6 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/dc05f59769da8a205a6bd15e977fb4fc.pdf fef89f39ecc73f1f7ab55d1875be2b68 PDF Text Text Digital Reconstruction of Maritime Heritage in the Ajanta Murals Dr.Shreekant. S. Jadhav (Deccan College, Pune-411006) shreekantjadhav@hotmail.com / shreekantjadhav3@gmail.com ABSTRACT India's maritime heritage dates to around 4,500 years, since the Indus Valley Civilization. The impetus to revisit and re-develop maritime links was trade (primarily in cotton, pepper, and other spices), due to the monopoly of the Persians and, later, the Arabs over land-based caravan routes. Later maritime journeys spread the influence of ancient and medieval Indian civilization as far as the islands of Indonesia to the East, the islands of Japan to the north, and the east coast of Africa to the west. There are many representations of ships and boats in early Indian art. The earliest are those found among the Sanchi sculptures belonging to circa. 2nd century B.C. At the Ajanta caves, paintings from the 5th century C.E. reveal the life of the people of the time. The frescoes depict sea-going vessels conveying goods overseas, representing ships and boats from an era that witnessed India's expansion and the spread of Indian thought and culture over the more significant part of the Asiatic continent. The vitality and individuality of Indian civilization, fully developed during the era of Vakataka-Gupta imperialism, by the end of the 7th century transplanted itself to the farther East, affecting the cultures of Java, Cambodia, Siam, China, and at the most significant distance, even the to Korean peninsula and Japan. A painting on the wall of Cave No. 1 at Ajanta is still easily recognizable as a vivid representation of the Persian envoys' ceremonial presentation of their credentials. Griffiths rightly interprets the representations of ships and boats in the Ajanta paintings as a "vivid testimony to the ancient foreign trade of India." The present paper deals with the ships and boats depicted in the paintings of Ajanta. Several scholars have studied these images, more particularly from Cave Nos. 1, 2, 16 and 17. In continuation of the Magnum Opus work of Dieter Schlingloff, the author shall try to show the missing features depicted in the panels of ships and boats through newly reconstructive line drawings and photographs. Digital restoration utilizing photographs processed to adjust the brightness and contrast forms a significant step in studying the original painting and analyzing its remains and damage. This process allows digital reconstruction with line drawing and color using the original color palette. As a result of this detailed work, one may visualize the paintings and their use of ancient maritime activity as subject matter. ART HISTORY - GENERAL DESCRIPTION The caves of Ajanta (lat. 20 32’ N.; long.75 45’ E.; Dist. Aurangabad), occupies a unique position among the monuments in India by the superb symphony of architectural forms, sculpture, and above all the world-famous mural paintings. The caves are cut in a crescent-shaped bend of a steep rock overlooking the head of a narrow glen, and are completely shut off from the bustle of the mundane world. These caves are cut out of the amygdaloidal trap rock aligned 550 meters in a horseshoe form (Mitra 1971). . In all there are 30 caves of which five belong to the early period or phase (Hinayana) i.e. Nos. 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A, dated to circa. first century BCE - first century CE on a modest scale. The rock-cut excavation was revived on a more ambitious scale in the middle of the 5th century A.D. This phase of activity began during the supremacy of the Vakatakas (ascribed to the period of Harisena of the Vakataka dynasty who was ruling in this region in the last quarter of the fifth century CE) (Spink 1994). The second phase of Ajanta synchronized with the rule of the Vakatakas, with the high watermarked remains of the painter’s brush-work. Substantial remains of this phase have survived in Caves 1,2, 16 and 17., though originally all the finished caves. The paintings of this period throughout maintain an exalted height and enthrall the spectator by their rich beauty, superb expressiveness, color-scheme, balanced and effective composition, fine shading and highlight bringing into relief a plasticity, suppleness and sensitive modeling of the figures. Infact, the paintings have stood the test of the highest art-standard of mural paintings. The theme of the paintings on the walls is intensely religious in tone and mostly centers around Buddha, Bodhisattvas, incidents from the life of Buddha and the Jatakas (Mitra 2003, 10-11). 1 �The author shall briefly describe the boats and ships depicted in Cave Nos. 1, 2 and 17 with the help of newly made reproductions (line drawings and photographs), on the basis of previous work, more specifically that of Dieder Schlingloff”s Magnum Opus work on Ajanta paintings. There are three stories related to seafaring, the first, on the wall of the left aisle of the hall in Cave 1, depicts the sea voyage and shipwreck of prince Kalyanakarin. The second on the wall of the right aisle in Cave II, represents the experiences of the merchant seaman, Durukarnin: and the third, the shipwreck and oceanic crossing of the sea-traders, and later king Simhala appears on the wall of the right aisle in Cave XVII, (Schlingloff 1988, 195) Cave No. 1- Kalyanakarin/ Shipwreck: Mahajanaka Jataka Figure 1 This subject is delineated on the back wall of the left aisle above the door of the fourth cell. The fresco is considerably damaged (Yazdani 1930, 22). There are no less than ten known versions of the Kalyanakarin story: three in Sanskrit (KaDru, BAK 3I and BAK 45)," four in Chinese (T156, T202, TI428 and TI450), two in Tibetan, and one in Uighur. However, if we discount all those translations or adaptations which merely stem from earlier versions, I5 we are left with five versions from independent. (Schlingloff 1976, 6). The subject, as painted on the rock-wall, may be described thus we see a chief (merchant - prince?) sailing in a boat with several attendants. The gesture of his hands, which is rather conventional, denotes that he is faced with some dilemma. Behind the attendant to the left of the chief is an obliterated figure, overshadowed by a Canopy (chhatar). This figure seems to have been attired in a robe and may represent Mahäjanaka in plain costume, before his acquiring the kingdom of his Father, the canopy above him being emblematic of his divine personality. The boat appears to be of considerable size, and a pavilion, similar to those shown in the palace scenes: is erected in the middle of it. The hull is massively constructed and in its side four courses of planking are visible above the water. The bow and stern have carvings of animal heads at their ends. There are eyes painted on both the bow and stern. A large fish (shark?) is attacking the boat near the Stern; and a sailor has climbed up the ladder placed against the mast and he is steering the boat with a long pole or oar from there. Another sailor is at the helm, but as the fresco is damaged in this part, his action is not quite clear. To the right of this scene, the sinking of the boat has been painted. The stern only is visible, the rest of the boat being submerged nose downwards. A man is being attacked by fishes and a sea-monster. He has raised both his hands in alarm. Another person is shown being carried off by an alligator or shark, while to get free of its jaws he is trying to open its mouth. The wild stare and firmly closed lips of this man show that he is struggling with death itself. One sea-monster resembles a beaver, while another, which is painted white, has the head and ears of a cat (Yazdani 1930, 23). 2 �Significance of Eyes The eyes of Horus, the Egyptian Sun-god, plays an important part in mythology and superstition of the ancient Egyptians. They are called by Egyptologists ujas or mystic eyes on account of the mystic influence which they exercise on enemies of those whom they protect." He further says that this Eye of Horus or ujas “was worn as an amulet hanging down from the neck like a pendant; it also formed the decoration of a bracelet. These ujas acted as " protective amulets " and as such " were found on Egyptian mummies ' Even the Divinities of Egypt were " in danger or attacks from their enemies, the evil spirits," and so, " they are often placed under the protection of the eyes of Horus." They stand on guard in the heavens exactly over the prow and over the helm of the barque (Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient Classique page 93)". These ujas '' were excavated in recent years from the ruins of Susa, the Capital of ancient Elam " These ujas or " mystic eyes " of the ancient Egyptians, especially those found " over the prow and over the helm of the barque" remind us of the figures of eyes, which we see on some of our Asiatic boats (Unwala 1928). The custom of providing boats with eyes is very old. Ornamental eyes first appeared on the prows of Egyptian funeral boats and were then adopted by almost all the seafaring people in the Mediterranean area, and did not go out of fashion on larger vessels until the Middle ages. Even today they can still be seen on Indian, Indo-Chinese, and European fishing boats and other smaller craft (Quigley 1955, 191). Among the frescoes in the Ajanta caves, of about 600 CE there is depicted a three masted ship and a royal barge both provided with eyes on the brows (Mookerji 1912, 41) Cave 2: Purna Avadana Figure 2 The subject is painted between the second and third cell doors of the right corridor of Cave 2. The fresco represents some scenes of the Purna Avadana, which are painted with great vividness. The painter has shown in this scene the sea voyage of Bhavila, the elder brother of Purna, who has been caught by a storm raised by a Yaksha Mahesvara. The surf and deep blue water have been rather conventionally shown by curved black and white lines which however, are not displeasing to the eye. Among the fishes are the figures of two Naga spirits who have either come to rescue the boat, or like the traditional mermaids, have appeared on the scene. Their pose is striking, being suggestive of rapid movement. One has a halo of three serpent’s hoods above her head. We see another semi-human figure below the boat itself. We notice a large variety of fishes in the sea, many of them are obviously mythical, but some are real. (Yazdani 1933,46) The representations of ships and boats in the Ajanta paintings are therefore rightly interpreted by Griffiths as only a "vivid testimony to the ancient foreign trade of India." 3 �The sea-going vessel has a high stem and stern, with three oblong sails attached to as many upright masts. Each mast is surmounted by a truck, and there is a lug-sail. The jib is well filled with wind. A sort of bowsprit, projecting from a kind of gallows on deck, is indicated with the out-flying jib, square in form, like that borne till recent times by European vessels. The ship appears to be decked and has ports. Steering-oars hang in sockets or rowlocks on the quarter, and eyes are painted on the bows. There is also an oar behind; and under the awning are a number of jars, while two small platforms project fore and aft. The vessel is of the Agramandirā type as defined in the Yukti Kalpataru, our Sanskrit treatise on ships. (Mukhopadhya 2020, 12-13). Water is no less formally indicated, sometimes by markings like basket-work, in others by flowing wave scrolls; but fishes, tortoises and mermen are generally added to prevent mistakes (Griffiths 1983, 14). Under the awning are a number of jars, while two small platforms project fore and aft as on native boats of today. The sole occupant of the boat is a man with long hair, in the act of prayer to, or in adoration of, two two flying figures: one of whom may represent Chandra (the moon) as a crescent is seen behind him. (Griffiths 1983, 30) This representation is again a production of a special atelier of the Vakataka style painters at this site. The other interesting treatment in this panel is the emphasized and decorative-mat-type treatment of the turbulent sea. On the other hand, following the early Indian art tradition there is no sky; this is suggested by the hovering angel in the sky-region. (Rai 1991). Amphora or Torpedo Jars The pottery depicted in the Purna vadhana scene seems to be torpedo Jars (Balvally et. al. 2019). Similar type of pottery has been revealed in the excavation at Nagardhan, a village located in Ramtek Taluka of Nagpur district, 6 km south of Ramtek, the Taluka headquarter in the state of Maharashtra. The site has been excavated by a joint team from the Department of Archaeology (Nagpur Division, Maharashtra) and Deccan College, Pune since 2015 (Sontakke et al. 2016). Interestingly, images of a boat transporting jars are seen in a painting of the Purnavadana in Cave 2 at Ajanta. The implication of such a painting is of immense significance for the concept of trade (Brancaccio 2011, 307 fig. 114). Apart from Nagardhan, torpedo jars have been reported under the category of ‘Amphora’ from the excavations at Paunar (Dist. Wardha) from levels dated to around 2nd-3rd century CE. (Deo & Dhavalikar 1968, XXII, nos. 5-6) and have been described as jars with their ‘interior bearing ripple grooves and coated with black resin’ (Deo & Dhavalikar 1968, 48). Torpedo jars are also reported from Nevasa as amphora (Lal 1960). Apart from the Sasanians, the Axumites—of East Africa, acting as middle men for the Romans—were also depicted in the Ajanta paintings, thus showing the effect of trade on artistic designs of the period (Brancaccio 2011, 213). Some scholars state that the phase after the Satavahana period (i.e. the Vakatakas period) in Maharashtra is devoid of trade and shows a decline in trade networks (Thakuria 2017, 181-186). Others further claim that most early historic sites in Vidarbha were deserted after the Vakataka period, until the Medieval Period (Sawant 2006; 2010, 57). The excavations at Nagardhan and the finds of the torpedo jars within the Vakataka phase thus exhibit the continuation of trade/cultural contact well into the Vakatakas phase, in particular with the Sasanians. The context of the torpedo jar found at Nagardhan further strengthens the idea of ‘wine carriers’ of the later Sasanian 4 �period imported into western India. The period of Indo-Sasanian contact had both intellectual and economic dimensions, as proven by the textual and archaeological remains respectively. (Ritvik et. al. 2019). Simhala Avdana Cave 17 Figure 3. The story is painted on the entire wall of the right corridor and is continued to the upper part of the pilaster between this corridor and the one at the back of Cave 17. The portion of the fresco showing the shipwreck scene is much damaged, but the wreckage of the boats, caused either by the attack of the monsters or by the striking of the boats against a coral reef, can easily be made out. The coral growth and some sea-anemones with dentate leaves are shown at the bottom of the water. There are large fishes around the boat, two of which appear to be of colossal size; they may be sharks, which abound in the Indian Ocean. Two men may also be noticed holding ropes which would seem to have been thrown from the boats in an attempt at rescue. They are both near the bow of the boat, in the rear. Some men may be seen still in the wrecked boats; in the rear vessel, a tall strong man is visible at the end of the boat, and he is perhaps the steersman. Another stalwart figure is holding firmly to the rear mast near the stern. There is another figure, the head of which is now destroyed, who is clinging to the mizzenmast of the bait, with his arm around it. In the front boat there are also two men, and one of them, in the bows, holds in his hands a box tied with string. The box evidently contains some precious articles which the merchant does not want to lose, even when in peril of his life. The man behind this merchant holds a rope in his hands with a view to throwing a line to such passengers as have fallen into the sea and whose lives he is attempting to save (Yazdani 1955, 82-84). Acknowledgement The photographs and the digital reconstruction (Figs. 1A,2A, & 3A) in this study are by the author, however, in preparing the reconstructive copies the author has received immense help from Shri Devdatta Phule, Artist Deccan College, Pune. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Balvally R. et. al. “Sasanian Contacts with the Vakatakas’ Realm with Special Reference to Nagardhan.” Nameh, Afarin. “Essays on the Archaeology of Iran in the Honour of Mehdi Rahbar.” Edited by: YOUSEF MORADI With the assistance of Susan Cantan, Edward J. Keall and Rasoul Boroujeni Tehran The Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism (RICHT) 2019. Brancaccio, P. Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion. Leiden: Brill’s Ideological Library. 2011. Deo, S.B. and Dhavalikar, M. Paunar Excavation (1967), Nagpur: Nagpur University 1968. Griffiths, John “The Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta Khandesh.” Vol 1 Caxton Publications Delhi 1983. Lal, B.B., . “Report on the Black Deposit of the Inner Surface of a Sherd from Nevasa”, in: H.D. Sankalia, S.B.Deo, Z.D. Ansari, and S. Ehrhardt (eds.), From History to Pre-History at Nevasa (1954-56) (Department of Archaeology and Ancient Indian History, Deccan College Publication No 1), Poona: Department of Archaeology and Ancient Indian History, Deccan College, (1960):527. Mitra, Debala. Buddhist Monuments. Calcuttal Sahitya Samsad. 1971. Mitra. Debala. “Ajanta” Archaeological Survey of India. Bengal Offset Works, New Delhi 2003. Mookerji, Radha kumud “A History of the Sea Borne Trade And Maritime Activity of the Indians from Earliest Times.” Indian Shiping. Longmans, Green and CO 8, Hornby Road Bombay, 303, Bow bazar Street Calcutta, London and New York.1912. Mukhopadya, Radha Kumud. “A History of The Sea-Borne Trade And Maritime Activity of the Indians From The Earliest Times.” Indian Shipping Book 1 Part 1. Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers Ltd. New Delhi 2020. Quigley, C.Certain. “Considerations on the Origin and Diffusion of Oculi.” The Americian Neptune 15 (1955): 191. Rai Anand Krishna. “Certain Ateliers Sub-Schools and Allied Schools of the Vakataka Period Ajanta Paintings.” Edts: Ratan Parimoo Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Panikkar Jayaram Poduval Indramohan Sharma. New Perspective Vol 2. Books and Books New Delhi 1991. Sawant, R., Vidarbha: An Archaeo- Historical Approach, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Pune. 2006. Schlingloff, Dieder, “Studies in The Ajanta Paintings,” Identifications and Interpretations. Ajanta Publications, New Delhi, 1988. Schlingloff, Dieder. Kalyāṇakārin's Adventures. The Identification of an Ajanta Painting. Artibus Asiae 38, No. 1 (1976): 5-28 Artibus Asiae Publishers. Sontakke, V., S. Ganvir, S. Vaidya, and P.P. Joglekar. Excavation at Nagardhan.” Nagpur District, Maharashtra (2015-2016), History Today 17 (2016): 43-51. Spink, W.M. “Ajanta A Brief History and Guide.’’ Asian Art Archives of the University of Michigan. Bombay. 1994. Thakuria, T. “Society and Economy during Early Historic Period in Maharashtra: An Archaeological Perspective”, Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5 (2017):169-190. Unwala, Jamshed, Maneekji, “The Introduction. Eyes of Horus " read before the Anthropological Society of Bombay on the 4th January 1928. Yazdani, M.A. “The Colour And Monochrome Reproduction Of The Ajanta Frescoes Based On Photography With an Explanatory Text.” and an Appendix on Inscriptions By John Allan. PART II Text Published Under The Special Authority Of His Exalted Highness The Nizam. Oxford University Press London, Humprey Milford. 1933. Yazdani, M.A. “The Colour and Monochrome Reproduction Of The Ajanta Frescoes Based On Photography With an Explanatory Text.” and an introduction by Laurence Binyon. Part 1 text published under Special Authority Of His Exalted Highness The Nizam. Oxford University Press London, Humprey Milford. (1930): 23. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Digital Reconstruction of Maritime Heritage in the Ajanta Murals Description An account of the resource India's maritime heritage dates to around 4,500 years, since the Indus Valley Civilization. The impetus to revisit and re-develop maritime links was trade (primarily in cotton, pepper, and other spices), due to the monopoly of the Persians and, later, the Arabs over land-based caravan routes. Later maritime journeys spread the influence of ancient and medieval Indian civilization as far as the islands of Indonesia to the East, the islands of Japan to the north, and the east coast of Africa to the west. There are many representations of ships and boats in early Indian art. The earliest are those found among the Sanchi sculptures belonging to circa. 2nd century B.C. At the Ajanta caves, paintings from the 5th century C.E. reveal the life of the people of the time. The frescoes depict sea-going vessels conveying goods overseas, representing ships and boats from an era that witnessed India's expansion and the spread of Indian thought and culture over the more significant part of the Asiatic continent. The vitality and individuality of Indian civilization, fully developed during the era of Vakataka-Gupta imperialism, by the end of the 7th century transplanted itself to the farther East, affecting the cultures of Java, Cambodia, Siam, China, and at the most significant distance, even the to Korean peninsula and Japan. A painting on the wall of Cave No. 1 at Ajanta is still easily recognizable as a vivid representation of the Persian envoys' ceremonial presentation of their credentials. Griffiths rightly interprets the representations of ships and boats in the Ajanta paintings as a "vivid testimony to the ancient foreign trade of India." The present paper deals with the ships and boats depicted in the paintings of Ajanta. Several scholars have studied these images, more particularly from Cave Nos. 1, 2, 16 and 17. In continuation of the Magnum Opus work of Dieter Schlingloff, the author shall try to show the missing features depicted in the panels of ships and boats through newly reconstructive line drawings and photographs. Digital restoration utilizing photographs processed to adjust the brightness and contrast forms a significant step in studying the original painting and analyzing its remains and damage. This process allows digital reconstruction with line drawing and color using the original color palette. As a result of this detailed work, one may visualize the paintings and their use of ancient maritime activity as subject matter. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Shreekant. S. Jadhav Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jadhav, Shreekant S.. 2023. “Digital Reconstruction and Conservation of Maritime Heritage in the Ajanta Murals.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2024 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ae3810f6972afc8ac536d558be719f2b.pdf 5119b606c0d74d1323dfbed52950d436 PDF Text Text ‘Stapled’ boatbuilding tradition of Bengal: a case study on chhot boat Mr. Swarup Bhattacharyya (Visiting Fellow, Anthropological Survey of India, Ministry of Culture, Government of India) swarup.bhattacharyya@gmail.com Prof (Dr) John P Cooper (Associate Professor, Institute of Arab & Islamic Studies, University of Exeter, UK) J.P.Cooper@exeter.ac.uk Dr. Zeeshan A Shaikh (Independent Scholar, UK) zee40103@gmail.com ABSTRACT We have documented a boat-building procedure that is unique in Bengal (India). The typological name of the boat is chhot. A smooth-skinned, rabbeted, and stapled boat of Bengal with a 'v'-shaped cross section and prominent keel. The project took place in Dihimondalghat of Haora district on the bank of river Rupnarayan. Digitization of the entire process of boat building was undertaken on this EMKP, UK project. Panchanan Mandal and his four sons created a full-scale boat measuring 35 feet in length and 9.5 feet in the cross beam. Documentation of chhot is important as the boat type is no longer used on the river. The crafting skill of chhot boat building will disappear shortly. It is the first project on the digitization of a boat in India. The presentation is through still photography and videography along with narratives. Keywords: stapled, chhot, Namasudra, jolui, shell built UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE AND MARITIME MUSEUMS This part of the world (Bengal, India) is not landlocked but rather riverine. Though we have a rich maritime culture, underwater cultural heritage was not documented. Riverine culture has been documented through various ethnographic studies but maritime and riverine culture has not been studied in depth. Maritime ethnography has been a key tool to document Underwater Cultural Heritage through the study of present boats. Hence this study is an exemplary study on the documentation of Underwater Cultural Heritage. Documentation of a boat and the way of making that boat is the prime focus of the present study. The technology, which it follows, is meticulously documented. A boat has been commissioned for the entire research work. Traditional boat builders built that boat using their traditional tools. Minute-to-minute documentation through photography, videography, and interview of the entire process of boat building has been recorded for posterity. It was felt that immediate documentation of the watercraft is highly important because all traditional boats as well as skills of boat building are in grave danger. The reasons of course are simple. It is one of the many cumulative effects of the development of the world we live in. Heavy siltation on the riverbed is caused by many anthropogenic as well as geographical conditions, of which obstacle in the natural flow of water is the most important. It is high time to document the watercraft and the process of the building because already some are lost and some are at stake and thus one of the oldest technologies is going to be lost altogether, shortly. The most important source of information other than major finds of the ancient boat is that provided by the boats of the ancient building traditions, which still exist today. In this context, an important aspect put forward by McKim Marriott (1955) in the form of the concept of 'Over Developed Technology' is highly acceptable. According to him, a particular technology forms a cobweb with the various aspects of the social-cultural domain like belief, ritual, custom, etc., of that particular society both in time and space. This integral interactional pattern of society carries in it, the traditional concept of civilization. Therefore, following McKim Marriott's arguments, it can be stated that the 1 �study of a particular traditional technology enfolds the historical background of the community that practises it and also the ecological conditions and economic requirements of that area at a particular time. It will, thus, enable the researcher to understand the complex interactional pattern of traditional material culture and social customs as well as the patterns of belief in a single study. CASE STUDY The chhot-builders of West Bengal Project: Documenting the vanishing craft knowledge of a unique boat-building tradition' is the title of the initiative of a team, in a collaborative project between the University of Exeter, UK, and Central University of Haryana, India. Material knowledge— understanding of the resources, skills, technologies, and social values necessary to create and maintain the material world around us- is endangered. In this precarious world, the diversity of material knowledge is being lost at an unprecedented rate as mass-produced goods and industrial technologies subsume or replace local practices. Changes to the environment and habitat loss—through industrialisation, deforestation, green grabbing, and other factors—jeopardize local ecologies and raw material sustainability. Meanwhile, shifting socio-political dynamics, such as large-scale urbanisation and rural depopulation, imperil long-practiced forms of learning, apprenticeship, and knowledge transfer. The Endangered Material Knowledge Programme (EMKP) supports knowledge holders, practitioners, and scholars to conduct new research on critically threatened material knowledge globally, especially in understudied areas and where local funding opportunities are limited. About the boat The chhot, a typological variety of lower Bengal boats, is unique as it can venture into the open sea. Probably this is the only boat of Bengal (presently State of West Bengal in India) which was used for maritime activity in the Bay of Bengal. The chhot is a rarity in that its planking is joined using metal staples, a technique unknown elsewhere in India that echoes sewn-boat construction, while its keel-less construction echoes traditional watercraft in southeast Asia. About the boat builders Panchanan Mondal, a 70 years old boat maker who was a master boat builder at his young age is the resource person and advisor to his team. The guild of boatmakers comprises his four sons Amol Mondal, Monimohan Mondal, Dilip Mondal, and Deepak Mondal. Except for Mohimohan all other sons reside in the same hamlet but they all maintain separate kilns for food. Panchanan Mondal received his knowledge of boat building from his father at the early age of 14. All four sons of Panchanan also received training in boat building from their father Panchanan. It has been noticed that the last five generations are with boat building activity. And they are experts on chhot boats. Panchanan belongs to the Namasudra community, a caste under the Hindu caste system. As per Risley, Nama Sudra, a non-Aryan caste of Eastern Bengal termed as Chandal, “engaged for the most part in boating and cultivation… They are the only Hindus employed in the boats (bajra) hired by Europeans; they form a large portion of the peasantry." In lower Bengal Namasudra is a predominant caste group engaged with cultivation as well as fishing. Area of the project Dihimondalghat is a village situated on the left bank of River Rupnarayan in the district of Haora, West Bengal, India. Rupnarayan is the name of a river that confluence with river Ganga a few 2 �kilometres downstream of Dihimondalghat. The origin of the river is in the Chhotonagpur plateau. Damodar, Silabati, Dwarakeswar, and Mundeswari are the sources of river Rupnarayan. Boat building technology Chhot boat, a shell-built boat with a keel, followed a tradition of Bengal to fasten two planks with a kind of metal pin (staple-like) called jolui. This process of fastening is termed as stapled technique here which is unique and perhaps only visible in some parts of Odisha, some parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and the entire West Bengal, Assam, and Bangladesh. The process of boatbuilding is described herewith in sequence: 1. Shaping of wood: Selected timbers are sawed under the supervision of the chief boat builder. The quality of wood and its length is one of the important criteria for this selection procedure. Planks of different dimensions are sawed in sawmills but hand saws are also occasionally used. The wood used in the boat construction are Krirish (Samanea saman), Sai Bilati (Pithecellobium dulce), Arjun (Terminalia arjuna), Babla (Vachellia nilotica). In earlier days boats were used to build with Sal (Shorea robusta) and Segun (Tectona grandis) timbers. 2. Firing and Bending: A trench of requisite length is used to heat specific planks. Saw dust is used as fuel. After requisite heat treatment planks are placed on a raised device to bend planks as per requirement. For twisting certain planks generally, planks are placed on the ground and paved with pegs. 3. Erection of keel (Figure 1): With the help of support structures keel is laid on the ground with a proper contour. A string is tied in between two terminal ends of the keel. The string is used to test the perfection of the alignment of the keel in the same plane. Figure 1. Entire keel after erection. Various support systems are used to hold the keel in its position. 4. The support structure: A series of coconut logs two feet in length is placed on the ground at regular intervals and fixed with wooden pegs to act as the support structure of the bottom of the hull and specially the keel plank. Curved keel planks are joined with the central keel plank with a complex scarf and wooden pieces are used to support the structure. At the two terminal ends of the keel plank tripod or diagonal supports are used. Galvanized wires are used to hold the central plank with the ground. 3 �5. Planking (Figure 2): Planking starts from the mid-ship portion of the boat on either side. Planks if needed to be bent are heated first and bent accordingly and then placed on the position and temporarily clamped. Finer adjustments are marked with a traditional device called karan (fixed divider) and boa karan (expandable divider). Clamps are removed and marked portions are chiseled out. Again planks are placed in their actual position and with the help of karan a scratch line was marked along the seam line on the central keel plank and also on the outer surface of the garboard plank that will be fitted later. Now the garboard plank is removed again. A medial line is marked with kursud, a marking device, along the thickness of the garboard plank as well as on the keel. Based on the marked scratch on the central keel plank half lap portion of both connecting surfaces is removed. That is termed as ban kata the rabbet. After doing rabbet on both connecting surfaces planks are now ready to fit in the marked portion. Various types of clamps are used to keep the plank in position. Then a slot is made at regular intervals with the help of a chisel. This slot is generally done at a distance of char angul (four-finger width) (roughly 3 inches). Figure 2. Hull planking. Planks used in the hull planking are run parallel to the keel. Smaller planks are used in the stem and stern region. 6. Rabbeting: Rabbet is the half lap. On the thickness of the plank, half of each side is removed to fit it with the other side. All planks of the hull are attached to this type of joint. 7. Stapling (Figure 3): When the planks are aligned, shallow slots, about one-eighth of an inch in width, are cut across the seams on the inner side of the boat at intervals of 4 inches. These intervals depend upon specific positioning in different sections of the boat as also on the expense to be incurred on the boat. The length of these slots on either side of the seam is of varying ratios. The jolui are never equally positioned across two planks. Three-quarters of the length of the slot lies in the plank that has the tongue of the rabbet on the inside. This is usually the newly added upper plank. The remaining quarter length of the slot lies in the plank that is already fitted. Jolui, a flat double-pointed staple of galvanized iron, is first driven at an acute angle into the plank, which is already in position. The pointed end of the jolui is then driven into the newly added plank in an angular fashion. 4 �Figure 3. Entire hull structure. Hull planks are run parallel to the keel but the sheer strake connects stem head to stern head. 8. Clamping: Various types of clamps are used to hold planks in a fixed place. The use of ropes and bamboo poles is the most important device for clamping called jat bari. 9. Joining: Garboard strake at the mid-ship portion is fitted first then to lengthen the garboard strake vertical scarf joints are used. All hull planks use scarf joints whereas the topmost planks and next to sheer strake use a complex scarf like that of the central keel plank. 10. Framing: Before putting sheer strake cross beams are added. The number of crossbeams depends on the length of the boat. Generally, the distance between two cross beams is three feet. For fishing boats, cross beams are aligned with the outer surface of the boat but for cargo, those are protruded out. Cross Beams are joined with the strake with a kind of groove that is complex. After putting crossbeams, futtocks are added at a regular interval. These futtocks are curved pieces of logs holding each side planks with the help of specially made iron nails. After placing all futtocks (baras), floor timbers are also added corresponding to each pair of futtocks. 11. Hull planking and accessories: After completion of framing now boat builders used to put some additional support structure like outer stringer, temporary deck, steering oar and paddle. After doing all those activities the outer surface of the boat needs to be made smooth on all joints of the plank. 12. Caulking: After completion of all carpentry work caulking takes place on every horizontal as well as vertical joint of planks. A type of cotton is used to plug on the entire outer surface of the boat. After that, extract sap from the Gaub fruit (Diospyros malabarica) is painted on the outer hull as well as on the plugged cotton. 13. Sail: Rectangular sail made of cotton cloth is used on a single mast placed centrally. Sail is hung on the yard not medially rather than in a 60:40 ratio. 14. Trial run (Figure 4): After completion of the entire boat chhot boat was launched on the river Rupnarayan after a brief ritual performance and then sailed. 5 �Figure 4. Trial run with square sail on river Rupnarayan TEAM Boat Builders: Panchanan Mondal, Amol Mondal, Manimohan Mondal, Dilip Mondal and Deepak Mondal. Prof (Dr) John P Cooper and Dr Zeeshan A Shaikh are the collaborators of the project and were involved in the field investigation along with Mr. Swarup Bhattacharyya, as Research Associate. OUTCOME The commissioned boat has been kept on the bank to handover to the authority of the National Maritime Museum, Gujarat, India. The entire digitised document will be kept in the archives of the British Museum. Acknowledgments Villagers of Dihimondalghat, Panchanan Mondal and his wife, Amol Mondal and his family, Monimohan Mondal, and his family, Dilip Mondal and his family, Deepak Mondal, and his family for providing all possible support to commission the chhot boat at Dihimondalghat. All administrations like SDO, BDO, Police Stations, Electricity Authority University of Exeter, UK, and Central University of Haryana, India. And lastly, EMKP for their financial support to conduct the research work. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Bhattacharyya, S. & Abhijit Das. A Contemporary Survey of 'Country' River Boats in West Bengal in Shipbuilding Navigation and the South-West Silk Road: North Odisha Bengal and Arakan, edited by Samuel Berthet 201-221. Delhi: Primus Books, 2021 Bolstad Trygve and Eirik G Jansen. Sailing Against the Wind: Boats and Boatmen of Bangladesh. Dhaka Bangladesh: University Press, 1992 Greenhill B. Boats and Boatmen of Pakistan. David and Charles, 1971 Hornell J. Water Transport: Origins and Early Evolution. University Press, 1946 Marriott McKim and Alan R Beals. Village India: Studies in the Little Community. Chicago Ill: University of Chicago Press, 1955 McGrail S. Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to Medieval times. Oxford University Press, 2001 Risley Herbert Hope. The Tribes and Castes of Bengal. Calcutta: Bengal secretariat Press. 1892 Varadarajan, L. Bhattacharyya S. & National Institute of Ocean Technology (Madras India). Bengal WaterCraft: Boat-building and Fishing Communities. National Institute of Ocean Technology; Manohar. 2016 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource ‘Stapled’ boatbuilding tradition of Bengal: a case study on chhot boat Description An account of the resource We have documented a boat-building procedure that is unique in Bengal (India). The typological name of the boat is chhot. A smooth-skinned, rabbeted, and stapled boat of Bengal with a 'v'-shaped cross section and prominent keel. The project took place in Dihimondalghat of Haora district on the bank of river Rupnarayan. Digitization of the entire process of boat building was undertaken on this EMKP, UK project. Panchanan Mandal and his four sons created a full-scale boat measuring 35 feet in length and 9.5 feet in the cross beam. Documentation of chhot is important as the boat type is no longer used on the river. The crafting skill of chhot boat building will disappear shortly. It is the first project on the digitization of a boat in India. The presentation is through still photography and videography along with narratives. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Swarup Bhattacharyya John P Cooper Zeeshan A Shaikh Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Bhattacharyya, Swarup , John P Cooper and Zeeshan A Shaikh. 2023. “ ‘Stapled’ boatbuilding tradition of Bengal: a case study on chhot boat.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2023 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5a9e43d194aaed55b3ce8474f8be4e1e.pdf 6468dc9e8305d3f7c3c57da15ef7f7ea PDF Text Text Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements Arjun Rao (Dept. of History and Archaeology, Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi India) arjunrao@cuk.ac.in ABSTRACT Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements is focused on the prehistoric and early historic sites located on the perennial rivers of south India. This topic suits Session 22, Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums. The region has potential archaeological site-centric data on the cultural heritage of the perennial rivers due to the lack of methodological frameworks we have known least on the inland (short/long distance) water navigation network and the frequent river crossing patterns adopted by the ancient societies. The significance of rivers in inland routes has taken the lesser focus of Indian Archaeology, except for several studies centred on the Ganga-Yamuna rivers and coastal ports of the Indian Peninsula. The rivers Kaveri, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Bhima, origin from the Western Ghats in south India, flow through several ecological regions and plateaus on reaching the Bay of Bengal. At several places, these rivers have broader (1-1.5km in width) and narrow channels cutting through the plains and valleys. Early sedentary villages and larger settlements leading to urbanisation seem connected with the rivers. For example, Neolithic and Megalithic site complexes (T-Narasipura and Koppa, Talakadu and Kaveripattinam on the river Kaveri; Sannati-Kanaganahalli on the river Bhima; Nagarjunakonda on the river Krishna are few sites that hold a prominent discussion in this paper. There need to be more conceptual and methodological frameworks for such topics that pose point-blank-range challenges to research. What archaeological and cultural materials (directly or contextually) can support such studies, and to what extent the geolocations and the local geomorphological characteristics can support the inland navigation are to be assessed. Hence, this paper is the beginning of new research directions and will contribute to developing methodological perspectives towards the cultural heritage of perennial rivers. Keywords: River Crossing, Fords, Ferries, South India INTRODUCTION The Indian rivers are both perennial and non-perennial rivers. Perennial rivers are fed by the Himalayan glaciers, draining Indus, Ganges, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra systems. While connecting to the archaeological site distributions, much of the later prehistoric and early historic sites are reported along the Indus and Gangetic riverine systems. They likely played ecological implications on the rise and spread of the first and second urbanisation of Viz Indus Valley Culture in the second and third millennium BCE and Ganga Valley culture during the first millennium CE. The central and southern part of India is drained by the non-perennial rivers fed by the monsoonal precipitation originating from the Western Ghats, such as the river Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, major river systems traversing various geological formations on their confluence into the Bay of Bengal in the east. Much of the archaeological sites of prehistoric cultures are reported from the near river banks and at their tributary channels. By the early historical period (300 BCE- 800 CE), the concentration of the settlements increasingly happened to be located on the river banks in southern India. Such broad archaeological and temporal distinction is noticeably clear in the geo-cultural studies of the river-based settlement developments in Indian archaeology. 1 �Figure 1: Major Rivers of India. Source:www.mapsofIndia.com CASE STUDIES Case study 1, river Krishna Krishna is another major river of Southern India originating from the Western Ghats and confluences with the Bay of Bengal by crossing 1400 km. The river Krishna has a wider channel in its middle reaches ranging from 1 km to 1.5 km in the region of Raichur (also called Raichur Doab and the north bank is associated with the geography of Shorapur Doab. In monsoonal seasons, the river flows with massive water discharge disconnecting the north and south bank inhabitants. This disconnection and uneasy river crossing is also reflected in mediaeval warfare records. Archaeological studies have reported many prehistoric sites across the river Krishna at the Raichur (see Korisettar 1979; Paddayya 1974; Arjun 2018, 2021). On either side of river banks, the density of middle Palaeolithic and Mesolithic/ microlithic sites are exceptionally higher, ranging from 35-40 areas spreading at the river 2 �stretch of c. 30km. The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic economies were engaged in foraging for food resources and raw materials for their stone tools; their occupational location on the river banks indicates frequent river crossing. Case study 2, river Tungabhadra River Tungabhadra is a significant tributary of Krishna and the region of their confluence forms Raichur Doab in the Raichur and Bellary regions. And this is also a part of the core Southern Neolithic culture developed during 3200-1200 BCE. Of many well-studied Neolithic sites, Halluru can be contextually discussed here. Halluru is located on the left bank of Tungabhadra, a significant Neolithic-chalcolithic site showing potential agricultural development during c. 1400-1100 BCE continues to develop further in the Iron Age phase until the dawn of 100 BCE (Nagaraja Rao 971). Excavations have revealed the cultivation of crops such as cotton, millet, and rice. Though much of the Neolithic settlements were concentrated on the smaller stream orders and isolated hillocks, sites like Halluru, Brahmagiri, and T- Narasipura remain focused on riverine environs. Several Iron Age and Early Historic sites are reported from the riverine areas of Tungabhadra in the region of Hampi. At the outset, Hampi itself was a significant capital city of a mediaeval kingdom, the Vijayanagara. Case study 3, river Kaveri River Kaveri originates from peaks of the Western Ghats in the Coorg Plateau in Karnataka and flows through 805 km and conflux with the Bay of Bengal in the east. The river flows through narrow and steep gorge cutting across the valleys and gains momentum, often causing flash floods in the upper reaches (Kale et al. 2010; Kartika et al. 2018) until it enters a relatively plain landscape in the middle reaches. Recent archaeological surveys in 121 sq. km. of an area on the river bank of Kaveri and its tributary stream Harangi recorded 39 Iron Age period sites (Fig. 1 and Table 1) relatively datable to first millennium BCE (see Arjun et al. 2018; Arjun 2019, 2021). Such a high density of sites on either side of the riverine valleys indicates frequent crossing over the c. 100-150m broad channel river banks. Case study 4, river Bhima Bhima is a tributary river of Krishna, originating in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra and flowing south-east towards Krishna in Karnataka. The confluence region is known as Shorapur Doab. Shorapur Doab is the earliest occupational site in human and cultural evolution, dating to 1.2 million years. Along the Bhima River, the upper and Middle Bhima basin is reported with a number of Chalcolithic and Early Historical sites. At the lower basin, site complexes like Sannati, Kanaganahalli and Ranamandala developed as a marker of early urbanisation in the region with increasing significance for Buddhist monasteries and Stupas. Bhima and further along the river Krishna, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati show the high probability for inland navigation connecting multiple early historic Buddhist sites during the Satavahana reign (100 BCE- 300 CE). In this session, see the paper ‘Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India’ for more details. Overall, this paper attempts to identify major archaeological settlements in Karnataka ranging from prehistoric to early historic periods located on the rivers such as the Krishna, Tungabhadra, Bhima, and Kaveri. Though there is a lack of direct physical evidence for the navigation infrastructure, the geolocation of the sites and socio-economic activities indicates the human association with the river in knowing the fords and engaged in crossing over the riverbanks by foot or using wooden/ thatched ferries depending on the year-round seasons must have been an inevitable part of sustenance. 3 �RESOURCES Research conducted on the line of crossing rivers and fords based on the geolocations of prehistoric and early historic sites are almost nil, except random attempts made by Allchin and Allchin. The archaeology of river crossing by Allchin and Allchin (1962) attempted to identify geographically strategic locations, such as valley passes and river confluences, in the context of trade routes connecting various geographic regions with prominent settlements. They mapped a few megalithic sites on the river of Krishna near the Raichur and discussed the possible activities engaged in crossing over the rivers on ferries likely in the modern period before the advent of rail/roadway bridges. Archaeological sources Large-scale archaeological data is available in the form of prehistoric and historical period sites located along the river banks of Krishna, Bhima, and Kaveri (e.g. Korisettar 1979; Paddayya 1974; Nagaraja Rao 971; Allchin and Allchin 1962; Allchin 1954; Arjun 2018, 2021; Munn 1934; Paddayya 1971; Subbarao 1948; Sundara 1969; Varaprasada Rao 2002). The resources to conduct this research is handicapped by the lack of research conducted on the technology and tradition of river crossing Historical sources Though there are references to trade routes running through the river banks and often crossing the rivers to enter other regions and trading centres, they largely remained at the Ford location to cross over. Often, during the battle, the army crossed the rivers during the low tides, and in the case of high-water flows, they camped on the river banks waiting for the river water to recede. There is a corpus of reports on the trade routes (Lahiri 1992; Begley 1981; Chakrabarti 2010) and places of religious importance (e.g. Seshadri and Sundararaghavan 2012) developed throughout the historical period along the mighty rivers throughout its journey and often indicates prominent locations meant to cross over the rivers. Framework and results on prima facie study As discussed above, direct physical archaeological sources in the form of ferries, anchors or any associated infrastructures addressing river crossing and identification of fords needs novel methodological initiatives. As many sites of different prehistoric and historical cultural phases are reported on the river banks and closure to river banks, it conjecturally indicates a close association of the people with the rivers and crossing over them to move beyond foraging for food resources and procurement of raw materials. During the early historical period, as the trade routes formed throughout the rivers or crossing over the rivers, landmark fords must have begun to play a crucial point of activities during the monsoon and post-monsoon. As the rivers are non-perennial, multiple approaches in the river crossing must have been determined subject to seasonal variations. One can walk through the river bed if the water level is below knee length or on a dry bed, usually during the summer. In the monsoon and post-monsoon, the river may pose suitable conditions to navigate as crossing over by foot is hampered. To cross over the river, the medium of transport must have been likely a smaller ferry made of bamboo and wooden trunks. 4 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Allchin, F.R. The Development of Early Cultures in the Raichur District of Hyderabad, Ph.D. Dissertation. London: University of London, 1954. Allchin, F.R. and B, Allchin. “The archaeology of river crossing by FR Allchin and Bridget Allchin.” In Indian Anthropology: Essays in Memory of D.N. Majumdar, edited by T.N. Madan and Gopala Sarana, 52-65. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962. Arjun, R. Landscapes and Settlement Pattern of Neolithic and Iron Age Cultures of Raichur Doab, Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, 2018. Begley, V. “From Iron Age to Early Historical in South Indian Archaeology.” In Studies in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan, edited by J. Jacobson, 299-301. New Delhi: American Institute for Indian Studies, 1981. Chakrabarti, D.K. The Ancient Routes of the Deccan and the Southern Peninsula. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2010. Korisettar, R. Prehistory and Geomorphology of Middle Krishna, Karnataka, Ph.D. Dissertation. Poona: University of Poona, 1979. Korisettar, R., D.Q. Fuller and P.C. Venkatasubbaiah. “Brahmagiri and Beyond: The Archaeology of the Southern Neolithic.” In Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: Prehistory, Archaeology of South Asia, edited by S. Settar and R. Korisettar, 313–348. New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical Research and Manohar Publishers, 2002. Lahiri, N. The Archaeology of Indian Trade Routes (up to c. 200BC). New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992. Munn, L. “Prehistoric and Protohistoric Finds.” Journal of Geological Society II, no.1 (1934): 121-135. Paddayya, K. Pre and Proto- Historic Investigations Shorapur Doab, Ph.D. Dissertation. Poona: University of Poona, 1968. Paddayya, K. “The Mesolithic Culture of the Shorapur Doab, Peninsular India.” Anthropos 69 (1974a): 590-607. Padma Seshadri and Sundara Raghavan P.M. It Happened Along the Kaveri (A Journey Through Space and Time). New Delhi: Niyogi Books, 2012. Subbarao, B. The Stone Age Cultures of Bellary. Pune: Deccan College, 1948. Sundara, A. Megaliths in North Karnataka, Ph.D. Dissertation. Poona: University of Poona, 1969. Varaprasada Rao, J. Prehistoric Environment and Archaeology of the Krishna- Tungabhadra Doab. Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan, 2002. 5 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements Description An account of the resource Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements is focused on the prehistoric and early historic sites located on the perennial rivers of south India. This topic suits Session 22, Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums. The region has potential archaeological site-centric data on the cultural heritage of the perennial rivers due to the lack of methodological frameworks we have known least on the inland (short/long distance) water navigation network and the frequent river crossing patterns adopted by the ancient societies. The significance of rivers in inland routes has taken the lesser focus of Indian Archaeology, except for several studies centred on the Ganga-Yamuna rivers and coastal ports of the Indian Peninsula. The rivers Kaveri, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Bhima, origin from the Western Ghats in south India, flow through several ecological regions and plateaus on reaching the Bay of Bengal. At several places, these rivers have broader (1-1.5km in width) and narrow channels cutting through the plains and valleys. Early sedentary villages and larger settlements leading to urbanisation seem connected with the rivers. For example, Neolithic and Megalithic site complexes (T-Narasipura and Koppa, Talakadu and Kaveripattinam on the river Kaveri; Sannati-Kanaganahalli on the river Bhima; Nagarjunakonda on the river Krishna are few sites that hold a prominent discussion in this paper. There need to be more conceptual and methodological frameworks for such topics that pose point-blank-range challenges to research. What archaeological and cultural materials (directly or contextually) can support such studies, and to what extent the geolocations and the local geomorphological characteristics can support the inland navigation are to be assessed. Hence, this paper is the beginning of new research directions and will contribute to developing methodological perspectives towards the cultural heritage of perennial rivers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arjun Rao Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rao, Arjun . 2023. “Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2022 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f5710969a8340f73875e222544732b7f.pdf f11479bd2215048ddf6d8c0092d6cb0c PDF Text Text Development of Small Autonomous Surface Vehicle Design for Underwater Cultural Heritage Jun Seok (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) and Jae-Hyung Jo (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) ABSTRACT As part of research on unmanned exploration equipment, we conducted a study related to the development of a small autonomous surface vehicle for exploring underwater heritage in areas that are difficult to access by ship. In order to develop an autonomous surface vehicle, initial conceptual design was performed by examining the constraints of the vehicle, and the hull foam was developed based on the results of the conceptual design. In addition, the developed hull foam was used to estimate the resistance and motion performance using numerical simulation methods, and the thrusters and related equipment were selected based on this. Keywords: Autonomous surface vehicle, Hull foam, Underwater exploration List of Figures and Tables Figure 1 U-shape hull foam of autonomous surface vehicle Figure 2 GZ curve at draft 0.37m Figure 3 Results motion analysis at 2 knots Figure 4 Results motion analysis at 4 knots Figure 5 Results of resistance performance from 2 knots to 5 knots Table 1 Results of static stability Table 2 Results of resistance simulation 1. INTRODUCTION In general, underwater surveys are conducted using ships, and in areas that are difficult to access by ship small boats such as rubber boats are used to conduct underwater surveys. However, there are many cases where surveys cannot be carried out in these areas due to the possibility of problems with the operation of the boat and the safety of the surveyors. In the field of marine survey, various equipment is being developed to conduct surveys in the nearshore and shallow water area where such surveys are difficult. In particular, in recent years, unmanned exploration equipment has been developed by applying rapidly developing ICT technologies such as the 4th Industrial Revolution and 5G technology. In the case of underwater artefacts, they are mainly excavated in shallow coastal environments rather than in deeper waters (> 110 m depth), so precision exploration at shallow water depths can increase the probability of discovering underwater artefacts. In addition, if an unmanned autonomous surface vehicle for underwater cultural property investigation is developed, it may be more efficient than the current manpower-dependent exploration method. Therefore, as a first in developing this new technology, this research program conducted a study related to optimal hull design and development of 3m-sized unmanned surface vehicle as a fundamental study for the development of small surface autonomous vehicles that can be used in coastal areas to increase the efficiency of exploration of underwater cultural heritage. 1 �2. HULL FOAM Typically, a small boat has a V-shape hull to improve resistance performance, however the autonomous surface vehicle developed in this study has a maximum speed of four knots, which is similar to the Froude number of a merchant ship. In addition, as we need a flat space at the bottom of the hull to attach sensors for exploration, we developed a U-shape hull foam as Figure 1. The conditions required for autonomous surface vehicles developed in this study can be summarised as follows. 1. Purpose: autonomous surface vehicle carries out unmanned exploration of underwater cultural heritage after being transported by a platform vessel to the exploration area. 2. Hull foam: Catamaran type for loading space 3. Size: It should be able to be loaded on a ship, and it should be able to be transported in a container. 4. Velocity: To ensure exploration quality, the maximum speed is 4 knots. 5. Operating time: Maximum 4 hours at 4 knots 6. Propulsion type: Azimuth type thruster for dynamic positioning 7. Power source: Gasoline generator (main) and battery (emergency) Figure 1 U-shape hull foam of autonomous surface vehicle 3. PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION Stability calculation and motion analysis were performed to confirm the static & dynamic stability of the developed hull. Also, resistance performance was analysed to determine the specifications of the propulsion system. 3.1 Static stability Static stability analysis was performed to confirm the stability using the software package Maxsurf stability. For static stability analysis, it is essential to estimate the weight and centre of gravity of the mounted equipment on the hull. We estimated the weight by categorising the equipment as exploration, propulsion, and navigation, resulting in an estimate of 206 kg for exploration, 110 kg for navigation, and 320 kg for propulsion. The hull weight was calculated assuming a thickness of 5 mm to give a weight (200 kg). The total weight is therefore not expected to exceed one ton. The vertical centre of gravity was assumed to be 0.5 metres above the bottom of the hull. 2 �The result of the static analysis is shown in Table 1. The Metacentric height (GM) values are all above 1 at a draft of about 0.3 to 0.4 metres. In addition, the righting arm (GZ) as shown in Figure 2, at a draft of 0.37m, satisfies the IMO stability criteria. As a result, this autonomous surface vehicle is considered safe. Draft (m) Displacement (ton) KG (m) GM (m) Table 1 Results of static stability 0.317 0.331 0.8 0.8463 0.5 0.5 1.864 1.795 0.344 0.8925 0.5 1.738 0.357 0.9388 0.5 1.706 0.37 0.9849 0.5 1.806 Figure 2 GZ curve at draft 0.37m 3.2 Dynamic stability Dynamic stability analysis was performed to confirm the stability using the software package Maxsurf motion. The motion analysis was performed in strips for ship speeds (2, 4 knots), and irregular wave conditions were considered using ITTC spectrum and the wave height and period of Sea-State 2. The results of the analysis are shown as Figures 3 and 4. As the speed increases, the heave is increasing in a head sea (180 degree) and decreasing in the following sea (0 degree). Overall, however, the motion is small, less than 10 cm. In the case of roll, the largest value of 1.4 deg. is found in the beam sea (90 degree), which is estimated to be stable, and the same as heave, the roll tends to decrease in the quartering sea (45 degree) as the speed increases. In the case of pitch, the motion tends to increase as the speed increases, and the largest motion is found in the following sea (0 degree) as 1.33deg. However, the difference between stern and stem draft is about 7cm, which is considered to be stable considering the hull length. 3 �Figure 3 Results motion analysis at 2 knots Figure 4 Results motion analysis at 4 knots 3.3 Resistance performance Resistance performance was performed to determine the specifications of propulsion system. In this study, the commercial software Star-CCM+ was used. The governing equations were the continuity equation and momentum equation for three-dimensional unsteady incompressible viscous flow. For detailed analysis conditions, refer to Seok and Park (2020a). The numerical simulation was performed under two conditions of draft at 360 mm and at 370 mm. For a draft of 370 mm, we also performed additional analysis under ship speed conditions of 2-5 knots to determine the resistance performance. The results of the analysis are shown in Table 2 and Figure 5. When the speed is 4 knots, it can be seen that the resistance acting on the ship increases as the draft increases by 10 mm, and the increase is approximately 4 percent. When the draft is 370 mm, the resistance acting on the ship increases according to the ship speed, and the resistance is estimated to be 530N at the target speed of 4 knots. Therefore, assuming that the efficiency of the propulsion system is 50%, 1060 N is required for the ship to reach a target speed. 4 �Figure 5 Results of resistance performance from 2 knots to 5 knots Type Autonomous surface vehicle Table 2 Results of resistance simulation draft Speed (mm) (knots) 360 4 2 3 370 4 5 Resistance (N) 510 32 116 530 1,230 4. RESULTS In this paper, research on the development of initial hull foam and performance estimation for the developed autonomous surface vehicle was conducted. For the development of the hull foam, the requirements of the autonomous surface vehicle were reviewed, and U-shape hull foam was finally developed. In addition, stability analysis and resistance performance estimation were performed on the developed hull foam using commercial software such as Maxsurf stability, Maxsurf motion, and Star ccm+. For static analysis, the weight and centre of gravity of each part were estimated, and static and dynamic analysis were performed using it. As a result, it was confirmed that the developed hull was safe. Additionally, the resistance performance estimates indicated that the autonomous surface vehicle would require approximately 1000 N of propulsion to achieve its target speed of 4 knots. Based on the results of this study, a propulsion system will be selected and the autonomous surface vehicle will be built, and its performance will be confirmed by sea trial after construction. 5 �ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported 0000 Cultural Heritage Smart Preservation & Utilization R&D Program by Cultural Heritage Administration, National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (Project Name: Development of ASV for underwater cultural heritage investigation using autonomous navigation technology and field demonstration, Project Number: 2022A01D10-002, Contribution Rate: 100%) BIBLIOGRAPHY Seok, jun and Park, Jong-chun. “Comparative Study of Air Resistance with and without a Superstructure on a Container Ship Using Numerical Simulation”, Journal of marine Science and Engineering, Vol.8, No.267 (2020a): 1-14 Seok, jun and Park, Jong-chun. “Numerical simulation of resistance performance according to surface roughness in container ships”, International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 12 (2020b): 11-19. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Development of Small Autonomous Surface Vehicle Design for Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource As part of research on unmanned exploration equipment, we conducted a study related to the development of a small autonomous surface vehicle for exploring underwater heritage in areas that are difficult to access by ship. In order to develop an autonomous surface vehicle, initial conceptual design was performed by examining the constraints of the vehicle, and the hull foam was developed based on the results of the conceptual design. In addition, the developed hull foam was used to estimate the resistance and motion performance using numerical simulation methods, and the thrusters and related equipment were selected based on this. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jun Seok Jae-Hyung Jo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Seok, Jun . 2023. “Development of Small Autonomous Surface Vehicle Design for Underwater Cultural Heritage.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2021 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c081b0871bbbf0b6fa0c240448dda2e9.pdf 97ffa952a72b3f784b89a76daa8e250c PDF Text Text Early Modern Japanese Whaling: An Iconographic Study Michelle Damian (University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Assistant Professor of History) ABSTRACT Small museums can be the repository of mighty collections. The New Bedford Whaling Museum (NBWM) in Massachusetts, USA, is one such example. The NBWM holds a significant collection of artwork depicting early modern (17th – 19th c) Japanese whaling. A systemic analysis of the imagery in these pieces allows us to learn more about the equipment and strategies used in whaling in the early modern period. This paper provides an initial review of those collections, highlighting the types of vessels used, tools and other equipment, and important shoreline infrastructure associated with whaling that are depicted in the artwork. Keywords: Whaling, Japan, Museums, Artwork Abbreviations: NBWM (New Bedford Whaling Museum) List of Figures Figure 1. A typical representation of a chase boat. Maker once known (Japanese). Geigyo Hinshu Zukan [Fourteen Varieties of Whales], 1760. Watercolor on paper, 10.5 in. x 20.25 ft. (26.7 x 6.2 m.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.4456. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. Figure 2. Spearhead with tang revealed, showing holes for ropes and fasteners. After Yuyuken Kizaki (Japanese). Shoni no Moteasobi Kujira Ikken no Maki [Net Whaling in Hizen Province, Kyushu], 1817. Watercolor on paper, 10.5 in. x 27.5 ft. (26.7 cm x 8.4 m.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.4426. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. Figure 3. Maker once known. Whaling Scene on the Coast of Japan, 1855. Engraving on paper, 6 x 9.25 in. (15.2 x 23.5 cm.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.10758. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. Figure 4. Hiroshige Shigemasa III (Japanese, 1843-1894). Kagura Nite Hikiageru Zu [Pulling in by a Kagura Winch], c. 1877. Woodblock on paper, 6.25 x 9 in. (16.1 x 22.5 cm.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.6666. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. INTRODUCTION At first glance, a small museum in Massachusetts (USA) does not appear to be an ideal location to conduct research on early modern (17th – 19th c) Japanese whaling. And yet the New Bedford Whaling Museum (NBWM) is just that. Their collections naturally focus on New Bedford as a port city and the history of whaling culture in the New England region. In 1843, however, a whaling ship returned to New Bedford with a Japanese castaway, sparking a strong relationship between Japan and this Massachusetts coastal town. Furthermore, the museum also enjoys a close association with Taiji, a town in Japan famous for its modern whale hunts. The curator of the town of Taiji’s historical materials serves as an advisory guest curator for the NBWM. 1 With these ties in mind, it becomes clearer why Frank Sowa, ‘Seaside Communities in Crisis: On the Construction of Collective Identity in a Japanese Whaling Town after the Moratorium,’ Annuals of Marine Sociology/Roczniki Socjologii Morskiej 23 (2015): 33. The Taiji Whale Digital Museum (https://kujira-digital-museum.com/en/categories/12/articles/) further notes that several scrolls depicting whaling near Taiji are owned by both the Taiji museum and the NBWM, and the NBWM also holds reproductions of some of the scrolls owned by Taiji. 1 1 �the NBWM has nearly nine hundred Japan-related items in its museum and library collections. This paper will provide some examples of what we can learn about early modern Japanese whaling and its infrastructure from those artifacts. THE NBWM COLLECTIONS For the purposes of this study, I focused on the NBWM sources related to early modern Japanese whaling. My intent was to learn more about the strategies of whaling in the early modern period via the artwork created at the time, and to catalog the vessels and equipment, capture and processing techniques, and evidence of shore support. I was able to view approximately 50 items at the museum. 2 19 were scrolls, 17 were woodblock prints, and the remainder were a variety of engravings, sketchbooks, and other types of artwork. The medium mattered for content analysis. Woodblock prints featuring whales generally fell into the ‘landscape print’ genre, showcasing scenes with whales as a novelty. When whale hunts were shown, usually the images were less detailed and the scene was depicted from afar, as though an observer was watching from shore. Woodblock prints were mass-produced for a popular audience, commemorating a notable scene, and so they were perhaps trying to recreate that outsider, observer’s view. Scrolls, however, appear to have been made more for insiders, used as a means to disseminate information about whales and whaling. They could be as long as approximately 10 meters, though many were shorter. Many begin with a brief textual introduction and a scene consisting of a whaleboat, a harpoon, and a spear – effectively showcasing the tools of the trade. This was often followed by depictions of several types of whales, likely the ones most hunted in that region. Some scrolls included more details of whale anatomy, providing diagrams of how to butcher it. Still others showed scenes of the whale hunt itself, from the chase to the kill, then towing it back to shore and processing the carcass, and in some cases even showing the celebrations after a successful hunt. Many of the scrolls are very precise in their detail, providing a type of manual for whaling. The scrolls appear to be more representative of whaling hunts overall, and provide information on the types of vessels and equipment used in whaling. 3 Perhaps the most important scroll is the Isanatori Ekotoba. Published in 1832 in Edo (modern Tokyo), it recounts details of whaling done by the Masutomi whaling group based in Ikitsukishima (modern Nagasaki prefecture). 4 Far more detailed than most of the other scrolls preserved in the NBWM, the illustrations are more complex and also include brief descriptions of the equipment, locations, and whales themselves. The range of depictions of whaling throughout all of the artistic examples are rich fodder for information about early modern Japanese whaling. The following sections will provide some examples of what we can learn through careful study of the museum collections, focusing particularly on whaling boats and equipment. WHALING VESSELS Nine scrolls include standalone depictions of whaling vessels, simply presented as a representative boat out of context (Figure 1). The most commonly depicted vessel is the chase boat (seko-bune 勢子船) and some scrolls also include net boats (ami-bune 網船 or sōkaibune 双海船). In most cases the chase 2 Although the museum does have close to 350 Japan-related items in their artifacts collection, and nearly 600 documents in the library, many of them were more modern objects, or alternatively were items brought back from Japan by New Bedford whalers. Early modern items depicting Japanese whaling were more limited. 3 The analysis includes only items that the author was able to view at the museum. There may be more depictions, but if a scroll was on exhibit, for example, only portions of the scroll were visible. 4 Jakobina Arch, Bringing Whales Ashore: Oceans and the Environment of Early Modern Japan (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2018), 128–29. The version in the NBWM is incomplete. 2 �boats are presented at the beginning of the scroll. They are almost uniformly colourful, with flowers and stripes adorning the hull. Most images include a ‘hashtag’ (#) on the stempost, indicating that they were affiliated with the Taiji whaling fleets. 5 While most of the depictions are relatively simplistic, two construction features do stand out: the sharp raked stempost with a decorative end, and the washboard. The latter comes to an end as it nears the stern, and other depictions of the chase boats in action show that that open area was where the rowers gathered to propel the vessels using sculling oars. 6 The Isanatori ekotoba suggests throughbeams are also present in these vessels, though most other depictions do not have that level of detail. As these boats needed to be fast and maneuverable to corral the whale and get close enough to launch harpoons, it stands to reason that the stempost/cutwater would be the most distinctive feature. The tall washboard likely provided some stability for the harpooners as they hurled the weapon at the whale. Figure 1. A typical representation of a chase boat. Maker once known (Japanese). Geigyo Hinshu Zukan [Fourteen Varieties of Whales], 1760. Watercolor on paper, 10.5 in. x 20.25 ft. (26.7 x 6.2 m.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.4456. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. As of the seventeenth century the prevalent way to hunt whales was through using nets to surround and capture the creatures. 7 The fact that only two scrolls specifically depict the net boats out of context is therefore somewhat surprising. One is somewhat amateurly drawn, while the other is in the array of boats depicted in the Isanatori Ekotoba. These boats are larger and wider than the chaser boats, since of course they would need to transport the net and maintain stability after the whale was trapped. Unlike the chase boats, the net boats have a rudder and what appears to be a mast. The masts are unstepped and lay across a horizontal beam supported by two upright posts at the stern of the vessel, and none of the scrolls depict the masts being stepped and used to sail. One scroll appears to show a sailor tugging at the mast as though to step it, perhaps to set a sail to counteract the tugging of the trapped whale, but 5 Hayato Sakurai, ‘Whales Caught on Paper Waves: Scroll Paintings of Whales and Old Japanese Whaling,’ in Whaling and History III (Sandefjord, Norway: Vestfoldmuseene IKS, 2010), 43. 6 Yuyuken Kizaki, Shoni no Moteasobi Kujira Ikken no Maki. New Bedford Whaling Museum, accession # 2001.100.4426 7 Arch, Bringing Whales Ashore: Oceans and the Environment of Early Modern Japan, 63–64. 3 �there is no evidence of a sail in sight. Solid throughbeams are placed at regular intervals in the stern especially, providing stands and support for the rowers. WHALING TOOLS Eight scrolls have detailed depictions of the harpoons and spears used for whaling. These are often found at the beginning of the scroll, showing the tools used for the hunt. In most cases only the blade is shown, without a handle. The reasons for this are unclear, though if these scrolls were indeed meant in part to be a ‘manual for whaling,’ it may be to reveal the holes in the tang and base of the spear blade that would be used to attach it to the pole. One scroll, ‘Whales Caught at Kumano-ura (Ki Peninsula),’ does have labels saying ‘the handle should be attached through this hole,’ indicating the holes in the tang, and another notes the hole in the base as the point to thread the rope through (Figure 2). 8 These are the exceptions rather than the rule, as most scrolls have minimal text associated with the tools beyond a brief description of the ideal length. Figure 2. Spearhead with tang revealed, showing holes for ropes and fasteners. After Yuyuken Kizaki (Japanese). Shoni no Moteasobi Kujira Ikken no Maki [Net Whaling in Hizen Province, Kyushu], 1817. Watercolor on paper, 10.5 in. x 27.5 ft. (26.7 cm x 8.4cm) The harpoons depicted have an asymmetrical head, with one point longer than the other. There seems to have been no set length, as some are described as being between 2 and 3 shaku (60 – 90 cm) long, 8 Anonymous, ‘Whales Caught at Kumano-ura (Ki Peninsula),’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, accession # 2001.100.4462; Shoni no Moteasobi Kujira Ikken no Maki #2001.100.4426 4 �and others suggest over four shaku (120 cm). 9 Two scrolls, the Isanatori ekotoba and a second untitled scroll, show a range of different harpoons, and so the different lengths may have been affiliated with various harpoon styles. The Isanatori ekotoba also displays a remarkably detailed range of rope knots used to secure the harpoon and allow for its recovery. Nets are another critical part of early modern Japanese whaling, yet they are depicted far less often than the harpoons or spears. Only three scrolls show details about whale nets, including how to knot or fasten the ropes to weave the net, and also how to attach the nets to their wooden floats. Two of the three provide dimensions for the floats as well. The Isanatori ekotoba further includes a scene where villagers are weaving the net on shore. Over twenty people are involved in uncoiling the individual ropes and spreading the net out as they weave it. Based on the spectators shown viewing the process, even weaving the nets appears to have been a major endeavor in the town. ONSHORE INFRASTRUCTURE A full analysis of the maritime cultural landscape involved in early modern whaling is beyond the scope of this paper, but two onshore structures should be noted here. Several pieces of artwork include lookouts or winches, both critical parts of the whale hunt and processing experience. Five pieces of artwork (three scrolls, one woodblock print, and one wood engraving) represent lookouts. They are small, permanent structures atop a shoreline hill or mountain. Various means of signaling were used to notify the boats at sea. Some depict a man swinging long white paper strips on a pole, others show flags, and still others suggest that fire/smoke signals were used to signal the presence of a whale. Many have some combination of the above. One of the more notable items in the NBWM collection is a wood engraving from ‘Ballou's Pictorial Drawing Room Companion,’ published in Boston in 1855. 10 The engraving shows 17 boats surrounding a whale, but the lookout is also clearly visible, with two men standing atop the roof of the lookout building, one waving a flag (Figure 3). Accompanying text reads in part, ‘Whaling is an occupation of large numbers of the Japanese, and they are exceeding expert in it, though we will venture to say by no means to be compared with our “Long Tom Coffins” of Nantucket and New Bedford.’ This is followed by a brief description of the whale hunt. 11 In 1855, formal diplomatic relationships between the United States and Japan were just beginning, as Matthew Perry had first arrived in Edo just three years prior. Yet there was obviously interest and awareness of Japanese whaling in Boston at this time, accompanied by a seemingly good-natured sense of rivalry. 9 Niwa Shohaku, ‘Illustrations of Whales,’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession # 2001.100.4465; Anonymous, ‘Geigyo Hinshu Zukan,’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession # 2001.100.4456; ‘Whales Caught at Kumano-ura (Ki Peninsula),’ #2001.100.4462 10 The scene is copied from a work published in 1832 by Phillip Franz von Siebold, a German physician who accompanied the Dutch delegation stationed on Dejima (modern Nagasaki prefecture) from 1823 to 1829. Peabody Museum of Salem, Whaling Prints in the Lothrop Collection, Salem: Peabody Museum of Salem, 1987. 146. 11 Anonymous, ‘Whaling Scene on the Coast of Japan,’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession # 2001.100.10758 5 �Figure 3. Maker once known. Whaling Scene on the Coast of Japan, 1855. Engraving on paper, 6 x 9.25 in. (15.2 x 23.5 cm.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.10758. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. Winches appear in three scrolls and three woodblock prints. They are large, wooden structures with four arms, and two or three men push each arm to wind the rope and drag the whale or its blubber on to shore. All three versions of the woodblock prints – all by different artists – focus on the men pushing the winches, some with facial expressions indicating the effort expended to haul the massive whale. One is part of a triptych, with the other two panels showing a graphic offshore flensing scene. The triptych is labeled as part of a series on ‘Japanese Famous Goods’ in Hizen province, and another is labeled as one of ‘The Great Illustrated Japanese Products’ series (Figure 4). 12 It suggests that the winches were emblematic of whaling and the efforts put in to processing the whales. 12 Kuniyoshi, ‘Nihon Meisan Zukushi. Hizen no Kuni Goto, Hirado, aruiwa Kishu niwa Shoshoura nite Kujira wo Toru Zu.’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession #2001.100.6668; Hiroshige Shigemasa III, ‘Kagura nite hikiageru zu,’ New Bedford Whaling Museum, Accession #2001.100.6666 6 �Figure 4. Hiroshige Shigemasa III (Japanese, 1843-1894). Kagura Nite Hikiageru Zu [Pulling in by a Kagura Winch], c. 1877. Woodblock on paper, 6.25 x 9 in. (16.1 x 22.5 cm.) New Bedford Whaling Museum, Gift of the Kendall Whaling Museum, 2001.100.6666. Image courtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE STUDIES This preliminary look at the collections of the New Bedford Whaling Museum suggests the rich potential in using artwork to understand more about early modern Japanese maritime cultural heritage. While perhaps not generally useful to understand specific aspects of ship construction for whaling vessels, the array of associated tools, weapons, and infrastructure detailed in the scrolls reveal more about the full maritime cultural landscape associated with early modern whaling in Japan. This is but one group of sources, and museum collections in Japan have additional whaling scrolls that should be brought in for a more comprehensive comparison. The NBWM provides an excellent example of the potential for small museums to hold important collections, and is a reminder not to overlook these types of institutions when conducting research. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to Jordan Berson, Emma Rocha, and Mark D. Procknik at the New Bedford Whaling Museum for opening their collections to me, pulling a large number of items out for viewing in a short period of time, and providing space in the research library for me to take photographs to my heart’s content. I could not have made the trip to conduct this research without financial assistance from the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater and Dean Frank Goza. I also thank Dr. Jenny Craig for her flexibility with my submission of this paper, and Dr. T. Kurt Knoerl for always being a sounding board, editor, and providing moral support. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arch, Jakobina. Bringing Whales Ashore: Oceans and the Environment of Early Modern Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2018. 7 �Digital Whale Museum, ‘Traditional Whaling in Taiji.’ May 29, 2023. https://kujira-digitalmuseum.com/en/categories/12/articles/ Peabody Museum of Salem. Whaling Prints in the Lothrop Collection. Salem: Peabody Museum of Salem, 1987. Sakurai, Hayato. ‘Whales Caught on Paper Waves: Scroll Paintings of Whales and Old Japanese Whaling.’ In Whaling and History III, 37–44. Sandefjord, Norway: Vestfoldmuseene IKS, 2010. Sowa, Frank. ‘Seaside Communities in Crisis: On the Construction of Collective Identity in a Japanese Whaling Town after the Moratorium.’ Annuals of Marine Sociology/Roczniki Socjologii Morskiej 23 (2015): 21–35. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Modern Japanese Whaling: An Iconographic Study Description An account of the resource Small museums can be the repository of mighty collections. The New Bedford Whaling Museum (NBWM) in Massachusetts, USA, is one such example. The NBWM holds a significant collection of artwork depicting early modern (17th – 19th c) Japanese whaling. A systemic analysis of the imagery in these pieces allows us to learn more about the equipment and strategies used in whaling in the early modern period. This paper provides an initial review of those collections, highlighting the types of vessels used, tools and other equipment, and important shoreline infrastructure associated with whaling that are depicted in the artwork. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michelle Damian Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Damian, Michelle . 2023. “Early Modern Japanese Whaling: An Iconographic Study.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2020 Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c7c53130df44ceef03108ca1eb8ad050.pdf 5922aa5c957c77a993fc89a5c34753b2 PDF Text Text Joint airborne and shipborne geophysical surveys to inspect the submerged archaeological sites: The Taijiang Waters in Taiwan Liwen Chen1, Sheng-Chong Lo2, Lun-Tao Tong3, Gwo-Shyh Song4, Yi-Wei Lu2, Cheng-Wei Tseng3, Jheng-Kai Huang5, Wai-lam Wong1, Wei-Chung Han6 1. 2. National Academy of Marine Research, Ocean Affairs Council, Taiwan Green Energy and Environment Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute,Taiwan 3. Material and Chemical Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Taiwan 4. 5. 6. MMA Global Aqua Co., Ltd., Taiwan Chinese Ocean & Underwater Technology Association, Taiwan Exploration and Development Research Institute, CPC Corporation, Taiwan ABSTRACT To better identify submerged archaeological targets, multiple state-of-art survey techniques were carried out in underwater geoarchaeological studies at the exploration stage. Previous underwater surveys identified ten Dutch colonial vessels dating from the first half of the seventeenth century. Four of them were found on the banks of the Yanshui River, and most of them were situated at the historical waters of Dayun Port. Underwater archeology research at this inland sea of Tainan, the base for the Dutch route, was the key era in the development of maritime trade in Southeast Asia. Therefore, inspecting the potential archaeology in Taijiang Waters is under our consideration, which is situated in a historical city, Tainan, leads us to link the ancient shipwreck event to consider the sustainable preservation solution. However, it is challenging to inspect the submerged archaeological targets since the geomorphology rapidly changed due to the long- and short-term geological processes. The resources available to conduct the work include accurate frequency control on magnetic data acquisition and comprehensive geophysical integration for data interpretation. Therefore, we combine the acoustic and magnetic techniques and joint airborne and shipborne geophysical surveys to inspect the submerged assessment. After integrating with previous survey results, seven underwater cultural heritages were linked to shipwrecks, which allows us to embark on follow-up verification plans for archaeological research, preserving the potential historical footprints of Taiwanese and the treasure wetlands environments of the Taijiang National Park for endangered ecosystems. Keywords: geophysical survey, Taijiang Waters, underwater cultural heritage INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within this Session 24 ‘” Database, monitoring, non-intrusive documentation techniques and new technologies applied to underwater cultural heritage” because we jointly apply multiple the-state-of-art survey techniques including airborne- and shipborne-based geophysical methods to inspect the submerged archaeological sites in the Taijiang Waters of Taiwan. Overall, this study is based on non-intrusive geophysical methods and it involves database building and future underwater cultural heritage (UCH) monitoring/preservation. The Taijiang Waters are archaeologically significant since it was a crucial ship channel during the seventeenth century and therefore many ships sank in its surrounding waters during the period. Previous studies have found at least ten Dutch vessels in the study area dating from the first half of the seventeenth century (Chiang, 1999; Li, 2018; Wang, 2012). However, it is challenging to inspect the submerged archaeological targets by using traditional surveying methods due to the poor visibility in the water, strong tidal currents, and rapidly changing morphology. For instance, the strong tidal currents can be dangerous to divers and the low water visibility makes it difficult to operate underwater cameras. Moreover, the 1 �rapid erosion and deposition processes cause major challenges in monitoring, or even locating the archaeological targets. Please note that many land or wetland areas were oceans back in the seventeenth century due to the massive sediment deposition carried by the Yanshui River. This results in limited water areas nowadays capable of ships or boats passing through. With all the restrictions and challenges, this study also applies airborne-based geophysical survey methodology to acquire the overall information within the study area, including the land areas or fish farms where shipborne-based methods cannot be operated. A more detailed description of the geophysical instruments used is outlined in the “Resource” section. By integrated analysis of various geophysical data, we have built a database and developed a workflow for locating and monitoring the potential archaeological targets, which may give insights into the surveying strategies in other shallow water areas worldwide that are challenging for applying traditional archaeological surveying methods. CASE STUDY The case studies under consideration mainly are the previous geophysical surveys used for shallow water UCH identification. According to the previous experience, we realized that a new and integrated approach must be introduced to overcome the environmental challenges in Taijiang Waters. Geophysical prospecting methods have been extensively used to locate buried antiquities in terrestrial sites for decades. This approach involves interdisciplinary studies which is also applicable and efficient to document the underwater environment in detail. Besides mapping the subsurface images, geophysical prospecting methods also provides critical physical properties of buried structures to complement archaeological research in a timely and costly efficient manner. The technological and methodological innovations upgraded it from an “amateur” activity to scientific research with a substantial contribution in the domains of past commerce and coast exploitations (Dobson 2005). However, the coastal and shallow underwater areas are still considered a “gray zone” or “white zone”, where different factors create a unique, constantly evolving, and challenging environment, sharing elements from both deep- water investigations and dry land surveys, which neither the equipment for deep-water exploration nor those used for dry land surveys can be directly employed in coastal areas (Galanidou, et al. 2020). Generally, most of the efforts to reconstruct the hidden cultural heritage are mainly focused on deep-water environment explorations by acoustic geophysical methods that have been used to map ancient shipwrecks (Sakellariou, et al. 2007). The accessibility of shallow water archaeological sites rise a dilemma for the government, as it must decide whether to prioritize openness to the public or protect cultural assets. On the other hand, the water presence in submerged lands makes this area susceptible to various post-depositional or abandonment effects, as evidenced by the Taijiang Waters in Taiwan (Li 2018; Wang 2012). Perhaps that’s the reason why there is no coherent and efficient approach or technique so far for shallow-water heritage documentation, study, and protection, despite the availability of methods to investigate the cultural heritage in dry land or deep water (Papadopoulos 2021). Since October 1966, several archaeological targets including a wreck site were discovered in the marine environment of Akko Harbour using a proton magnetometer, the technique has been widely used for underwater cultural heritage (Arnold and Clausen 1975). Today marine proton magnetometers have largely been replaced by optically pumped cesium vapor magnetometers and Overhauser effect magnetometers, both of which provide greater sensitivity and much faster cycle rates (Green 2014). Nevertheless, magnetic surveys may effectively detect shipwrecks but require a proper design operating in good weather conditions. And the beauty of a magnetic survey is that we don’t need to submerge the magnetometer before it can detect a shipwreck, most accessible wrecks that lie in shallow waters (<30m) are detectable from the surface (Steenkamp 2017). Generally, shipborne surveys are used for searching for wrecks in shallow waters and may be complemented by cheaply available side-scan sonar equipment. In Taijiang Waters in Taiwan, where some areas are difficult for the boat to access, we intend to take the advantage of a small drone equipped with a fluxgate magnetometer to offer good values to inspect the 2 �submerged archaeological sites. The sediment deposition in the Taijiang Water has greatly impacted human activities (Chen and Chang 2010). In the 17th century, the Taijiang Water was a natural port and was the administrative, economic, and cultural center of Taiwan. However, due to the sediment infill process of the Taijiang Water, it became more difficult to navigate ships in the nineteen century, and eventually impossible for the ships to pass today. Figure 1 shows an example of the Taijing coast in the seventeen and twenty-first centuries. Due to the severe sediment deposition processes, numerous coastal communities that depended on shipping for their livelihood have declined. To investigate the UCH in the Taijiang Waters, the Taiwanese government has conducted a shipboard general geophysical survey, including a multibeam echo sounder (MES), side scan sonar (SSS), subbottom profiler (SBP), and magnetic surveying (MG) (Lai 2018). Based on these datasets, several potential UCH targets were identified. After that, they conducted a detailed survey including underwater photography and resistivity image profiling, in addition to the four methods used in the general survey, to examine potential UCH targets. However, during the detailed survey, they observed a significant topographic change caused by rapid sedimentary processes. Either moving by the currents or buried by sediments, numerous previously identified potential UCH sites showed no obvious geophysical anomalies from the data collected from the detailed survey. Therefore, this study aims to introduce a joint data analysis technology to better detect and monitor potential UCH targets in this challenging site. Figure 1. An ancient nautical chart by Dutch navigators (1652) overlaid with modern satellite images (Lai 2018) revealing the changing coastlines. RESOURCES To better identify the submerged archaeological targets (potential UCH) in Taijiang Waters, we integrated multiple the-state-of-art survey techniques to improve the certainty of potential target recognization. Our survey strategies and techniques in Taijian underwater geoarchaeological research not only increased the 3 �density of the ship tracks to better image the seafloor topography, and profile the subsurface strata and magnetic features to recognize the potential targets; but also, we take the advantage of magnetic anomalies derived from airborne and shipborne geophysical surveys, to inspect the assessments which might be buried in the subsurface. Furthermore, we directly sample the channel sediments to investigate the sedimentological and environmental records to study the potential geological events in hundreds of years. The instruments and survey strategies we used are introduced as follows. Shipborne-based geophysical survey Based on the existing water depth and nautical chart data, the investigative scope of the Taijiang Waters includes intertidal zones with water depths ranging from 0 to 10 meters. Due to the shallow water depth and numerous obstacles such as oyster rafts near the coast, the operation uses a small boat, the Wan Bao Long 58, to reduce operational risks. The vessel has a total length of 14.60 meters, a width of 2.90 meters, a maximum draft of 0.74 meters, and a total tonnage of 11.75 tons. (1) Side-scan sonar (SSS) We use an EdgeTech 4125 side-scan sonar to collect dual-frequency seafloor images for the entire area while the survey line spacing and instrument's slant range were set at 25 meters, simultaneously. (2) Multi-beam bathymetry (MB) We predominantly use the RESON SeaBat 9001 multi-beam sounder with a survey line spacing of 10 meters to collect the bathymetry data. For the areas with water depth shallower than 1 meter, the Odom Echotrac CV100 single-beam sounder was used to fill the gap. Besides the relevant position, the angle deviation was obtained by superposition testing. All data were recorded in the collection software to obtain the relative position parameters of the instruments in 3D. For the sound velocity information, the vertical sound profile was measured at least 2 times a day. More measurements were conducted with significant changes in water temperature or salinity. (3) Sub-bottom profiler (SBP) We utilize the EdgeTech SB-216S tow-fish with a digital variable-frequency sonar sounder in 10 meters line spacing survey to image the subsurface strata. (4) Magnetic Survey (MG) Considering of the interference of the vessel, the SeaSPY used for shipborne magnetic survey was tied to a float and towed about 30 meters behind the vessel. And principally we set up the line space as 12.5 meters to derive better coverage of the data. Airborne magnetic survey With the airborne magnetic survey, we undertook a general survey around the Taijian area with 100% coverage and a detailed survey focussed along the river to better detect anomalies in those waters. (1) General Survey The general survey aims to mark the distribution of buried magnetic bodies. The operation height should be adjusted according to the environmental conditions. Therefore, a 25-meter design line spacing is used for this phase of the survey. The measurement height is set between 15-20 meters above ground level and adjusted according to the height of buildings, power poles, or windbreak trees in the survey area. 4 �(2) Detailed Survey Ideally, the survey line spacing is about 4 meters with a flying height of 4-8 meters above the ground/water level. The actual survey area was selected based on the results of the general airborne magnetic survey and the shipborne geophysical surveys. FRAMEWORK This study aims to identify potential UCH targets by applying geophysical methods for future monitoring and preservation. Considering the challenging survey environment, we applied an integrated analysis of different geophysical datasets including the MB, SSS, SBP, and magnetic methods. In terms of geophysical data interpretation, the exposed targets were mainly identified through the interpretation of the SSS images. All the exposed targets show magnetic anomalies. However, due to the poorer resolution of the multibeam terrain data, the comparison results between exposed target objects and multibeam data target objects were inconsistent, and their shapes could not be identified through the multibeam depth data in this area. As fishing activities are prosperous in the Taijiang Waters, there are many oyster rafts or abandoned fishing gear in the river channel. Therefore, anomalous responses observed only from one single geophysical data were not used as the basis for identifying potential UCH target objects. Regarding the buried target objects, anomalous responses observed from SBP and magnetometer are the main criteria for interpretation. After the integrated geophysical data analysis, we compared the potential UCH target locations with historical literature to have a preliminary idea from an archaeology perspective. RESULTS Besides collecting shipborne geophysical data including the SSS, MB, and MG, we further check the subsurface feature by SBP to define the suspicious targets (Figure 2). Then we combined the magnetic anomaly derived from airborne and shipborne geophysical surveys simultaneously to inspect the submerged assessment (Figure 3), the resources available to conduct the work include accurate frequency control on magnetic data acquisition and comprehensive geophysical integration for data interpretation. After integrating and interpreting various survey data in the Taijiang Waters, a total of 13 potential UCH targets were obtained (Figure 4), including 12 targets on the riverbed and 1 buried target. With these results, we are confident that our strategy of jointly analysing multiple geophysical data can increase the chance of identifying potential UCH sites and therefore benefit geoarchaeological research. After integrating with previous survey results, seven underwater anomalies were correlated to the ancient Dutch shipwreck (Figure 4). This allows us to now embark on planning follow-up verification of each anomaly through archaeological research, for the purposes of confirming, or not, discovery and identifying each site. Through these activities we hope to preserve the historical underwater cultural heritage of the Taiwanese, and the endangered ecosystems of the treasured wetlands environments of the Taijiang National Park. 5 �Figure 2. The four shipborne geophysical surveys we applied in the Yanshui River to investigate the suspicious targets. Figure 3. Magnetic anomaly derived from airborne and shipborne geophysical surveys to help inspect the submerged assessments. 6 �Figure 4. Map showing the locations of the potential UCH targets proposed by this study and previous studies with the planned drilling locations. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnold III, J.B. and Clausen, C.J. A magnetometer survey with electronic positioning control and calculator-plotter system. Historical Archaeology 9, no. 1 (1975.), 26-40. Chen, H. L., Chang, J. C. Terrestrialization process of the TaiJiang Water and its relations to human activities. Geology of Taiwan 29, no.4 (2010), 34-38. Chiang, S. S. De Dagregisters van het Kasteel Zeelandia. Tainan City Government Publications. (In Chinese) Dobson, N.C., 2005, September. Developmental deep-water archaeology: a preliminary report on the investigation and excavation of the 19th-century side-wheel steamer SS Republic, lost in a storm off Savannah in 1865. In Proceedings of OCEANS 2005 MTS/IEEE (1999): 1761-1769. IEEE. Galanidou, N., Dellaporta, K., Sakellariou, D. Greece: Unstable landscapes and underwater archaeology. In Lakes of the World with Google Earth; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, (2020): 371–392. Green, J. The Application of Aerial Magnetometers in Maritime Archaeology. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 43, no.2 (2014): 436-443. Lai, C. P. Remote Sensing Exploration Project for underwater cultural heritage in the Dayun Port Waters. The Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture, Taiwan. (In Chinese). 2018. Li, C. L. The shipwrecks' historical documents collecting and analyzing of the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie. The Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture, Taiwan. (In Chinese) 2018. Papadopoulos, N. Shallow offshore geophysical prospection of archaeological sites in eastern Mediterranean. Remote Sensing 13, no. 7 (2021): 1237. Sakellariou, D., Georgiou, P., Mallios, A., Kapsimalis, V., Kourkoumelis, D., Micha, P., Theodoulou, T., Dellaporta, K. Searching for Ancient Shipwrecks in the Aegean Sea: The Discovery of Chios and Kythnos Hellenistic Wrecks with the Use of Marine Geological-Geophysical Methods. Int. J. Naut. Archaeol. 2007. Steenkamp, B. Application of the Magnetic Method to Explore for Shipwrecks on the South African Coast. Extended Abstracts - 15th SAGA Biennial Conference & Exhibition. 2017. Wang, Y. The research of the 17th century Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie shipwrecks types and distribution in the Taiwan Strait. Studies of Underwater Archaeology, Beijing: Science Press. Vol. 1 (2012): 163-188. (In Chinese) 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Joint airborne and shipborne geophysical surveys to inspect the submerged archaeological sites: The Taijiang Waters in Taiwan Description An account of the resource To better identify submerged archaeological targets, multiple state-of-art survey techniques were carried out in underwater geoarchaeological studies at the exploration stage. Previous underwater surveys identified ten Dutch colonial vessels dating from the first half of the seventeenth century. Four of them were found on the banks of the Yanshui River, and most of them were situated at the historical waters of Dayun Port. Underwater archeology research at this inland sea of Tainan, the base for the Dutch route, was the key era in the development of maritime trade in Southeast Asia. Therefore, inspecting the potential archaeology in Taijiang Waters is under our consideration, which is situated in a historical city, Tainan, leads us to link the ancient shipwreck event to consider the sustainable preservation solution. However, it is challenging to inspect the submerged archaeological targets since the geomorphology rapidly changed due to the long- and short-term geological processes. The resources available to conduct the work include accurate frequency control on magnetic data acquisition and comprehensive geophysical integration for data interpretation. Therefore, we combine the acoustic and magnetic techniques and joint airborne and shipborne geophysical surveys to inspect the submerged assessment. After integrating with previous survey results, seven underwater cultural heritages were linked to shipwrecks, which allows us to embark on follow-up verification plans for archaeological research, preserving the potential historical footprints of Taiwanese and the treasure wetlands environments of the Taijiang National Park for endangered ecosystems. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Liwen Chen Sheng-Chong Lo Lun-Tao Tong Gwo-Shyh Song Yi-Wei Lu Cheng-Wei Tseng Jheng-Kai Huang Wai-lam Wong Wei-Chung Han Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Chen, Liwen , Sheng-Chong Lo, Lun-Tao Tong, Gwo-Shyh Song, Yi-Wei Lu, Cheng-Wei Tseng, Jheng-Kai Huang, Wai-lam Wong, Wei-Chung Han. 2023. “Joint airborne and shipborne geophysical surveys to inspect the submerged archaeological sites: The Taijiang Waters in Taiwan.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2018 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ac5b4fd48c9fca87015af730ac8d455f.pdf 75db4c90879bddfac25acef444421d28 PDF Text Text Evaluation of the Manufacturing Processability of Exploration Vessels Applied with Carbon fibre reinforced plastic Jae-Yang Kim (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, researcher) Jong-Rok Ha (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) Jun Seok (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) Jae-Hyung Jo(Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) ABSTRACT Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) is a high-strength, lightweight material that is widely used in the aerospace and automobile industries, and recently is also used in the shipbuilding field. However, the fibre volume fraction of the shipbuilding composite material process is less than 35% due to the hand lay-up process and the low-vacuum liquid resin transfer moulding process technology. The autoclave process and vacuum oven curing process are difficult to apply to the shipbuilding industry due to high equipment and processing costs. A vacuum liquid forming process must be used to increase the fibre volume fraction. In the project under study, the Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) must be equipped with various equipment, so it must be light and strong. Accordingly, ASV is being studied using CFRP among composite materials for shipbuilding. In this study, a vacuum liquid moulding process capable of manufacturing high-quality carbon composites is applied to the hull of an unmanned probe. In order to evaluate the manufacturing process of the unmanned probe carbon composite hull, the viscosity of the resin and the permeability of the fibre mat were measured. The permeability coefficient of the preform was determined as the in-plane time flow rate using the radial flow method. The fibre volume fraction was measured at 48, 50, and 52 per cent, and a study was conducted after process simulation based on the measurement results and basic data such as pressure gradient, inlet and outlet design, and process optimization. RTMWORX was used as a simulation program. Keywords: Autonomous surface vehicle, Carbon fibre reinforced plastic, Permeability, Fibre Volume Fraction List of Table Table 1. Result of permeability 1. INTRODUCTION The topic of this abstract fits best within Session 19 because the technology under study is the construction of technologies and systems for underwater cultural heritage surveys. In the case of carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP), they are mainly used in the aerospace field due to their high specific strength and specific stiffness. Recently, interest in eco-friendly ships has increased and research for application to the shipbuilding field to improve fuel efficiency is being actively conducted. The composite manufacturing process currently used in the shipbuilding field is a hand lay-up process, which is mainly used for manufacturing low-quality composites. Recently, a high-quality composite manufacturing process has become required, with a fibre volume ratio of 45 per cent or more (Um et al. year). In this study, the vacuum liquid forming process, which can manufacture high-quality carbon composites, will be applied to the hull of an unmanned probe. The vacuum liquid moulding process is a method in which resin is impregnated by fluidizing it by a difference in air pressure in a vacuum state and is mainly used in the production of large composite materials. In order to evaluate the manufacturing suitability of the carbon composite hull of the unmanned probe, a process simulation was performed based on basic data such as viscosity measurement of resin, permeability coefficient of fibre mat, and pressure gradient, and then inlet and outlet design and process optimization research were conducted. 1 �2. CASE STUDIES The case study under consideration is the development of an Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) for underwater cultural heritage investigation using autonomous navigation technology, and includes reference to a field demonstration. The outline of this research and development is to create a platform system that can operate autonomously in shallow waters and simultaneously utilise equipment used for underwater surface surveys. This research study aims to develop a twin-hull ASV platform that reduces errors by using autonomous navigation and ICT technology through machine learning. The ASV platform can automatically return in case of an emergency, has a navigation error of ±1m, and aims to develop a Dynamic Position (DP) system for apex three dimensional (3D) exploration. An autonomous driving system was introduced for cost-effective data acquisition. This study aims to develop unmanned technology that incorporates the core technologies of the fourth industrial revolution (artificial intelligence, internet of things, etc.). As for the use and application areas of the developed product, all survey activities listed in the buried cultural heritage work guidelines (topographic survey, high-frequency strata survey, seabed survey, geomagnetic survey, diving survey, etc.) be performed. 3. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include resin, fibre utilisation knowledge, understanding of underwater environment and hull design, and manufacturing technology. Regarding the resin, all resin systems used in composite materials require properties such as excellent mechanical properties, excellent adhesive performance, excellent toughness, and excellent resistance against environmental degradation. Resins used in marine composites are thermosetting resins, and polyester or epoxy resins are mostly used. Thermosetting resins such as polyester and epoxy are more convenient to use in the process because they are cured without generating volatile by-products (ref. CMH). The mechanical properties of the resin should have high maximum strength and stiffness and exhibit high strain until fracture, which means that it is hard but not weak against brittle fracture at the same time. When the composite is subjected to tensile forces, the resin must deform at least as much as the fibres. The adhesive performance of resin is important because excellent adhesive performance between resin and fibre is required in the manufacture of composite materials, so to effectively transfer the load when a load is received, and to prevent cracks or separation between fibres and resin. Fibres used in manufacturing composites can be largely divided into carbon fibres, glass fibres, and natural fibres, and most of the fibres used in hull manufacturing are glass fibres. Carbon fibre has the highest mechanical properties, but its utilisation rate is low in hull manufacturing in terms of price. In order to increase the stability of the hull, the fibres are arranged in a fibre stacking pattern according to the direction of the load received by the hull. Since ASVs used in shallow waters are always exposed to marine environments such as salt water, ultraviolet rays, sea wind, and wave power, they have a high risk of corrosion and have a problem in that their lifespan is shortened by repeated loads from waves. As a solution to this, we want to manufacture an ASV hull using composite materials. 4. FRAMEWORK The research approach uses the hull concept of unmanned self-driving vehicles/unmanned probes and uses high-frequency geological exploration technology to investigate underwater cultural assets, the national heritage and heritage of human civilization. Underwater surface survey is conducted using underwater survey equipment, but there is no standard for systematic exploration research, exploration equipment, or methods for underwater cultural heritage exploration. The majority of underwater artefacts currently being excavated come from shallow coastal areas. When it is necessary to investigate these shallow seabed and intertidal areas, such as coastal areas and coastal estuary 2 �wetlands, which are inaccessible to general ships, shallow draft vessels are used, such as rubber boats. Although underwater surface surveys are being conducted using a micro-vessel, there are cases in which these surveys cannot be conducted due to problems in the operation of the vessel and or the safety of the investigators. The possibility of autonomous underwater surface survey for shallow water can be expected to increase the possibility of finding underwater artefacts several times. Recently, as the 4th industrial revolution is emerging, it is a national project in Korea for the development of unmanned free-running ships (autonomous USVs) that combine ICT and convergence industries to revitalise coastal surveys and observations, logistics transportation, and the stagnant shipbuilding industry. Research and development for self-driving ships is in progress, and miniaturised self-driving ships for marine surveys are developing rapidly. If an unmanned ASV for underwater cultural heritage research is developed, it will be possible to conduct a large-area underwater surface survey very efficiently, compared to the current underwater surface survey method. In addition, as economic and industrial activities in coastal waters increasingly occur, such as offshore plant construction, it is clear that data is important for preserving and managing underwater cultural heritage properties. It is therefore important to acquire high-quality marine information to determine the exact location of underwater cultural assets existing in sedimentary layers or on the seabed, and based on this, precise underwater surface survey (secondary survey) and excavation work must be conducted. In addition to the survey and exploration equipment currently used for underwater surface survey, there is 3D exploration to obtain more precise and accurate survey results, and based on the information obtained through this, accurate and precise result data suitable for the purpose of underwater surface survey. If a small self-driving marine survey vessel suitable for underwater cultural heritage exploration is developed and fitted out with equipment capable of precise investigation, the possibility of discovering underwater cultural heritage increases, even if the investigation is carried out in shallow water areas. Competing organisations that have technology related to unmanned autonomous ships in Korea are national research institutes such as Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Korea Ocean Research Institute, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Research Institute, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering ENR, and university industry-university cooperation foundations. In the case of ships, some small and medium-sized enterprises conducted research related to detection of hazardous materials through remote control and collection of wastes on the water, but it was confirmed that there was no research related to complex unmanned autonomous marine survey vessels (boats). As for technologies related to autonomous ships overseas, China and the West (USA and Europe) are leading the research and development of technologies and commercialised ships (boats) in marine-related companies. Representative companies include ASV Global, Unmanned Marine Systems, Maritime Robotics, and Oceanalpha (China), but the development of commercialised boats related to complex unmanned autonomous marine research vessels (boats) was developed by marine research related companies. In commercialised boats, marine survey equipment (baywater surveying equipment, etc.) is individually installed and operated on autonomous unmanned ships. 5. RESULTS The results are establishment of basic design conditions through identification of resin characteristics and inlet and outlet design and process optimization research were conducted. To evaluate the manufacturing processability of the carbon composite material, the permeability coefficient of the fibre mat was measured. To measure the permeability coefficient, a radial flow type permeability coefficient measurement equipment was fabricated. The permeability coefficient of the radial flow method can determine the fluidity of the in-plane (in-plane) direction resin. Silicone oil was used for stable flow of the liquid phase, and the permeability coefficient was measured using Darcy's equation by measuring the advancing distance of the resin over time. 3 �Ū= − 𝐾 µ 𝑃 [Darcy`s equation(Ū : Resin speed, K : Permeability, μ : Viscosity, P : pressure)] The rheological properties of the resin were analysed using a rheometer. The equipment used for rheological property analysis was HR-20 from TA Instruments, and the optimum temperature and pot life of the process were identified through dynamic and static analysis. Using the permeability coefficient and resin viscosity measured above, process design was performed using the RTMWORX program of POLYWORX in the Netherlands. The results of Table 1 below were obtained through the measurement of the permeability coefficient of the fibre mat. Based on the permeability coefficient measurement results, it will be applied to process simulation. In the process design of this study, the injection viscosity of the resin was determined to be 1 Pa.s, and at this time, the fluidity of the resin (1 Pa.s and pot life (about 70 min) were judged to be appropriate, and the optimal process design was performed through simulation in the future (Ha et al. 2022). Table 1. Result of permeability coefficient Vf 48 50 52 Test 1 2 3 Avg. 1 2 3 Avg. 1 2 3 Avg. K1 1.10E-09 1.28E-09 1.26E-09 1.18E-09 6.19E-10 6.03E-10 6.67E-10 6.30E-10 2.98E-10 2.89E-10 2.16E-10 2.68E-10 K2 6.88E-10 6.89E-10 6.99E-10 6.92E-10 4.59E-10 4.65E-10 4.44E-10 4.56E-10 2.76E-10 2.84E-10 1.94E-10 2.51E-10 K1/K2 6.85E-.01 5.37E-01 5.56E-01 5.93E-01 7.42E-01 7.70E-01 6.65E-01 7.26E-01 9.26E-01 9.83E-01 8.98E-01 9.36E-01 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported 2023 Cultural Heritage Smart Preservation & Utilization R&D Program by Cultural Heritage Administration, National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (Project Name: Development of ASV for underwater cultural heritage investigation using autonomous navigation technology and field demonstration, Project Number: 2022A01D10-002, Contribution Rate: 100 Per cent) BIBLIOGRAPHY CMH, “Resin system”, Composites Materials Handbook Ha, J.R Kim, J.YSeok, J. Cho, J. H. Evaluation of manufacturing fairness of hulls applied with CFRP for unmanned probes”, KSMTE Annual Spring Conference 2022, 158 Um, M.-K, Lee, S.-K., Kim, T.-W., Kim, J.-H and Kim, S.-W. A Study on the Determination of In - Plane Permeability of Fiber Preforms, Composites research 75-83. 4 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of the Manufacturing Processability of Exploration Vessels Applied with Carbon fibre reinforced plastic Description An account of the resource Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) is a high-strength, lightweight material that is widely used in the aerospace and automobile industries, and recently is also used in the shipbuilding field. However, the fibre volume fraction of the shipbuilding composite material process is less than 35% due to the hand lay-up process and the low-vacuum liquid resin transfer moulding process technology. The autoclave process and vacuum oven curing process are difficult to apply to the shipbuilding industry due to high equipment and processing costs. A vacuum liquid forming process must be used to increase the fibre volume fraction. In the project under study, the Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) must be equipped with various equipment, so it must be light and strong. Accordingly, ASV is being studied using CFRP among composite materials for shipbuilding. In this study, a vacuum liquid moulding process capable of manufacturing high-quality carbon composites is applied to the hull of an unmanned probe. In order to evaluate the manufacturing process of the unmanned probe carbon composite hull, the viscosity of the resin and the permeability of the fibre mat were measured. The permeability coefficient of the preform was determined as the in-plane time flow rate using the radial flow method. The fibre volume fraction was measured at 48, 50, and 52 per cent, and a study was conducted after process simulation based on the measurement results and basic data such as pressure gradient, inlet and outlet design, and process optimization. RTMWORX was used as a simulation program. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jae-Yang Kim Jong-Rok Ha Jun Seok Jae-Hyung Jo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Kim, Jae Yang. 2023. “Evaluation of the Manufacturing Processability of Exploration Vessels Applied with CFRP.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2017 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/20b18612d2b79904dc10bc422b630ea8.pdf ab00d6e5702392e6e78780a070e055dc PDF Text Text Monitoring Technology during the Consolidation of Waterlogged wood Cultural Relics Jiajun Wang (National Center for Archaeology, Ph.D.) Naisheng Li* (National Center for Archaeology, Ph.D.) Jing Du (National Center for Archaeology, Miss.) Xuanwei Zhang (Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong, Mr.) ABSTRACT Waterlogged wood cultural relics often need consolidation before drying to prevent shrinkage and cracking of the object. Polyethylene glycol (PEG), as one of the commonly used consolidating agents, is widely used in archaeological wood consolidation. The moderately degraded archaeological wood samples from the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck, were treated with PEG solution in equipment with the simultaneous incorporation of consolidant spray and immersion. In order to monitor the effect of consolidation, this study analysed the morphological structure, chemical structure, water states, and water content of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood. Herein, non-destructive methods involved an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope, attenuated total refraction Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR). Results showed that the band at 3400 cm−1 reduced notably after PEG spray and immersion and the content of free water utilizing LF-NMR analysis was related to the amount of PEG impregnation. These values had the potential to monitor and assess the consolidation of waterlogged wood cultural relics, which suggested the PEG 2000 solution is better than either immersion or spray treatment, while the PEG 4000 solution is more suitable for immersion treatment. During the conservation process, the consolidation condition can be preliminarily assessed by using non-destructive testing methods, which helps to adjust the protection method in time. Keywords: waterlogged archaeological wood, spray, immersion, PEG List of figures Figure 1 Diagrammatic drawing of PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 spray and immersion on archaeological wood samples. Figure 2 Morphological structure of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples under an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope. (a) untreated, (b) PEG 4000s, (c) PEG 4000i. Figure 3 The ATR-FTIR spectra of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples. Figure 4 Transverse relaxation time of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples. (a) untreated, (b) PEG 2000s, (c) PEG 2000i, (d) PEG 4000s, (e) PEG 4000i. INTRODUCTION In recent years, ancient shipwrecks such as the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck and Changjiangkou No.2 shipwreck have been salvaged one after another. Waterlogged archaeological wood will degrade to different degrees in a burial environment, resulting in increased pores in the wood tissue and decreased mechanical strength (Broda and Hill 2021; Huang et al. 2019). After excavation, dehydration is necessary for the preservation of waterlogged archaeological wood because the presence of water will accelerate the deterioration of the wood and affect its dimensional stability In this process, waterlogged archaeological wood from different preservation conditions is prone to shrinkage deformation, warping and cracking, and even collapse and damage. Thus, consolidants have been developed to avoid shrinkage deformation of wood relics, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyethylene glycols, grease, polymeric reagents, halloysite nanotubes, natural compounds, and sugars (Han et al. 2022; Lisuzzo et al. 2020; Broda 2020; Walsh-Korb and Avérous 2019). PEG, due to being cheap, nontoxic, easy-to-use, and with relatively better dimensional stability enhancement than some other options, has been widely used in the cases of the Vasa, Mary Rose, Batavia and Bremen Cog and as consolidant for countless other waterlogged wood relics (Sandström et al. 2005; Hocker, Almkvist, and Sahlstedt 2012; Hoffmann et al. 2004). There are two main ways to conserve waterlogged shipwrecks, one is to disassemble and soak wood items individually, and the other is to protect the shipwreck as a whole. Disassembly immersion is the 1 �most widely used protection method at present. However, the conservation of a complete shipwreck without disassembly can avoid damaging the hull structure and reduce the damage to individual artefacts during protection or reassembly. In China, ancient wood shipwrecks usually are excavated archaeologically with artefacts recovered item by item. In 2007, the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck was recovered as a whole (Yongjie 2008), it is the preferred choice to undertake conservation without disassembly for display. While smaller shipwrecks can potentially be protected by immersion, for larger shipwrecks it is difficult to adopt the same method. For larger shipwrecks such as Vasa and Mary Rose, spray protection was chosen. To adjust the conservation treatment for optimal outcomes, methods need to be used to monitor the effects of consolidation during the conservation of archaeological wood. Wood is a kind of natural hygroscopic material, and its environmental regulation ability, dimensional stability, and physical and mechanical properties are closely related to the water in wood cells. During the consolidation and dehydration processes, the research of chemical structure and water states is of great significance to elucidate the physical and mechanical properties of archaeological wood and guide the processing and utilization of wood products. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) with attenuated total reflection mode (ATR) is frequently used to assess the condition of wood decay and evaluate PEG amount in consolidated waterlogged archaeological wood due to its speediness and sensitivity, it is also non-destructive. The lateral relaxation characteristics of water in the wood drying process were investigated based on the low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) technique, for the purpose of explaining the change mechanism of the water states in archaeological wood dehydration and to provide a theoretical basis and data support for wood drying and water treatment. The study of the transverse relaxation of water in wood by LF-NMR provides a new idea for studying the interaction between wood and water. There were three water states in wood, namely free water, adsorbed water, and capillary water (Ma et al. 2017). As the water in waterlogged archaeological wood is replaced by consolidating agents, the water states in archaeological wood vary. In summary, it is necessary to monitor the structure and performance of archaeological wood in the consolidation process, to evaluate the efficacy of consolidation. In this study, samples from Nanhai No.1 shipwreck were sprayed and immersed using an aqueous PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 solution, and then the morphological structure, chemical structure, water states, and water content were tested and analysed, to propose a pathway for the evaluation of consolidation effect of wood cultural relics. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are determining the indicators to monitor and evaluate the effect of consolidation by data analysis, including the morphological structure, chemical structure, water states, and water content. RESOURCES PEG treatment The resources available to conduct the work include the data on structure and properties collected from waterlogged wood cultural relics of the Nanhai No.1 Shipwreck. In this study, the moderately degraded waterlogged archaeological wood of the same species was selected. Equipment with the simultaneous incorporation of consolidant spray and immersion was designed, as shown in Figure 1. The device guarantees that the archaeological wood was treated with the consolidation solution which had the same viscosity and density. The consecutive dilutions method prepared a series of PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 solutions with increasing concentrations from 30 wt% to 35 wt%. The wood relics were sprayed and immersed using an aqueous PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 solution, respectively. 2 �Figure 1 Diagrammatic drawing of PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 spray and immersion on archaeological wood samples. Ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope The surfaces of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples were cut by a rotary microtome assisted with a tungsten steel blade. The cross-section pictures of samples were obtained by the ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope, VHX-2000 (Keyence Co., Ltd., Japan). ATR-FTIR spectroscopy analysis To illustrate the changes in the chemical structure of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood, samples were collected by direct transmittance using ATR-FTIR (Perkin Elmer Inc., USA) through 32 scans at a resolution of 4 cm−1 ranging from 700 to 4000 cm−1. Each sample was tested with at least 3 replicates. The ATR-FTIR spectra of the samples were baseline corrected. Water content calculation All samples' water content was measured using a drying oven under 103°C. An electronic-analytical balance (A&D Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, China) with a precision of 0.001 g was used for the measurement. The mass of samples was recorded before and after drying, and then the water content of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples was calculated via the following equation. 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑊−𝑊0 𝑊0 ×100% where W (g) is the specimen weight before drying, and W0 (g) is the specimen weight after drying. LF-NMR analysis LF-NMR parameters were tested using an NMI20 spectrometer (Niumag Co., Ltd., Suzhou, China). By measuring the archaeological wood of the LF-NMR signal and deconvoluting it, the distribution of transverse relaxation time (T2) is determined using the Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill decays. RESULTS The results reveal that the morphological structure, chemical structure, water content, and water states had the potential for evaluating the consolidation effect of waterlogged archaeological wood. Morphological structure The softwood, Pinus spp. was predominant in the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck (Li et al. 2022). Tracheids in cross-sections were mostly long-sided, square, and polygonal. Some cell walls had been deformed, 3 �indicating that there was a slight shrinkage of the waterlogged archaeological wood selected in this study, with deterioration likely caused by humidity change. PEG was physically filled into the cell lumens of archeological wood. The morphological structure of archeological wood samples was characterized by an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope. Figure 2 shows the cross-sections of untreated and PEG-treated archeological wood samples in the same magnification. There was a great difference in penetration between spray (PEG 4000s) and immersion treatment (PEG 4000i) using the same concentration of the consolidant solution. For waterlogged wood samples treated with consolidant solution spray, PEG 4000 had only filled in some tracheids. When the archeological wood was soaking in PEG 4000, it was evident that thick PEG 4000 had attached to the tracheid walls of the specimens. Compared with spray treatment, PEG4000 consolidant is penetrated into the wood more easily by immersion treatment. In order to improve the spray filling and reinforcement effect of large-size wood relics, the treatment time should be extended and the number of sprinklers should be increased to ensure the uniformity of spray. Further experiments are needed for the spray-filling reinforcement technology of waterlogged wood relics which have different sizes and shapes, especially for large shipwrecks. Figure 2 Morphological structure of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples under an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope. (a) untreated, (b) PEG 4000s, (c) PEG 4000i. Chemical structure Figure 3 shows the FTIR spectra of untreated, PEG2000-treated archaeological wood samples through spray (PEG 2000s and PEG 4000s) and immersion (PEG 2000i and PEG 4000i), to assess changes in the chemical structure. In all archaeological wood samples, the ratios between lignin and holocellulose (1374 cm−1 and 1158 cm−1) were often selected to determine its preservation status, while this study mainly analysed the influence of PEG treatment (Fejfer et al. 2022). The spectrum of PEG-treated wood samples was different from that of untreated wood samples. The region of 3800 cm−1~3200 cm−1 belongs to the O−H stretching vibration peak, and the free hydroxyl group affects the dimensional stability. After PEG spray and immersion, the band at 3400 cm−1 related to the stretching vibration of hydroxyl reduced notably in archaeological wood, contributing to improving the dimensional stability of archaeological wood, which was consistent with previous research results (Liu et al. 2022). 4 �Figure 3 The ATR-FTIR spectra of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples. Water states LF-NMR was performed on the samples to further analyse the water states in the untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood. Multiple components of water molecules and PEGs in PEG/water mixtures can be quantified, and also the mobility of each component can be characterized through a multiexponential inversion algorithm of the T2 of PEG/water mixtures (Wu et al. 2012). As shown in Figure 4a, four proton components are found in untreated archaeological wood, assigned to T21, T22, T23, and T24, respectively, which are considered to be the water in and on the cell wall, and the water in the vessel lumens. In addition, the area of the first peak at about 0.1 ms, which accounted for about 0.02%, represents the total amount of adsorbed water. The second and third fractions are capillary water in the wood cell cavity. Free water T24 with a relaxation time higher than 100 ms is attributed to flowing water, accounting for about 27.98% of the total signal. The waterlogged wood is similar to modern wood. The closer the binding of water to wood, the shorter the transverse relaxation time. Conversely, the less adsorbed water is, the longer the transverse relaxation time will be (Li and Ma 2021). Thus, the existence and variation of water in wood can be revealed by measuring its lateral relaxation peak. As to archaeological wood treated by PEG spray or immersion, five transverse relaxation peaks can be seen in Figure 4b to Figure 4e. After PEG treatment, a new fraction at around 1 ms occurs in PEG 2000s, PEG 2000i, PEG 4000s, and PEG 4000i. This is due to PEG filling in the wood tracheids. By calculating the respective relaxation peak area in the decay curves of the relaxation signal, the content of water in different states of archaeological wood can be qualitatively analysed. The adsorbed water content of PEG-treated samples was slightly higher than that of waterlogged archaeological wood because PEG displaced some of the water in the archaeological wood. However, the content of capillary water in the samples is the most dominant, and the second is free water. Compared with the samples treated by spray and immersion, more PEG was filled in the archaeological wood treated by immersion (PEG 2000i and PEG 4000i). To increase the molecular weight of PEG from 2000 to 4000, the capillary water content was decreased while the free water content was increased when using the same treatment, as shown in Figure 4b to Figure 4e. A likely reason for the result lies in the viscosity of the PEG solution. PEG 2000 diffuses into wood voids more easily than PEG 4000. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the impregnation rate of PEG 4000 by increasing the ambient temperature or processing time. The content of bulk content in PEG 4000i achieved the highest value, accounting for 5 �about 70% (Figure 4d). Water content can also confirm the amount of PEG filling (Figure 4f), showing that more water in the wood is replaced by PEG by immersion. Figure 4 Transverse relaxation time of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples. (a) untreated, (b) PEG 2000s, (c) PEG 2000i, (d) PEG 4000s, (e) PEG 4000i, (f) Water content. As filling proceeded, the positions of the relaxation peak for free water shifted right continuously, indicating the average transverse relaxation time for free water was gradually shorter. The PEG 2000 solution is better as either an immersion or spray treatment because of its lower molecular weight and solution viscosity. However, the PEG 4000 solution is more suitable for immersion treatment. This suggests that the filling reinforcement method needs to be selected according to the type of impregnation solution. In addition, LF-NMR, as a nondestructive testing analysis technique, can be used to qualitatively monitor the water state in saturated archaeological wood, especially the transverse relaxation time, T24, which represents the free water in archaeological wood. In addition, the consolidation condition can be assessed by using the above non-destructive testing methods during the conservation process. CONCLUSION In this study, sample preparation methods of PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 solution spray and immersion for moderately degraded archaeological wood were explored. According to the results, the relative intensity of the band at 3400 cm−1 obtained from ATR-FTIR spectra and the content of free water utilizing LF-NMR analysis had the potential to monitor and assess the consolidation of waterlogged wood cultural relics. The results themselves, suggested PEG 2000 solution is a better consolidant for using either immersion or spray treatment, while the PEG 4000 solution is more suitable for immersion treatment. During the conservation process, the consolidation condition can be assessed by using non-destructive testing methods, i.e., ATR-FTIR and LF-NMR, which helps to adjust the protection method in time. Acknowledgments We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Juan Guo, Xin Gao, and Yang Lu from Chinese Academy of Forestry. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Broda, Magdalena. Natural compounds for wood protection against fungi—A review. Molecules 25, no. 15 (2020):3538. Broda, Magdalena, and Callum AS Hill. Conservation of waterlogged wood—past, present and future perspectives. Forests 12, no. 9 (2021):1193. Fejfer, Mariusz, Jeannette Jacqueline Łucejko, Beata Miazga, Emma Cantisani, and Magdalena Zborowska. Gold Mine Wooden Artefacts: Multianalytical Investigations for the Selection of Appropriate Consolidation Treatments. Molecules 27, no. 16 (2022):5228. Han, Liuyang, Juan Guo, Xingling Tian, Xiaomei Jiang, and Yafang Yin. "Evaluation of PEG and sugars consolidated fragile waterlogged archaeological wood using nanoindentation and ATR-FTIR imaging." International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 170 (2022):105390. Han, Liuyang, Xingling Tian, Tobias Keplinger, Haibin Zhou, Ren Li, Kirsi Svedström, Ingo Burgert, Yafang Yin, and Juan Guo. Even visually intact cell walls in waterlogged archaeological wood are chemically deteriorated and mechanically fragile: a case of a 170 year-old shipwreck. Molecules 25, no. 5 (2020):1113. Hocker, Emma, Gunnar Almkvist, and Malin Sahlstedt. The Vasa experience with polyethylene glycol: A conservator's perspective. Journal of cultural heritage 13, no. 3(2012):S175-S182. Hoffmann, Per, Adya Singh, Yoon Soo Kim, Seung Gon Wi, I-J Kim, and Uwe Schmitt. The Bremen Cog of 1380–an electron microscopic study of its degraded wood before and after stabilization with PEG. 2004. Huang, Caoxing, Yan Su, Jinhua Shi, Cheng Yuan, Shengcheng Zhai, and Qiang Yong. Revealing the effects of centuries of ageing on the chemical structural features of lignin in archaeological fir woods. New Journal of Chemistry 43, no. 8 (2019):3520-3528. Li, Jingyu, and Erni Ma. Characterization of water in wood by time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (TD-NMR): a review. Forests 12, no. 7 (2021):886. Li, Ren, Juan Guo, Nicola Macchioni, Benedetto Pizzo, Guanglan Xi, Xingling Tian, Jiabao Chen, Jian Sun, Xiaomei Jiang, and Jinzhen Cao. Characterisation of waterlogged archaeological wood from Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck by multidisciplinary diagnostic methods. Journal of Cultural Heritage 56 (2022):25-35. Lisuzzo, Lorenzo, Theodore Hueckel, Giuseppe Cavallaro, Stefano Sacanna, and Giuseppe Lazzara. Pickering emulsions based on wax and halloysite nanotubes: An ecofriendly protocol for the treatment of archeological woods. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13, no. 1 (2020):1651-1661. Liu, Xinyou, Xinwei Tu, Wanrong Ma, Changjun Zhang, Houyi Huang, and Anca Maria Varodi. Consolidation and Dehydration of Waterlogged Archaeological Wood from Site Huaguangjiao No. 1. Forests 13, no.11 (2022):1919. Ma, Erni, Wang Wang, Xiang Li, and Tiantian Yang. The States of Water in Wood during the Drying Process Studied by Low-Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Scientia Silvae Sinicae 53, no. 6 (2017):111-117. Sandström, Farideh Jalilehvand, Emiliana Damian, Yvonne Fors, Ulrik Gelius, Mark Jones, and Murielle Salomé. Sulfur content of the warship Mary Rose. PNAS 102, no. 40 (2005):14123-14124. Walsh-Korb, Zarah, and Luc Avérous. Recent developments in the conservation of materials properties of historical wood. Progress in Materials Science 102 (2019):167-221. Wu, Jiang, Weifeng Lin, Zhen Wang, Shengfu Chen, and Yung Chang. Investigation of the hydration of nonfouling material poly (sulfobetaine methacrylate) by low-field nuclear magnetic resonance. Langmuir 28, no. 19 (2012.):7436-7441. Yongjie, Xu. The Dream and the Glory: Integral Salvage of the Nanhai No. 1 Shipwreck and Its Significance. The Silk Road 5, no. 2 (2008):16-19. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Monitoring Technology during the Consolidation of Waterlogged wood Cultural Relics Description An account of the resource Waterlogged wood cultural relics often need consolidation before drying to prevent shrinkage and cracking of the object. Polyethylene glycol (PEG), as one of the commonly used consolidating agents, is widely used in archaeological wood consolidation. The moderately degraded archaeological wood samples from the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck, were treated with PEG solution in equipment with the simultaneous incorporation of consolidant spray and immersion. In order to monitor the effect of consolidation, this study analysed the morphological structure, chemical structure, water states, and water content of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood. Herein, non-destructive methods involved an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope, attenuated total refraction Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR). Results showed that the band at 3400 cm−1 reduced notably after PEG spray and immersion and the content of free water utilizing LF-NMR analysis was related to the amount of PEG impregnation. These values had the potential to monitor and assess the consolidation of waterlogged wood cultural relics, which suggested the PEG 2000 solution is better than either immersion or spray treatment, while the PEG 4000 solution is more suitable for immersion treatment. During the conservation process, the consolidation condition can be preliminarily assessed by using non-destructive testing methods, which helps to adjust the protection method in time. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jiajun Wang Naisheng Li Jing Du Xuanwei Zhang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wang, Jiajun, Naisheng Li, Jing Du, and Xuanwei Zhang. 2023. “Monitoring Technology during the Consolidation of Waterlogged wood Cultural Relics.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2015 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cc3955561072153c7bb6328e3c842dc4.pdf 75ee1a879b43f6b8b45d3b4269a27278 PDF Text Text Meaningful Applications of Photogrammetry on Shipwreck Excavations - Not Just for Recording! Using 3D Data to Understand the Ships Kotaro Yamafune (President of A.P.P.A.R.A.T.U.S. LLC) apparatus.japan@gmail.com Dimitra Voutyrea (Doctoral Candidate of Austrian Archaeological Institute at Athens of the Austrian Academy of Sciences) dimitra221996@gmail.com Irena Radić Rossi (Assistant Professor of University of Zadar) irradic@unizd.hr Javier Rodríguez Pandozi (Director of Instituto Balear de Estudios en Arqueología Marítima) jrpandozi@gmail.com ABSTRACT Photogrammetry has rapidly gained attention in the field of underwater archaeology since around 2011, largely due to significant time constraints associated with underwater excavation. Photogrammetry is a technique that utilizes photographs taken with a digital camera to create precise 3D digital models. It has now become possible to replace some of the manual recording tasks with this technique, which offers both speed and high accuracy. As a result, underwater recording work can now be completed in a fraction of the time it once required, while still maintaining accuracy. However, the most significant advantage of photogrammetry lies in the flexibility of the data it generates, which subsequently enhances archaeologists' research and facilitates hypothesis formulation. In this paper, the authors present several case studies where photogrammetry is used not only as a recording tool but also as a support for scientific research, specifically to enhance our understanding of historical ships. The case studies to be discussed in this paper include the Fournoi Shipwreck 15 from Greece (5th century A.D.), the Letavica shipwreck from Croatia (1st century B.C), and the Ses Llumetes shipwreck from Spain (1st century A.D.). In the context of these three case studies, the authors will explore the use of photogrammetry as a research and analysis tool in shipwreck studies. Keywords: Photogrammetry, Shipwreck, GIS, Ship Reconstruction List of Images Figure 1. Fournoi shipwreck 15’s QGIS baselines. Figure 2. Fournoi shipwreck 15’s QGIS database at the end of 2021 fieldwork. Figure 3. Hypothetical shape of the Letavica shipwreck. Figure 4. Hypothetical shape of the Ses Llumetes shipwreck. 1. INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within this Session 19. Database, monitoring, non-intrusive documentation techniques and new technologies applied to underwater cultural heritage because this paper will discuss the potential of photogrammetry as an effective tool for the scientific analysis of shipwreck sites. Over the past decade, photogrammetry has become an indispensable tool for maritime archaeology. (McCarthy et al. 2019) This technique allows archaeologists to record underwater archaeological sites quickly, which is particularly beneficial for underwater archaeology, as the underwater environment imposes certain time constraints on work (Yamafune et al. 2017). Photogrammetry, which requires only a digital camera and does not necessitate expensive scanning tools like LiDAR (three dimensional scanners) or total stations often used for terrestrial site recording, is relatively low cost. For these reasons, photogrammetry has emerged as one of the most frequently used tools for recording underwater archaeological sites. However, the application of photogrammetry and the utilization of the resultant three dimensional (3D) digital models are often limited to producing orthomosaics and two 1 �dimentional site plans. The authors of this paper, however, see greater potential in the use of these 3D photogrammetry models for site analysis, excavation planning, and ultimately, for ship reconstruction to understand the original shapes of the ships. In this paper, the authors present three different shipwreck excavation projects to discuss the more efficient use of photogrammetry for understanding shipwreck sites, beyond just site recording and site plan production. The three archaeological sites where the authors have applied experimental methodologies, and which are discussed in this paper, are the Fournoi Project Shipwreck 15 from Greece (fifth century CE), the Letavica shipwreck from Croatia (first century BCE), and the Ses Llumetes shipwreck from Spain (first century CE). 2. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are the following shipwreck excavation projects where the authors have applied experimental research methodologies. The Fornoi Project and The Shipwreck 15 (Greece) The primary objective of the Fournoi Project is the documentation of the underwater cultural heritage of the Fournoi archipelago in the Aegean Sea. Since 2015, the underwater archaeological survey of the waters around Fournoi has uncovered evidence of fifty-eight (58) shipwrecks spanning a broad timeframe, from the Archaic period to the 20th century. Moreover, a multi-period anchorage site and several individual finds have also been discovered, indicating an area of “high maritime activity” (Campbell and Koutsouflakis 2017, 10-15; Campbell and Koutsouflakis 2021, 281-284). In 2021, the site known as Shipwreck 15, a remarkably well-preserved complex, underwent its first season of excavation. Shipwreck 15 was discovered during the 2015 campaign along the eastern front of the Aspros Kavos promontory, a stark, sheer, rocky cliff at the northeastern edge of the central island of Fournoi. The primary deposit lies on a sandy steep sloping seabed at a depth of 43 to 50m. The exploration of the site so far has revealed a heterogeneous, unorthodox cargo, consisting of at least eight different types and variants of amphorae, mainly of Black Sea origin, along with a secondary load of Phocaean Red Slip Ware (LRC). According to the currently available data, the wreck-assemblage should be dated to somewhere between the last quarter of the fifth century and the first quarter of the sixth century CE. Letavica Shipwreck (Croatia) In 2018, the well-preserved remains of an ancient sunken ship were discovered near Cape Letavica on the island of Pag. Approximately 400 wine amphorae of the Lamboglia 2 type, dating back to the 1st century BC, rest on the slope of the seabed, outlining the shape of the sunken ship. Judging by the research so far, the bow of the ship points to the northeast. The ship appears to have come to rest on its starboard side, with the keel on the shallower part of the site. The total length of the visible ship's cargo is about 21 m, suggesting it was a merchant ship approximately 25 m long. In 2022, roughly twenty pieces of ceramic and metal vessels from the ship's galley were discovered in the stern part of the ship, and two completely preserved amphorae were raised from the site. Ses Llumetes Shipwreck (Spain) Porto Cristo, a small coastal town on the eastern side of the island of Mallorca (Spain), is part of 2 �the municipality of Manacor. The geography of its coastline makes this cove a perfect natural harbor for boats needing to replenish water or carry out repairs during their journey. However, this seemingly ideal anchorage can become a deadly trap for anchored ships when winds blow from the East or Northeast. As evidence of this, there are the five shipwrecks documented by the team of the Balearic Institute of Studies in Maritime Archaeology (IBEAM). Since 2015, IBEAM has focused its efforts on studying the wreck of Ses Llumetes, a Roman vessel dating back to the 1st century CE. Cargo of the ship consisted of amphorae corresponding to productions from southern Hispania, mainly Dressel 7-11 types, alongside Haltern 70 and Dressel 20 types. The amphorae are complemented by Italian materials, including a representative collection of oil lamps, which give the site its name. 3. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include digital 3D photogrammetry models created within Agisoft Metashape Professional Edition photogrammetry software during the field expeditions of the three above-mentioned projects. The authors primarily applied photogrammetry to record archaeological sites and create 2D site plans of the underwater shipwreck sites. For areas of interest, the team tagged, recorded, and occasionally raised artifacts under the supervision of conservators, anticipating the need for storage and conservation facilities. To record all proveniences of these removed/raised artifacts, the teams applied photogrammetry recording before moving any artifacts. As such, photogrammetry recording was conducted almost every working day, and the 3D photogrammetry models were produced each day. All the created photogrammetry 3D models were scaled and locally georeferenced. 'Local georeferencing' means that depths and inclinations of the shipwreck sites were determined by depth measurements taken by dive computers. Additionally, archaeological baselines were established by north-south or west-east directions, or the bow-stern direction if the ships' keel orientation was known. All daily created photogrammetry 3D models were aligned/overlaid correctly once created, allowing archaeologists to track the progress of the excavations. In all these case studies - excavations in Greece, Croatia, and Spain - photogrammetry was used as a primary recording tool and proved its efficiency as a rapid yet accurate recording method. However, the authors sought to explore further potential applications of photogrammetry, using it to understand and analyze shipwreck sites, not just as a recording tool. 4. FRAMEWORK The research question of this paper is “Can photogrammetry serve as a useful tool for archaeologists to understand shipwreck sites and the original ships, beyond simply recording the site?" The authors conducted various case studies to explore this question.” Fournoi Project Shipwreck 15: GIS-Based Cargo Analysis Using Geo-Referenced Orthomosaics and Photogrammetry-Based Site Plans The authors managed to produce geo-referenced photogrammetry 3D models every working day and also developed geo-referenced orthomosaics each evening based on these 3D models. Once created, these orthomosaics were imported into GIS software. The primary goal of a GIS 3 �database in a shipwreck context is the intra-site spatial analysis – determining spatial relations among archaeological remains, which aids in reconstructing the site and understanding the assembly as a unit. Furthermore, this tool facilitates archiving, management, and monitoring of every archaeological task undertaken at a wreck site, thereby aiding both fieldwork and data analysis (Bartoli et al. 2012, E3; Theofanous 2017, 32-33, 38). Figure 1. Fournoi shipwreck 15’s QGIS baselines: georeferenced orthoimages, site plan with isobaths and DEM Model. (Image: K. Yamafune and D. Voutyrea). For the Fournoi Project Shipwreck 15 case study, the authors used QGIS, a free, open-source desktop software. The database was constructed based on a satellite map, multiple geo-referenced orthomosaics, black-and-white-rendered 2D site plans, and Digital Elevation Models (DEMs). (Fig. 1) Vector datasets were created from multiple orthomosaics, which provided temporal data to identify what came earlier and what came later. To examine the arrangement of the heterogeneous containers and make preliminary interpretations of the shipwreck’s findings, the authors used color-coding indicative of various amphora types and other artifacts (Voutyrea 2022). (Fig. 2) Each amphora was outlined by a polygon feature of a specific color, corresponding to a particular type. A separate point layer was designed to track the positioning of wooden remains and fine ware. All necessary information for every individual object (e.g., material, typology, recovery date) was added in the attribute table categories. This process resulted in a multi-layered geodatabase, providing different kinds of archaeological and spatial information. The archaeologists can track, observe, and compare data from numerous perspectives and ask distinct questions of the database, such as "which amphorae belong to the X type?" or "which finds were raised on the X date?" The database's digital environment can be updated regularly to accommodate, organize, and handle new archaeological data as the excavation progresses. The authors anticipate adding new data categories in the future, such as the conservation status of raised finds and sampling of amphorae for archaeometrical analysis. The ultimate goal is to combine the GIS database with other open-source tools, like CloudCompare, to manage workflows, compare, and visualize results in an integrated manner. 4 �Figure 2. Fournoi shipwreck 15’s QGIS database at the end of 2021 fieldwork. The archaeological objects are featured by a color - coding. The different layers are providing various information about every single artefact (Typology, Label number, Inventory number - raised finds etc.). (Image: D. Voutyrea) Letavica Shipwreck: Understanding Unexcavated Ship’s Size and Positions of Wooden Structures The Letavica shipwreck site has only been partially excavated, but the information gathered, and subsequent analysis provide clear insights into the original ship's size and the locations of wooden structures, even those that are still buried. (Fig. 3) During the 2022 field expedition, the team focused on the portside in the bow area and the starboard in the stern area. The bow section excavation measured approximately 2m x 6m, reaching the bedrock at a depth of 1m from the surface sediments. The stern area, around 2m x 8m in size, reached the bedrock at a depth of 1.5m. Beneath the amphorae in the bow area, segments of hull planks were discovered, featuring distinct pegged mortice-and-tenon joinery. The stern area yielded a variety of pottery, including oil lamps and cooking pots. Utilizing photogrammetry 3D models of the entire site, the authors conducted a detailed analysis to develop a hypothesis regarding the original ship's size and its final resting position on the seabed. The initial step involved creating a photogrammetry 3D model of a raised and preserved amphora from the 2018 field expedition. This model was duplicated, color-coded based on size (in red and blue), and overlaid on the photogrammetry 3D models of the Letavica shipwreck site. The authors deduced from the positions and inclinations of the amphorae that the ship had tilted to the starboard side and that most amphorae had also fallen on that side. Further analysis of the amphorae's arrangement and the height of the piles, coupled with the reconstructed bedrock topography based on the excavated areas' depths, allowed for the reconstruction of the original stacking pattern of amphorae in the ship's cargo hold. The pattern appeared to form 3 or 5 �4 layers. Considering the dispersion pattern of the amphorae pile, the length and width of the original cargo hold were estimated, which in turn helped determine the ship's original dimensions. Based on these measurements, it was hypothesized that the ship was 24m in length and 5m in width, and was carrying approximately 920 amphorae when it sank. The reconstructed hypothetical ship and its cargo provide archaeologists with a clearer vision for future excavation planning. Figure 3. Hypothetical shape of the Letavica shipwreck. This reconstructed shape of the hull is primarily based on data derived from 3D photogrammetry. (Image: K. Yamafune) Ses Llumetes: Reconstruction of Hull Lines from Excavated Ship Structures/Fragments Different from above two shipwreck sites, 95% of its preserved hull structures of Ses Llumetes shipwreck site has been excavated. Unfortunately, only forward half of the portside structure survived, and the entire starboard structures and the aft half of the portside was not preserved (it must be noted that there is a possibility that the preserved area is starboard of the stern). In 2022 field expedition, the team removed ceiling planking, and all survived frames and hull planking were recorded in situ using photogrammetry. Using this 3D photogrammetry model of Ses Llumetes from 2022 field expedition, the authors experimentally reconstructed the original shape of the ship. (Fig. 4) Figure 4. Hypothetical shape of the Ses Llumetes shipwreck. This reconstructed shape of the hull is primarily based on the curvatures of frames extracted from the photogrammetry 3D model of the Ses Llumetes shipwreck site. (Image: K. Yamafune) 6 �Research methodology that reconstructs original shapes of the shipwreck is called ‘Ship Reconstruction.’ Traditionally, ship reconstruction had done by archaeologists using manual recordings. First, curvatures of exterior face of each frame, positions of each frames, positions of fastenings has to be carefully recorded. Using all those archaeological information from the shipwrecks site, archaeologists can reconstruct ‘hull lines’ that represents ships’ original shape with series of curvatures. Hull lines are 2D plans composed with three different orthogonal vies/plans, namely sheer plan, half breadth plan, and body plan. From this reconstructed representation of the ship shapes, or hull lines, archaeologists also can understand, cargo capacity, sailing abilities, and other characteristics of the ship. For Ses Llumetes shipwreck, the authors used the photogrammetry 3D model instead of manual recording to do Ship Reconstruction. First, completed photogrammetry 3D model of Ses Llumetes is exported to Rhinoceros 3D CAD software. In Rhinoceros, the wooden structures of Ses Llumetes were re-oriented based on keel and angle of frames according to its entering angle to the keel in the body plan, or section profiles. In other words, the ship structures are re-positioned as if it is on plans of hull lines. Then using Rhino’s commands, curvatures, or section profile of the ship structures are extracted. Then from these curvatures, the authors find out the most broad curvature, and this curvature must be the external shape of the master frame. Master frame is the key component of the ship designs, and the most cases it is placed in the widest points of the full. And in ancient shipbuilding, master frames can be found in the amidship area. Henceforward, the authors duplicate curvatures of the forward frame and mirrored those to the aft parts of the master frame. Although, the stern half of Ses Llumetes was not preserved, the author made curvatures of stern-half slightly narrower and higher based on many other ship examples. Once all curvatures, or section profiles, of the portside was created, the author also created horizontal curvatures which pass through the frame curvatures, or section profile curvatures, at the same height. These horizontal curvatures are called water lines. Initially water lines were not smooth because the wooden structures of shipwrecks, including its frames, were distorted while its was pressed by cargos and buried nearly 2000 years under the seabed. The angles of frame curvature have to be re-angled and modified observing conditions of frames from photogrammetry 3D models of Ses Llumetes. This adjustment process of the water line and the frame curvatures is called ‘Fairing.’ After this fairing process is completed, all curvatures of the portside are, finally, duplicated and mirrored to the starboard side to form complete hull lines. Furthermore, the authors created surface, or digital 3D model, by connecting those curvatures of hull lines; and from this digital 3D model, characteristics of the Ses Llumetes can be calculated inside the software. (Fig. 4) 5. RESULT The authors believe the most significant advantage of using photogrammetry 3D data for analysis lies in its repeatability. Once the 3D models are created, archaeologists can extract measurements and information from the 3D models, rather than directly from the underwater shipwreck site. These measurements, obtained from the digital 3D models, are uniform, meaning the data available for analysis and research remains consistent over time. Consequently, the research and analysis are repeatable, and the results reliable. This repeatability is crucial for archaeologists to conduct scientific research. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Bartoli, D., M. Capulli and P. Holt. 2012. “Creating a GIS for the Underwater Research Project ANAXUM: the Stella 1 Shipwreck”. In The New Technologies for Aquileia: Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on The New Technologies for Aquileia, Aquileia Italy 25 June 2012, edited by L. Fozzati and V. Roberto, E1-E9 Aachen. Campbell, P. B., and G. Koutsouflakis. 2021. “Aegean Navigation and the Shipwrecks of Fournoi. The archipelago in Context.” In Under the Mediterranean I: Studies in Maritime Archaeology, edited by S. Demesticha and L. Blue, with K. Baika, C. Beltrame, D. Blackman, D. Cvikel, H. Farr & D. Sivan, 279-298. Leiden: Sidestone Press. Campbell, P.B. and G. Koutsouflakis. "Shipwreck Capital of the Aegean - The Fournoi Underwater Survey." The INA Quarterly 44, no. (2017):9-15. McCarthy J., Benjamin J., Winton T., van Duivenvoorde W. 3D Recording and Interpretation for Maritime Archaeology. Coastal Research Library 31. Springer, Cham. 2019. Theofanous, P. “Ανάπτυξη GIS Αρχαιολογικών Πληροφοριών με Βάση Ορθοφωτογραφίες στο Ναυάγιο του Μαζωτού Κύπρου.” Διπλ. Εργασία, ΕΜΠ. (“Development of GIS Archaeological Information system based on Orthophotos in the Shipwreck of Mazotos, Cyprus.” Master dissertation, National Technical University of Athens.) 2017. Voutyrea, D. “Fourni, Shipwreck 15: Documentation and analysis through the creation of an integrated geodatabase.” Poster presentation in “Under the Mediterranean II”, 2-6 November 2022, Valetta, Malta. Yamafune, K., Torres, R., and Castro, F. “Multi-Image Photogrammetry to Record and Reconstruct Underwater Shipwreck Site” in Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 24, no. 3 (2017) : 703-725. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Meaningful Applications of Photogrammetry on Shipwreck Excavations - Not Just for Recording! Using 3D Data to Understand the Ships - Description An account of the resource Photogrammetry has rapidly gained attention in the field of underwater archaeology since around 2011, largely due to significant time constraints associated with underwater excavation. Photogrammetry is a technique that utilizes photographs taken with a digital camera to create precise 3D digital models. It has now become possible to replace some of the manual recording tasks with this technique, which offers both speed and high accuracy. As a result, underwater recording work can now be completed in a fraction of the time it once required, while still maintaining accuracy. However, the most significant advantage of photogrammetry lies in the flexibility of the data it generates, which subsequently enhances archaeologists' research and facilitates hypothesis formulation. In this paper, the authors present several case studies where photogrammetry is used not only as a recording tool but also as a support for scientific research, specifically to enhance our understanding of historical ships. The case studies to be discussed in this paper include the Fournoi Shipwreck 15 from Greece (5th century A.D.), the Letavica shipwreck from Croatia (1st century B.C), and the Ses Llumetes shipwreck from Spain (1st century A.D.). In the context of these three case studies, the authors will explore the use of photogrammetry as a research and analysis tool in shipwreck studies. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotaro Yamafune Dimitra Voutyrea Irena Radić Rossi Javier Rodríguez Pandozi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Yamafune, Kotaro . 2023. “Meaningful Applications of Photogrammetry on Shipwreck Excavations – Not just for recording! Using 3D data to understand the ships.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2014 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1dc30a1edabb8f9d05a62934b8b7cb1f.mp4 5b16cb3efafc3a2af0ea63f1c6bbe674 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Proceedings of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Papers presented at the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Introduction to 2023 conference by Dr. Jenny Craig Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jenny Craig Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Asia-Pac 2023