1 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2da7a0bab7c0cf6b00f1bbc4ded9efaf.pdf 96d5a6c7df7514df044a383bf84d8240 PDF Text Text Submerged Battlefield: Examining the Status and Challenges of World War II Shipwreck Management in the Philippines 1 Rachelle Anne Geline P. Ureta (National Museum of the Philippines, Museum Researcher; University of the Philippines School of Archaeology) 2 Bobby C. Orillaneda (National Museum of the Philippines, Museum Curator) ABSTRACT Many sites in the Philippines had been battlegrounds during World War II (WWII) that resulted in substantial sinking of American and Japanese naval vessels. Advanced technology has significantly helped in locating these shipwrecks and documenting their current condition. However, many of these underwater cultural resources have not yet been subject to proper scientific examination. Navigea, Ltd., in collaboration with the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Division of the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) has located and photo-documented WWII shipwrecks in Subic Bay, Surigao Strait, and Ormoc Bay which only comprise a small percentage of the total number of shipwrecks. These sunken vessels are considered war graves which are regarded with certain sanctity particularly for the nations they fought for. They possess intrinsic, scientific, educational, monetary, and cultural values, thus should be extensively investigated to effectively plan for their protection against threats such as natural processes and human intervention. Archaeological studies of sunken warships can also provide insight on the events during the naval battle and clarify information from written sources. This paper presents a status update and results of research activities in the WWII shipwrecks in the Philippines. It also outlines the challenges in managing these sites and proposes potential plans and measures for their long-term management and preservation. KEYWORDS: shipwreck, World War II, warships, Philippines, underwater cultural heritage LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. ROV image capture of a) Asagumo’s bridge, b) Fuso’s portside inboard propeller, c) Michishio’s dual gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 2. MBES sonar images of a) Yamashiro, b) Michishio, c) Yamagumo. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 3. ROV image capture of a) USS Ward’s bow section, b) USS Cooper’s side launchers, c) IJN Shimikaze’s gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 4. MBES sonar images of a) USS Ward, b) USS Cooper. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 5. Documentation of the El Capitan’s rudder. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 6. MBES sonar image of Oryoku Maru. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 7. MBES sonar image of USS New York. Courtesy of RV Petrel. INTRODUCTION The Philippines played an important role during the Second World War (WWII). Some sites such as in Subic Bay, Zambales Province in Luzon served as naval fortresses because of their strategic location (Anderson 2006, 189-204). The Battle of Surigao Strait is viewed as the last pure battleship-tobattleship engagement in WWII. It was also part of the larger Battle of Leyte Gulf, which is considered to be the largest naval battle in WWII (Tully 2009, 13). The Battle of Ormoc Bay was a sequence of naval battles between the American and Japanese forces, which prompted the latter to strengthen their forces in Leyte (Pinak 2017, 252). As many of the sites that resulted from these engagements are war graves for American and Japanese troops, the shipwrecks are regarded with a certain sanctity, particularly for the nations they fought for. They embody both tangible and intangible cultural heritage, apart from intrinsic historical significance. While vivid accounts of WWII were provided by numerous eyewitnesses, investigation of material evidence is still important to determine a site’s historical significance and formulate plans for its preservation (Lacsina 2017, 7-8). These wreck sites are part of our underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and are currently vulnerable to a wide range of threats from human activities and natural processes. Wrecks in shallow waters are expected to collapse and deteriorate in the next few years. The advancement of technology has also made the wreck sites more accessible to divers and salvors. The stability and condition of these underwater cultural resources are largely affected by the activities of sports divers and fishermen using surface supplied air diving (hookah system) (King et al 2019, 3). 1 �There is also reported looting on some shipwrecks through the salvage of ship metal parts or structures for commercial exploitation purposes (King et al 2019, 11-12). Moreover, volcanic deposits and sediments have been observed covering the surface of certain shipwrecks which may affect their condition (Cuevas 1994, 2). With these emerging issues, the management of underwater cultural heritage and progress of underwater archaeology is a priority, as well as a challenge. As the leading government agency tasked with the protection of the country’s UCH, the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) is constantly seeking ways to improve and develop the management of underwater archaeological resources through the help and coordination with local governments, archaeological organizations, and other stakeholders (King et al 2019, 2). The surveys of the wrecks may be used as a tool to reconstruct events from the past and clarify some conflicting memories of eyewitnesses. WORLD WAR II SHIPWRECK SURVEYS AND EXPLORATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES A. The Surigao Strait Shipwrecks The Battle of Surigao Strait took place on 25 October 1944 when the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) forces attempted to regain control over Leyte from American and Australian forces (Tully 2009, 2570). This is the last pure battleship-to-battleship engagement that ever took place and is thus a significant event in the world of naval history (Lacsina 2017, 2). The IJN Southern Force, led by Admiral Shoji Nishimura, sailed from Brunei towards Leyte. The fleet was joined by the two battleships Yamashiro and Fuso, the heavy cruiser Mogami, and four destroyers Shigure, Michisio, Assagumo, and Yamagumo (Lacsina 2017, 2). However, USN Admiral Jesse Oldndorf anticipated their approach and commanded six battleships, four heavy cruisers, 28 destroyers, and 39 motor torpedo boats to trap and overwhelm them. The IJN Force was overpowered, with only Mogami and Shigure able to retreat south. Mogami was eventually sunk by aircraft. In 2017, NMP coordinated with Navigea to confirm the locations of the IJN ships that sunk in Surigao Strait. Using Navigea’s research vessel Petrel and its state-of-the-art equipment, the conditions and exact locations of the Yamashiro, Asagumo, Fuso, Michishio, and Yamagumo were found. Figure 1 shows the image captures from the live video footage of Argus 6000 Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). Sonar images were also obtained using Multibeam Echosounder (MBES) sonar (Figure 2). Figure 1. ROV image capture of a) Asagumo’s bridge, b) Fuso’s portside inboard propeller, c) Michishio’s dual gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. 2 �Figure 2. MBES sonar images of a) Yamashiro, b) Michishio, c) Yamagumo. Courtesy of RV Petrel. B. The Ormoc Bay Shipwrecks Air and sea battles between American and Japanese forces were fought from 11 November to 12 December 1944 for the Battle of Ormoc Bay. USS Ward is a destroyer that was lost in the battle during the IJN air raid of the US Naval base. Another American ship, Summer-class destroyer USS Cooper was less than a year old when it was hit by a Japanese destroyer and then sunk at a depth of 193 meters (Lacsina 2017, 2). In 2017 to 2018, the NMP continued the project with Navigea to confirm the locations of the ships that sunk during the Battle of Ormoc Bay. Using Navigea’s RV Petrel and its equipment, the conditions and exact locations of USS Ward, USS Cooper, IJN Shimikaze, IJN Naganami (suspected), and IJN Wakatsuki (suspected) were found. Figure 3 shows the image captures of the parts of the wrecks from the live video footage of Argus 6000 ROV. Sonar images were also obtained using MBES sonar (Figure 4). Figure 3. ROV image capture of a) USS Ward’s bow section, b) USS Cooper’s side launchers, c) IJN Shimikaze’s gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 4. MBES sonar images of a) USS Ward, b) USS Cooper. Courtesy of RV Petrel. C. The Subic Bay Shipwrecks Subic Bay is known to contain a large number of historical ship, aircraft, and vehicle wrecks. It is located on the west coast of the island of Luzon in Zambales, Philippines, about 100 km northwest of Manila Bay. Its strategic location makes it an ideal shelter for vessels. The Spaniards discovered the natural, deep and strategically located harbor of Subic Bay and later built their naval fortress that served as a battlefield during the Spanish-American war in 1898. After the Americans took control over the Philippines, Subic Bay was designated as a military reservation from 1900 to 1941 and then again from 1945 to 1991, ultimately relinquished to the Philippines in 1992 (Anderson 2006, 194-204; King et al 2019, 1). Moreover, throughout WWII, Japanese forces took control and maintained a shipbuilding facility in Subic Bay (King et al 2019, 2). 3 �Currently, 14 shipwrecks are identified in Subic Bay to date, excluding aircraft and vehicle wrecks (King et al 2019, 2). This reflects the rich maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the area. One of the most accessible and popular diving sites in Subic Bay is the USS Majaba, more commonly known as the El Capitan. El Capitan was deployed between Hawaii Islands in the South Pacific to bring supplies for the American forces and was torpedoed on the starboard side at the Solomon Islands while unloading (Bennett 2010, 155). After undergoing repair, it was returned to Subic Bay and was placed out of service, then decommissioned in 1946. The ship sunk at its dock that same year (Bennett 2010, 155). The NMP has conducted field explorations and surveys on different Subic Bay shipwrecks since the 1990’s as part of its Cultural Heritage Management responsibilities. In 2019, surveys were conducted on El Capitan to document and monitor its condition for the protection and management plan of the Subic Bay shipwrecks. El Capitan is situated approximately 10-22 meters below sea level (King et al 2019, 8). The absence of obvious explosive damage confirmed historical records that the ship did not sink in action, but more likely due to collision. Parts of the shipwreck such as the rudder and a possible forward gun platform was also measured and documented for further research (Figure 5). Figure 5. Documentation of the El Capitan’s rudder. One known ‘hell ship’ that wrecked in Subic Bay is the Japanese Fleet Carrier Ship Oryoku Maru. In December 1944, the Oryoku Maru carried around 1,622 Prisoners of War (POW) to be taken to Japan to work in labor camps (Bennett 2010, 139). Several POWs died through injuries, starvation, suffocation, and other brutal causes. As the ship proceeded to Olongapo across Subic Bay, it was relentlessly bombed by American planes from USS Hornet causing it to sink. Some prisoners were able to swim to the shore, however, about 270 POWs reportedly died onboard (Bennett 2010, 139). In 2019, the NMP coordinated with RV Petrel to conduct preliminary surveys of Subic Bay shipwrecks, including the Oryoku Maru, using MBES. The data (Figure 6) obtained shows that the wreck is laying on the port side in a deteriorated state as its location is also a shipping area. The wreck lies 17–25 m deep, 400 m from Alava Pier (Bennett 2010, 139). There is poor visibility on the site and the wreck has reportedly undergone extensive scuttling. Currently, the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA), the primary authority over the Subic Bay Freeport Zone (SBFZ), has closed the site for all diving activities. 4 �Figure 6. MBES sonar image of Oryoku Maru. Courtesy of RV Petrel. One of the most dived wrecks in Subic Bay is the USS New York, also known as USS Rochester. The ship was a veteran flagship of the Spanish-American War in Cuba in 1898 and the leading battleship of the Asiatic Fleet when it came to the Philippines in 1901 (Bennett 2010, 35). In December 1941, orders came to destroy the Naval Yard at Subic Bay on the advancement of the Japanese. The ship was towed out into the bay and then sunk as depth charges were set off to avoid the Japanese forces from taking advantage of the ship’s powerful 200 mm guns (Bennett 2010, 35). Currently, the wreck lies on the Subic Bay seabed with a maximum depth of 30 meters. The decks, forward rear gun turrets, and one large eight-inch gun can be observed in the wreck (Bennett 2010, 35). The USS New York is also part of the Subic Bay shipwreck survey in 2019 with RV Petrel using MBES sonar. The sonar image (Figure 7) shows the USS New York lying on her port side and in fairly good condition. The data obtained from the surveys will be used for the cultural heritage management of Subic Bay shipwrecks. Figure 7. MBES sonar image of USS New York. Courtesy of RV Petrel. CHALLENGES IN THE WWII SHIPWRECK MANAGEMENT Underwater cultural heritage has become more accessible to the public and has been vulnerable to exploitation as well as natural conditions (Manders 2012, 3). These make the management and protection of UCH more difficult. Historical shipwrecks, especially those on shallow waters, are one of the most vulnerable sites since they are constantly exposed to a number of threats such as impacts of climate change, climactic conditions, and damage from human activities including looting, anchoring, and coastal or offshore development (Steyne 2010, 50). The NMP through its MUCH Division, is the lead agency in the management and research on WWII shipwrecks in the Philippines. Lim et al (2021) outlines the challenges of UCH management in the Philippines. These include lack of adequate funds and qualified personnel, weak legislation and policy enforcement, and insufficient communication and demonstration of significance (Lim et al 2021, 49). 5 �A. Lack of manpower and qualified personnel The amount of discovered and reported shipwrecks are continuously growing and there is a need for more trained and qualified personnel to conduct archaeological research and excavation. Currently, there are only 11 personnel in the NMP MUCH division: three researchers, six technicians, one laboratory aide, and one administrative officer. Nine of these personnel are licensed SCUBA divers; only one has an extensive background in archaeology. The other researchers have backgrounds in marine science and chemistry, but both are currently pursuing a Diploma Course in Archaeology. With the upsurge of newly discovered sites, as well as the sites that need re-examination, more support is needed. B. Inadequate funds and equipment Archaeological surveys, exploration, and excavation of wrecks is very costly, as it requires special equipment necessary to ensure safety of the divers and to be able to conduct the work accurately. It is also crucial to spend a long time underwater for assessment and documentation of wrecks thus, one field season is generally not enough to complete the survey and study of a site. The NMP has acquired SCUBA diving capabilities in recent years, including equipment such as dive computers, metal detectors, a rigid inflatable boat for surveys, and a side scan sonar. However, due to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the safety restrictions, underwater research has been hampered and most equipment has not yet been used. Most equipment such as the dive computer and buoyancy compensator (BC) must be regularly maintained, which also requires additional funding. More advanced equipment is also needed for deeper sites and unstable environmental conditions – the latter are typically very expensive and also need regular maintenance. C. Issues on policy enforcement and legislation The major challenge in cultural heritage management is treasure hunting, illicit trade, and antique collecting, which result in the loss of significant information of our history. There has been reported salvaging of small ship parts and objects from WWII shipwrecks as souvenir items and the dynamiting of metal structures for commercial purposes (King et al 2019, 11-12). The regulation of treasure hunting permits is authorized by the National Commission of Culture and the Arts (NCCA), in coordination with the NMP. However, these activities still adversely impact cultural heritage resources. Most of the reported underwater wreck sites have already been looted before the authorities can excavate or survey the site. The illegal trade of cultural objects provides an opportunity for lowincome locals to earn money for their livelihood, thus it is a problem that is difficult to control or resolve, especially as there is no clear penalty for the violation of some laws. Moreover, some excavations such as the Tagbita Bay and Mangsee shipwrecks, were unfinished due to insufficient funding, while the investigation of thirteenth to sixteenth century CE wreck sites and WWII remains in Scarborough Shoal was halted due to territorial and maritime dispute between the Philippines and China in the West Philippine Sea (Lim et al 2021, 44-45). The management of WWII-related UCH involves specific issues such as repatriation of human remains, unexploded ordnances, and potential pollution by oil spills (Takahashi 2018, 11). Many of these sites are war graves and regarded with respect for the troops and the countries for which they fought for. Apart from their historical significance, these wrecks embody our cultural heritage. For the repatriation of human remains, international laws and code of ethics must be considered. WAYS FORWARD Although faced with challenges, the NMP MUCH division continues to be proactive by conducting programs that promote understanding and appreciation of the significance of cultural heritage. A. Raising awareness Raising awareness is one of the best ways to preserve cultural heritage for future generations. Presently, the museum is increasing the public awareness program through social media educational 6 �posts, Museum from Home programs, Virtual Gallery Tours, and soon the digitization of records and databases to make the collections and their study more accessible to the public. The research conducted by MUCH is continuously published in different journals and presented on local and international conferences. It is the agency’s objective to strengthen the relationship of the museum with stakeholder communities and share updates on archaeological research and museum works. Information on WWII shipwrecks has been published on NMP’s official website and social media pages. Strengthening these programs promotes the appreciation of the public not only on historical shipwrecks but for all the country’s cultural heritage as well. B. Personnel development There is a need to increase the workforce in the MUCH division, especially personnel that specialize in archaeology. Training workshops and programs on SCUBA diving, proper archaeological methods, conservation, and relevant skills must be developed to produce more competent cultural heritage workers. C. Linkages and collaborations The task of managing UCH is a multifaceted process that should not be assigned to archaeologists alone (Manders 2012, 15). Cooperation among concerned stakeholders is therefore essential. Examples are the diving communities who are establishing their own shipwreck databases and are actively involved in discussion forums regarding their environment. The museum’s role as the leading agency in the protection of UCH is to facilitate and influence the discussions regarding research, protection, and site accessibility. Priority should also be given to the establishment of partnerships or collaborations for museum works and archaeological research, such as with archaeological institutions, national government agencies involved in cultural heritage and underwater preservation, and other international research institutions. Presently, the NMP has signed with a Memorandum of Understanding with the Philippine Coast Guard. Other national agencies that the NMP is pursuing collaboration with are the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) and Philippine Navy. These agencies have the necessary and more advanced equipment for the survey and documentation of shipwrecks. For instance, NAMRIA has four survey vessels equipped with multi beam and single beam sonars. They also have side scan sonars used in survey activities at shallow waters. They have experienced hydrographers on board that analyze the data from the surveys. According to NAMRIA representatives, they conduct a survey over each reported wreck site every five years. Through collaboration and a Memorandum of Agreement with the agency, their data can be shared with NMP which will be valuable in the protection and management of the wreck sites. Strengthening of linkages with local and international institutions is also important in the protection and preservation of UCH including historical shipwrecks. These include the continuous collaboration with local institutions such as Kapisanan ng mga Arkeologist sa Pilipinas, Inc., University of the Philippines School of Archaeology, and the NCCA. In the international venue NMP collaborates with the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization, and other cultural agencies. D. Policy implementation There is a lack of understanding on the laws governing the underwater cultural heritage of the Philippines. A strict implementation of policies must be established to discourage looters and treasure hunters. There should also be clear designation of roles for all the cultural agencies involved in the preservation of UCH. A regular focus group to address all the issues in the management of UCH can help in ensuring that the policies are properly disseminated to the public. 7 �CONCLUSION The NMP has been working continuously on the research and preservation of historical shipwrecks. Notable progress on the WWII shipwreck management in the Philippines was demonstrated by the undersea surveys at Subic Bay, Ormoc Bay, and Surigao Strait conducted in collaboration with Navigea’s RV Petrel. The data obtained from the surveys can be used to document the sites and record their conditions to help plan their protection and preservation. The museum also works on the development of educational programs to raise awareness of the archaeological and historical significance of UCH. Major issues include lack of qualified personnel, inadequate funds and equipment, policy enforcement and legislation, and ethical concerns over exploitation of UCH. These issues can be addressed by strengthening the programs on raising awareness, creating more job opportunities and training workshops for cultural heritage workers, developing new partnerships and strengthening the links between different local and international institutions, as well as strict implementation of UCH policies. It is recommended to publish a book or catalogue explaining the significance of the historical wrecks in the Philippines and also to educate and update the public on the archaeological research activities on these shipwrecks. There should also be involvement and coordination with local diving communities on the promotion of safe and enjoyable diving of wreck sites, while creating a scheme to protect the UCH. The management of WWII shipwrecks must follow a holistic approach, which includes long term measures and monitoring for the protection and sustainability of the shipwrecks. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Gerald R. Subic Bay from Magellan to Pinatubo: The History of the US Naval Station, Subic Bay. Gerald Anderson, 2009. Bennett, Tom. World War II Wrecks of the Philippines: WWII shipwrecks of the Philippines. Happy Fish Publications. Milford Haven Wales, 2010. Cuevas, Maharlika. “Subic Bay Underwater Archaeological Project: Second Preliminary Report”. Field Report, National Museum of the Philippines (1994). King, Catherine P., Bobby C. Orillaneda, Rachelle Anne Geline P. Ureta, and Nero M. Austero. “Examining the potential of underwater cultural heritage preservation and management in the Philippines: The Subic Bay shipwrecks”. Paper presented at the Proceedings at the International Archaeological Conference, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia, 24–30 September 2019. Lacsina, Ligaya. “Field Report: Navigea’s Survey for World War II Shipwrecks in the Surigao Strait and Ormoc Bay (November 20-December 5, 2017)”. Unpublished Field Report. National Museum of the Philippines (2017). Lim, Kristine Kate A., Bobby C. Orillaneda, and Catherine P. King. "People and the sea: A values perspective in the conservation management of maritime heritage in the Philippines." International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, IJAPS 17 (2021): 39-73. Manders, Martin. “Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage”. In Training manual for the UNESCO foundation course on the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage in Asia and the Pacific, 2-20. Thailand: UNESCO Bangkok, 2012. Pinak, Eugen "Ormoc Bay naval battle on December 3, 1944–The last victory of IJN surface ships." Американська історія та політика 3 (2017): 252-259. Takahashi, Akatsuki. "Safeguarding Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific: Report on good practice in the protection and management of world war II-related Underwater Cultural Heritage." (2017). Tully, Anthony P. Battle of Surigao strait. Indiana University Press, 2009. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Submerged Battlefield: Examining the Status and Challenges of World War II Shipwreck Management in the Philippines Description An account of the resource Many sites in the Philippines had been battlegrounds during World War II (WWII) that resulted in substantial sinking of American and Japanese naval vessels. Advanced technology has significantly helped in locating these shipwrecks and documenting their current condition. However, many of these underwater cultural resources have not yet been subject to proper scientific examination. Navigea, Ltd., in collaboration with the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Division of the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) has located and photo-documented WWII shipwrecks in Subic Bay, Surigao Strait, and Ormoc Bay which only comprise a small percentage of the total number of shipwrecks. These sunken vessels are considered war graves which are regarded with certain sanctity particularly for the nations they fought for. They possess intrinsic, scientific, educational, monetary, and cultural values, thus should be extensively investigated to effectively plan for their protection against threats such as natural processes and human intervention. Archaeological studies of sunken warships can also provide insight on the events during the naval battle and clarify information from written sources. This paper presents a status update and results of research activities in the WWII shipwrecks in the Philippines. It also outlines the challenges in managing these sites and proposes potential plans and measures for their long-term management and preservation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rachelle Anne Geline P. Ureta Bobby C. Orillaneda Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ureta, RachellenAnne Geline P., and Bobby C. Orillaneda. 2023. “Submerged Battlefield: Examining the Status and Challenges of World War II Shipwreck Management in the Philippines.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1901 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7062be1e10a33b21a436fa48583d28f0.pdf d7b554f1ee475142c7c78319a9bf60ff PDF Text Text The Application of Photogrammetry for Recording Indonesian Vernacular and Historical Boats and Boat Miniatures in Museum Collections Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa1,2 Chiara Zazzaro1 Agni Mochtar1,3 1 Università di Napoli “L’Orientale”, Italy Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha, Indonesia 3 National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Indonesia 2 ABSTRACT This paper fits best within Session 27 New Technology and Interdisciplinary Strategies as it focuses on the status and preservation of vernacular and historical boats and boat miniatures within Indonesian museum collections. The case study under consideration concerns challenges and strategies of using photogrammetry for recording these museum collections and for preservation, dissemination, and scientific research. The resources available to conduct the work include the full-size and miniature Indonesian boats kept in the Museum Nasional and Kebaharian Museum in Jakarta and other collections in Indonesia. The research questions of this project are: what is the suitable method, and what are the challenges in the 3D documentation of full-sized boats and miniatures in museums using the photogrammetry technique? The results of this project are comprehensive data regarding the photogrammetry workflow for museum collections and sets of digital boat models suitable for disseminating information and for scientific publication. This project is part of the Indonesian Boatbuilding Endangered Heritage Project, an ongoing collaboration among Indonesian and Italian scholars. Keywords: boats, miniatures, museum collections, photogrammetry List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: The comparison of photos sequences between miniature and full-sized boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. Figure 2: Detailed result on miniature boat Janggolan Madura. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. Figure 3: Defects on models shown on two sides of the boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. Figure 4: Imperfections due to reflection on sail material. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. INTRODUCTION In the last decades, the application of photogrammetry in the cultural heritage field has dramatically increased. Photogrammetry is easily accessible to everyone, and it provides a permanent record of heritage materials and data for accurate measurement and analysis (Yilmaz, Yakar, and Yildiz 2008, 9), which benefit the documentation and reconstruction process, and research dissemination (Forlin, Valente, and Kázmér 2018, 2). The digital data recorded by this method benefit researchers from different fields, including archaeologists, who can better manage the time spent on the field (Puspita et al. 2021, 343). For Indonesian museums, photogrammetry has become more popular with the rise of demands for digital access to museum collections. The need for digital access to entertainment and education spiked, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic (Bramantyo and Ismail 2021, 185; Soraya and Sigit Martyastiadi 2021, 26). However, only a few museums can cope with the demands, and most collections still need to be digitally represented nowadays—especially endangered maritime heritage in the form of historical and vernacular boats. In fact, in nautical archaeology, photogrammetry is especially useful for reverse engineering processes, extrapolating naval lines from 3D models and creating a permanent record P A G 1 �of boat architectures. Unlike other types of applications, photogrammetry measurements and tolerances are much less restrictive, and the accuracy obtained is sufficient at this scope (Martorelli, Pensa, and Speranza 2014). Vernacular boats and boatbuilding in many places in Indonesia faced a rapid decline with the introduction of modern shipbuilding, accompanied by a high demand for manufactured ships. The lack of knowledge transfer within the boatbuilder communities exacerbates the decline. As observed in the boatyards in Pasuruan, East Java, the skills and knowledge of boatbuilding are only taught from fathers to sons, without any guarantee that today’s generation wants to continue working on building boats (Mochtar, Taniardi and Purnawibawa 2021). A similar situation is found in Tana Beru, a village in South Sulawesi, where there is probably the largest cluster of wooden boatyards in the world, especially for building a type of boat known as pinisi. Here, most of the production concerns large boats, and only a few builders master the skills to make boats using traditional tools and processes and with the mandatory accompanying ceremonies (Zazzaro et al. 2022). The Endangered Indonesian Boat Building Heritage Project focuses on documenting the endangered boatbuilding traditions in Indonesia while also building up a digital archive of boats and boat miniatures collections, which are often overlooked. The digital copy of these collections could be used as educational tools and for conservation purposes. This latter use, for example, would have helped preserve boats of the Jakarta Maritime Museum, which lost around 100 collection items to a fire in 2018, including a Balinese outrigger boat and other important vernacular and historical boats (Nizar 2018). While the museum has now finished its reconstruction and is operating normally, the loss of part of the collection is severe. Even though digital archives will not replace the actual collections, their absence prevents the museum from creating replicas or integrating the exhibit with the digital collection. The Endangered Indonesian Boat Building Heritage Project campaigns to avoid a similar scenario from happening again using photogrammetry for documenting the boats and boat miniatures collections. CASE STUDIES The case study under consideration concerns challenges and strategies of using photogrammetry for recording historical and vernacular boats and boat miniatures in museum collections and for preservation, dissemination, and scientific publication. In the form of boats and their depiction, the maritime heritage is critically underrepresented in virtual platforms. The only present collections are the pinisi boat and the janggolan boat. Both miniatures are collections of the National Museum and are featured in the National Museum virtual tour (Virtual Tour 2023). Another boat type is the alut pasak dayak, a full-sized boat from the Jakarta Maritime Museum collection featured in the Tetangga Exhibition web-based online platform (Tetangga Exhibition 2023). Usually, the museum works together with third parties to provide all models used in these virtual or online exhibitions. The lack of proper equipment and necessary skills is mentioned as the cause of the museum's inability to support its own need for a virtual museum. Hence, there is a need to address this issue. Despite some ambiguous information on the provenance of some boats and boat models, every object has been carefully documented, just like an archaeological artefact. The recording is performed with a nautical archaeology approach, meaning that the documentation attempts to record all details in the object in opposition to merely recording the general form. Besides 3D photogrammetry of the boats and boat models, the project also aims to produce more detailed information, such as the hull lines and the description of the boat's components. Therefore, the results of this project would be helpful for the general public who only wish to see the collection and the specific public, such as researchers and conservators, who need to observe the detail of the objects. Another aim of the project is to train museum conservators P A G 2 �in photogrammetry documentation so that they will systematically produce digital copies of the new collection acquisitions in the future. RESOURCES The boats and boat miniatures recorded in this research are collections of various museums in Indonesia, namely the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta Maritime Museum, Museum of Indonesia, and Transportation Museum. The chosen boats and miniatures represent different regions in Indonesia and represent traditional workmanship for actual-sized boats, while the miniatures, to some degree, provide accuracy and similarities to the actual boats they represent. Miniature boats are usually made by artisans who know the boats' architecture very well because they usually live in the area or they were former boatbuilders. So far, data have been gathered from 2019 to 2023 through a series of fieldwork by research members. The documentation processes are conducted using different mirrorless digital cameras, Sony RX 100II, Sony Alpha 7C, Canon M100, and Canon M50. In order to reconstruct the objects using the photogrammetry technique, this research uses the program Agisoft Metashape. To support the purpose of disseminating the project results, Sketchfab is chosen as an online platform. Sketchfab offers dedicated categories for cultural heritage and historical objects and has been used by institutions as well as amateurs to display their collections. Sketchfab also provides editing tools and supports virtual reality devices (Statham 2019). FRAMEWORK Considering the urgency of photogrammetry documentation and its benefits for the public and scientific field, there is a need for rapidly, yet properly, documenting the collection of boats in Indonesian museums. This article explores the suitable method and challenges in documenting full-sized boats and miniature boats in museums using photogrammetry. RESULTS Photogrammetry Processes The principle of photogrammetry is to reconstruct the three-dimensional form of an object in digital form through a series of photographs. Ideally, the photographs cover 360 degree angles of the object from different elevations. Considering the complicated shape of the boats, the photos easily surpassed hundreds to generate desirable results. There are several steps to execute the work efficiently in a photogrammetry workflow. The basic workflow includes the digitization processes, which can be broken down into several steps, including preparations, recording, pre-processing, measurement analysis, finishing, exporting (Puspita et al. 2021, 344), and continued with interpretation and visualization processes to make the models accessible through different means (Condorelli and Bonetto 2022). Following those steps should help us to produce optimal results for photogrammetry. However, the shape of the objects, space, and light limitations inside the museum challenged the workflow. Most of the fullsized boats in the museums cannot be moved from the display room due to their weight and space P A G 3 �limitations inside the museum. For example, the Papua Canoe kept in the Jakarta Maritime Museum is 'trapped' by the museum building's structural pillars due to its large size. Another challenge was the lighting conditions in the museum: some 'immovable' collections are hard to be photographed with even lighting due to their positions and the proximity to structural obstacles such as walls and pillars, which also create shadows. Finally, the museum's lighting level, which was kept dim between 50-100 lux, proved challenging to work with. Digitisation proceeded in such conditions and limitations. The first step was the selection of the full-sized boats based on their authenticity, historical information provided by the museum, and visual observation in the museum. Only historical and vernacular boats were documented, and modern boats were excluded since they did not provide value to this project. Otherwise the miniature boats were selected based on their accuracy in representing the actual boat type, museum information, team observation, and craftsmanship. Miniatures of modern boats and 'strange-looking' vernacular boats deemed proportionally or architecturally inaccurate, were excluded. The project recorded two full-sized / eight miniature boats at the National Museum, eight full-sized / five miniature boats at Jakarta Maritime Museum, four full-sized / four miniature boats at the Transportation Museum, and two miniature boats at the Museum of Indonesia. The next step was recording or taking photographs of the boats. Miniature boats were more manageable compared to full-sized boats due to their size. They were usually displayed in a glass vitrine which can be easily transported to more open areas and placed on top of a table or pedestal helpful for the photogrammetry workflow. In order to document the miniatures, the object was photographed from all directions or 360 degrees with different elevations to capture details. For example, the higher elevation angles captured the mast, sail, and deck, and the lower angles captured the hull, keel, and rudder. A detailed photograph can be obtained while maintaining adequate overlap pictures capturing the whole dimension of the miniature boats. P A G 4 �Figure 1: The comparison of photos sequences between miniature and full-sized boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. On the other hand, recording a full-sized boat in museum collections requires a different approach. Space and light limitations and the size of the boat made shooting more complicated. A full-sized boat cannot be treated as a single object due to its size and obstacle in the working area. The team documented parts of the boats individually, and then tried to connect to these parts digitally. The focus of the documentation is on parts that contain essential detail. Since it was almost impossible to photograph the complete shape of the boat, continuity and overlap from one photo to the next were essential. With this approach, photos taken on full-sized boats have a clear direction and retain detail from all parts of the boat. The consequence of this technique was that the number of pictures taken was greater than the photos in the miniature collection, as shown in Figure 1. This process was also directly followed by museum staff, who participated in documenting their collection. Photos from each boat collection were then archived digitally, then processed using Agisoft Metashape software to produce a three-dimensional model. The processing included aligning the photos, building a dense cloud, building a mesh, texturing, calibrating, and simplifying the mesh for smaller file-size models. The final result was then exported in .obj and .mtl format, and texture map files were uploaded to Sketchfab. Photogrammetry Results The results of this project provided us with various data sets of historical and vernacular boats and miniatures in the form of three-dimensional models and detailed pictures. The photogrammetry method yielded satisfactory results, with the three-dimensional models successfully preserving the detail and texture of the boat and miniature boats, as shown in Figure 2. The detail allowed us to access more data for future research, including the iconography of the boats, decoration, and pattern used by different P A G 5 �vernacular boats. The calibrated model also preserved the detailed measurement of the boat parts. This record will provide invaluable data for studying boat characteristics, reverse engineering, and understanding the nature of the boats, especially in full-sized boats. Figure 2: Detailed result on miniature boat Janggolan Madura. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. However, on a few models, there are defects in the final results due to imperfections in capturing the image of the boat. Three factors usually contribute to the quality of the model produced from the photogrammetry: image quality, scene complexity, and environmental condition (O'Connor 2018). In this project, two noticeable imperfections can be observed in the final models: the different coloration of the boat parts and the holes usually in the lower parts of the boat models. The difference in coloration (as shown in Figure 3) could be observed in two different parts of the models due to the difference in light exposure. Figure 3 shows that the A side of the boat is correctly exposed to the light, while the B side is underexposed. Figure 3 shows that if the image records a shadow, the shadow will also be introduced to the final models (Kreimer 2020). This defect is often shown on full-sized boats, especially those positioned in the limited space of display rooms, which prohibit the introduction of additional lights or a tripod for long-exposure photographs. This defect could be reversed using Agisoft Delighter, with the expense of losing texture and detail on the model's surface, which is not ideal for the purpose of this project. P A G 6 �Figure 3: Defects on models shown on two sides of the boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. Another visible defect is the presence of holes in less textured and plain materials. In this case, holes occurred in the sail of miniature boats (see Figure 4). Single-colored materials lacking physical texture are difficult to reconstruct in photogrammetry (Kreimer 2020, 7). However, Figure 4 shows that Model A preserves the sail's detail and shape much better due to exposure to adequate light than Model B. The underexposed Model B also shows the cast of shadows in several parts, including the sail, mast, deck, and hull. While this defect is less likely to impact measurement data and its potential for scientific purposes (except the study of iconography, which is affected by the loss of details due to shadows), these models are less desirable to use for public benefit, considering their appearance. Figure 4: Imperfections due to reflection on sail material. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. P A G 7 �The photogrammetry results from this project show that practical methods for documenting the objects needs to be adapted to the complexity of the objects. The shape and size of full-sized boats provide challenges for the documentation team, which need to be overcome with a slightly different approach from the usual photogrammetry method. This project also shows the importance of proper lighting and location setup for object documentation. Considering the high complexity of the vernacular boats and miniatures, the details need to be preserved properly to allow their digital copies to benefit scientists and the public. In the case of Indonesian museums, these challenges are relatively common in many museums since only a handful of museums are equipped with proper working areas and needed equipment. This condition could change our mindset for displaying collections or storing collections, especially full-sized boats, in a more proper location, with access from multiple angles. CONCLUSION The results obtained from this project show that the photogrammetric method is an effective method for making three-dimensional collections models and has succeeded in giving a satisfactory output. However, due to technical challenges, planning and strategy are needed in collecting data for each collection. The technical challenges found were the position of the collection in the exhibition space or display room. In some cases the display space could be more conducive to photogrammetry by removing obstruction of building structures, and more space to place the camera. Another challenge is ensuring enough light in the photograph process. The position of the collection and the lighting conditions often make the collection underexposed, or in some cases, cause the material in the collection to reflect light, which makes the 3D model imperfect. For this reason, a different approach is needed to record the different types of collections in the form of full-sized boats and miniature boats. Documentation of full-sized boats can be done in several sections and focuses on boat attributes, compared to miniature boats that can be documented as whole objects. As a result, a three-dimensional model can be obtained with accuracy and detail and can be used for educational, academic, and public purposes. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the International Association for Mediterranean and Oriental Studies (ISMEO) for supporting the Indonesian Boatbuilding Endangered Heritage Project. We are also thankful to the Museum Nasional Indonesia (Indonesia National Museum), Museum Kebaharian Jakarta (Jakarta Maritime Museum), Museum Indonesia (Museum of Indonesia), and Museum Transportasi (Transportation Museum) for providing access needed for the documentation of the museum collections. P A G 8 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Bramantyo, B. D., and P. Ismail. “Digital Tourism Museum Nasional Indonesia Melalui Virtual Tour Di Masa Pandemi COVID19.” WACANA: Jurnal Ilmiah Ilmu Komunikasi 20, no. 2 (2021): 184–196. https://doi.org/10.32509/wacana.v20i2.1616. Condorelli, F., and J. Bonetto. “3D Digitalization and Visualization of Archaeological Artifacts with the Use of Photogrammetry and Virtual Reality System.” In International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 48 (2022): 51–57. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-2-W1-2022-51-2022. Forlin, P., R. Valente, and M. Kázmér. “Assessing Earthquake Effects on Archaeological Sites Using Photogrammetry and 3D Model Analysis.” Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 9, no. 6 (2018): 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2018.e00073. Kreimer, B. “Guide to Photogrammetry Photography.” Washington, D.C: Online News Association, 2020. Martorelli, M., C. Pensa, and D. Speranza. “Digital Photogrammetry for Documentation of Maritime Heritage.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 9, no. 1 (2014): 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-014-9124-x. Mochtar, A., P. Taniardi, and A. G. Purnawibawa. “As my father said Traditional boatbuilding in Pasuruan.” The SEAMEO SPAFA International Conference on Southeast Asian Archaeology and Fine Arts, December, (2021): 234–240. Nizar, H. Interview on JPNN, 17 January 2018. https://www.jpnn.com/news/kerugian-akibat-kebakaran-museum-bahari-takternilai, accessed 19 April 2023. Puspita, A. A., M. Triharini, M. Risfan, and B. Salam. “A Study on Museum Artifact Digitization Using Photogrammetry Method for Preservation and Design Education.” Advances in Social Sciences, Education and Humanities Research 65 (2021): 343350. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.211228.045. Soraya, A., and Y. Sigit Martyastiadi. “Aesthetics of Virtual: The Development Opportunities of Virtual Museums in Indonesia.” International Journal of Creative And Arts Studies 8 no. 1 (2021): 25-33. https://doi.org/10.24821/ijcas.v8i1.5346. Statham, N. “Scientific Rigour of Online Platforms for 3D Visualisation of Heritage.” Virtual Archaeology Review 10, 20 (2019): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.4995/var.2019.9715. Tetangga Exhibition. Jakarta Maritime Museum. https://tetanggaexhibition.com/en/node/3, accessed 19 April 2023. Virtual Tour. Badan Layanan Umum Museum Nasional Indonesia. https://www.museumnasional.or.id/virtual-tour, accessed 19 April 2023. Yilmaz, H. M., M. Yakar, and F. Yildiz. “Documentation of Historical Caravansaries by Digital Close Range Photogrammetry.” Automation in Construction 17, 4 (2008): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2007.09.003. Zazzaro, C., H. Liebner, A. Soriente, G. Ferraioli, and A. G. Purnawibawa. “The Construction of an Historical Boat in South Sulawesi (Indonesia): The Padewakang.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 17, 4 (2022): 507–557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-022-09332-5. P A G 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 21: New Technologies and Interdisciplinary Strategies for the Promotion and Protection of Maritime Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 21 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 21 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Application of Photogrammetry for Recording Indonesian Vernacular and Historical Boats and Boat Miniatures in Museum Collections Description An account of the resource This paper fits best within Session 27 New Technology and Interdisciplinary Strategies as it focuses on the status and preservation of vernacular and historical boats and boat miniatures within Indonesian museum collections. The case study under consideration concerns challenges and strategies of using photogrammetry for recording these museum collections and for preservation, dissemination, and scientific research. The resources available to conduct the work include the full-size and miniature Indonesian boats kept in the Museum Nasional and Kebaharian Museum in Jakarta and other collections in Indonesia. The research questions of this project are: what is the suitable method, and what are the challenges in the 3D documentation of full-sized boats and miniatures in museums using the photogrammetry technique? The results of this project are comprehensive data regarding the photogrammetry workflow for museum collections and sets of digital boat models suitable for disseminating information and for scientific publication. This project is part of the Indonesian Boatbuilding Endangered Heritage Project, an ongoing collaboration among Indonesian and Italian scholars. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa Chiara Zazzaro Agni Mochtar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Purnawibawa, Ahmad Ginanjar, Chiara Zazzaro, and Agni Mochtar. 2023. “The application of photogrammetry for recording Indonesian vernacular and historical boats and boat miniatures in museum collections.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Hans van Tilburg. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1915 Asia-Pac Session 21 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6010ce25448cf9f12043d9bb6d74e3b3.pdf c0b0d46cbb90fe00d88a0bbb20d51533 PDF Text Text Screen and Shipwrecks: Bridging the Divide Helen Carter and Emily Jateff Abstract The use of visual media is an aspect of recordkeeping and a necessary component of outreach and community engagement in maritime archaeology. Recent technological innovations have created the need to acknowledge multiple available methods of transmitting information to the public. Cross-disciplinary education in screen and archaeology provides students with an innovative means to enhance archaeological knowledge at the tertiary level and the skills to better inform the public through the use of digital media and practice. Introduction In 2008, the Departments of Archaeology and Screen and Media at Flinders University were given a substantial infrastructure and equipment grant to purchase a High Definition video camera (HDV) with an underwater housing. This interdisciplinary partnership has encouraged the development of knowledge to use the equipment, and then how best to use it in the context(s) of research, teaching and learning. Archaeology students know how to dive and work underwater, and Screen students know how to record and edit, but gradually we have bridged this gap so that both groups can work together on projects, combining expertise in the two areas. Project Aims The collaborative program bridges the divide between archaeologist and screen-practitioner perspectives. Screen and Media education is used as a tool to prepare archaeologists for future issues (dealing with hosting, presenting, proper representation of data in the media) and proper collection of data in the field. Best practice informs sustainable management as archaeologists trained in screen media make the best use of the tools available to provide an accurate record of investigated sites. Engaging screen practitioners in the issues relating to archeology enables them to tell more accurate archaeology narratives and confidently address issues in archaeological ethics and practice. Collaborative Education Collaborative teaching and cross-disciplinary education provides a proactive means of training future archaeologists and screen professionals to protect, preserve and interpret underwater cultural heritage (UCH) through film. The ability to video record underwater opens the door to many opportunities for both disciplines. Jointly, the most obvious advantage is the ability to write, produce and edit screen stories with underwater content. Initially, both groups are taught to use the camera on land so as to practically learn the skills of dealing with concepts of exposure, colour temperature, focus and composition in �a straightforward environment. They are then taught how to put the camera into its waterproof underwater case, or housing, how to verify the housing is watertight and how to operate the housing. The next step is to learn and practice the procedure for handling equipment in and out of the water, how to keep camera equipment dry and how to communicate with each other once they are in the water. Safety issues are also addressed at this point. Students are taught to prepare the cameras on a jetty or boat, get them into the water, safely change tapes and batteries and then clean up the gear after the shoot. Finally, students are able to practice using the equipment in the water, with the aim of collecting images that could later be constructed into meaningful, informative, culturally accurate stories. The significance of making documentaries about places and items of UCH is in opening a window that would otherwise be closed to most people. Theory Maritime archaeology and visual media have been hand-in-hand since underwater footage was shot at Uluburun in the 1960s. Peter Gathercole, Jane Stanley and Nicholas Thomas (2002:158) stated, “Archaeology can lead visual art in a socially responsible direction”. It naturally follows that screen and media studies and relationships can educate archaeologists-in-training about how to best convey the results of their research to the public. Archaeology students bring their unique knowledge and understanding to the development of the content; while screen students lend their technical and aesthetic skills to the telling of the story. As both students exchange skills and knowledge, more complex issues and stories can be communicated through the use of relevant sound and pictures. Both groups of students work together in the planning of shots, the structure of the edit and in making choices around who will provide the narration and where will interviews take place. The videos are produced by staff and students and made to screen within the university context so the authors are able to receive feedback on their narrative choices from staff and students directly involved in the creation of the ideas and research. “Archaeologists should make sure to be critically engaged with the structure, as well as the content, of our documentaries,” (van Dyke 2006:372). These videos are screened to both Archaeology and Creative Arts students, leading to an inter-disciplinary dialogue around technical and narrative issues. Practice-led Research The last three years have been spent defining and refining our methodology and teaching philosophy. The methods for taking cameras underwater for university research are necessarily different from those employed by commercial film and television producers. Each activity must be safe, informative and replicable in a student context. All students must be able to participate on some level in the production. It must provide opportunity for relevant feedback and reflection on practice for both students and staff. This section discusses the Flinders University underwater archaeology video program from 2008-2010. �2008 Collaborative Teaching 2008 concentrated on building the working arrangement between the Maritime Archaeology Program and Screen and Media. In May 2008, Screen and Media and the Maritime Archaeology Program received a Flinders University equipment grant to purchase an Amphibico underwater housing, a Sony Z7 camera and ewa®-marine underwater bags for Sony PDX10 video cameras with the view to utilizing cross-departmental skills for the production of archaeological documentary projects. There was a steep learning curve as staff realized the complexities of getting students in the water and the current obligations for Flinders University Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) Guidelines. In the first year the Amphibico housing was not used. One of the first issues we had to address was getting divers and nondivers working together. Most of the Screen and Media students were nondivers and could not assist with collection of video data below surface. As a temporary stopgap all 2008 filming was conducted on land and mostly focused on capturing images of jetties and small wrecks close to shore. We also dealt with issues of perception. Screen and Media students believed that everything maritime archaeologists did was in the water. Maritime Archaeology students thought cameras were point-and-shoot fun toys. In August 2008 Mark Staniforth led an assessment of a ferro-cement hull in Port Adelaide (Mulloway Studio, et al. 2009). Due to very low visibility, underwater footage was not recorded. Sian Bates, a Flinders University honours student, filmed the documentation of the project from land. In 2010 this footage was edited and made into a film by Deb Shefi, a Flinders University doctoral candidate (Shefi 2010). Sian Bates also assisted with the Society for Underwater Historical Research assessment of the Nelcebee (Bates 2008b). This video was screened at the 2008 Australasian Institute of Maritime Archaeology (AIMA) in conjunction with a poster presented by Zack King and Steven Lake (King and Lake 2008). We have been fortunate to draw on the expertise of local and worldrenowned underwater cinematographer Malcolm Ludgate ACS.1 Sian Bates compiled a short interview-based documentary with Ludgate describing underwater camera techniques (Bates 2008a). 2009 Collaborative Teaching Field projects scheduled for 2009 necessitated the training of archaeological staff and supervisors in the basics of camera operation and screen theory. In preparation for the 2009 Maritime Archaeological Field School at Mount Dutton Bay, Helen Carter taught a one-day workshop in camera use for supervisors and staff. Up to this point cameras were used only as recording devices — footage shot by maritime archaeologists was stream of consciousness and purely observational. Most were single shots with a noticeable lack of structure. The workshop addressed the necessity for capturing a variety of shots, with a strong beginning, middle and end to the story, which could then be edited into a suitable narrative. The camera should be used to observe many angles, details, textures and perspectives of the 1 Australian Cinematographers Society (ACS) �subject. Archaeologists were also taught the basics of recording technically proficient images and sound. The February 2009 Maritime Archaeology Field School/Australian Leadership Awards Fellowship Program at Sceale Bay and Mount Dutton Bay utilised Screen and Media staff and equipment to record field practice and produce a short documentary. The Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Program was the recipient of an ALA Fellowship Program grant to support travel and accommodation for mid-career maritime archaeology professionals from the Asia-Pacific region to participate in the field school. Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage was produced as a record of this program (Carter 2009a). One PDX10 and tripod were used at the Mount Dutton Bay site to record field operations and one PDX10 camera, bag and tripod were used to record activities at Sceale Bay. PDX10 cameras and bags were utilized onland and in-water by staff and students. Staff and students were interviewed and commented on their progress of learning skills in recording cultural heritage. Collected footage resulted in the documentary Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage (Carter 2009a). Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage was shown at the 2009 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) meeting in Paris. Also in 2009, a Documentary Camera topic with an emphasis on underwater camera technique (SCRN8027/8028) was offered in semester 2 by the Department of Screen and Media. One doctoral candidate in maritime archaeology (James Hunter) completed the topic. This topic included trips to maritime sites such as the Ships’ Graveyard at Port Adelaide, and produced two short student films (Rafferty 2009; Kalsan 2009). In May of 2009 a project was designed to assist doctoral candidate Adam Paterson with the Port Adelaide Community Archaeology (PACA) project at Port Adelaide (Paterson in prep). A short documentary film was shot and directed by Helen Carter and edited by Ed Powell (Carter 2009b). From semester 2 of 2009 Masters Classes were offered each semester that addressed camera use for terrestrial and underwater archaeological projects.2 A two-part program, on the first Friday, Helen Carter repeated the workshop delivered to the staff/supervisors of the 2009 Field School to archaeology students. On the second Friday, students participated in a field practical. Archaeology students assisted with camera operation underwater. Screen and Media students assisted Helen Carter with aspects of camera operation above water. The semester 1 Master Class was the first time the Sony Z7 Camera with the Amphibico housing was used underwater by archaeology staff and students. A short film was made about this training day, Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage: using underwater cameras (Carter 2010a). It used footage recorded by maritime students and terrestrial footage shot by Screen and Media students and was edited by a Screen and Media honours student (Carter 2010a). This film is available through the Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage website at: http://www.apconf.org/about/video/. 2 The Flinders University Department of Archaeology runs Masters Classes on Fridays throughout semester. These short topics are designed to offer students training in topics otherwise not covered in general teaching (e.g. archaeological illustration). �2010 Collaborative Teaching By 2010, representatives from both departments had developed a workable program of training that prepared master students for camera operation and underwater filming through a program of Masters Classes prior to field school. At the 2010 Maritime Archaeology Field School, Sceale and Streaky Bays (ARCH3309/8152) Z7 camera training was conducted with Helen Carter and other trained supervisory staff to provide direction to the participating students about filming techniques. In just one week in the field archaeology students gathered a wide range of footage including jetty surveys, measurements of a wreck at low tide, details of wood in a local museum, artifacts on a local beach and boat-based dive activities. This footage was used to make the film Maritime Archaeology Field School 2010 (Carter 2010b) A second underwater Masters Class was offered in a contained environment at the Adelaide Scuba swimming pool. This was designed to make training available to students who did not yet meet the strict Flinders University dive guidelines (and therefore could not dive in-field) and provided an opportunity for more Screen and Media students to join the Maritime Archaeology students in the water. ‘Rushes’3 were used as on-site training tools. This gave students an initial opportunity to view their footage directly after recording and receive feedback from a trained professional before returning to the water to rerecord. To the new divers, this class also demonstrated more practical issues such as buoyancy. In 2010 the Maritime Archaeology Department's Associate Lecturer Emily Jateff and doctoral candidate Deb Shefi audited the Screen and Media Underwater Cinematography topic along with six Screen and Media honours students. This was the first time that Screen and Media students were registered as divers/snorkellers with Flinders University and allowed to take cameras underwater. Two documentaries were produced in 2010. The first was a record of archaeological investigations in the basement of the South Australian Maritime Museum Bond Store basement (ca.1854) conducted by doctoral candidate Adam Paterson (Shefi 2010). The second documentary titled Torpedo Station was produced by honours student Ian Bethune and recorded excavation of three test units at the Port Adelaide Torpedo Station conducted by doctoral candidate James Hunter (Bethune 2010; Hunter in prep.). Outcomes Outcomes of this work include a methodology for teaching underwater camera practice to university students, instructional videos for use in camera Masters Classes, a library of stock footage for use on student documentaries, videos which promote the work of the university in UCH and videos which convey edited versions of the efforts and meaning of specific archaeology projects. 3 ‘Rushes’ are unedited prints of a scene �Students also have additional skills for use in archaeological fieldwork and for producing their own videos, making them all more employable upon completing their degrees. Screen Students have been encouraged to pass dive medicals and to acquire diving qualifications. All students have increased their diving hours while maintaining all requirements as per the Flinders University Diving Procedures Manual (2008). Screen and Media Department staff have a greater appreciation of the issues and techniques involved in the field of archaeology and are better able to contribute to the production of meaningful underwater narratives. Developing a Methodology (The Process) The first three years of this collaborative project concentrated on developing a methodology for continuing practice safely within the university system. This stressed the following three points: 1) How to video-record underwater Students worked with small cameras in basic underwater bags. We researched and practiced what camera-shots are required in order to edit sequences and scenes together. Students devised methods of communicating with each other in the water about what shot they were working on, whether it needed another take and/or other directorial input. Students also learned the best times of day to shoot and how to get the best lighting conditions for a particular location. 2) How to use the camera(s) and housing in the water Masters Classes focused on issues of buoyancy, steadiness, focus and using light to the best advantage. Students would practice their skills in a swimming pool then review the footage with lecturers and go straight back in to the water to improve their camera-shots. Building on this experience students were able to apply these skills to using the more complicated Amphibico housing with a larger HDV camera. Procedures for handling and testing equipment in and out of the water were developed. 3) Advanced screen and media techniques Through the documentary camera class students learned how to edit their material, to colour grade the footage and to create suitable sound tracks. By watching other films students explored how to visually take the audience into and out of the water, how to establish an underwater location or geography and how sequences are cut together. 2011 and beyond Since the inception of this collaboration over a dozen films have been produced with input from students and staff from both departments. A review of the program and conducted research was presented at the 2010 AIMA Annual Meeting in Melbourne, Victoria (Carter, et al. 2010). In 2011 Flinders University announced the new graduate degree options Graduate Certificate, Graduate Diploma and Master of Screen and Media Production. Archaeology, Cultural Heritage Management and Maritime Archaeology topics are required as part of these degree options. �Masters degree classes are planned for the academic year 2011-2012 which include camera workshops, dives and events. Current Maritime Archaeology Program and Screen and Media graduate students are working on post-production of archaeological films recorded over the winter break. Screen and Media Department students are also finally able to dive and record their own footage. Areas for future development include regularly using the videos we produce in films on topics (this is currently done to a limited extent), editing and sound for underwater footage and continuing theory and development in teaching. Efforts will be made to secure funding for larger scale projects and integration of film techniques into more research projects. Future projects will stress working relationships in site management, and current underwater sites of cultural significance including a special emphasis on the South Australian shipwreck Star of Greece. Experimentation with small Go-Pro cameras is of interest, as underwater they can achieve a full high-definition (HD) image and are relatively safe for students to use due to their incredibly small physical size (42mmx60x30mm). Conclusion Cross-disciplinary education in screen and archaeology subjects provides researchers and students an innovative means to enhance skills and knowledge and better inform the public through the use of digital media and practice. By combining our experience (archaeologists can provide the ‘insider information’, screen professionals the skills to turn it into a film) to produce multiple benefits. Archaeologists learn how to better translate data sets to the public and provide clarity on the role of the heritage-professional in the filmmaking process (Clack and Brittian 2007). Maritime Archaeology students learn about equipment needs and the video process, including what questions to ask and what types of camera-shots they need to get in order to create short documentaries. Screen production students and staff have a better understanding of archaeological method and theory which allows them to make better informed films. Acknowledgements The Departments of Screen and Media and Archaeology, in particular Dr Mark Staniforth, Cole Larson, Scott Castledine, John Naumann, PhD Candidates Deb Shefi, James Hunter and Adam Paterson, with special thanks to the South Australia Department of Environment and Natural Resources Heritage Branch (Amer Khan), David Nutley, the 2009 ALA Fellows, Malcolm Ludgate ACS, Adelaide Scuba and past and current Master of Maritime Archaeology students for their unflagging enthusiasm. Bibliography Bates, S., 2008a Bates, S., 2008b Bethune, I., Mal Ludgate: Cinematographer. 13 minute documentary, Flinders University, SA. Nelcebee. 5 minute documentary, Flinders University, SA. Torpedo Station. 8 minute documentary, Flinders �2010 Carter, H., Jateff, E., and Shefi, D., 2010 Carter, H., 2009a Carter, H., 2009b Carter, H., 2010a Carter, H., 2010b Clack, T. and Brittain, M., 2007 Flinders University Diving Procedures Manual, 2008 Gathercole, P. Stanley, J., and Thomas, N., 2002 Kalsan, M., 2009 King, Z., and Lake, S., 2008 Hunter, J.W. In prep. University, SA. Screen and Shipwrecks: Bridging the Divide. An earlier version of this paper presented at the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology Conference, Melbourne, VIC, 2010. Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage. 5 minute documentary, Flinders University, SA. Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage: Field Methods. DVD. Flinders University, SA. Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage: using underwater cameras. DVD. Flinders University, SA. Maritime Archaeology Field School 2010. 10 minute documentary, Flinders University, SA. Archaeology and the Media. Left Coast Press, CA. Flinders University Diving Procedures Manual. Internal report, April 2008. Flinders University, SA. Archaeology and the media: Cornwall Archaeological Society-Devon Archaeological Society joint symposium. Cornish Archaeology 41–42, 2002–3, 149–160 Ships’ Graveyard. DVD. Flinders University, SA. Nelcebee: A South Australian Ketch. Poster presented at the 2008 AIMA Annual Meeting, Archaeology from Below, 24-28 September, Adelaide, SA. Throwaway Navies: Naval Transition Abandonment Processes and the Archaeology of Australasia’s Torpedo Boat Defences, 1884-1924. PhD Thesis, Flinders University, SA. Mulloway Studio, Cultural mapping and survey: Port Adelaide waterfront: Kloeden, P., and Stage 2: Jenkins Street Boatyards, Precinct 2B. Report Staniforth, M., produced for LMC, Port Adelaide. 2009 Paterson, A. Port Adelaide Community Archaeology (PACA) Project In prep. [working title]. PhD Thesis, Flinders University, SA. Raftery, D., Ships’ Graveyard. 3 minute documentary, Flinders 2009 University, SA. Shefi, D., Untitled. 7 minute documentary, Flinders University, SA. 2011 Shefi, D., South Australian Maritime Museum Bond Store. 8 2010 minute documentary, Flinders University , SA. Van Dyke, R. M., Seeing the Past: Visual Media in Archaeology. American 2000 Anthropologist. 108.2: 370-375. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Screen and Shipwrecks: Bridging the Divide Subject The topic of the resource Session 5 UCH in the Making… online session Description An account of the resource The use of visual media is an aspect of record keeping and a necessary component of outreach and community engagement in maritime archaeology. Recent technological innovations have created the need to acknowledge multiple available methods of transmitting information to the public. Cross-disciplinary education in screen and archaeology provides students with an innovative means to enhance archaeological knowledge at the tertiary level and the skills to better inform the public through the use of digital media and practice. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Helen Carter Emily Jateff Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 5 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6f297d1340fc774e1a5f8b0fdb3aacdf.pdf 11414bb7be6c33f17693aa26270135b6 PDF Text Text On-going archaeological researches on shipwrecked junks in the Philippines Franck Goddio¹, David Fabre¹, Marie-Amande Coignard² ¹Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology, Manila ²Archaeological Artefacts Conservator FEFNA. 125, Suerte Street, Pasay City, 1300 Metro Manilla, Philippines Email: dfabre.ieasm@yahoo.fr, marieamande.coignard@gmail.com Abstract The Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA) have been working with the National Museum of the Philippines for twenty-eight years. The researches aim at illustrating the maritime history of the Philippines through excavations and studies of shipwrecks lying in their territorial waters. This presentation on junks focuses on a case study, with few conservation points. Some of the junks have been discovered during a systematic research campaign alongside historical trade routes. Some excavations have also been performed at the request of the National Museum. Our knowledge of the “Nanhai trade” is enhanced by the cargoes study: a large panel of Asian production disclosing a dynamic network of cultural influences and commercial exchanges lasting from the 11th to the 16th centuries. Some historical maritime trading roads have been revealed. The Santa Cruz junk, late 15th century, is representative of a transitional time in Nanhai maritime trade. In a way, this ship is a landmark of the last inter-Asian trading phase in the Chinese “Mediterranean” area, before the 16th century “globalization”. In addition, the Santa Cruz hull’s condition enabled completion of the existing documentation and a larger scale reflexion on cargo stowage and shipbuilding process. Specific analyses on construction details and hypothesis on assembly methods result in original data on the evolution of nautical techniques and on reciprocal influence and coexistence of shipbuilding technologies. Hence, the construction study contributes to the renewal of Nanhai maritime transport understanding, as it shows some original characteristic and a perfect appropriateness to inter-Asian maritime trade organization. Keywords: Chinese Trade, Junk, Naval Architecture, Nanhai Trade, Santa Cruz junk Introduction Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology undertakes, with the National Museum of the Philippines, archaeological missions in the Philippines since 1985. This work is centred on the search for, and the study of, territorial waters’ shipwrecks. These junks were found either during systematic surveys1, either while searching for Spanish galleons and East India Company vessels2, or found by following up information given by fishermen3. To date these include the Breaker (11th century), Investigator (13th century), Lena (about 1490), 1 �Española and Santa Cruz (both from the end of 15th century), San Isidro (about 1510), and Royal Captain Shoal (1573-1619)4. Development of Chinese commerce The cargoes of these merchant ships offer an overview of Asian products and trade routes with their development over more than six centuries, not only in Southeast Asia – the “Nanhai trade” –, but also in the Indian Ocean, and the Middle East. About Far East trade we knew, until recently, only the final and European phase, which began with the arrival of the Portuguese in Asia in the 16th century. The study of the shipwrecked junks in the Philippines contributes to the understanding of exchanges and the wider political and economical circumstances that led to the development of trade in the China seas and beyond, from the 11th century, when China established important and constant commercial links with the archipelago, up to the 15th century. Factors included improved navigational techniques, the apparition of a mercantile class, the reform of taxation, the unification of coinage, the development of new routes, the use of the monsoon system, the fight against piracy, the reforestation for shipbuilding, the expeditions of Zheng He, etc. Furthermore, the richness and variety of junk cargoes from the 15th century belies the restrictions on maritime trade implemented by the Ming Dynasty. Either the decrees prohibiting maritime trade caused an explosion in the price of South-East Asian products and thus created an incentive for smuggling, which is difficult to prove archaeologically, or there was considerable movement of goods to and from China within the category of official tribute5. It is also at this time that exchanges between China and the Philippines experienced a considerable expansion, formalised through tributary relations and the sending of ambassadors. Successful trading operations between the two countries meant that many Chinese settled there, especially at the end of the fifteenth century and the sixteenth century. In the Mingshi6 the Philippines are the subject of the following comments: “Luzon (...). Because of the fertility of the island, thousands of merchants from Zhanzhou went there. Many settled there... A large number of vessels visited Mindoro which became prosperous. The Chinese who traded with the island were treated with fairness and respect”. 2 �In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the arrival of Europeans would increase the volume of trade off the southern Chinese coast. The Spanish settled in the Philippines and massively imported, in 'Manila galleons', coins minted with silver mined in Mexico and Peru. To absorb this silver, the Chinese developed a very active trade with the Philippines, reaching as far as the Sultanate of Jolo. Navigation to the Philippines The Sulu Sea, south of the Philippine archipelago, between Mindanao, Borneo and the Moluccas, was an area of passage and exchange, certainly from the Tang period on (618907). According to Chinese written sources, one of the main routes to reach Borneo, a junction of major shipping routes (Manguin, 2001: 8), utilised the interior sea of the archipelago and thus provided opportunities for interaction with the local populations. The Shung Feng Hsiang Sung7 states that starting from the southern ports, navigators could choose from two routes: the western coastal route, along the coast of China until the Malay Peninsula and then into the Indian Ocean, or the maritime route to the east, across the South China Sea to the islands of Luzon and Mindoro, then continuing along the east coast of Palawan to reach either Balambagan, Borneo and Java, or the Celebes or Maluku. Before the end of the seventeenth century written sources do not mention a route along the west coast of Palawan. But it is precisely in this “Palawan Passage” that the junks Investigator, Breaker, Lena, and Royal Captain shoal were found, providing evidence of a “Nanhai Trade” route along the west coast of the island (Goddio et al., 1987; Fig. 1 View of the junk Lena during excavations. (© Christoph Gerigk Goddio et al., 2002). and Franck Goddio/FEFNA). 3 �Merchandise and cargoes The Chu-fan-chi, written by Zhao Rugua, inspector of trade in Fujiang Province in the early thirteenth century (Southern Song), describes the lands visited by Chinese merchants and also gives valuable information on the products traded8. Silks and ceramics were the main goods sold or bartered in exchange for spices, fragrant products and medicines. Luxury goods were very present: fine beads, precious stones, ivory, precious woods, etc. The Chinese reports from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which describe tributes sent from the Philippines to the Ming court, list substantially identical products. The excavations of the junks offer unique insight of this international Asiatic trade, and most especially an overview of Chinese ceramic production for export (Goddio, et al., 1987: 22-73; Goddio et al., 2002; Dizon and Orillaneda 2002; Orillaneda, 2008). Under the Song Dynasty (960-1276), the production of ceramics is clearly motivated by intellectual and aesthetic concerns (Breaker). The conquest of China by the Mongols in the thirteenth century, and then the “Tartar peace”, favoured the reopening of the great trade routes by land and sea. The ports of southern China, such as Guangzhou, Quanzhou or Whenzou, exported Qinghai and shufu porcelain, as well as celadon and 4 �stoneware (Investigator). In return, the Chinese probably imported, amongst other goods, a form of prepared cobalt from the region of Kashan in Persia, which, in the workshops in Jingdezhen, produced large quantities of “blue and white”, in many forms and styles, in the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (Lena, Española, Santa Cruz). The cargo of the junk Lena (Figs. 1-2) is dominated by Chinese porcelain from the last decade of the fifteenth century (the reign of Emperor Hongzhi), mainly decorated in underglaze cobalt blue, some white monochrome pieces sometimes incised with floral motifs, a dish exceptionally richly decorated with enamel overglaze, and some fragments of fahua porcelain and stoneware with “celadon” glaze. Much of this material is similar to that in the collections of the Topkapi Saray in Istanbul and the sanctuary of Ardebil in Iran. Beyond the typological study of the ceramics, there is the question of the destination of the Lena. The large “blue and white” and celadon dishes, from the workshops of potters in Jingdezhen and Longqan are generally considered to be export ceramics for the Middleeastern market. The jugs, bottles, large boxes, and the writing cases could confirm this hypothesis. However, the numerous Thai celadon, the large brown glazed jars, and some porcelain never noticed in the Near and Middle East, together with woks, basins and bronze bracelets suggest that an Asian destination is most probable. Moreover, since Islam, already installed in the Indonesian archipelago, had entered the Pacific Islands at the end of the 15th century, it is conceivable that the Lena was sailing towards one of the sultanates in the region9. In the beginning of the sixteenth century two types of porcelain predominate. The first keeps the classic designs but the composition tightens and often becomes overloaded, the blue has a grey tone, and the glaze is clouded (San Isidro). The second category, made for a Muslim clientele is decorated with Arabic and Persian characters. These are small pieces designed for the use of a scholar. In the last quarter of the sixteenth century, quality deteriorates – the clay is less fine, the drawing crude, the blue is less intense – like the china in the Royal Captain shoal, certainly intended for markets in South East Asia. As evidenced from both texts and archaeology, beads formed a traditional part of the “Nanhai trade”. The Lena and the Santa Cruz transported many thousands of beads of different sizes, shapes and colours, fired in the Tao Maenam Noi kilns and packaged in small ovoid jars from Sawankhalok (Goddio et al., 2002). Several hundred have been 5 �uncovered during excavations of the Royal Captain shoal (Goddio et al., 1987: 74-75). While the typology of these beads is not sufficient to identify their place of production, chemical analysis indicates a significant proportion of lead and barium, which could suggest a Chinese origin10. Ethnological studies conducted since the late nineteenth century, particularly in Borneo and the Philippines, have recorded that the beads, used for a long time and in large quantities, were often from China11. The metal objects allow us to see the regularity of this trade over the centuries (Goddio et al., 1987: 76-81; Goddio et al., 2002: 235-248). All the junks, from the sixteenth eleventh centuries, to the carried cast iron ingots and pans. Wrought iron needles were Fig. 3 Ceramics stacked in the hold compartments in the junk also found in a small porcelain Santa Cruz. (© Christoph Gerigk and Franck Goddio/FEFNA) “blue and white” vase carried on the Lena. Needles were traditionally exported by China, as still recorded at the end of the sixteenth century by the governor of Manila, Antonio de Morga. In addition, more than 180 tin ingots were distributed within the junk. The production of this metal was located east of Sumatra, on the island of Banca, on the Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands. Textual sources indicate that the tin was imported at Calamian Islands, Busuanga and the Palawan region. Among the recurring finds are bronze gongs, were sold throughout South East Asia by the Chinese (Wang Ta-Yuan, Tao-i Chih-Lioh, 1350). Some thirty years after the sinking of the junks Lena and Santa Cruz, Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan during his visit to the Sultan of the island of Cebu, Homahon, reported several Chinese bronze gongs of Chinese origin12. The quantity of ivory loaded on the Lena has been estimated at a minimum of eighty tusks of various sizes and weights (Goddio et al., 2002: 249). Written sources provide details about the trade in this product from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and Coromandel. 6 �During the Song Dynasty, its importation was heavily taxed, and it had to be made available to the official market and could only be purchased by licensed traders. The cargo of the Lena also contained combs and precious lacquer boxes. Cargo stowage and organization The remains of the junks evidences contribute to determine stowage techniques and cargo organization (Figs. 3-4). The Lena shows us that ceramics, selected by shape and not by decoration, were stacked in the hold compartments. No trace of protective cases has been found; only residual bark and rice straw used as packing materials. The Santa Cruz had sub-compartments formed by a small bamboo fence, held by poles, wooden hurdles and bamboo links (Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming). One characteristic of the cargo of the wreck of the Lena is the accumulation of small globular jars with the green glaze of Sawankhalok from the kilns of Satchanaloi. In one compartment of the ship, 297 of them remained stacked against each other. It is to be noted that the porcelain was not packed in jars (Goddio et al., 2002: 1-41). Jars of glazed clay, which the Chinese were the first to be able to make, were however the appropriate packaging for the transport of fragile goods. From the eighth to the sixteenth century, Chinese ceramics exported overseas were nested inside each other and then stacked in jars. In the estuary of the Pearl River fishermen have recovered Tang Dynasty (617-907) jars, used to package bowls and pots. Excavation of the junk Breaker correlates the data from Pinszhou Ketan on merchant ships loading Fig. 4 Stowage of the cargo in the junk Santa Cruz. (© Christoph during the Sung (960-1279). Gerigk and Franck Goddio / FEFNA) 7 �Naval Architecture Analysis of the junks discovered in the Philippines began to fill the gaps left by standard documentation. The junk Lena display a hull bottom 18 meters long and 5 meters wide – overall length being estimated at 24 m, that of a medium-sized vessel (Goddio et al., 2002: 1-41). Unfortunately, a thick layer of concretion, product of iron ingots shipment now welded to the remains, complicated the study. The hull, 23 strakes of which are preserved, is double, confirming Marco Polo's observation that Chinese junks had “a hull with a double skin formed by two superposed planks throughout the length of the ship, carefully caulked with tow on both sides and held together with good iron Fig. 5 Prow of the junk Santa Cruz. (© Christoph Gerigk and nails”. The ship has a hull with Franck Goddio/FEFNA) planks, made of Shorea sp., which are fully assembled from the freeboard, using small cylindrical tenons of Palaquium sp., spaced at eleven to twelve centimetres. The planks are fitted edge to edge and cut so that they fit into each other. To form the strake, the planks are joined with “Jupiter scarfs”. The absence of ribs is not surprising; texts and archaeological excavations show a subdivision of the hold with perpendicular bulkheads constituting the transverse frame of the boat. Discovered off the west coast of Luzon, the merchant junk Santa Cruz, also from the Ming Dynasty, late fifteenth century, has a hull 80% preserved under the waterline (Fig. 5). This rare state of preservation is partly due to sand burial and partly to wood species used for the construction and known to be chemically and physically water resistant, as the long lasting Vitex sp., Verbenaceae, the shipworms-proof Mimusops sp., Sapotaceae or the rotproof Afzelia sp., Caesalpiniaceae. Teakwood also contributed, since its oleoresin is abrasion-resistant and helped preventing corrosion of the nails. With three masts and a compartmented hold acting as frame, decked and supporting a castle, its length is about 8 �25 m with a 5.8 m width. A detailed study of the construction techniques has been made (Fig. 6) (Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming). Fig. 6 Plan of the junk Santa Cruz. Transverse bulkheads with compartmented hold serving as frame. (© Patrice Sandrin and Franck Goddio/FEFNA) Discussion The case of the Santa Cruz In considering the details of construction and their assumed assembly methods, points of analysis related to the evolution of naval technology appear, as the contamination of one technique by another, the coexistence of different processes of construction, etc. Thus, the Santa Cruz architectural study opens up the question of the nature of shipping in the China Sea before Portuguese and Spanish galleons arrival, showing the originality of certain techniques, and an efficiency and technology perfectly adapted to intra-Asian maritime trade organization. 9 �Vessel architecture, date and nature of unearthed material as well as shipwreck location (west of the island of Luzon), make it highly to be a “Chinese” wreck – in the broadest sense of the term, namely travelling to or from China. Certainly built outside of China – most likely in the Philippines – it was loaded with an eclectic cargo of goods from all the major production centres of the Celestial Empire, collected in the harbour warehouses of southern China, but also Siam, Vietnam and elsewhere, before travelling to their final markets .The junk was as “Chinese” as the ships in the western Mediterranean from the imperial era were “Roman”. The junk was also “Chinese” in its construction, with a hull shaped as a piece of split bamboo, transverse bulkheads with a compartmented hold serving as frame, hull planks joined with iron nails but also, following the traditional hybrid Southern China Sea style, with the keel playing an essential structural role, and using timber of tropical origin. All the wood species used in the construction of the Santa Cruz are found in the Philippine archipelago and most of the islands in the South China Sea, but not in China. The merchants who had chartered it therefore could not belong to the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong, sailing on ships built in China. The essentially “Chinese” architecture seems to rule out the possibility that it was chartered by the peoples of South East Asia, very active on the eastern route between Melaka and Manila Bay (Reid, 1996: 34-35), but who sailed on craft built with local traditional techniques (Manguin, 2001). Ultimately, given the assumed departure port of the ship, wrecked off the coast of Luzon, and the fact that its ceramics all date from a period when the prohibition to build ships and trade abroad was strictly applied by the Ming, it is highly unlikely that the ship and its charterers were of continental origin. It is much more likely that they belonged to a Chinese community located in the commercial towns of the archipelago. Certainly made in collaboration with local shipbuilders, the junk benefited from their particular expertise. Its construction is consistent with a “tendency to crossing, identified in shipbuilding technology evolution, with a new type of ship in archaeological sites from between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, probably coinciding with the increasing role played by Chinese trade and ‘merchant adventurers’ in Southeast Asia” (Manguin, 2001: 15). The Santa Cruz marks out the final phase of the intra-Asian trade in the late fifteenth century Chinese “Mediterranean”, before the sixteenth century “globalization”, when a new 10 �global geography emerges from expanding traffic and desires for domination. While this future changes did not effect the Santa Cruz, it is poignant to note that it was wrecked a few miles northwest of Manila, the future Spanish colony that would be installed on the already well established maritime trade route. Is it possible that Manila (Luzon), on the eastern “Nanhai Trade” route played the same role as Maleka, on the western route? Before the Spanish conquest, Maleka took advantage of the Chinese emperor's closure of the seas. Located on a key point of Chinese Eastern trade route, the city was well placed to assert itself as an unavoidable stop for the tributary exchanges between Asia SouthEast and China, and as a regional depot for goods travelling to or from the Empire13. Like the Portuguese in Maleka in 1511, the Spaniards were not mistaking in settling down in Manila in 1571 in order to become the preferred trading partner of China. It was there, even before the lifting of the Ming ban in 1567, that Fujian merchants, deprived of their main source of income, foreign trade, rushed to build junks capable of transporting goods from both China and South East Asia. Conservation While hulls remain in situ, excavated artefacts are conserved in land. If some have been sent overseas for treatment, most of them have been treated in Manila, in partnership which the National Museum. Experts have been called sporadically for interventions, but all the long-term tasks, as desalinisation process, are in charged of local staff, with good maintenance and very good results. It is noticeable that standard European treatments for metals protection have to be reinforced to fit with the Philippines very high relative humidity, while ceramics will benefit of a low risk of salt crystallisation due to the same factor. In-situ preservation is facilitated by usually calm deep water and sand burial but cyclones and pillars are a threat (i.e. pillars damaged the Lena site before excavation and stole the metal foils maintaining reburial sand on the Santa Cruz site). The Lena hull was reburied under 150 centimetres of sand, from the site itself, with no system to maintain the sand in position. Last checking on the Santa Cruz site shows that the sand was still in position despite the lack of holding devices. Given the complexity, the cost and the constraints of waterlogged ship conservation, there are no current plans to unbury and treat the hulls. Even with recent developments 11 �in waterlogged wood conservation, raising a ship should not become a standard operation unless it’s under direct destruction threat. Iron-saturated wood of the Lena would still be a nightmare to conserve. Researches may eventually solve problems due to iron sulphates, consolidation products, and sensibility to relative humidity. Currently, we better stand with in-situ conservation and scientific data compilation. Endnotes 1 Geophysical surveys notably led to the discovery of junk San Isidro. Goddio et al., 1997. 2 As for the Royal Captain shoal (Goddio et al., 1987). 3 As for the junks Breaker, Lena and Santa Cruz (Goddio et al. 1997; Goddio et al. 2002; Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming). 4 Named after the site of their discovery. 5 Official “tribute” trade did not prohibit trade market exchange. Lam, in Goddio et al, 2002: 50. In particular, in the early fifteenth century, the Muslim city-states that developed in Southeast Asia became prosperous thanks to embassies sent to China which wove strong economic ties with the continental power, i.e.: Brunei. Karim Osman, 2001: 21-22. 6 The official history of the Ming dynasty. Quotes from Lam, in Goddio et al, 2002: 52. 7 An anonymous compilation written in 1430, with additions in 1571, the Shun Feng Hsiang Sung is one of the most important sources for sea routes followed between South China and the Indonesian archipelago, the Malabar Coast, Yemen, the Red Sea, the Sunda Islands or the Sulu Sea. Shun Feng Sung Hsiang, Laud MS, Or 145, Bodleian Library, Oxford. Needham, 1971: 581; Mills, 1979. 8 Hirth and Rockhill, 1911 9 In the fifteenth century, relations between China and Brunei developed considerably. At the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century, Brunei experienced a golden age and became the hub of the region, collecting at its port most of the forest products of western Borneo, as well as those of the neighbouring Muslim communities of Sulu and Mindanao. Karim Osman, 2001: 20; Manguin, 2001: 9-10. 10 Spectrographic analysis has also shown the role of metal oxides in the colouration of the beads. However one should be cautious as bacterial reduction following the shipwreck might have changed the colour of the beads by reducing the metal oxides in the paste. 11 We know the extremely important role that the beads played and continue to play in the lives of indigenous people of Borneo. The Philippines also imported glass beads, just as they did porcelain, gold, lead and iron needles (Rugua Zhao Chu-fan-chi, 40 trad. Hirth & Rockhill, 1911). The distribution of these beads has been identified in the archaeological sites along the western side of Luzon and the south-western fringe of the Philippines. 12 �12 Pigafetta, Voyage autour du monde, Ms. Fr. 24224 B.N. Paris. Musical or ritual instrument, and a sign of opulence, gongs were also used on boats to sound the hour and to announce the arrival of a trading junk to the local population. Among the metal objects discovered not directly related to trade were the guns found on the Lena, of great significance for the study of the armament carried by Asian ships and its technology, especially before the arrival of Europeans (Goddio et al., 2002: 237-241). Three staff guns were found during the excavations of the Santa Cruz (Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming). 13 Not to mention Brunei and Banten on in the South China Sea which played an important role in international trade, being termini for navigation in the South China Sea. References Dizon, E., Orillaneda, R. 2002. Ming Blue and Whites from Shipwrecks in the Phillippines. In Yuan and Ming Blue and White Ware from Jiangxi. Jiangxi Provincial Museum and the Art Museum: 211-223. Goddio, F. et al. 1987. La fouille de la jonque du Royal Captain shoal. Dossiers d’Histoire et Archéologie 113. Paris. Goddio, F., Desroches, J.-P., Crick, M., 1997. Weisses Gold. Göttingen. Goddio, F., Crick, M., Pierson, S., Scott, R., Lam, P.Y.K., 2002. Lost at sea, The strange route of the Lena shoal Junk. London. Goddio, F., Fabre, D. (dir.), forthcoming. The Ming Dynasty Santa Cruz junk shipwreck in the Philippines. Oxford. Hirth, F., Rockhill, W., 1911. Zhao Rugua, Chu-fan-chi. Saint Petersburg. Karim, Pg. Dr., Osman, Pg. Haji, 2001. L’épave de Brunei et sa contribution à l’histoire maritime de Brunei. In M. L’Hour (dir.), La mémoire engloutie de Brunei. t. 2. Paris: 1927. Manguin, P.-Y., 2001. Réseaux marchands et navires en mer de Chine méridionale. In M. L’Hour (dir.), La mémoire engloutie de Brunei. t. 2. Paris: 7-17. Mills, J.V. 1979. Chinese navigators in Insulinde about A.D. 1500. Archipel 18: 37-62. Needham, J., 1971. Science and Civilization in China. Cambridge. Orillaneda, B.C., 2008. The Santa Cruz, Zambales Shipwreck Ceramics: Understanding Southeast Asian Ceramic trade during the late 15th Century C.E. University of the Philippines. Diliman Quezon City. Reid, A., 1996. Sojourners and settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese. St. Leonard. 13 �Biography Franck Goddio is the founder and president of the Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA), Manila, of the Institut Européen d’Archéologie Sous-Marine (IEASM), Paris, and co-founder of the Oxford Center for Maritime Archaeology. Under his direction the FEFNA excavated wrecks in the Philippines in collaboration with the National Museum of the Philippines : trading junks and native boats dating from the 11th to the 16th century, Spanish galleons – the San Diego (1600) and the San José (1794) –, vessels of the British East India Company – the Griffin (1761) and the Royal Captain (1773). David Fabre is Doctor in Archaeology, he graduated from Montpellier University in 2003 and has participated to numerous archaeological excavations in France and elsewhere the world, specifically in Egypt which he concentrated on maritime trade shipwrecks. In 2004, he joined European Institute of Underwater Archaeology (IEASM), directed by Franck Goddio. He coordinate the publication of the junk Santa Cruz – discovered in the Philippines by The Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA, Manila) in collaboration with the National Museum of the Philippines. Marie-Amande Coignard is graduated from Sorbonne University Master degree in archaeological artefacts conservation. After holding internships in France, Greece and Western Australia, she worked mainly on underwater archaeological heritage, in France (Arles, Roman boat excavation and conservation; Marseille, museum artefacts and Roman boats conservation), in Egypt (Alexandria, underwater excavation artefacts), and in the Philippines (Manilla, mainly Santa Cruz junk artefacts). After a winter-over in Antarctica, working on historical frozen heritage, Marie-Amande is currently conserving another antique shipwreck at ARC-Nucleart conservation centre. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource On-going archaeological researches on shipwrecked junks in the Philippines Description An account of the resource The Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA) have been working with the National Museum of the Philippines for twenty-eight years. The researches aim at illustrating the maritime history of the Philippines through excavations and studies of shipwrecks lying in their territorial waters. This presentation on junks focuses on a case study, with few conservation points. Some of the junks have been discovered during a systematic research campaign alongside historical trade routes. Some excavations have also been performed at the request of the National Museum. Our knowledge of the “Nanhai trade” is enhanced by the cargoes study: a large panel of Asian production disclosing a dynamic network of cultural influences and commercial exchanges lasting from the 11th to the 16th centuries. Some historical maritime trading roads have been revealed. The Santa Cruz junk, late 15th century, is representative of a transitional time in Nanhai maritime trade. In a way, this ship is a landmark of the last inter-Asian trading phase in the Chinese “Mediterranean” area, before the 16th century “globalization”. In addition, the Santa Cruz hull’s condition enabled completion of the existing documentation and a larger scale reflexion on cargo stowage and shipbuilding process. Specific analyses on construction details and hypothesis on assembly methods result in original data on the evolution of nautical techniques and on reciprocal influence and co- existence of shipbuilding technologies. Hence, the construction study contributes to the renewal of Nanhai maritime transport understanding, as it shows some original characteristic and a perfect appropriateness to inter-Asian maritime trade organization. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Franck Goddio David Fabre Marie-Amande Coignard, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/59e0f43444e6dc4b9ee02a88b508e760.pdf c798578e0cb81af17f7b9c5a4eddf124 PDF Text Text The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site. 1 2 Peter D. Fix, PhD (Texas A&M University, Associate Research Scientist) Russell E. Matthews (Air/Sea Heritage Foundation, President) ABSTRACT The topic of the paper, entitled “The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis, and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site,” best fits within the session, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges due to its context and subject matter. Before sunrise on 1 February 1942, aircraft from the USS Yorktown (CV-5), sortied as part of Task Force-17’s attack on the Japanese Mandated Islands of Jaluit and Milli, in present day Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Makin, the northernmost island in the Gilbert Islands chain. During the raid, two TBD-1 Devastator torpedo bombers [BuNo. 0298 (5-T-7), and BuNo. 1515 (5-T-6)] were forced to ditch in Jaluit Lagoon as each aircraft was low on fuel. The aircrews of both planes survived the water landing, were captured by Imperial Japanese Naval forces, and survived captivity in POW camps in Japan. Since 2004, a group of scientists, engineers and researchers have undertaken seven expeditions to the resting place of these aircraft in a remote section of the lagoon to document and conduct analysis on aspects of the artifacts’ preservation. As part of the monitoring and assessment, plans have been generated to potentially recover one of the aircraft to archaeological and materials conservation standards. KEYWORDS: World War II, Naval Aviation, TBD-1 Devastator, Marshall Islands INTRODUCTION Since 1 February 1942, two TBD-1 Devastators [BuNo. 0298 (5-T-7), and BuNo. 1515 (5-T-6)] have remained submerged in Jaluit Lagoon, the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Each artifact was the result of a controlled emergency landing on water when the pilots determined that it would not be advisable to try to return to their carrier strike force. The location, on a remote atoll in the central Pacific Ocean, and the even more isolated western side of Jaluit Lagoon, has sheltered them and protected each plane from inadvertent contact or vandalism. The first of the two aircraft was identified during a US National Parks Service sponsored cultural survey in the late 1990s while the second was relocated a few years later following a dedicated search by local divers. Although slightly different, the preservation level of each submerged structure is exceptional. Starting in 2004, a team of scientists and historians have visited the site seven separate times to document and assess their condition. The two aircraft provide a unique opportunity for in situ study. One is submerged at an average depth of (-)50 feet and has overwhelmingly been assimilated into the surrounding environment of a coral head. The other is submerged at a depth of (-)110 feet and lying on a coralline sandy plain where there is considerably less biologic activity. Over the course of the seven expeditions to the site, the planes have been thoroughly documented by hand measurements, photomosaic models and one of them, BuNo. 1515, the deeper wreck, was thoroughly laser-scanned with subsea LiDAR. Along with on-site corrosion testing, engineers have assessed the aircraft’s structural integrity, and samples have been exported under permit for metallurgical analysis. The archaeological documentation and preservation analysis have helped guide the formation of plans to potentially archaeologically recover and stabilize one of the submerged structures for future museum installation and display. This conference paper is an overview of the project and draws directly from the Permit Report (2018-1) submitted to the US Navy History and Heritage Command, Underwater Archaeology Branch in 2021. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Shortly after clambering from the wing of their TBD-1 Devastator into the small, three-man inflatable life raft, James Dalzell, RM/1c, Radioman/gunner on BuNo. 0298 recalled looking up and seeing “…number 6 hit!” The number six Dalzell referred to was BuNo. 1515. Herbert R. 1 approximately 100 yards from his position. It Hein, Jr., as it made an emergency water landing was down to good fortune, skill, and the experience of pilots LT. Harlan T. ("Dub") Johnson aboard torpedo bomber �BuNo. 0298 and ENS. Herbert R. Hein, Jr. in BuNo. 1515 that all six members of the combined aircrews survived their planes’ ditching into the lagoon at Jaluit Atoll on 1 February 1942, and that none suffered serious injury during the event. The floatation bags meant to keep each aircraft afloat deployed as designed, allowing time for the aircrews to inflate the rubber life rafts and escape with whatever survival gear that was immediately available. Once the raft was clear of BuNo. 0298, the crew attempted to puncture the floatation bags with .45 caliber bullets from their service pistols so the plane would not fall into enemy hands. Unfortunately, the small bullet holes failed to deflate the bags sufficiently, and the Bombardier, ACMM Charles E. Fosha had to reenter the bobbing plane to retrieve what he called his “sword,” a long, dagger-shaped blade that he kept with him in the center cockpit in case the floatation bags unintentionally inflated during flight. The dagger worked and BuNo. 0298 slowly disappeared beneath the surface of the lagoon. Over on BuNo. 1515, the crew did not have the same trouble sinking the aircraft, however the radio antenna anchor point inadvertently snagged and punctured the life raft during evacuation and it began to deflate. Suddenly, only one rubber boat remained for six men. Taking turns, half the men stayed in the water while the group slowly steered their raft about a mile and a half to Pinglep Islet on the western perimeter of the lagoon. Once safely ashore, they were given shelter, along with food and water by the resident Marshallese. Several days after the incident, both aircrews were captured by marines of the Imperial Japanese Navy, who had been dispatched from the seaplane base located on the eastern side of the lagoon. Taken as some of the earliest American POWs, the six US Naval airmen were transferred to the Japanese home islands where each survived the duration of the war by working as prisoner laborers. The two TBD-1 Devastators and their aircrews were part of combined airstrikes on the Japanese Mandated Islands of the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, by two United States carrier task groups centered around the USS Enterprise (CV-6) and the USS Yorktown (CV-5). The USS Enterprise was at the center of Task Force 8 under the command of Vice Admiral William “Bull” Halsey Jr., which attacked the northern atolls of Kwajalein, Wotje and Taroa. Task Force 17, under the command of Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher and centered around the USS Yorktown, attacked Jaluit and Mili Atolls in the Marshall Islands, and Makin Island in the Gilbert Island Chain. On the morning of the launch, heavy squalls and lightning were reported in the direction of Jaluit. Since Jaluit was the furthest target from the carrier, 17 Douglas SBD Dauntlesses of Bombing 5, and 11 Douglas TBD-1 Devastators of Torpedo 5 were the first to launch from the ship and all were reported clear of the deck by 0517. With the thick, overcast cloud cover and storms nearby, few of the aircrews were in visual contact with each other during the 140-mile journey to Jaluit Atoll. It was not until they broke through the ceiling at approximately 1,000 feet that they could begin to assess their targets around the islet of Jabor. Each plane dropped their bombloads and many continued to strafe targets on land and in the harbor. Shortly after dropping bombs over the target harbor area at Jabor, Jaluit Atoll, the pilot, Lt. Johnson of BuNo. 0298 determined that his plane would not have enough fuel to make it back to the carrier, and they might not even be able to make “Point Truck”. “Point Truck” was an area south of the atoll that had been designated as the rendezvous location where a destroyer would be stationed to act as a lifeguard and pick up the crew of any downed aircraft in the event they could not get back to the carrier task force. The first offensive action by the United States Navy in the World War II Pacific Theater following the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, the two aircraft’s connection to the raids on the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, alone, would elevate each to the classification of “significant” and qualify them for inclusion on the US Secretary of the Interiors’ list of National Historic Landmarks. The two aircraft, however, could also be considered “significant” for their revolutionary designs. With an overall length of 35ft and a height of 15ft 1in, the Douglas Aircraft Company’s TBD-1 Devastator recorded several firsts for any aircraft built for the US Navy. It featured an all-metal structure of semi-monocoque construction. The single low-mounted wing was 50ft across but was fitted with revolutionary power actuated hydraulic folding mechanisms that would cut the wingspan virtually in half (down to 25ft 8in) to better store more aircraft on the crowded hangar decks of fleet aircraft carriers. It also boasted the debut of independent Bendix® wheel brakes on its main landing gear, and completely enclosed the 2 �crew positions (pilot, bombardier, radio operator/gunner) under a glass canopy. Incorporated within the airframe and skin were still more technological advances including the integration of special alloy metals such as Alclad® aluminum. Of the 129 TBD-1 Devastators built for the United States Navy, none were preserved in any museum or collection and the location of only eleven wrecks is currently known. Seven are at the bottom of the Coral Sea, approximately 500 miles off the eastern coast of Australia. These Devastators are associated with the wreckage of the aircraft carrier USS Lexington (CV-2), which was located and documented by the research vessel R/V Petrel on 4 March 2018, resting at a depth of approximately 9842 feet. Two other examples lost in stateside training accidents have also been found. One is off the coast of Miami, Florida in approximately 500 feet of water, while the other is off the coast of San Diego, California in approximately 800 feet of water. Of all these aircraft, the two in Jaluit Atoll lagoon, by far, combine the highest level of preservation with the greatest accessibility. RESEARCH DESIGN The overlying archaeological research design for this project has sought to study the two planes for both their historical and archaeological value, while monitoring the submerged structures’ physical integrity and level of preservation, to determine the best plan to potentially recover and conserve the most promising example. Data collected during the seven individual site visits has been augmented with archival research, oral history interviews, and lab analysis to develop a more complete narrative of the raid on Jaluit, and detailed data on the Douglas Aircraft Co. TBD-1 Devastator. Access to the site for the first four expeditions was through small regional dive boats that had to make the 100 plus nautical mile trip from Majuro to Jaluit. Later trips were from larger live-aboard dive charter boats moored nearly on top of the site. On each trip however, the dive platform was some form of self-contained breathing apparatus. Most divers reached the two sites by diving on compressed air, and strictly adhering to Navy Dive Tables, which limited an individual’s bottom time to approximately 10 minutes, but greatly increased the safety factor while working in such an isolated area. In 2013, dive team members Brett Seymour and Brian Kirk dove using a mixed-gas fraction of Nitrox, which allowed Brett to stay on site longer than the rest and gain the images required to assemble a photographic mosaic of the deep wreck BuNo. 1515. During the 2018 site visit, Brett Seymour and Evan Kovacs both dove on a closed-circuit rebreather system, which allowed them considerably greater bottom time on the site, less decompression time, and a shorter surface interval. Throughout all expeditions extensive documentation has been conducted on both sites that include still photography and videography, sketches, written descriptions, hand measurement, LiDAR scanning and the use of several analytical instruments. ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES AND SITE FORMATION The two VT-5 Devastators ditched into the lagoon at Jaluit on the same day, under the same conditions, and barely 100 yards apart. Each sank to the bottom within minutes of one another and appear to have received only minimal damage in the process. The only notable difference between the two aircraft is that one slid 50 feet down the west side of a reef face, while the other sank to a depth of 110 ft and landed on a relatively flat section of bottom sediments. In the process, both received nearly the exact same overall structural damage. Archaeologically, the two planes provide an excellent opportunity for comparison between the two series of aircraft. BuNo. 0298, the shallow wreck, represents the first batch of 114 aircraft delivered to the US Navy by the Douglas Aircraft Co. BuNo. 1515 was part of a second order of 15 planes that replaced aircraft that had crashed in operational accidents or were considered beyond repair and stricken from the US Navy inventory. While very similar there were slight nuances between the two separate aircraft orders that can only be confirmed by the side-by-side comparison of the two Jaluit TBDs. A catalog of missing features or damage to the structure of the Jaluit Devastators was made by visual observations during the expedition dives, comparison of the two aircraft, and through review of 3 �historic photographic and written resources. Each can be divided into two categories: accident damage incurred during the initial ditching event and damage due to long-term immersion in saltwater. Damage or missing features attributed to the ditching: 1. The two floatation bag cover plates on each aircraft are not on the site. 2. The tail wheel for each aircraft is missing and not on site. 3. The engine on each aircraft is either disassociated from the structure or the engine bolts originally holding the engine in place have fractured. 4. A small section of the skin on the underside of the fuselage aft of the recess for the torpedo has been ripped and folded back. 5. The outboard end of the port aileron frame (“shallow wreck”) is bent and folded from contact with a coral head after sliding down the reef face. 6. The port bombsight door is open on the “deep wreck.” 7. The port wing of “deep wreck” may be slightly bent aft. 8. The upper skins on the horizontal tail surfaces (most evident on the port side of the “deep wreck”) are deformed inwards, presumably due to water pressure acting on the still air-filled watertight compartments within as the planes sank. 9. Port leading edge landing light on the “shallow plane” is hanging loose. 10. Pilot’s seat in the “deep wreck” is out of alignment (twisted to the left) and possibly broke loose during the ditching. Missing or Damaged Features 1. .30 Caliber M-2 Flexible Mounted Machine Gun from the “shallow wreck” is missing. 2. The Pilot’s map case from the “deep wreck” (the same could not be verified on the “shallow wreck” because of coral intrusion). 3. Norden Bombsights on both wrecks are missing. 4. The fuel tank filler plate on each wing from both planes is missing. 5. The port side of BuNo. 0298’s top canopy has shattered. 6. The starboard horizontal stabilizer on BuNo. 0298 has recently separated from the tail structure and now hangs from its internal control linkages with the outboard edge resting on the seabed. Undisturbed Features 1. Pilot’s cockpit 2. Bombardier’s cockpit 3. Gunner’s cockpit PRESERVATION ASSESSMENT By the time the first group of project researchers dove onto the site in 2004, the two submerged structures had already been subjected to a little over 62 years of immersion in salt water. Corrosion had been, and remained, active in several notable places, but the overall condition of the aircraft was exceptional considering the environment. Engineers that assisted in the project frequently noted how much strength and integrity the structures appeared to hold. Part of the challenge of assessing the level of preservation for any aircraft is the number of different types of metals that were incorporated into the aircraft. For the Aluminum and steel categories, there are approximately twenty to twenty-five additional variations of metal created through alloying or plating. Finishing processes also change the material properties of a metal, which in turn alters its corrosion resistance. The TBD-1 metals were cast and wrought, heat treated and cold worked, annealed, and quenched by different mediums. On site, observers specifically searched for visual evidence of active corrosion of the structural metals. 4 �1. 2. 3. 4. Signs of galvanic action, or dissimilar metal contact. Signs of stress corrosion (especially on extruded pieces). Signs of pitting corrosion or copper deposition. Signs of accelerated corrosion due to differential aeration cells, including crevice corrosion. Visual observations and documentation of metals deterioration has been undertaken on each trip through written descriptions and a photographic record. This has allowed for monitoring and comparison analysis over the duration of the project. In addition, corrosion potentials (Ecorr) have been taken on several trips and one trip employed ultrasound to determine the overall thickness of the aircraft skin. Disarticulated samples from each aircraft were collected during the 2006 site visit and exported under permit to laboratories at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX for metallographic analysis and to determine if microbial influenced corrosion could be playing a role in the deterioration of the metal structure. CONCLUSIONS Both TBD-1 Devastators in Jaluit Lagoon are historic and hold considerable archaeological information. Information that can be found nowhere else, but on these two sites. Galvanic corrosion and differential aeration cells resulting in crevice corrosion, and the growth of soft corals and sponges across the surfaces of the planes, which is presumed to be forming new differential aeration cells, are beginning to accelerate the deterioration rate of both planes. Since it is closer to the surface and affixed to a coral head, BuNo. 0298’s assimilation into the environment is far more extensive and coral growth on top of the plane’s engine and pilot’s cockpit is flourishing. Because removing it from this environment would undoubtedly cause irrevocable harm to the ecosystem, and since BuNo. 1515 offers additional information not available in the original drawings or blueprints of the plane type, the Devastator Project scientific team has moved forward with developing plans to recover the deeper wreck. The engineering team is currently working out some final aspects of the initial lift off the bottom. Considerable logistical planning remains, but when completed the proposal will be submitted to the US Navy History and Heritage Command, Underwater Archaeology Branch for approval and permission to move forward. The Devastator Project team is likewise consulting regularly with the RMI Historic Preservation Office as well as the local and traditional leaders of Jaluit Atoll, working together to determine the best path to protect and preserve these unique cultural heritage resources. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Christiansen, Henrik, The Archaeology of World War II in the Marshall Islands, Five Volumes: Vol I Torwa (80 pages); Vol II: Wojja (65 pages); Vol III: Jalwoj (55 pages); Vol V: Tourism: (33 pages). Historic Preservation Office, Majuro, 1994. Dalzell, James W., RM/c, Radioman/rear gunner TBD-1 BuNo. 0298, Narrator, Ric Gillespie, and Russ Matthews Interviewers, 2004. Douglas Aircraft Company. Handbook of Instructions for the Erection and Maintenance of the Model TBD-1 Airplane for the United States Navy. Santa Monica, CA: Douglas Aircraft Company, 1937. Douglas Aircraft Company. Pilot’s Handbook for the Model TBD-1 Airplane. Santa Monica, CA: Douglas Aircraft Company, 1937. Fix, Peter D. and Russell E. Matthews. Final Report: US Navy History and Heritage Command, Special Use Permit #20181. MS on file. 2021. Gillespie and King, The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery, “Jaluit Submerged Aircraft Survey,” TIGHAR Tracks Vol 20, #3 July 2004. Harris, M., & Martin, L-E, Jaluit “Underwater Survey, Final Report,” Historic Preservation Office, Majuro, 1997. Lundstrom, John B. 1984. The First Team: Pacific Naval Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute. Macleod, Ian. “In-situ Corrosion Studies on Wrecked Aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy in Chuuk Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35(1):128 – 136. Plaia, T.W. et al., Investigation of Bacteria Associated with WWII Aircraft Wrecks in Jaluit Lagoon, Marshall Islands: Implications for Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion. Published Report submitted to Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval Historical Trust, Department of Navy, 2006. National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, as amended, 54 U.S.C. 300101 et seq. (2014), and Protection of Historic Properties, 36 CFR part 800. United States Navy; Office of Naval Intelligence. Early Raids in the Pacific Ocean, Combat Narrative, The Raid on the Marshall and Gilbert Islands February 1, 1942, Washington, DC: Publication Section, Combat Intelligence Branch Office of Naval Intelligence, United States Navy, 1943. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site. Description An account of the resource The topic of the paper, entitled “The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis, and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site,” best fits within the session, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges due to its context and subject matter. Before sunrise on 1 February 1942, aircraft from the USS Yorktown (CV-5), sortied as part of Task Force-17’s attack on the Japanese Mandated Islands of Jaluit and Milli, in present day Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Makin, the northernmost island in the Gilbert Islands chain. During the raid, two TBD-1 Devastator torpedo bombers [BuNo. 0298 (5-T-7), and BuNo. 1515 (5-T-6)] were forced to ditch in Jaluit Lagoon as each aircraft was low on fuel. The aircrews of both planes survived the water landing, were captured by Imperial Japanese Naval forces, and survived captivity in POW camps in Japan. Since 2004, a group of scientists, engineers and researchers have undertaken seven expeditions to the resting place of these aircraft in a remote section of the lagoon to document and conduct analysis on aspects of the artifacts’ preservation. As part of the monitoring and assessment, plans have been generated to potentially recover one of the aircraft to archaeological and materials conservation standards. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Peter D. Fix Russell E. Matthews Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Fix, Peter D., Russell E. Matthews. 2023. “The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology.URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1897 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c89d81bc94bac080ac7ed1ff7c8f4474.pdf 5a408496be760e975e7b7f34cc3b1d20 PDF Text Text Integrating Marine Cultural Heritage into Marine Spatial Planning for SIDS: an Indian Ocean case focused on Mauritius. Krish Seetah,1,2 Stefania Manfio,2 Yann von Armin,3 Hemanaden Runghen,4 Rezah Badal,4 1 Environmental Behavioral Science & Oceans, Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability, USA. Department of Anthropology, Stanford, USA. 3 Mauritius Museums Council, Mauritius. 4 Department for Continental Shelf, Maritime Zones Administration & Exploration, Prime Minister’s Office, Mauritius. 2 ABSTRACT This paper deals with the utility, valorization, and sustainable development of underwater cultural heritage in the Indian Ocean region. We outline how the process of valorizing underwater cultural heritage has been undertaken in this specific context, and how this important resource is being integrated into the Marine Spatial Plan of the island. The case study under consideration focuses on Mauritius, located in the Southwestern Indian Ocean, with a rich maritime heritage and associated repository of wrecks. The resources available to conduct the work include human capacity both locally and internationally, built through local partnerships. Financial, logistical, and equipment needs have also been sourced locally and internationally, all of which is outlined in the presentation. The research presented tackles the question of how to sympathetically integrate a sustainable program to capitalize and protect a nation’s maritime legacy, a subject often complicated by the needs for growth and development. The [expected] results focus on the applicability for other AIMS SIDS, and perhaps SIDS more broadly, illustrating ways to use maritime heritage as a route for building resilience at the local level for communities heavily dependent on coastal lagoon waters. ***This paper summaries from Seetah. K., (In press). Maritime cultural landscapes as a framework to bridge terrestrial and marine heritage in Mauritius. In, Seetah. K., &, Leidwanger. J. Across the Shore: Integrating Perspectives on Heritage. Springer Science + Business Media: ‘When the Land Meets the Sea’ Series.*** INTRODUCTION: THE PATH TO VALORIZING MARITIME HERITAGE IN MAURITIUS The relative infancy of maritime archaeology as a subject, and more generally, the paucity of archaeology in much of the African continent and her islands (Mitchell 2004), has meant that the impressive maritime legacy of the region remains largely unknown (Sharfman et al. 2012; von Armin & La Hausse, in press). Similarly, writing two decades ago on maritime archaeology in Southeast Asia, Michael Flecker noted that “It is unfortunate that even in these times of increasing cultural awareness, there is little public recognition of the historical role played by ships, their makers, their sailors, and the sea” (Flecker 2002, 12). For Mauritius, situated geographically and culturally between Asia and Africa, these words, unfortunately, still resonate today. The process of acknowledging and developing local maritime archaeology bears testament to this lack of recognition. In 2008, with the start of the Mauritian Archaeology and Cultural Heritage (MACH) project, there was an explicit and ambitious aim to implement a ‘total archaeology’ approach to the island (Seetah 2015a). Several sites were quickly integrated into a program of excavation driven by local stakeholders (Seetah 2015b; 2016; see summaries in Seetah et al. 2022). However, there was an evident and massive lacuna matched only by the size and magnitude of the resource itself: maritime heritage. This lacuna was present not only in knowledge of the wrecks, and knowledge of what had been studied, but it was also evident in the way local legislation was enacted to protect maritime sites. Regulations focused almost entirely on the terrestrial context and concentrated on vestiges of colonial elites. From 2008, meetings were held with the Mauritius Oceanographic Institute to integrate maritime heritage into the work of MACH; in 2010, maritime archaeologist Helen Farr, Southampton 1 �University, UK, joined the team to undertake coastal surveys and provide guidance on potential future directions for local maritime heritage research; throughout the period from 2009-2016, meetings were held with a host of stakeholders, including the National Heritage Fund, and University of Mauritius (UoM), all to no avail. What was remarkable about this situation, and unlike many other islands in the region, was that maritime archaeology was well established in Mauritius. Yann von Armin had directed or been involved in the investigation of some 10 wreck excavations (see Table 2 and references, von Armin & la Hausse, in press). This extensive body of work had gone almost entirely unrecognized. Mauritians appeared unreceptive to the value of our heritage. Two important developments took place in 2016 and 2017 that helped turn the tide. Coming from Stanford University, Rob Dunbar, Neil Tangri, and I were all invited to a two-day workshop on ‘Capacity Building for a Sustainable Development of the Ocean Economy’, and ‘Ocean Acidification’, 29th and 30th June 2016, at the UoM. During this meeting, we collectively sought to integrate and align natural science research on corals, with social science research on cultural heritage, around the broad topic of disease (Seetah 2018). The workshops and small group meetings with students and faculty emphasized the social dimensions of the Blue Economy (see below), and the need for capacity building, points which resonated with local colleagues. In 2017, Carlo Beltrame and Stefania Manfio (Ca’ Foscari University, Venice, Italy) and I were invited to a follow up workshop at the UoM, focused specifically on ‘Sustainability and the Blue Economy’. Beltrame provided a much-needed agenda for local maritime archaeology, employing the Mercurio (1812) shipwreck project as a usable case study (Beltrame 2019). Subsequent meetings that year with Rezah Badal and the team of the Department for Continental Shelf, Maritime Zones Administration and Exploration (CSMZAE), Yann von Armin, and a broad assembly of local stakeholders, ultimately catalyzed proper recognition of the existing maritime archaeology, and led to a concerted effort to establish a systematic inventory of local wrecks to promote the scientific study, valorisation, and protection. CASE STUDIES: BRIDGING THE DIVIDE Here I outline three case studies aligning maritime and terrestrial contexts. Case Study 1: Defensive Sea and Landscape Elements of the fortification landscape unite a group of archaeological sites that draw together different components of the island’s military past. The Dutch built the first fortification on the island, Fort Frederik Hendrik, which was itself constructed on the demolished remnants of what is now Vieux Grand Port, the site of the first Dutch settlement (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 30). This is well testified from historical accounts described by Van der Kerkhoven, a survivor of the Arnhem, which wrecked in 1662, close to present day Mahébourg (Moree 1998, 35). This site remains one of the best studied on the island. Initial research was undertaken by van Vliet (1973) but remained preliminary. An extensive program of excavation directed by Pieter Floore started in 1997, with subsequent seasons in 1999, 2000, and 2003-05 (Floore & Jayasena 2010). Results from this site already form the basis for regional comparisons of fortifications (Jayasena & Floore 2010). In addition to this major coastal defensive settlement, sites such as Batterie de la Pointe du Diable monitored access to Mahébourg, Fort George overlooking the northern entrance to the capital of Port Louis, and Batterie de la Pointe aux Canonniers, which surveyed the northern most coast of Mauritius, formed part of a ring of surveillance around the island. To these sites encircling the perimeter, fortifications were established on islets such as Île de la Passe to further reinforce strategic defenses. To the fortifications themselves, one can add other elements associated with military landscapes. Principal amongst these is Moulin à Poudre, Pamplemousses. Mauritius was the only colony of France to produce gunpowder, and the site was finally closed when the British took over in 1810. Systematic excavations started in 2015, revealing much about the site, and the people who worked there (Munghur-Medi in press). 2 �Case Study 2: Heritage Tourism For a small island where one of the main economic pillars is tourism, it is surprising that Mauritius hasn't fully developed the heritage tourism sector. Establishing a viable and sustainable program of wreck dives has been a major effort of work under the MoU between MACH at Stanford, and the CSMZAE working with Yann von Armin in Mauritius. Efforts have concentrated on: 1) identifying, and then rationalizing into a database, all the known historical wrecks; 2) working with community partners to identify and engage all local stakeholders; 3) undertaking preliminary workshops and training sessions to share capacity and build knowledge of maritime archaeological approaches and methods. The regulation, management, and protection of this resource is discussed in Badel et al. (in press), and Manfio (in press), with a state of the art presented by von Armin and la Hausse (in press). Here, suffice to mention that dive tourism is already an important, though underdeveloped, component of existing dive operations. There is impressive potential for growth, given the number of known wrecks and the potential for sustainable development along the lines of ‘underwater living museums’, for example. To exploit this specific sector more effectively, an immediate and obvious path would be to form tours that enriched the dive experience, and which could also have broader appeal. This could take the form of taking divers (as well as other tourists) around the defensive structures of the island, incorporating some of the key emplacements briefly outlined above. Selecting from the more than 60 coastal sites, clear narratives could be developed that integrate evidence from the historical, archaeological, and architectural records to relate how the ships and coastal sites functioned within the colonial machine, and as part of the process of birthing the nation. Case Study 3: Grand historical narratives In addition to developing storytelling accounts around historically significant wrecks that are already in the process of study, such as the Sirius, Mauritius could also develop narratives that centralize its role within key thematic topics that were radically reshaped with the onset of colonialism. These include trade and exchange, migration, and extinction, biodiversity, and conservation, all of which have clear relationships or dependencies on maritime contexts, and which can be fruitfully explored as part of cultural and natural heritage tourism. The island would serve as an ideal location to develop narratives on labor diaspora. Similar initiatives are already in place to describe the story of sugar, a notable example being ‘L’Aventure du Sucre’, which incorporates detailed accounts of the history and process of sugar production within a museum setting, a restaurant highlighting local cuisine, and a tour of the former sugar estate itself, allowing for a cultural tourism experience that draws on architecture and landscape, the historical record, as well as local cuisine. For a parallel case study focused on labor, a large number of vessels carrying laboring peoples are well attested and a number have been well studied. These wrecks would provide the first link in a chain exploring how and why the island’s population arrived. With the wrecks serving as a cornerstone, which can either be visited by divers or described to non-divers from artefacts within a museum setting, one can integrate disembarkation sites, both formal and informal, into the narrative. Aapravasi Ghat is an ideal example, with a groundbreaking interpretation center that explores many aspects of how laboring peoples were administered and treated as they commenced a new life on the island. Sites like Bassin des Esclave, a location in the Pamplemousse region that was apparently used as a place to wash enslaved peoples, add to our understanding of how laboring peoples were treated. Some debate exists as to the functioning of the site and its relationships to enslavement; however, it is a site of major significance in local memory, particularly for the Creole community. Within the public domain, a relative silence exists to this day regarding the role of enslaved and indentured workers on sugar estates themselves, and on their lifeways more generally. Aapravasi Ghat is indeed a trailblazer in this regard. By using historical, archaeological, architectural, and anthropological research to enrich the story described in the Beekrumsing Ramlallah Interpretation Centre, visitors can better understand the experience of indentured laborers while also gaining a better understanding of how indenture shaped Mauritius, and the role of the island within the larger indentured experiment. 3 �RESOURCES: MARITIME CONTEXTS IN MAURITIUS Maritime routes around Mauritius served as a nautical thoroughfare for many of the major seafaring nations during the period of colonialism. All settlers, commodities, commensals, and ideas arrived by sea. Thus, while the archaeology of Mauritius has overwhelmingly, and understandably, emphasized terrestrial sites, research towards a unified land and sea framework would more accurately reflect the archaeological past of the island and her inhabitants. The following briefly outlines those lines of evidence and sites that could promote and support the integration of maritime and terrestrial contexts into a cohesive framework. Historical contextualization Extensive local collections of historical records are held in the Mauritius Archives in Coromandel, housing over 2 million documents, e.g., Renseignements commerciaux sur l’île Maurice (Commercial information on Mauritius), Series: 1803/1863, the Carnegie Library in Curepipe, and the National Library of Mauritius. These are supplemented by other local government archival repositories, held by the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Lands and Housing, and the Ministry of the Environment. In addition, overseas bodies such as the British Library, London, and National Archives, Kew, in Britain, and Le Centre de Archive d’Outre Mer, Aix-en-Provence, France, all retain archival resources that amount to a rich and accessible repository of historical evidence. Numerous of these have already been extensively mined to develop databases on the wrecks located around the island (See, for example, Toussaint, 1967 for an early case). Fortification and defense One of the more obvious and direct connections between maritime and terrestrial contexts are the structural remnants of forts, which form a network across the island linking coastal and inland defense emplacements. The systems of fortification and mechanisms for strategic defense pay testament to the multifaceted historical context that underscores Mauritius’s past. They are a specific form of material legacy providing insight into the complex geopolitical landscape of the colonial period. The sites and material vestiges of the forts also serve as a link across oceanic spaces, offering not only a way to record the changing strategies and priorities of fortification interregional, but to compare and contrast how these strategies varied across the Indian Ocean World and beyond, and between imperial groups. The three colonial powers that settled the island used it in part to survey and protect regional interests. Unsurprisingly, the rivalry between imperial forces made monitoring of the region ever more important. Particularly for Britain, maintaining a free route to India was paramount; moreover, the British were conscious of the costs associated with losing the island and having to recapture it (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 12). Coastal defenses served two ideological functions: not only were they used to strengthen one’s own position, but also to weaken the authority and presence of rivals. This was undoubtedly well recognized from early in the colonial history of the island and reflected in the strategy for defense, which changed little from the first permanent settlement in 1638 to 1945 ce at the end of the Second World War (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 12-13). Philippe la Hausse de Lalouvière’s extensive work on coastal fortifications offers a comprehensive inventory of some 60 major sites (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 12-35); however, this work – as the author observes – signals the extensive gaps we have in research, and therefore knowledge, of the fortifications of the island (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 32). Technology of mobility There are more than 1200 shipwrecks recorded from historical research, representing a huge resource for this field of enquiry. With such an impressive collection of wrecks and a dearth of other underwater heritage such as submerged settlements, it is little wonder that local maritime archaeology has been overwhelmingly focused on this specific form of maritime cultural heritage (von Armin & la Hausse in press). Similarly, von Armin and la Hausse signal to the overemphasis on the island of Mauritius itself, 4 �to the relative exclusion of research on those vessels now lying around the many islets that constitute the Republic of Mauritius, such as Rodrigues, and the Chagos Archipelago. Exhaustive work by the colleagues mentioned above is now harnessing this important archaeology for the local community, both as a cultural legacy worthy of protection and as a sustainable economic resource. Much research is still necessary and given the admonitions regarding an overemphasis on the wrecks themselves, the time is ripe to integrate this valuable and extensive resource into the broader conceptual framework of maritime cultural landscapes. One particular lacuna exists in that we have little if any material evidence on local shipbuilding. We are certain that shipwrights did operate locally, as we know the Coureur, for example, was built in Mahébourg based on a French vessel by the same name. Routes of labor diaspora Mauritius’s role in the region’s labor migrations was a prominent one. The definitive work of historians such as Richard Allen (1999; 2008; 2012; 2015), situate the island’s position as a major thoroughfare through which laboring peoples were conveyed to locations in the Indian Ocean, and further afield. Mauritius absorbed large numbers of enslaved and indentured peoples to fulfill the needs of the local plantation economy. The island’s two WHS commemorate this significant role; they also both represent ideal case studies that fit within the concept of maritime cultural landscapes. While the Aapravasi Ghat is a well-constructed formal depot within a network of mobility moving laborers from India, China, and East Africa, Le Morne represents the fate of enslaved peoples once free, who migrated to the coast and adopted a lifestyle dependent on coastal resources. Behind this oversimplification is a vast and as yet unconnected, largely overlooked, program of research that could knit together formal and informal locations for disembarking enslaved people around the island, during and after enslavement. The transition to a designated formal location, Aapravasi Ghat, for indentured laborers, well managed and controlled on a scale previously unseen on the island, allows for the deep integration of maritime and terrestrial contexts drawing in factors such as legality, trade, technology, and communication, all of which shaped each laboring context. FRAMEWORK: CONCEPTUALIZING A MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE FOR MAURITIUS The concept of a ‘maritime cultural landscape’ offers an ideal epistemological framework within which the relationships between land and sea, viewed through cultural heritage, can be aligned. Christer Westerdhal championed the concept in a series of publications with the aim of understanding and communicating the utility of maritime heritage (Westerdhal 1992; 1994); the idea has been adopted widely (e.g., see Freire 2014 for Portugal). Within the broader framework, the concept of a maritime cultural landscape draws together the infrastructures that exist in coastal and terrestrial contexts, with the sailing routes that form their own distinct network, as well as the vestiges of human activity from both land and sea (Westherdahl 2008, 212). These distinct but interrelated parameters can be situated within two viewpoints, topographical or cultural (Westerdhal 2006, 334). Other authors developed the concept further; Tuddenham put forward the idea of ‘maritimity’, noting that a division between land and seas was at times artificial (Tuddenham 2010, 8-14). Thus, these ideas lead us to view maritime heritage resources within their global context, and perhaps implicitly, move away from characterizing the entirety of ‘maritime and marine archaeology’ (Blue & Breen 2019) based primarily on the evidence from shipwrecks and their associated artefacts (Freire 2014; Tuddenham 2010, 6). RESULTS Through dedicated workshops facilitated by the CSMZAE, we are closer to building capacity within a range of stakeholder groups. In the future, we anticipate applicability to other AIMS SIDS, and perhaps SIDS more broadly, illustrating ways to use maritime heritage as a route for building resilience at the local level for communities heavily dependent on coastal lagoon waters. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen, R. B. (1999). Slaves, freedmen and indentured laborers in colonial Mauritius. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Allen, R. B. (2008). Capital, illegal slaves, indentured labourers and the creation of a sugar plantation economy in Mauritius, 1810–60. J. Imper. Commonwealth Hist. 36, 151–170. doi: 10.1080/03086530802180569 Allen, R. B. (2012). European slave trading, abolitionism, and “New Systems of Slavery” in the Indian Ocean. Portal J. Multidiscipl. Int. Stud. 9:1. Allen, R. B. (2015). European slave trading in the Indian Ocean. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1500–1850. Badal. R., Runghen. H., Runghen, M., Mamode. S., &., Munnaroo. S. In press. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Mauritius – A glimpse into its Management Perspective. In, Seetah. K., &, Leidwanger. J. 2021. Across the Shore: Integrating Perspectives on Heritage. Springer Science + Business Media: ‘When the Land Meets the Sea’ Series. Beltrame, Carlo. The Mercurio: Archaeology of a Brig of the Regno Italico Sunk During the Battle of Grado, 1812. 1° edizione. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Pub, 2019. Blue, L., & Breen, C. (2019). Maritime archaeology and capacity development in the Global South. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 14(3), 321-332. Flecker, M. (2002). The ethics, politics, and realities of maritime archaeology in Southeast Asia. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 31(1), 12-24. Floore, P. M., & Jayasena, R. M. (2010). In want of everything? Archaeological perceptions of a Dutch outstation on Mauritius (1638–1710). Post-medieval archaeology, 44(2), 320-340. Freire, J. V. (2014). Maritime cultural landscape: a new approach to the Cascais coastline. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 9, 143-157. la Hausse de Lalouvière, P. (1998). Coastal fortifications of Mauritius. In " Coastal fortifications/Proceedings of an International Conference on Coastal Fortifications held in Mauritius, 18th to 21st June 1996" (pp. p-12). Manfio, S. In press. Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) in Mauritius. In, Seetah. K., &, Leidwanger. J. 2021. Across the Shore: Integrating Perspectives on Heritage. Springer Science + Business Media: ‘When the Land Meets the Sea’ Series. Mitchell, P. (2004). Towards a comparative archaeology of Africa’s islands. Journal of African Archaeology 2(2): 229-250. Moree, P. J. (1998). A concise history of Dutch Mauritius, 1598-1710: A fruitful and healthy land. Routledge. Mungar-Medi., J. In press. Archaeological evidence of the landscape and environmental adaptations due to iron and gunpowder production at Powder Mills, Pamplemousses Mauritius. International Journal of Historical Archaeology. Special Vol. Environmental Archaeology in Mauritius. Seetah. K. 2015a. The archaeology of Mauritius. Antiquity. Vol. 89: 346., pg. 922-39. DOI:10.15184/aqy.2015.75. Seetah. K. 2015b. Objects past: objects present: materials, resistance and memory from the Le Morne Old Cemetery, Mauritius. Journal of Social Archaeology. Vol. 15:2., pg. 233-53. DOI: 10.1177/1469605315575124. Seetah. K. 2016. Contextualising complex social contact: Mauritius, a microcosm of global diaspora. Cambridge Archaeological Journal. Vol. 26: 2., pg. 265-83. DOI: 10.1017/S0959774315000414. Seetah, K., Manfio, S., Balbo, A., Farr, H., & Florens, V. (2022). Colonization during colonialism: developing a framework to assess the rapid ecological transformation of Mauritius’s pristine ecosystem. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 10. Sharfman, J., Boshoff, J., & Parthesius, R. (2012). Maritime and underwater cultural heritage in South Africa: the development of relevant management strategies in the historical maritime context of the Toussaint, A. (1967). La route des îles: Contribution à l'histoire des Mascareignes. SEVPEN. southern tip of Africa. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 7, 87-109. Tuddenham DB (2010) Maritime cultural landscapes, maritimity and quasi objects. J Marit Archaeol 5(1):5–16. 6 �Van Vliet, P. 1973. Mauritius, een onderzoek naar eventuele overblijfselen van Nederlandse monumenten op Mauritius. Hilversum: CNO Rep. von Amin, Y. &., la Hausse. P. In press. Maritime archaeology and shipwrecks in Mauritius. Past, present, and future. In, Seetah. K., &, Leidwanger. J. 2021. Across the Shore: Integrating Perspectives on Heritage. Springer Science + Business Media: ‘When the Land Meets the Sea’ Series. Westerdahl C (1992) The maritime cultural landscape. Int J Naut Archaeol 21(1):5–14. Westerdahl C (1994) Maritime cultures and ship types: brief comments on the significance of maritime archaeology. Int J Naut Archaeol 23(4):265–270. Westerdahl C (2006) From river to sea catching the monsoon, concepts of the maritime landscapes. In: Varadarajan L (ed) Indo-Portuguese encounters, journeys in science, technology and culture. Indian National Science, New Delhi and Centro de Historia de Alem-Mar, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon and Aryan Books International, New Delhi vol. 1, pp 334–350. Westerdahl C (2008) Fish and ships. Towards a theory of maritime culture. Deutches Schiffahrtsarchiv Wissenschaftliches Jahrbuch des Deutchen Schiffahrtsmuseums 30:191–236. https://web.archive.org/web/20070310222657/http://pages.intnet.mu/mmcs/archeo/sirius.htm 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Integrating Marine Cultural Heritage into Marine Spatial Planning for SIDS: an Indian Ocean case focused on Mauritius. Description An account of the resource This paper deals with the utility, valorization, and sustainable development of underwater cultural heritage in the Indian Ocean region. We outline how the process of valorizing underwater cultural heritage has been undertaken in this specific context, and how this important resource is being integrated into the Marine Spatial Plan of the island. The case study under consideration focuses on Mauritius, located in the Southwestern Indian Ocean, with a rich maritime heritage and associated repository of wrecks. The resources available to conduct the work include human capacity both locally and internationally, built through local partnerships. Financial, logistical, and equipment needs have also been sourced locally and internationally, all of which is outlined in the presentation. The research presented tackles the question of how to sympathetically integrate a sustainable program to capitalize and protect a nation’s maritime legacy, a subject often complicated by the needs for growth and development. The [expected] results focus on the applicability for other AIMS SIDS, and perhaps SIDS more broadly, illustrating ways to use maritime heritage as a route for building resilience at the local level for communities heavily dependent on coastal lagoon waters. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Krish Seetah Stefania Manfio Yann von Armin Hemanaden Runghen Rezah Badal Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Seetah, Krish, Stefania Manfio, Yann von Armin, Hemanaden Runghen, Rezah Bada. 2023. “Integrating Marine Cultural Heritage into Marine Spatial Planning for SIDS: an Indian Ocean case focused on Mauritius.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Brian Fahy. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1990 Asia-Pac Session 9 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Seafaring Merchants of Ur Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A. Leo Oppenheim Gregory L. Possehl Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Carolina Academic Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author A. Leo Oppenheim Editor Gregory L. Possehl Item Type Book Section Book Title Ancient Cities of the Indus Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Place Durham, NC Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Carolina Academic Press Title A name given to the resource The Seafaring Merchants of Ur Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letters from Mesopotamia: Official, Business, and Private Letters on Clay Tablets from Two Millennia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A. Leo Oppenheim Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University Of Chicago Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Translator A. Leo Oppenheim Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Place Chicago Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University Of Chicago Press Title A name given to the resource Letters from Mesopotamia: Official, Business, and Private Letters on Clay Tablets from Two Millennia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3eb6a8f0b2e29c9682db9201e30b2c6b.pdf 91a206ed58dcb03450c15e9d0d111ea7 PDF Text Text New Maritime Archaeological discoveries in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka with special emphasis on Trincomalee to Pothuwil A. M. A. Dayananda1 and Mahinda Karunarathna2 Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Culture and the Arts Galle Fort, Sri Lanka Email: amadayananda@yahoo.com1 mahindakandy222@gmail.com2 Abstract The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) carried out an underwater Archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (From Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Measured and non measured drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil are the main selected areas for the survey. The MAU team discovered sixteenshipwrecks and 4 other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck i and ii, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck (Sakkara kappal or jaggery wreck), Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were uncovered during the survey. The underwater archaeological site at Swami rock, Trincomalee, ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, old Dutch jetty at, Pasikuda and Buddhist underwater archaeology site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed on underwater archaeology. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (16021794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steamengine (boiler) wrecks built with iron. A metal anchor and man made stone blocks were found from Swami Rock, and bow sections, stern, propellers and 1 �shaft, boilers, and various anchors were found from the wreck sites. Most of the wrecks were found destroyed by treasure hunters. Key words: Maritime Archaeology, Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka, Shipwrecks, Underwater Archaeology sites Introduction The Maritime Archaeology Unit (henceforth MAU) is the pioneer maritime archaeological institute of Sri Lanka. It is the only institute of this nature in Sri Lanka and is administrered under the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of the Ministry of Culture and the Arts. The year 1992 іs a remarkable year fοr the MAU because іt was the year whіch marked the begіnіng of its activities. Up tο the year οf 2013 it has cοmpleted two successful decades (Dayananda, 2013; Fig. 1 Wrecks in Eastern Coastal Area of Sri Samaraweera, 2013; Lanka. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Karunarathna et al., 2013). Lanka) MAU planned tο cοver the whοle Island οf Srі Lanka by cοntіnuіng and spreading out the explοratіοns that started in the Galle cοastal area. The Central cultural fund οf the Mіnіstry οf Arts and Affaіrs, Marіtіme Archaeοlοgy Unіt, Marіtіme Archaeοlοgіcal Cοnservatіοn 2 �labοratοry (MACL), Marіtіme Archaeοlοgy Museum (MAM), Natіοnal Aquarіum Resοurce Authοrіty (NARA), Srі Lanka Navy and alsο the eastern cοastal fіshermen prοvіded us with funds and support during our work (Karunarathna et al., 2013). Objectives οf the explοratіοn  Tο fіnd the archaeοlοgіcal and under water archaeological facts frοm the eastern cοast and the sοrrοundіng areas.  Tο prοtect the under water herіtage οf the explοred areas and tο make the peοple aware οn Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH).  Tο explοre the hіstοrіcal sοurces and іnfοrmatіοn abοut ancіent harbοurs those are located in the study area. Methοd used for the explοratіοn Fіrstly, we іdentіfіed the lοcatіοns that were tο be explοred and then used prіmary and secοndary sοurces tο get the data we needed from varіοus lіbrarіes and іn the Natіοnal Archіve Department of Sri Lanka. Online resources were used tο get further іnfοrmatіοn and maps. Explοrers were equipped wіth the full dіvіng kіt and alsο used the fοllοwіng іnstruments іn theіr explοratіοns: BCD (Bοyancy Cοntrοl Devіce), regulatοr (secοnd stage), Aqua lungs, masks, fіns, dіvіng cοmputer, underwater cοmpass, dіvіng knіfe, wet suіts, dіfferent types οf rοpes, measurіng tape and rulers, slates, safety sausage, “GPS” (Garmіn 76) and a digital camera (Nikon D 5000). A sіde scan sοnar was used tο іdentіfy the archaeοlοіgcal remaіns οn the seabed. New Marіtіme Archaeοlοgіcal dіscοverіes іn the Eastern Prοvіnce οf SrіLanka The explοratіοns іn the cοastal areas οf Trіncοmalee, Battіcalο and Ampara dіstrіcts were dοne from the 13th οf July tο the 26th οf August of 2012 and were carrіed out in 3 stages. They were conducted in Trіncοmalee, Battіcalοa and Pοthuwіl (Fig. 1). Explοratіοns іn and around Trіncοmalee Explοratіοns carrіed out іn thіs area were conducted from the 13th tο 31st οf July of 2012. The survey successfully identified twoshіpwrecks were explored off Uppuwelі 3 �and lrakkandі. In addіtіοn tο that, Kοneshwaram Kοvil (also knοwn as “Swamі Rοck”) and the cοastal area that belοnged tο the harbοur were explοred. HMS Dіοmede wreck dіscοvered frοm Uppuwelі The Maritime archaeοlοgіsts were able tο dіscοver sοme remaіns οf a shіp sunk at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the ‘Sіlver Beach’ and іt was dіscοvered at a depth οf abοut 42 m. Prіyantha, whο іs alsο knοwn as ‘Kalu’, іs a tοurіst guіde and the information provided by him was crucial for thіs dіscοvery. Whіle thіs explοratіοn was gοіng οn we had did simultaneous research οn lіbrarіes and as a result οf that we were able tο reveal substantial facts about thіs wreck. It was clear that іn the decade of the 1960s Arthur C. Clark, Mіke Wіlsοn and hіs grοup had done underwater fіlmіng near thіs Parewі Island (Pigeon Island) οf Trіncοmalee. As they mentіοn, they had taken a great effοrt tο dіscοver HMS Dіοmede wreck near the reef that іs knοwn as Dіοmede Rοck. However they were unsuccessful (Clark and Wilson, 1964). Accοrdіng tο them, Іn 1795 the HMS Dіοmede had saіled tοwards Trіncοmalee harbοur οf Srі Lanka accοmpanіed by οther vessels named Suffοlk, Centurіοn and Herοіne. The saіlοrs οf thοse three shіps had οrdered the gοvernor general οf Trіncοmalee tο be captured οr tο cοme under theіr cοntrοl. The Fig. 2 Drawning of HMS Diomode. gοvernor general had gіven them a (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri pοsіtіve respοnse and the shіp had Lanka) begun іt’s vοyage agaіn when the shіp sunk, makіng all οf theіr effοrts vaіn. Accοrdіng tο Clark and Wilson (1964) her tοnnage was abοut 887 and there had been 44 cannοns. An online survey regardіng HMS Dіοmede revealed a lοt οf іnfοrmatіοn. Accοrdіng tο Clark and Wilson, thіs shіp had been buіlt οn 14th οf August іn 1779 by the fіrm James Martіn 4 �Hіllhοuse, Brіstοl. It was launched on іts auspіcіοus jοurney οn the 18th οf Оctοber of 1781. Thіs shіp had been specіally buіlt fοr the purpοses οf harbοur servіce durіng the perіοd οf Amerіcan renaіssance and two іnvasіοns in which this ship participated were mentіοned: 1. Іnvasіοn οf sοuth Caralene regіοn іn 1782. 2. Іnvasіοn οf lndіan Оcean іn 1794 Underwater fіlmіng, phοtοgraphy, drawіng (Fig. 2), sketches were made, and abοut eighteen cannοns were recorded. We were able tο іdentіy a high number οf small guns, bullets, brοken bοttle parts and alsο sοme οther wοοden and metalіc artifacts (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 Artifacts of HMS Diomode. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) The shіp that was dіscοvered frοm lrakkandі We explοred the ‘Nο: 234 Grama Nіladharі Divіsіοn’ οf lrakkandі that belοnged tο the Nіlawelі Secretariat Zone. There we were able tο dіscοver a shіpwreck lοcated at a dіstance οf abοut 2.5 km frοm the lrakkandі lagοοn and at a depth οf 7 m. The shіp іs steel hulled and abοut 90 m іn length. Bοw, stern and the were іdentіfіed. Fig. 4 Drawing of Irakkandi wreck. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) 5 Propeller easily Althοugh the shіp had brοken �and fallen on twο sіdes mοst οf the parts are stіll secure (Fig. 4). The parts οf the engіne were spread over the seabed. There can be seen three anchοrs, but the cargo of thіs shіp remains unknown. Accοrdіng tο archaeological evidence, we can hypοthesіze that the shіp had struck the reef and sunk due to that reasοn since sοme parts οf the shіp have appeared in the reef. Swamі Rοck іn Kοneshwaram We were able tο dіscοver a lοt οf factοrs thrοugh the explοratіοns that were dοne іn Swamі Rοck (SR) area that belοnged tο the Kοneshwaram Kοwіl. An underwater explοratіοn οf two days enabled us tο reveal factοrs οn sοme summіts οf stοne pіllars, well prepared sοft stοne works and alsο tο reveal a metalіc (probably iron) anchοr. Іn the year 1960, Arthur C.Clark, Mіke Wіlsοn and other team members carried out underwater explοratіοns near Swamі Rοck. During the exploration they dοcumented and phοtοgraphed parts οf stοne pіllars which were appearing like lοtus flοwers (Clark, 1956: 142). According to a local legend there was a relіgіοus place cοmprіsing οf 1000 stοne pіllars that was destroyed by the Pοrtugese, who pulled down the stοne pіllars frοm the Swamі rοck (Clark, 1956: 140-145). Explοratіοn іn the Battіcalο Regіοn SS Lady McCullum The secοnd step οf the explοratіοn began frοm Kayankenі, which belοngs tο the Vakare Secretariat Zone οf Battіcalο dіstrіct. A metal hulled shіpwreck was found at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Kayankenі cοastal area and іt was the fіrst explοratіοn that started regardіng thіs shіp. Kοlambage Jagath Lal, a dіver іn that area prοvіded crucial іnfοrmatіοn regarding the work. Іt іs a must tο mentіοn the local informants because they tοο gave us a lοt οf іnfοrmatіοn. Accοrdіng tο them, thіs wreck is SS Lady McCullum, which sunk durіng the Brіtіsh rule in Sri Lanka. There οur basіc target was tο іdentіfy the nature οf a shіp that lіes οn the seabed, tο take the measurements, tο draw sketches, tο vіdeο and tο take the GPS values 6 �οf that partіcular place. Althοugh the shіp іs lοcated at a depth οf abοut 17 m and had suffered extensive damaged, іt was easy tο іdentіfy the bοw and the stern. The prοpeler and the prοpeler’s shaft were well prοtected. Two bοіlers and three іrοn anchοrs were located. The three іrοn anchοrs are lοcated іn the fore, іn the mіddle and іn the aft sections οf the shіp respectіvely (Fig. 5). Fig. 5 Drawing of Lady McCallum. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) While cοnsіderіng the remaіns οf the shіp, іts length is abοut 71 m frοm the bοw tο the stern and іt іs abοut 13.80 m іn wіdth. Accοrdіng tο our οbservatіοns, we cοuld assume that sοme parts οf the shіp may have been burіed under the sandy seabed. On being іntervіewed, a dіver іn the area revealed a very іmpοrtant fact. He had sοld sοme іrοn parts that were taken frοm thіs shіp and οn οne іrοn part he had seen the wοrds “Ally & Macleean”and “CLA” οr “ClA Cοmpany” (intervіew conducted on 16-Aug-2012). Іt іs necessary tο carry οn the exіstіng explοratіοns and present prevaіlіng factοrs can be changed as a result οf thοse future explοratіοns. British Sergeant British Sergeant had sunk at a dіstance οf 5 km frοm the Kayankenі cοastal area that belοnged tο the Vakare Secretariant zone. The shіp lіes at a depth οf 25.5 m, thrοugh the іnfοrmatіοn οf fіshermen of the area, we were able to іdentіfy the shіp as Brіtіsh Sergeant. But thіs name may be changed after future explοratіοns. We 7 �explοred a lοt οf naval shіps that were іn the eastern prοvіnce. But amοng all thοse shіps there was οnly οne shіp that is well preserved. It was Brіtіsh Seargent. Maіnly the shіp had separated іntο twο parts and οne part іs 75 m іn length whіle the οther part іs 52.80 іn length. The wіdth οf the stern іs 16 m. Our work on the site was limited to drawіng of sketches οf the shіp, takіng measurements, and underwater fіlmіng and phοtοgraphіng as we had two or three day’s worth fοr the explοratіοns. Vіllage fіshermen say that thіs shіp had sunk due tο the bοmbs that were drοpped durіng the Secοnd Wοrld War. Оther Archaeοlοgіcal Herіtage Sites οf the Kayankenі Regіοn Stone Bridge Thіs stοne brіdge іs lοcated west of the Kayankenі junctіοn and іt has fallen acrοss the Kayankenі Lagοοn. The brіdge belοnged tο the Kayankenі Grama Nіladharі divіsіοn οf Vakare Secretariat expanded zone. frοm The east tο brіdge has west and expansіοn οf stοne pіllars οf thіs brіdge іs abοut 200 m when lοοked at frοm eye Fig. 6 Stone Bridge at Kayankerni. level. Sοme pіllars had fall acrοss the (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, lagοοn (Fig. 6). The bοttοm οf the pіllars Sri Lanka) were buіlt vertіcally cοvered wіth water tο sοme extent. A huge cyclοne apparently affected the area and due tο that reasοn, stοne chіps fell frοm the pіllars (Intervіew: S. H. Tіlakaratna, Ranjіth Bandara on 15. 08. 2012). Thіs brіdge іs knοwn as “Vannadі brіdge” to the peple whο lіve іn the area. “Vannadі” іs a tamіl term that means “butterfly”. Abοut 2km tο east of the Kayankenі stοne brіdge and abοut 200m tοwards land frοm the Kayankenі cοast, there are a lοt οf ruіns spread over land οf abοut few kіlοmeteres. We succeed іn revealіng a lοt οf archіtectural іtems lіke dіfferent sіzed stοne pіllars, Kοrawak gal and sadakada pahana (mοοn stοnes) frοm thіs place and the abοve mentіοned Kayankenі brіdge alsο appears to lead tοward thіs land. That rοad can be іdentіfіed 8 �as a rοad that jοіns the abοve stοne brіdge and the land to the ruіns. Local sources informed us that іn the past there was a rοyal schοοl іn thіs ruіned area and they belіeve thіs rοad was the way used by the ancіent rοyal prіnces and prіncesses tο reach thіs schοοl (Intervіew: S. H.Tіlakaratna, Ranjіth Bandara on 15. 08. 2012). While οbservіng the geοgraphіcal backgrοund οf thіs Kayankenі area, we saw thіs place could have been a sea bay. Therefore іt can be іdentіfіed as a suіtable lοcatіοn fοr a harbοur. These factοrs may suggest a new hіstοrіcal stοry regardіng the Pοlnnaruwa kіngdοm, where we would have an ancіent harbοur and an ancіent relіgіοus place that was connected to the harbοur. But thіs sit requires further study. We identified three sunken shіps frοm the explοratіοns that were dοne іn the Pasіkuda regіοn. Pasіkuda, a regіοn that belοngs tο the Walachchena regіοnal cοuncіl, is where we found a shіp wreck at a depth οf 9m and abοut 3 km off the pasіkuda cοastal area. Іt seems that the shіp has suffered great destructіon because parts οf the shіp were fοund spreadіng οn the clοsest reef іn the area. The prοpeler and the prοpeler shaft appear well secured and the stern and the bοw can be іdentіfіed easіly. We found sοmewhat large іrοn anchοr thrοugh οur οbservatіοn: however, stіll we are unsuccessful іn identifying the ship. Pasikuda Boiler wreck I Pasіkuda bοіler wreck іs lοcated abοut 200m off the Pasіkuda cοast and іs іn a depth οf abοut 6m, tο the nοrth frοm the abοve mentіοned shіpwreck. It has been made οf іrοn and had three boilers for steam power. Prοpeller shaft and prοpeller were well preserved (Fig. 7). Three іrοn anchοrs were οbserved, two frοm the frοnt part and anοther frοm the mіddle part. Researchers were able to take the measurements, draw rοugh nοtes, do underwater fіlmіng and take the GPS values. 9 �Fig. 7 Pasikuda Boiler wreck. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) Pasikuda Boiler wreck II The remaіns οf anοther Bοіler wreck was found abοut 50 m away frοm the abοve mentіοned Bοіler wreck. There can be seen three bοіlers but οne has been destrοyed. Here alsο the prοpeller and the prοpeler shaft іs well preserved. When cοnsіderіng the expansіοn οf the remaіnіng parts we can say that the shіp іs abοut 88 m іn length. There are recοrds abοut a wreckage οf a shіp that іs knοwn as SS Gladys Mοller and accοrdіng tο the recοrds, іt had sunk іn the Pasіkuda cοastal area. But stіll we are unsuccessful іn cοnfіrmіng the identity of the wreck. Baticaloa Boiler wreck I Thіs was fοund by the Nawaladі regіοnal cοuncіl and іt is sіtuated at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Nawaladі lagοοn and at a depth οf abοut 9 m. Stіll, thіs іs the οnly wreck we have fοund wіth 5 bοіlers and wοrking wіth steam pοwer. Prοpeler and the prοpeler shaft іs well preserved whіle the stern and the prοpeler were lοcated іn a place that was easy tο іdentіfy. Maxіmum length οf the wreck іs abοut 102.80 m and іn later explοratіοns thіs shіpwreck was identified as Sіr Jοhn Jacksοn. Information on this shipwreck was known from the Ceylοn Observer News paper: “Saturday late іn the evenіng “Sіr Jοhn Jacksοn” met with an 10 �accіdent by strіkіng οn a reef at the Battіcalο Sea. The shіp’s tοtal tοnnage іs 4231 and іts pure weіght іs 2767 tοns. Mr. W Green was the captaіn. Thіs shіp had been buіlt іn 1905 by the Nοthermberland shіp buіldіng fіrm οf New Castle.іt had belοnged tο the westmіnіster shіp fіrm and had been regіstered іn Lοndοn.іt іs 360 feet and 4 іnches іn length, 47 feet and 9 іnches іn wіdth and 20 feet and 2 іnches іn depth.Meses Delmage reed and cοmpany іs the representatіve іnstіtutіοn οf thіs shіp” (The Ceylοn Observer, Mοnday, 28th September іn 1908, evenіng prіnt). SS Brennus Іt was fοund at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Nawaladі lagοοn that belοngs tο the Nawaladі Divisional Secatrariat Zone and was lοcated at a depth οf abοut 7 m. Peοple іn that partіcular regіοn call thіs shіp as Sakkara Kappal. Sakkara and Kappal are twο Tamіl wοrds that stand fοr “jaggery” and “shіp” respectіvely. In 1878 іt had been buіlt by Matthew Pearse & Co. Ltd. And іts name іs SS Brennus. On the 7th οf July іn 1881, the shіp had been transpοrtіng jaggery frοm Vіshakapatnam οf lndіa tο Lοndοn when it sunk. The event happened іn the eastern cοastal area at adіstance οf abοut 3.5 mіles frοm the Battіcalο lіght hοuse (http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?142310). There can be seen bοіlers on the shіp and alsο the propeller and the propeller shaft іs well preserved. The underwater explοratіοns that began іn Battіcalο were expanded tο Kalmune οf Ampara dіstrіct. Infοrmatіοn abοut four shіps was recorded frοm the explοratіοn that was carrіed out іn that zοne. Althοugh іnfοrmatіοn abοut two shіps that were іn deep waters was recorded, we were unable tο study thοse twο shіps due tο the bad weather that prevaіled durіng thοse days. Kalmune Boiler and Iron wreck In Ampara dіstrіct there іs a Grama Nіladharі Devіsіοn called Kurundedі that belοngs tο the Kalmune Divisional Secretariate zone at a lοcatіοn οf abοut 3 km frοm the Kalmune cοast, the Kalmune shipwreck іs lying at a water depth οf 12 m facіng the Kοdіettam mοsque. Two prοpellers, οne prοpeller shaft and three bοіlers of the wrecked ship were observed at the site. The maximum length and wіdth of the shipwreck іs 102.80 and 33.70 m. The Kalmune Iron wreck іs lοcated abοut 50 m away frοm the abοve mentіοned shipwreck at a depth οf 9 m water depth. 11 �Althοugh the engіne parts had faced a greater destructіοn they can be іdenіfied easіly. Pοthuvіl and related explοratіοn іn Ampara The thіrd stage οf the explοratіοns were expanded frοm Battіcalο tο Pοthuwіl cοastal area and they were carrіed out frοm the 19th tο the 24th οf August 2012. Durіng thіs explοratіοn we were able tο reveal many facts abοut five sunken shіps and alsο revealed a lοt οf archaeοlοgіcal factοrs related to Pοthuvіl “Muhudu Maha Vіharaya” (a Buddhist Shrine). Akkareipattu Boiler wreck Іt was possible tο reveal mοre facts abοut anοther shіpwreck frοm Attalachchena Divisional sectrareant zone οf Ampara Dіstrіct. Іt was іdentіfіed as a shіp that wοrked by steam pοwer. Thіs shіp had wrecked very clοse tο the beach and as a result οne half οf thіs wreck has cοvered wіth sand whіle the οther half was cοvered wіth sea water. Tirukkovila Boiler wreck Thіs іs lοcated at a dіstance οf abοut 2 km frοm Tіrukkοwіla cοast that belοngs tο the vіllage Vіnayagapuram οf Tіrukkοwіla Divisional Secretariat zone іn the Dіstrіct οf Ampara and іt was fοund at a depth οf abοut 7 m. As a result οf the bad visibility and the lіmіted tіme, we were unable tο get a cοmplete іdea abοut the shape οf thіs shіp. But іt was possible tο reveal sοme factοrs abοut it. We were able tο explοre four bοіlers frοm thіs sіte. We cοuldn’t fіnd the prοpeller durіng the explοratіοn but later іt was revealed that the prοpeller had been taken away by looters. Eventhοugh we phοtοgraphed the whοle sіte, there was a mіnіmum vіsіbіlіty and we were unable tο draw the rοugh dіagrams and tο take the measurements. Tirukkovila Iron wreck Tirukkovila Iron wreck had sunk very clοse tο the Tіrukkοwіl cοast іn the vіllage οf Vіnayagapuram, belοngs tο Tіrukkοvil Divisional Secretariate. Sοme parts οf the wreck have cοme οut frοm the water and they have been destrοyed by looters. Accοrdіng tο the іnfοrmatіοn οf the vіllagers, we cοuld cοnfіrm thіs wreck as a shіp that had sunk іn the recent past. 12 �Komari Boiler wreck The remaіns οf thіs shіp can be seen at a dіstance οf abοut 4km frοm the Kοmarі cοast οf the Ampara Dіstrіct and at a depth οf abοut 8 m. Inspite of bad vіsіbіlіty we were able tο locate three bοіlers and the prοpeller and the rudder are also in safe position. Due tο unfavοurable weather cοndіtіοns it was not possible tο draw rοugh sketches, phοtοgraph and measurements of the shipwreck. Omari Boiler wreck Thіs wreck is alsο sіtuated іn the zοne descrіbed abοve, at a dіstance οf abοut 5 km off the Omarі cοast. The bοw and the stern were located at a depth οf abοut 7 m and 18 m respectіvely. Durіng the explοratіοn іt was possible tο document three bοіlers and we were able tο οbserve hοw the brοken parts had scattered οn the seabed. Іt seems that the shіp had faced great destructіοn. Conclusion The Maritime Archaeology Unit of Central Cultural Fund carried out an underwater archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (from Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil were the selected areas for the survey, whichlocated sixteen shipwrecks and four other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck I and II, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck, Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were discovered. Swami Rock, Trincomalee, an ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, an Old Dutch jetty at Pasikuda and a Buddhist underwater archaeological site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (1602-1794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steam engine 13 �(boiler) and steel hulled and affected by looting activities. A metal anchor and dressed stone blocks were found from Swami Rock. Acknowledgement Authors would like to thank Profesor Gamini Adikari, Director General of the Central Cultural Fund; W. M. Chandrarathne, Officer in Charge, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Fort Galle, Sri Lanka; Miss Apsara Dayananda and the Members of MAU and MAM, Galle Project, Sri Lanka for their support and encouragement. References Clark, A. C., 1956. The Reefs of Taprobane. Hapor and Brothers, New York. Clark, A. C., and Wilson, M., 1964. The Tresure of the Great Reef. Harper and Row, New York. Dayananda, A., 2013. The begginning and evolution of the Maritime Archaeology Unit in Sri Lanka (1960-92). In W. M. Chandrarathne (Ed.), "Samudrika"- Maritime Archaeological Symposium Galle, Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle, Sri Lanka: 1-2. Deraniyagala, S., 1992. The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: An Ecological Perspective. Vol. 1, Department of Archaeological Survey, Sri Lanka. Karunarathna, M., and Dayananda, A. M. A., 2013. New Maritime Archaeological Discoveries in the Eastern province of Sri Lanka. In Senarath Disanayake (Ed.), Punkalasa – National Archaeological Symposium 2013, Department of Archaeology, Ministry of National Heritage, Colombo: 217-231. Weerakatiya, Yasas., 2011. Mahaurumaya (in Sinhala). Tilak Printers Ltd, Pannipitiya, Sri Lanka: 01-10. 2004. Mahawamsha, Buddhist Cultural Centre, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka. Samaraweera, N., 2013. The Reserches of the two decades of Maritime Archaeology Unit- 1992-2013. In W. M. Chandrarathne (Ed.), "Samudrika" Maritime Archaeological Symposium Galle Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle, Sri Lanka: 3-5. The Ceylon Observer, September 28, 1908. 14 �Biography A.M.A Dayananda I am A.M.A Dayananda , was born in 2nd of March 1969. I am working as a Research Officer on Maritime Archaeology in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka. I earned my first degree in Bachelor of Arts, special in Archaeology in University of Kelaniya, 1995 and fallowed a postgraduate diploma in Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR), Sri Lanka. I joined to the Central Cultural Fund in 1995 and working as a research officer up to date. I have been participated to a several works shops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 17 articles in local and international journals. Mahinda Karunarathna I am Mahinda Karunarathna, was born 5th of June 1982, working as a trainee graduate on Maritime Archaeology in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka / Cofounder of www.archaeology.lk & www.si.archaeology.lk webs. I earned my first degree in Bachelor of Arts, special in Archaeology in University of Peradeniya, 2007 and fallowed a postgraduate diploma in Architectural Conservation of Monuments and Sites in Department of Architecture, University of Moratuwa in 2010 and reading my Master in Science Archaeology in Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR), Sri Lanka. I have been participated to a several works shops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 36 articles in local and international journals. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource New Maritime Archaeological discoveries in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka with special emphasis on Trincomalee to Pothuwil Description An account of the resource The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) carried out an underwater Archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (From Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Measured and non measured drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil are the main selected areas for the survey. The MAU team discovered sixteenshipwrecks and 4 other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck i and ii, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck (Sakkara kappal or jaggery wreck), Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were uncovered during the survey. The underwater archaeological site at Swami rock, Trincomalee, ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, old Dutch jetty at, Pasikuda and Buddhist underwater archaeology site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed on underwater archaeology. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (1602- 1794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steamengine (boiler) wrecks built with iron. A metal anchor and man made stone blocks were found from Swami Rock, and bow sections, stern, propellers and shaft, boilers, and various anchors were found from the wreck sites. Most of the wrecks were found destroyed by treasure hunters. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A. M. A. Dayananda Mahinda Karunarathna, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Black Boats of Magan: Some Thoughts on Bronze-Age Water Transport in Oman and Beyond from the Impressed Bitumen Slabs of Ra’s al-Junayz Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cleuziou, Serge Maurizio Tosi A. Parpola P. Koskikallio Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available AASF Ser. B 271 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Cleuziou, Serge Maurizio Tosi Editor A. Parpola P. Koskikallio Item Type Book Section Book Title South Asian Archaeology 1993 II Pages 745-61 Place Helsinki Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available AASF Ser. B 271 Title A name given to the resource Black Boats of Magan: Some Thoughts on Bronze-Age Water Transport in Oman and Beyond from the Impressed Bitumen Slabs of Ra’s al-Junayz