to the Naval History and Heritage Command’s (NHHC) Underwater Archaeology Branch (UA) as the managers of the U.S. Navy’s sunken military craft. The mission of the NHHC UA is to manage, interpret, preserve, and protect the Department of the Navy’s (DON) sunken and terrestrial military craft, which includes over 3,000 shipwrecks and 15,000 aircraft wrecks located world-wide and which date from the American Revolution through to the Nuclear Age. In accordance with customary international policy and practice, the United States retains right, title, and interest in and to any U.S. sunken state vessel regardless of location or the passage of time. The U.S. government passed the Sunken Military Craft Act in 2004 to codify into law these existing principles and, primarily, to preserve and protect from unauthorized disturbance all sunken military craft that are owned by the United States, as well as foreign sunken military craft that lie within U.S. waters. U.S. Navy policy recognizes these wreck sites as fit and final resting places for its service members and, as such, prefers non-intrusive, in situ research on sunken military craft. However, the Navy recognizes that disturbance and/or artifact recovery may be justified or become necessary for archaeological, historical, or educational purposes. Therefore, the NHHC established a permitting program to allow for controlled site disturbance. Researchers are not required to obtain a permit from NHHC for non-intrusive, remote-sensing data collection, but are encouraged to coordinate such activities with NHHC. With such a large, global collection of submerged cultural resources, the NHHC is reliant on responsible divers and third-party researchers to provide invaluable information on these wreck sites. The data is closely reviewed to confirm the identity of a wreck, to document the state of preservation of a site, and/or to enhance our understanding and tell the story of the ship and its crew. The search and data reviews of the Japanese wrecks at Midway, USS Indianapolis, and USS Juneau have expanded our understanding of each site and continue to inform NHHC’s submerged resource management approach. MIDWAY In the remote reaches of the western Hawaiian Archipelago sits a small atoll consisting of two islands and a lagoon. The atoll gets its name, Midway, from its location roughly equidistant from North America and Asia. Given its central location, the atoll was an important U.S. Navy base for aircraft and ships traversing the Pacific, and would become the spot of one of the most important confrontations between the Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States Navy - the Battle of Midway. 2 �Figure 1. Aerial photograph, looking just south of west across the southern side of Midway atoll, 24 November 1941. Eastern Island, the site of Midway's airfield, is in the foreground. Sand Island, location of most other base facilities, is across the entrance channel. Official U.S. Navy Photograph, now in the collections of the U.S. National Archives. (US Navy Photograph #80-G-451086). In 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy wielded one of the most awesome instruments of warfare the world had ever seen, the Kido Butai - a strike force made up of six aircraft carriers and their air groups supported by escorts of battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. Under the command Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, the Kido Butai swept all enemies aside as it conducted operations across the Pacific and Indian Oceans (Fuchida and Okumiya 1955). Until 4 June 1942, when the Kido Butai, downed two carriers damaged at the Battle of the Coral Sea, faced an American force of three carriers and their escorts, plus land-based aircraft operating from Midway. By the end of the day, the U.S. Navy had won a major victory; all four of the Kido Butai’s aircraft carriers and their air groups were destroyed against the loss of one U.S. carrier and a destroyer. With this victory, the U.S. began to turn the tide of war in the Pacific. To the U.S. Navy, the Battle of Midway remains a pivotal moment in its history and is the subject of yearly commemorations. Only one carrier wreck, USS Yorktown (CV-5), had previously been located from the battle, alongside possible debris from the Japanese carrier Kaga (Ballard 1999). In 2019, Vulcan launched a survey to locate the Japanese wrecks of Kaga, Akagi, Soryu, and Hiryu. The expedition cast off on 31 August 2019 from Honolulu Harbor aboard the R/V Petrel, a 3400-ton vessel measuring 76.45 meters (m) in length with a 15 meter beam. Petrel deployed with a crew of twenty and ten project team members, which included a subject matter expert from the NHHC. The vessel embarked with an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), a REMUS 6000, and a custom built remotely operated vehicle (ROV), an ARGUS Bathysaurus XL79 equipped with two high-resolution forward-facing cameras and a forward-mounted Kongsberg MS 1171 scanning sonar unit to aid navigation. Both vehicles were rated for 6000 m. 3 �With records collected from years of archival research and study of secondary sources, the expedition team decided to concentrate the search on Akagi, Kaga, and Soryu. As they were disabled at the same time during the battle, it was possible that their wrecks would be close to each other. Here, the book “Shattered Sword” proved invaluable (Parshall and Tulley 2005). The authors provided accounts from surviving crewmen on each carrier during and after the air attacks. Soryu, the smallest carrier in the Kido Butai, was heavily hit by three bombs and left a drifting wreck. Kaga, the largest of the carriers, was hit by five bombs which destroyed the flight deck and hangars. However, there was evidence that the propulsion plan was able to maintain steam up to a speed of about four knots. Furthermore, the war patrol report from the submarine USS Nautilus (SS-168), which fired a torpedo at Kaga after the dive bombing attack, provided a location reference that was used to plot the search area (DON 1942). Akagi, the flagship, suffered one direct hit and a near miss that disabled the steering gear. The direct hit destroyed the carrier’s primary firefighting system, preventing her crew from quenching the growing conflagration in her hangars and flight deck. Later in the morning, the ship’s engines came back on, leaving the ship steaming in circles. Taking all of these factors into account, the search began on 7 September 2019. Figure 2. Video image of one of the eight inch guns on the wreck of the Japanese carrier Kaga. (Credit: Vulcan LLC). The AUV was programed to run a series of five tracks over 13 hours. Unfortunately, a software glitch created a vibration in the AUV that caused some distortion in the data readout. Despite updates from the manufacturer, the problem was never fully resolved, but the data remained decipherable. However, the seafloor ensonification proved deceptive. Instead of presenting a clear debris trail, the contacts in the data did not point in any one direction to follow (Paul Mayer pers comm 2023). On 13 September, after running a search of over 600 nautical square miles (nm2), a promising contact was noted on the bottom at about 5,500 m. A high resolution side-scan pass revealed the impression of a carrier. The dimensions of the contact eliminated Soryu as a candidate. The tethered ROV was deployed to investigate the target starting on the aft starboard side quarter of the wreck. The wreck had plowed into the bottom and buried itself up to the degaussing cable. One of the first noticeable features was the barrel of an eight-inch gun. That image confirmed that the wreck was either Akagi or Kaga. According to the ship’s data, Akagi had six such guns, mounted three on each side. Kaga, slightly larger, had 10 total, five on each side (Skwiot and Jarski 2015). Three eight-inch guns or associated empty barbette were noted on each side, which originally suggested the site was Akagi. However, what the video did not show, the side-scan sonar did; debris covered a couple of the mounts 4 �bringing the total guns to eight. The site was confirmed as the wreck of Kaga. Reviewing the plot, the team noted that Kaga was 16 kilometers (km) from the initial calculated search position. The condition of the site and battle damage, including the collapsed flight deck and superstructure, corroborated the survivor accounts published in “Shattered Sword” (Parshall and Tulley 2005). The search for Akagi and Soryu continued, but the survey was dogged by troubles with the AUV, while AUV missions that were successfully launched kept concluding without result. Finally, on 20 October, a large debris field lit the data screen at a depth of about 5,500 m. Unfortunately, the cable system on the ROV had failed and so no video data could be collected. However, the high resolution side-scan clearly indicated a carrier wreck and the dimensions matched the Kido Butai flagship, Akagi. The expedition ended before locating the wrecks of the Soryu and Hiryu. The atoll, now under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of the Interior, is slowly being restored to its pre-human habitation environment. While little will remain of the land side of the Midway battle, the wrecks of the American and Japanese carriers will stand in testament to the mighty clash of these two naval forces and as memorials to the service and sacrifice of the servicemen of both nations. INDIANAPOLIS Shortly after midnight on 30 July 1945, an explosion severed the bow of the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis (CA-35). Seconds later, another explosion rocked the starboard side of the ship and engulfed the superstructure in flames. The ship had been hit by two torpedoes from Japanese submarine I-58. The damage was catastrophic to ship and crew. In less than 15 minutes, the decorated warship would come to rest 3.5 miles (5,500 m) at the bottom of the Philippine Sea. The loss of Indianapolis would not be reported for another four days when the first of the survivors were spotted and pulled from the sea. An estimated 900 men of a crew of 1,195 went in to the water, but only 316 survived. The ship had a commendable record before and during WWII, but ‘the proud legacy of the ship would forever be marred by the controversial circumstances of her loss, the Navy’s failure to rescue her stranded crew in a timely manner, and the treatment of her skipper’ (Hulver and Atcheson 2019, 13). The wreck of Indianapolis was located by the Vulcan exploration team aboard R/V Petrel on 19 August 2017 utilizing their AUV and ROV systems. The side-scan sonar of the wreck site revealed the bow, broken and separated from the main hull by nearly 2 km. The speed at which the ship sank and landed keel-first on the seafloor is evidenced by the impact crater left in the sediment; a remarkable sight given the 72 years that had passed since its sinking. After the torpedo strikes, one engine kept running so the ship circled to port while going down at the bow with an increasing starboard list. At 12 minutes from impact, the ship almost completely capsized before going vertical and disappearing under the waves. The side-scan image of the wreck and the arrangement of the debris field confirmed the sinking event transpired just as described by survivors in the Navy’s 1945 report (DON 1945). Damage from the second torpedo is marked by a large hole in the shell plating on the starboard side at the top of the first platform; an exit blast is evident on the deck of the communication platform behind the barbette of Turret Two. The visible damage seems modest in comparison to survivor accounts of ruptured decks with flames coming through and scorching hot walls and floors that burned hands and feet. However, the 1945 report believed that the heavy longitudinal bulkhead likely deflected the force of the torpedo detonation upward into the crew’s spaces, something confirmed by the exit blast on the communication platform. The most striking feature of the wreck site is its remarkable preservation, highlighted through the clear paint and stenciling from the hull number 35 on the bow, a lone box in the debris field labelled “USS INDIANAPOLIS, PARTS AND TOOLS”, the 2-tone grey paint on the hull with the intact teak decking, or the bureau number visible on the tail of a Curtiss SC-1 Seahawk. 5 �Figure 3. Indianapolis off Mare Island, California, 10 July 1945, after her final overhaul and repair of combat damage, Bureau of Ships Collection, National Archives #19-N-86911. Inset images: 1) shell damage from the second torpedo hit, 2) exit blast damage on the deck of the communication platform, 3) bow hull number. (Credit: U.S. Navy, Vulcan LLC) The upright positioning of the wreck, and pristine condition of the site, allowed the Navy to reinvestigate the sinking and corroborate the historical records with the actual wreckage. In general, the Navy’s 1945 report on the loss (DON 1945), was remarkably accurate given the chaotic nature of Indianapolis’s last moments and trials of the survivors at sea. One of the more surprising results from each site reviewed thus far is the accuracy of survivor accounts, with a few discrepancies, which highlights the importance of collecting oral histories. JUNEAU USS Juneau (CL-52), a 6,000-ton Atlanta-class light cruiser commissioned on 14 February 1942 had a short, but notable career largely conducting carrier escort duty in the Pacific theater until the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. During an unexpected close-quarters engagement between an Allied task force and Japanese bombardment fleet shortly after midnight on 13 November 1942, Juneau was hit in the port forward fire room by a torpedo from a Japanese destroyer. The impact caused significant damage and Juneau withdrew from the skirmish to conduct emergency repairs. In the morning, the injured cruiser joined with the remainder of the Allied task force. At 11:01, Juneau was hit by a torpedo from the Japanese submarine I-26. The torpedo struck just forward of amidships on the port side very near the torpedo hit from the earlier night battle causing a catastrophic explosion that sank the ship in a minute. Eyewitnesses did not believe any of the crew survived the violent explosion or rapid sinking. However, an estimated 115 sailors of a crew of 693 survived the initial sinking only to endure seven days at sea. Only 14 of Juneau’s crew would ultimately survive. While loss of Juneau itself is haunting, the ship is most remembered for the death of the five Sullivan brothers; the story of service and sacrifice of one family resonated deeply with the Navy and the nation, then as it does today. Using positions from the war diaries of two ships near Juneau at the time of the sinking, the Vulcan research team aboard R/V Petrel developed a search grid and deployed their AUV to scan the seafloor for anomalies in March 2018. A high frequency side-scan target revealed a large hull-shaped object and a concentrated debris field. An ROV investigation confirmed the wreck as the remains of Juneau. Once the data was received, NHHC (2018) archaeologists conducted a close review of survivor 6 �accounts, official Navy records, and secondary sources to determine any lingering questions from the historical record. For Juneau, historical accounts of the sinking were generally consistent. The wreck of Juneau lies at a depth of over 4,000 m in the waters of the Solomon Sea southwest of the island of San Cristobal. The site is broken up in two sections: the intact main hull and a debris field which includes a portion of the bow and stern. The main hull section is approximately half of the 542 ft (165 m) long ship and is sitting proud on seafloor buried in sediment up to the bilge keel. Approximately 600 m to the southeast is the main debris field which includes, rather perplexingly, a portion of the bow resting on its port side with a portion of the stern (fantail) on top of the bow. The name plate on the stern with the letters “uneau” are visible confirming the wreck’s identity. The entire wreck site bears witness to the cataclysmic explosion that rocked the ship on the morning of 13 November 1942. The degree of destruction made it a challenge to grasp how much of the ship remained. Although the video was not collected systematically, NHHC archaeologists experimented with processing the video through photogrammetric software. While imperfect, the three-dimensional model that was produced provided significant insights into understanding the site. The scene is that of great violence. Half of the ship essentially evaporated upon impact; what little remains is because it was immersed so quickly that it did not have time to explode or burn. Figure 4. A comparison between the ship plan profile for USS Juneau and remaining wreckage. The 3D model, developed from Vulcan’s video data, shows the most intact portion of the main hull from the aft stack to the propellers, portside. (Credit: NHHC, Vulcan LLC) In the debris field, the detached rudder was the first indication of a possible second torpedo hit in the stern. Returning to the historical records, one survivor and one witness from a nearby ship believed a second torpedo from I-26 struck in the fantail (O’Neill 1942). The distinct shockwave damage on the rudder provides some credence to an adjacent external explosion, likely near the vessel’s propellers. While further, systematic, documentation of the wreck site, particularly near the rudder and stern, would help to interpret the damage, the level of destruction is so severe that even with further documentation it is unlikely that a conclusive determination could be made about the possible second torpedo strike. However, the ship’s official record has now been amended to indicate that Juneau was likely struck by three torpedoes in all, one during the night battle and two later the following morning. 7 �CONCLUSION The many discoveries by Vulcan LLC provide the Navy with a unique opportunity to study multiple well-preserved and undisturbed wreck sites of a similar age, type, and environment. While the data was not collected systematically nor with archaeological research in mind, NHHC has extracted substantial information from the data reviews, allowing archaeologists to compare historical records with the extant wrecks, providing baseline documentation for resource management purposes, informing future site visits and research questions, and supporting NHHC’s mission to preserve and present an accurate history of the U.S. Navy. Prior to the twenty-first century, the deep ocean, much like outer space, was explored mostly by governments and academia. There is now an ever-increasing interest in deep-water shipwreck visitation, spanning from the privately-funded researcher to individuals wishing to merely explore the seafloor with private submersibles. Based on the knowledge gained from analyzing the site data provided by Vulcan LLC and other partners, NHHC has been in a better position to develop policies to address deep-water wreck site visits, in particular those involving the use of submersibles. As wrecks continue to be found and depth becomes less of a protecting factor, the more knowledge gained on each site that is responsibly studied, the better positioned NHHC and other submerged cultural resource managers are to create best practices and policies that preserve these untouched resources and honor those lost onboard. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The NHHC Underwater Archaeology Branch is grateful to Vulcan LLC for many years of dedicated and responsible surveying and documenting of WWII shipwrecks and for subsequently providing this key data to the appropriate cultural resource managers. We anticipate the information will continue to produce significant findings as data analysis continues and be used to protect and commemorate these wreck sites for many decades. The authors would like to thank all the Navy researchers that contributed to the analysis of the wrecks sites addressed in this paper: Heather Brown, Ken Nahshon, Richard Hulver, Jason Griffin, and George Huss. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ballard, Robert D., Archbold, Rick. Return to Midway. Washington DC: National Geographic/Madison Press Books, 1999. Department of the Navy [DON]. Loss of USS Indianapolis, 2 October 1945, RG 19, Entry P1, Boxes 30-32, National Archives and Records Administration [NARA] II, College Park, MD. Department of the Navy [DON]. USS Nautilus First War Patrol Report, 1942, RG 19, NARA II, College Park, MD. Fuchida, Mitsuo and Okumiya, Masatake, Midway: The Battle that Doomed Japan, The Japanese Navy’s Story. Naval Institute Press, 1955 Hulver, Richard A. and Atcheson, Blair. “USS Indianapolis Discovered! Now What? – Analysis of a Wrecksite” Proceedings of Preserving U.S. Military Heritage: World War II to the Cold War, Fredericksburg, Texas, June 4-6, 2019. Naval History and Heritage Command [NHHC]. “Juneau I (CL-52).” United States: Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Accessed December 12, 2018. https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/j/juneau-i.html O’Neill, Rodger MC-V(G), U.S. Navy Reserve. Report of USS Juneau Activity from November 11 to 13, 1942, inclusive. PacFlt Conf. Ltr. 24CL-42. Textual Reference Branch, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD. Paul Mayer, Personal communication with Frank Thompson, NHHC, April 21, 2023. Parshall, Jonathan B., and Tully, Anthony P. Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. United States: Potomac Books, 2005. Skwiot, Miroslaw and Jarski, Adam. Kaga 1920-1942: The Japanese Aircraft Carrier. Poland: Kagero, 2015. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Back from Oblivion: Deep Water Wrecks of World War II, Commemoration and Protection Description An account of the resource The paper as part of Session 4, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges, provides an overview of some of the recent high-profile, deep-water World War II shipwreck discoveries in the Pacific and how studying the data collected supports the Naval History and Heritage Command’s long-term management strategies, approaches to policy and protection, and commemorations. The case studies under consideration are the Battle of Midway Japanese aircraft carriers, USS Juneau, and USS Indianapolis. The resources available to conduct the work include the data from surveys conducted by Vulcan LLC and reviewed by the U.S. Navy’s cultural resource managers for sunken military craft. The data set provides a unique opportunity for research and scientific analysis of deep-water wrecks that are remarkably well-preserved and raises questions on how to address, through policy or practice, the new challenges facing submerged cultural resource managers. The results provide an overview of the information learned from reviewing the ROV footage of the wreck sites and how that informs the management approach for other and future deep water U.S. Navy wreck discoveries by third-party researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Blair Atcheson Frank Thompson Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Atcheson, M. Blair and Frank Thompson. 2023. “Back from Oblivion - Deep Water Wrecks of World War II - Commemoration and Protection.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1894 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-Distance Contacts between Oceania and East Africa Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Blench, Roger Julian Reade Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Blench, Roger Editor Julian Reade Item Type Book Section Book Title The Indian Ocean in Antiquity Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Pages 417-38 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Title A name given to the resource The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-Distance Contacts between Oceania and East Africa