5 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1607734e8aac4fcd789611ec2446f364.pdf 9ec03298ae0ed2b582fb0e9513fa374f PDF Text Text National Shipwreck Database of Sri Lanka: A non-Intrusive Documentation of Maritime Heritage in Sri Lankan Water Anuradha Piyadasa1, Rasika Muthucumarana2, Indika Hewage2, Dharshana Jayawardena3 1. Director, Institute of Archaeology and Heritage Studies, Sri Lanka. 2. Senior Archaeology Officer, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Sri Lanka. 3. Independent Underwater Explorer ABSTRACT The creation of the National Shipwreck Database of Sri Lanka (NSDSL) was initiated by the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) to address the fragmented state of data collected from various shipwreck sites around the country. Established in 2001 in Galle under the Central Cultural Fund, the MAU teamed up with the Institute of Archaeology and Heritage Studies and the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands to centralise the data and make it accessible to interested parties. The primary objective of the database was to effectively administer the data amassed from maritime wreck locations and distribute this information to pertinent stakeholders while concurrently heightening public cognisance. The NSDSL is valuable for diverse stakeholders, such as marine researchers, the tourism industry, the Sri Lanka Navy, universities, the public, and the media. It plays a critical role in protecting shipwrecks, preventing illegal activities like salvage work, and preserving heritage significance. The database contains comprehensive information on 109 wreck sites, including 103 shipwrecks and six aircraft remains, curated by qualified researchers and professionals. Detailed data, such as name, operation period, wreck type, depth, and legal status, are provided for each site. Additionally, over 80 sites feature supplementary materials like videos, photos, descriptions, and research information. A user-friendly web-based application was developed for data collection and entry, with a visually appealing front end for easy navigation. Key features include an interactive map of shipwreck locations; a maritime timeline; details on the oldest shipwreck in the Asia-Pacific region; a searchable shipwreck dashboard with interactive charts; publications by the MAU, and restricted access for researchers upon request. The NSDSL successfully achieved its objective by implementing the database, thus facilitating effective data administration and stakeholder engagement. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage Documentation, Shipwrecks, Relational Database, Web Application List of Abbreviations CCF Central Cultural Fund GIS Geographical Information System IAHS Institute of Archaeology and Heritage Studies MAU Maritime Archaeology Unit NSDSL National Shipwreck Database of Sri Lanka RCE Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands List of Figures and Tables Figure 1 Methodology employed in developing NSDSL Figure 2 The Front End (Left) and the Back End (Right) of the NSDSL Figure 3 Interactive Map of NSDSL Table 1 Overview of National Legislation and International Conventions Relevant to UCH in Sri Lanka Table 2 Historical Milestones in the Development of the NSDSL Table 3 Principal Stages in the NSDSL Development, Organised by Approach Category 1 �INTRODUCTION This paper introduces the importance of Sri Lanka's underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and the need to document and preserve it. Sri Lanka has a long history as a trading hub, connecting civilizations and facilitating cultural exchange. Consequently, numerous submerged archaeological sites and shipwrecks in the surrounding waters provide valuable insights into the nation's history and contribute to understanding global maritime history. Recognising the significance of documenting UCH, the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) initiated the National Shipwreck Database of Sri Lanka (NSDSL) project in 2001. Although the MAU had been collecting data in physical copies, this limited accessibility for various stakeholders. To address this issue, the MAU collaborated with the Institute of Archaeology and Heritage Studies (IAHS), the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands (RCE), and the CCF to develop a web-based NSDSL launched in December 2021. This paper focuses on the collaborative process of constructing the online database and explores its impact and potential outcomes for maritime archaeology and preserving Sri Lanka's UCH. UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE Under the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the UCH, UCH is defined as all human traces with cultural, historical, or archaeological significance, wholly or partially submerged for a minimum of 100 years. This encompasses sites, structures, artefacts, human remains, vessels, aircraft, prehistoric objects, and their respective archaeological and natural contexts (UNESCO 2001, 1-21). Sri Lanka's legislative framework currently does not encompass a distinct national definition of UCH. Consequently, while formulating the NSDSL, a comprehensive understanding of UCH and the policies and practices employed by other nations were considered. LEGISLATION AND INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS RELATED TO THE UCH OF SRI LANKA The Antiquities Ordinance legally protects the UCH in Sri Lanka, which defines archaeological heritage as all aspects of human existence, activity, and related material, including subterranean and underwater sites. The legislation and international conventions related to the UCH of Sri Lanka are listed below (Mandawala 2017, 50-80). Table 1 summarises the national legislation and international conventions pertinent to UCH in Sri Lanka. Table 1 Overview of National Legislation and International Conventions Relevant to UCH in Sri Lanka Type Title Description National Legislation 1. Antiquities Ordinance (1940) Sri Lanka's primary legal framework for protecting cultural heritage covers all "antiquities" found within its territory, defined as objects or structures over 100 years old with cultural, historical, or scientific significance (Antiquities - An ordinance to provide for the better preservation of the antiquities of Ceylon 1940 n.d.). Introduced in 1998 and 2005, these amendments explicitly encompass underwater sites and artefacts, requiring permits for any activity involving UCH (Antiquities - An ordinance to provide for the better preservation of the antiquities of Ceylon 2005 n.d.). Approved in 2011, this comprehensive plan, proposed by the Minister of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development, aims to manage Sri Lanka's maritime wrecks and UCH (Office of the Cabinet of Ministers, Sri Lanka 2011). The ratification process was initiated in 2010, the convention establishes guidelines for the management, research, and conservation of UCH, including the in-situ preservation of underwater sites, the prohibition of commercial exploitation, and the facilitation of international cooperation (UNESCO 2001, 1-21). 2. Amendments to Antiquities Ordinance the 3. Long-Term Management Plan for Maritime Wrecks and UCH International Conventions 1. UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 2 �DEVELOPMENT HISTORY OF THE NSDSL The MAU has endeavoured to advance the development of the NSDSL framework through three distinct iterations, leveraging collaborative partnerships and securing financial support from external stakeholders. (Muthucumarana 2018, 30). Table 2 on the next page summarises the historical milestones in developing NSDSL. Table 2 Historical Milestones in the Development of the NSDSL Year Initiative / Development Description 2009 Site Recorder Acquisition by MAU 2012 Establishment of a Rudimentary Shipwreck Database (Excelbased) 2014 Development of a GIS Database for the UCH of Sri Lanka The MAU acquired the Site Recorder program, a comprehensive software integrating Geographical Information System (GIS), finds database, dive log, and image management. It is suitable for small to large-scale excavations and evaluation projects due to its flexible and easy-to-use interface (Software n.d.). In 2012, the MAU enhanced an Excel spreadsheet encompassing rudimentary data from 50 shipwrecks originally supplied by Dharshana Jayawardene. These dialogues were expedited under the auspices of the Indian Ocean Maritime Affairs Cooperation. The RCE provided funds for developing a dedicated GIS database for Sri Lankan shipwrecks, accumulating geographical data and other relevant information that served as a foundation for the NSDSL. Program THE NECESSITY FOR A NEW NSDSL A pervasive limitation in previous attempts to develop the NSDSL was the reliance on stand-alone databases, which precluded remote access by interested parties. This constraint undermined a fundamental objective of the NSDSL: to facilitate access for various stakeholders. The 2009 and 2014 iterations of the database necessitated specialised software to retrieve information, while the 2012 version lacked a relational database structure. These factors severely impeded collaborative efforts to enhance the NSDSL. Incorporating innovative Non-Intrusive Documentation techniques, such as 3D models, 360-degree photos and videos, and virtual tours, proved challenging within the constraints of these earlier databases. To address these issues, the MAU sought a web-based solution that could resolve the concerns above and be easily managed by individuals without specialised IT expertise. OTHER SHIPWRECK DATABASES Koutsi and Stratigea (2021) analysed 51 shipwreck databases, emphasising the vast diversity of information on global maritime incidents. The majority were characterised by national (35 per cent) and regional (33 per cent) coverage, indicating prevalent localised data sources. The Australian National Shipwreck Database uniquely combines a legislative management module with diverse stakeholder requirements, catering to the public, tourists, historians, archaeologists, managers, agencies, students, researchers, curators, and conservators. (Luckman and Viduka 2013, 76–86). In creating a shipwreck database, it is crucial to consider the intricate environment of the shipwreck site, employing various visual aids such as diagrams, tables, and maps to convey the information effectively (Craig 2015, 34-41). RESOURCES A combination of accurate data, historical records, visual materials, and advanced imaging techniques played a crucial role in the success of the NSDSL. 3 �The MAU contributed over two decades of collected information to developing the NSDSL. Universities, Sri Lanka Navy and other government agencies shared their resources to enrich the database's content. The contributions of both professional and amateur divers were also indispensable in gathering and documenting valuable data on shipwrecks. Technical resources constituted another crucial aspect of the NSDSL's development, and the IAHS supplied the necessary technical expertise and hosting facilities to support the database. Furthermore, RCE’s financial assistance was pivotal in enabling the MAU to gather and process the extensive information required for the NSDSL. AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO DEVELOPING THE NSDSL The following approach was used for the NSDSL development to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interrelationships between shipwrecks and their surrounding environments, fostering responsible stewardship and appreciation of these valuable cultural and natural resources. The methodology employed can be succinctly classified into five overarching categories, as illustrated in Figure 1. Research and Planning Preliminary Research Stakeholder Engagement Technical Development Platform and Infrastructure Database Development User Experience and Accessibility Web-based Publication Maintenance and Sustainability Maintenance and Updates Environmental Integration Environmental Considerations User Interface and Accessibility Data Management Figure 1 Methodology employed in developing NSDSL The Table 1 gives principal stages of the NSDSL development categorised based on the approach given in the Figure 1. 4 �Table 3 Principal Stages in the NSDSL Development, Organised by Approach Category Category Step Description Research and Planning Literature Review Review of existing literature, legislation, international conventions. Engaging with diverse stakeholders to collect data. Technical Development Stakeholder Consultation and Information Gathering Platform Selection User Experience Accessibility and Database Design Implementation and Data Population Validation and Web-based Publication Web GIS Integration Multimedia Integration Choosing a cost-effective, maintainable platform with open-source solutions for flexibility, scalability, and compatibility. Designing and implementing a relational database schema based on literature review and stakeholder consultation findings. Populating the database with the collected information and implementing data validation and quality control measures. Publishing the database on the chosen platform and ensuring ease of use and accessibility for diverse stakeholders. Integrating a Web GIS tool to enhance the visualisation and accessibility of shipwreck information and enabling spatial queries. Supporting various multimedia formats enriches the user experience. Implementing a robust access control system safeguards sensitive data and prevents unauthorised access. Access Control Maintenance and Sustainability Ongoing Maintenance and Updates Environmental Integration Identifying Environmental Components Establishing a plan for regular updates and maintenance involving stakeholder engagement, data verification, and periodic evaluation. Documenting and integrating information about marine flora, fauna, and ecosystems associated with shipwrecks to contribute to a holistic understanding of shipwrecks. RESULTS The frontend and Backend of the NSDSL The NSDSL is a comprehensive digital resource designed to facilitate the study and preservation of the country's rich UCH. To accommodate the diverse needs of various stakeholders, the NSDSL is structured into two primary components: the front end and the back end. Individuals with internetenabled devices may access the NSDSL by navigating to the following web address: https://nsd.ccf.gov.lk/. Figure 2 The Front End (Left) and the Back End (Right) of the NSDSL The front end serves as a public-facing interface, granting access to a wealth of information on Sri Lanka's shipwrecks to a broad audience, including the public, tourists, and students. In contrast, the backend is tailored to the needs of authorised system users and researchers, offering enhanced functionality and access to more detailed or restricted information. By implementing this dual-component structure, the NSDSL effectively balances the need for public accessibility and education with specialised research and data management requirements, fostering a multidimensional understanding of Sri Lanka's maritime heritage. 5 �Currently, the NSDSL encompasses records of 103 shipwrecks and six aircraft wrecks. Key features of the NSDSL Interactive Map The NSDSL has developed an interactive web-based GIS map, allowing users to explore shipwrecks with geospatial referencing and basic filtering options. The interact map is illustrated in Figure 3. Figure 3 Interactive Map of NSDSL Shipwreck Dashboard The NSDSL features a shipwreck dashboard, which serves as an essential research instrument for scholars in the field. This dashboard presents analysed data through interactive visualisations, encompassing various aspects such as administrative areas, access restrictions, operational periods, depths, and historical periods of shipwrecks. Maritime Archaeology Timeline The development of Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka is comprehensively chronicled through an interactive timeline spanning from the 1960s to the present. This resource serves as an invaluable tool for individuals seeking to gain insights into the evolution of this field. The Story of Godawaya The NSDSL would be incomplete without a dedicated section addressing the Godawaya shipwreck, the oldest known wreck site in the country and, to date, the most ancient in the Asia-Pacific region, with an estimated age of 2,100 years (The Nautical Archaeology Digital Library n.d.). To effectively convey the fascinating narrative of the Godawaya Shipwreck, the NSDSL utilises a story map. 6 �Biodiversity information Currently, the system documents the environment's biodiversity surrounding shipwrecks, including species names, taxonomic groups, orders, families, conservation statuses, feeding types, visiting frequencies, and the economic significance of the species. While this information is not yet accessible to the public, plans entail making these data publicly available. DISCUSSION Through establishing the online NSDSL, the MAU has triumphantly realised its decade-long ambition of disseminating contemporary knowledge concerning UCH. This achievement transcends geographical boundaries and temporal constraints, ensuring round-the-clock accessibility to any interested party. The user-friendly backend facilitates efficient collaboration and expeditious sharing of findings, catering to many users. Including interactive features, such as the map, story map, timeline, and dashboard, enriches the user experience, making exploring shipwreck-related data more engaging and informative. The modularbased design of the NSDSL can be used to encompass other aspects of UCH beyond shipwrecks. In essence, implementing the NSDSL has not only fostered interdisciplinary collaboration but paved the way for sustainable development within the maritime domain. Impact of the NSDSL The NSDSL was officially launched by the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, in December 2021. At this event, the Secretary to the Prime Minister revealed that a cabinet paper had proposed salvaging forty shipwrecks, in light of the new information provided by the NSDSL, the Secretary announced the decision to halt the proposed cabinet paper. During a meeting to formulate a marine tourism master plan for Sri Lanka, the NSDSL was showcased. Impressed by the NSDSL's features, the Sri Lankan Tourist Board expressed their interest in collaborating with the CCF to enhance the NSDSL, making it more conducive for tourism. The NSDSL's meticulous documentation of all known shipwrecks and surrounding biodiversity, achieving comprehensive coverage, earned commendation in the inaugural meeting of the Marine Spatial Planning and "Ocean 30x30 Campaign," signifying a significant contribution to marine conservation and the ambitious targets of the campaign. At the e-Swabhimani National Award Ceremony 2021, conducted in March 2023, the NSDSL was duly honoured with a merit award. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the primary aim of the National Shipwreck Database of Sri Lanka was to amalgamate and centralise the diverse information held by multiple agencies and individuals whilst effectively disseminating this knowledge to pertinent stakeholders. The objective has been unequivocally accomplished through the successful implementation of this comprehensive database, paving the way for enhanced collaboration and informed decision-making within the maritime domain. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are deeply grateful to Prof. Gamin Ranasinghe, Director General of the CCF, for his steadfast support and invaluable guidance. We want to thank Vishmi Gunasinghe, Chathurika Munasinghe, Tharushi Pitigala and Dr Amal Karunaratne for their significant volunteer contributions. We would also like to recognise the valuable contributions of the diving community in Sri Lanka. We sincerely appreciate the IAHSs’ generosity in providing the hosting facilities. Lastly, we acknowledge OpenAI for granting access to ChatGPT, a state-of-the-art language model that significantly contributes to our writing process. 7 �Bibliography n.d. Antiquities - An ordinance to provide for the better preservation of the antiquities of Ceylon 1940. Accessed April 20, 2023. https://www.lawnet.gov.lk/antiquities-2/. n.d. Antiquities - An ordinance to provide for the better preservation of the antiquities of Ceylon 2005. Accessed April 20, 2023. https://www.lawnet.gov.lk/antiquities-4/. Craig, Jennifer. Value of Shipwreck Data in Database. Journal of Indo-Pacific Archaeology 36 (2015): 34-41. Accessed April 20, 2023. doi:https://doi.org/10.7152/jipa.v36i0.14915. Government of Sri Lanka. n.d. Antiquity Ordinance No 9 of 1940 | Sri Lanka Archaeology. Sri Lanka Archaeology. Accessed 04 20, 2023. https://www.archaeology.lk/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Antiquity-Ordinance-No-9-1940-sri-lanka-ceylon.pdf. Koutsi, Dionisia, and Anastasia Stratigea. Shipwrecks’ Underwater Mysteries—Identifying Commonalities Out of GloballyDistributed Knowledge. Heritage 4, no. 4 (2021): 3949–3969. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040217. Luckman, Grant, and Andrew Viduka. The new Australian National Shipwreck Database - its development, features, functionality, potential and utility for regional capacity building. Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 37 (2013): 76-86. https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.741874306194447. Mandawala, Prashantha. Protection of the underwater cultural heritage of Sri Lanka through international cooperation. (2017) 50-80. Amersfoort: Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands. Accessed April 24, 2023. https://openarchive.icomos.org/id/eprint/2191/. Muthucumarana, Rasika. National Database for Underwater Cultural Heritage: building awareness for better management. Fourth National Symposium on Maritime Environment Proceedings - 2018. Colombo: Marine Environment Protection Agency 30. 2018. Office of the Cabinet of Ministers, Sri Lanka. 2011. “Press briefing of Cabinet Decision taken on 2011-02-15.” Office of the Cabinet of Ministers, Sri Lanka. 15 December. Accessed April 20, 2023. https://www.cabinetoffice.gov.lk/cab/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=16&Itemid=49&lang=en&dID=388 9. Software, Site Recorder 4. n.d. Site Recorder http://www.3hconsulting.com/ProductsRecorderMain.html. 4 Software. Accessed April 23, 2023. The Nautical Archaeology Digital Library. n.d. “Godawaya Shipwreck.” The Nautical Archaeology Digital Library. Accessed April 28, 2023. https://shiplib.org/index.php/landscapes/projects-2/sri-lanka/godawaya-shipwreck/. UNESCO. 2001. “Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.” Accessed April 23, 2023. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000126065. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource National Shipwreck Database of Sri Lanka: A non-Intrusive Documentation of Maritime Heritage in Sri Lankan Water Description An account of the resource The creation of the National Shipwreck Database of Sri Lanka (NSDSL) was initiated by the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) to address the fragmented state of data collected from various shipwreck sites around the country. Established in 2001 in Galle under the Central Cultural Fund, the MAU teamed up with the Institute of Archaeology and Heritage Studies and the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands to centralise the data and make it accessible to interested parties. The primary objective of the database was to effectively administer the data amassed from maritime wreck locations and distribute this information to pertinent stakeholders while concurrently heightening public cognisance. The NSDSL is valuable for diverse stakeholders, such as marine researchers, the tourism industry, the Sri Lanka Navy, universities, the public, and the media. It plays a critical role in protecting shipwrecks, preventing illegal activities like salvage work, and preserving heritage significance. The database contains comprehensive information on 109 wreck sites, including 103 shipwrecks and six aircraft remains, curated by qualified researchers and professionals. Detailed data, such as name, operation period, wreck type, depth, and legal status, are provided for each site. Additionally, over 80 sites feature supplementary materials like videos, photos, descriptions, and research information. A user-friendly web-based application was developed for data collection and entry, with a visually appealing front end for easy navigation. Key features include an interactive map of shipwreck locations; a maritime timeline; details on the oldest shipwreck in the Asia-Pacific region; a searchable shipwreck dashboard with interactive charts; publications by the MAU, and restricted access for researchers upon request. The NSDSL successfully achieved its objective by implementing the database, thus facilitating effective data administration and stakeholder engagement. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Anuradha Piyadasa Rasika Muthucumarana Indika Hewage Dharshana Jayawardena Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Piyadasa, Anuradha, Rasika Muthucumarana, Indika Hewage and Dharshana Jayawardena. 2023. “National Shipwreck Database of Sri Lanka: A non-intrusive documentation of maritime heritage in Sri Lankan Waters.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2034 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a27063130be244b6e912d6f6b748285f.pdf a4ff15a63ab8a016d911bf273fbfc86b PDF Text Text Anthropology Museums and the Maritime and underwater cultural heritage of Capiz (Placuna Placenta) artisanal dive fishery in the Philippine Archipelago Ma. Arve B. Bañez, PhD (University of the Philippines Mindanao, mbbanez@up.edu.ph) ABSTRACT My paper examines the maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the Capiz (Placuna placenta) artisanal dive fishery. There are three types of collections of the material culture of the Capiz dive fishery. These include the Capiz artisanal diving fishery materials i.e., improvised diving gears and apparel; the Capiz shells and shell craft commodities classified according to use and function and other secondary data about the Philippine Capiz shell industry, and the map showing the distribution of Placuna beds around the Philippine archipelago. The string of agents, the socioecological practices and the social relations likewise encompass the material life of fishing households engaged in Capiz artisanal dive fishery. ‘Follow the thing’, a geographical approach allows me to conduct multi-sited ethnographies covering the source communities of Trapiche and Botong, Oton, Iloilo, the natural habitat of Placuna placenta. And Banica, Roxas City, Capiz’s shell craft manufacturer Kapis atbp. The museum visits and online capiz shell craft sellers encompass the diverse sites to further document and describe the uses and function of the capiz. The local ecological knowledge embodies the intangible maritime and underwater cultural heritage of Capiz artisanal dive fishery. Thus, integrating the narratives of the development of fishing households, their labour and livelihoods. To analyze the significance of anthropology museums in the preservation of the Capiz artisanal dive fishery maritime and underwater cultural heritage, I applied three theories, namely: materialism, the biographies and itineraries of things, and object-oriented ontology (OOO). Keywords: artisanal dive fishery, Capiz (Placuna placenta), anthropology museums, maritime and underwater cultural heritage List of Figures Figure 1 The distribution of Placuna beds in the Philippine Archipelago author commissioned map (Talavera and Faustino 1931). Figure 2 Placuna placenta (Linnaeus 1758) Photograph by Ma. Arve B. Bañez, March 28, 2019. Figure 3 The material objects of capiz artisanal dive fishery Figure 4 Capiz (Placuna placenta) commodities and museum material objects 1. INTRODUCTION The material life of Capiz artisanal dive fishery 'Museums are institutions devoted to the collecting, preservation, exhibition, study, and interpretation of tangible artefacts,' according to Stocking (1985 4; see Gathercole (1989), cited in Haas 1996, 11). My research focuses on the material culture of the Capiz (Placuna placenta) artisanal diving fishing as a subject of maritime and underwater cultural heritage. I propose collecting, preserving, exhibiting, studying, and interpreting material objects as well as the local ecological knowledge in the Capiz artisanal dive fishery. Capiz shell crafts, as well as the commodities and artefacts made from shells, are part of the material culture of the Capiz artisanal dive fishing. The evolution, transitions, and developments in modern diving methods, as well as the narratives of fishing households about their lives and livelihoods, compose the Capiz artisanal dive fishery's lifeworld. 1 �Figure 1 The distribution of Placuna beds in the Philippine Archipelago author commissioned map (Talavera and Faustino 1931). Placuna placenta (Linnaeus 1758) is a windowpane oyster, a bivalve marine mollusc with thin mica-like translucent shells. Capiz is a marine bivalve with high economic value for the Philippine shells and shell craft industry. (Talavera and Faustino,1931; Magsuci, Conlu, and Aypa-Moyano, 1980; Sotto and von Cosel, 1982; Young and Serna, 1982; Rosell, 1984; Woods and Wells, 1995; Adan, 2000; Floren 2003; Miagao, 2007; Laureta, 2008; Baňez, 2019) The common names of Placuna Placenta include window shell, Chinese window shell, window oyster. The local names of Placuna Placenta vary across the Philippine archipelago: in Tagalog, it is called Capiz or Kapis; Bicol, kalampinay or katipay; and lampirong in Visayan. Talavera and Faustino. (1931, 339-344). Specifically, in Capiz province, Panay Island, it is called pios. (Bañez 2021) A collection of artefacts and materials used in Capiz artisanal dive fishing contains maritime and underwater cultural heritage. The tangible objects of Placuna Placenta's maritime submerged cultural heritage can be categorized into three interwoven collections. The first set consists of the Capiz artisanal diving fishery material collection. These include improvised diving clothing and equipment such as diving fins ('panyapak'), half-masks ('tempered'), gloves ('gwantes'), and diving belts ('pamato'). The recycled 2 �materials used, the design, maintenance, and repair, as well as the predicted worth or cost, are extensive descriptions of the above. The first collection also includes the material things used to gather and harvest Capiz, such as the compressor and the makeshift breathing apparatus- hose tube pipe, the mesh net ('sibut') and the wicker basket ('bala-bala'), as well as the motorized boat used for the diving expedition. The compressor's thorough description, as well as the connected hose tube pipe’s average length, the length and dimensions of the mesh net and the wicker basket. The three varieties of dredging rakes used to collect Capiz shells in the 1990s, causing damage to the Placuna beds, are also conserved. Figure 2 Placuna placenta (Linnaeus 1758) Photograph by Ma. Arve B. Bañez, March 28, 2019. The Capiz shells and shell craft commodities are classified based on their use and function. The second set of collections includes information about international trade exports, various shells and shell craft manufacturers, and the distribution of Placuna beds around the Philippine archipelago. These data sets were gathered through archival research, the review of related literature, and online searches. The material life of fishing households is entangled in their livelihoods at sea. The socio-ecological practices, the history, shifts and changes in the diving practices, the social relations of the string of agents or the key actors, and the narratives of fishing households about their lives and livelihoods embody the lifeworld of the Capiz artisanal dive fishery. The third set of the collection represents the people, the social practices and relations; their recorded voices and fishing labour portrayed in photographs and videos. Essentially, the narratives of fishing communities that depend on the sea as a source of food and a place of labour encompass their maritime and underwater cultural heritage. According to Anita Herle (2016 6), the development of relational models within anthropology shifted the focus away from objectified and fixed entities exclusively owned by individuals and institutions to a more nuanced understanding of the dynamic links between people and things. A central premise is that entities (both people and objects) are given substance, meaning, and value through their enmeshed relations. [Emphasis mine] Rather than simply being seen as static items of material culture, objects can be understood and analyzed as materializations of social relations, a dynamic process involving interweaving human actions, beliefs, skills, and materials to create physical objects (Bell & Geismar 2009). 3 �The museum comes from the Greek ‘museion’ and its original meaning derived from the Muses, the nine sister goddesses of Greek mythology to watch over music, the arts, poetry, and the sciences. The museum was a place dedicated to the Muses (Murray 1984; Wittlin 1970 cited in Haas 1996, 11), so it seems, etymologically speaking. To muse also denotes thinking or studying. The material objects reproduce the socioecological practices, and subsequently, engender the social relations in Capiz artisanal dive fishery and vice versa. Practically, the material culture and non-material culture perpetuate the lives and livelihoods – the lifeworld of artisanal fishing communities at present and in the future. I am musing about the Capiz artisanal dive fishery, for the maritime and underwater cultural heritage preservation in the Philippines and the Asia Pacific. Figure 3 The material objects of capiz artisanal dive fishery 2. CASE STUDIES The multi-sited ethnographic case studies for consideration focused on the coastal barangays of Trapiche and Botong, Oton, Iloilo, Panay, Philippines. Primarily, I obtained the first set of data from my dissertation Unod kag Panit: The narratives of the development of the artisanal lampirong (Placuna placenta) fishery of Oton, Iloilo. The second set of data was gathered from the two source communities, namely: Oton, Iloilo and Banica, Roxas City, Capiz. I documented the benda- porma process of Capiz shell craft making at Kapis atbp., in the latter. From online research, I generated digital photographs of the Capiz shell craft items sold, recording their extensive uses, monetary price, and function. My online research resulted in a meet-up with the owner of Capiz Flowers and Antiques. They create a bouquet made of Capiz shells. The third set of data also were collected from Oton, Iloilo where I generated information about the lives and livelihoods of fishing households engaged in the Capiz artisanal dive fishery. I visited two public museums at the National Museum of Philippine Maritime History and the National Museum of Western Visayas in Iloilo City. The third museum is privately owned, the Camiña Balay na Bato, which is open to tourists and showcases the famous bahay-na-bato built with the Capiz sliding panel windows, dividers, chandelier, and other home furniture made from Capiz shells. A ‘polysemy of spaces’ of the source community Oton, Iloilo, the natural habitat of Placuna placenta; Banica, Roxas City’s Kapis atbp., the Capiz shell craft manufacturer; the public and private Museums with Placuna placenta and Capiz shell craft curated items exhibited; and cyber communities selling online Capiz shell crafts. These offline and online sites are platforms of the enmeshed relations of people, places, and 4 �the capiz (Placuna placenta). The marine bivalve metamorphoses into a maritime heritage cultural material object of the Philippine archipelago. Figure 4 Capiz (Placuna placenta) commodities and museum material objects 3. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the research include secondary data sources, the data collected from my fieldwork in Oton, Iloilo and Banica, Roxas City, and online sources. The information on the distribution map of Placuna beds across the Philippine archipelago was based on the 1931 published journal article of Faustino and Talavera. The tables with information about the 1920s Philippine export of Capiz shells and shell craft also were based on Faustino and Talavera’s research. The social media platform Facebook carried the online pages of sellers of the Capiz shells and shell crafts. International Capiz shell craft industriesmaintained web pages that I accessed using the Google search engine. 4. FRAMEWORK My study inquiries into the maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the Capiz artisanal dive fishery. In particular, the maritime submerged tangible and intangible heritage of Placuna placenta and the material culture of Capiz artisanal dive fishery as a subject of anthropology museums. What comprises the maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the Capiz artisanal dive fishery? Why are the narratives of the development of artisanal fishing households engaged in Capiz dive fishery included in the maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the Philippines? What is the significance of anthropology museums in the preservation of the Capiz artisanal dive fishery maritime and underwater cultural heritage? To frame my analysis and interpretation, I am appropriating the materialism conceived by Marx and Engels (1845-6), stating, “practice, activity, production and the conditions of life are all characterized as material… real individuals, their activity and the material conditions of their life and state that by producing their means of subsistence men are indirectly producing their material life.” (31) The socioecological practices, the marine and coastal ecology, and the labour in capiz artisanal dive fishery reproduce not only the social 5 �relations of production but the material life in a fishing community. This conception of materialism is integrated, and appropriate in describing and analyzing the labour and the material objects in capiz artisanal fishery including the commodities they produce. Moreover, Marx and Engels (1845-6, 36) treat the ‘production of ideas, of conceptions, of consciousness’, too, as a form of societal practice. These activities are, as they put it, ‘directly interwoven with the material activity and the material intercourse of men’. Thus, the ingenious improvisation of the diving gears and apparel and the careful selection of recycled materials, the design, maintenance and repair of the compressor and hose tube pipe breathing apparatus, which are conceived from local ecological knowledge constitute the material life of capiz artisanal dive fishery. The biographies and itineraries of objects and things frame my analysis of the Placuna placenta on display at the National Museum in Western Visayas and the capiz shell crafts exhibited in the National Museum of Maritime History. Essentially, to ‘follow the thing’ permits me to conduct a multi-sited ethnography. Thus, tracing the itinerary of the submerged Placuna placenta from the seafloor to divers collecting and putting them inside a mesh net. Then, unloading the sackful of capiz shells on the seashore, the post-diving activities of shucking shells (panala), steaming, fermenting, and selling the seafood in the roadside sheds, or the intricate and laborious process of capiz shell making, selling the shell craft commodities in retail shops and online sites, export the global capiz shell craft commodities comprise the itineraries of the capiz (Placuna placenta). The capiz sliding panel window is iconic and an architectural feature of Gabaldon school buildings and the bahay-na-bato. The capiz farol/parol or lantern is a sought-after commodity during the Christmas season. Using the object-oriented ontology (OOO) theory, these material objects made of capiz shells do not only have a biography and an itinerary but possess attributes agential in character. The capiz sliding panel window evokes nostalgia for the 19th-century Spanish colonial period in the Philippines. The Gabaldon school buildings with capiz panel windows remind us of the public school system established during the American colonial period in the Philippines. The capiz parol or lantern is symbolic of the festive Christmas season in the Philippines. To summarize, three relevant frameworks apply in my analysis and interpretation of the material culture of capiz artisanal dive fishery, Marx and Engels’s conception of materialism, the biography and itinerary of things, and the object-oriented ontology theory. These theories meld a meshwork of analysis and interpretation of the maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the capiz in the Philippines. 5. RESULTS The three types of collections of the material culture of Capiz artisanal dive fishery are: 1) the Capiz artisanal diving fishery materials i.e., improvised diving gears and apparel; 2) The Capiz shells and shell craft commodities classified according to use and function and other secondary data about the Philippine Capiz shell industry, and the map showing the distribution of Placuna beds around the Philippine archipelago; and, 3) The third set of the collection represents the people, the socioecological practices and social relations of fishing households engaged in Capiz artisanal dive fishery. These material collections are shown below in photographs, tables, graphs and digital illustrations and are curated with captions and descriptions. Analysis and discussion of these material cultures seek to answer the following research questions: 6 �1. What comprises the maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the Capiz artisanal dive fishery? 2. Why are the narratives of the development of artisanal fishing households engaged in Capiz dive fishery included in the maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the Philippines? 3. What is the significance of anthropology museums in the preservation of the Capiz artisanal dive fishery maritime and underwater cultural heritage? The analysis and discussion are framed according to the three theories, namely: materialism, the biographies and itineraries of things, and object-oriented ontology (OOO). ACKNOWLEDGMENT I am grateful to the fishing households in Barangay Trapiche and Botong, Oton, and Iloilo and the local government officials of the six coastal communities that participated in the study. Cynthia N. Zayas, PhD, Takashi Tsuji, PhD, Rintaro Ono, PhD and Rosalinda Tomas, PhD, Prof Tomasito T. Talledo and my panel at the Ateneo de Davao University for their steadfast support that allowed me to finish my dissertation. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adan, R. I. Y. "The window-pane (kapis shell) industry." SEAFDEC Asian Aquaculture 22, no. 4 (2000): 23-31. Baňez, M.A.B. “Unod kag Panit: The narratives of the development of the lampirong (Placuna placenta) fishery of Oton, Iloilo.” PhD diss., Ateneo de Davao University, 2021. Baňez, Ma Arve B. "Compressor fishing practices among fisher-divers of lampirong (Placuna placenta) and their associated health risks in a coastal municipality in Panay, Philippines." Philippine Journal of Health Research and Development 23, no. 3 (2019): 31-38. Bell, Joshua A., and Haidy Geismar. "Materialising Oceania: New ethnographies of things in Melanesia and Polynesia." The Australian Journal of Anthropology (2009). Blumenthal, Arthur R. "Alma S. Wittlin: Museums: In Search of a Usable Future: 300 pp., 50 ill., Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1970." (1971): 94-95. Eogan, George, Helen Roche, Finbar McCormick, Emily Murray, Kerri Cleary, and Francis John Byrne. "Excavations at Knowth." Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1984. Fishery Statistics 1985-1994. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, Quezon City, Philippines, September 14, 1995. Floren, Adonis S. "The Philippine shell industry with special focus on Mactan, Cebu." Coastal Project of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (2003). Resource Management Fontijn, David, H. P. Hahn, and H. Weiss. "Epilogue: Cultural biographies and itineraries of things: Second thoughts." Mobility, Meaning and Transformations of Things: shifting contexts of material culture through Time and Space (2013): 183-96. Gathercole, Peter. "The fetishism of artefacts." Museum studies in material culture (1989): 73-81. Gosden, Chris, and Yvonne Marshall. "The cultural biography of objects." World Archaeology 31, no. 2 (1999): 169-178. Haas, Jonathan. "Power, objects, and a voice for anthropology." Current Anthropology 37, no. S1 (1996): S1-S22. Herle, Anita. "Objects, agency and museums." Museum Objects: Experiencing the Properties of Things (2012): 295. Hidalgo y Rodriguez, J. G. "Obras malacológicas. (4ª Parte) Estudios preliminares sobre la fauna Malacológica de las islas Filipinas: Memorias de la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas." Físicas y Naturales de Madrid 21 (1903): 1-400. Hidalgo, Joaquín González. Catálogo de los moluscos testáceos de las Islas Filipinas, Joló y Marianas: Moluscos marinos. Vol. 1. la" Gaceta de Madrid, 1905. Homans, George Caspar, and Robert King Merton. Social behaviour: Its elementary forms: Reprint: Chapter 4, p. 51-82. Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961. 7 �Jackson, Peter. "Commodity cultures: the traffic in things." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 24, no. 1 (1999): 95-108. Kapferer, Bruce, ed. Transaction and meaning: directions in the anthropology of exchange and symbolic behaviour. Vol. 1. Philadelphia, PA: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1976. Katagman. Lampirong. http://katagman.com/lampirong/, updated on 10/21/2011 accessed on 11/21/2022 Kopytoff, Igor. "The cultural biography of things: commoditization as process." In Appadurai, A. (Ed.). The social life of things: Commodities in cultural perspective 68 (1986): 70-73. Laureta, Liberato V. Compendium of the economically important seashells in Panay, Philippines. University of the Philippines Press, 2008. Linnaeus, C. von. "Tomus I. Systems naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis." Editio decima, reformata. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii) 1 (1758): 1-824. Madrones-Ladja, Jocelyn A., Eva T. Aldon, and Dan D. Baliao. "Broodstock transplantation: an approach for stock enhancement of the 'kapis' shell Placuna placenta along Panay Gulf, central Philippines." Philippine Agricultural Scientist 95, no. 2 (2012): 192198. Magsuci, H, Conlu, A and Aypa-Moyano. “The Window-Pane Oyster (Capiz) Fishery of Western Visayas”. Fisheries Research Journal of the Philippines. (1980). 5 (2):74-80. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. "1845-6. The German Ideology." (1976). Medina, Juan de O. S. A. "Historia de la Orden de S." Agustin de Estas Islas Filipinas (Manila: 1893 (1893): 175-77. Rosell, N. C. "Mariculture of kapis, Placuna placenta: a pilot study." Fish. Res. J. Philipp 9 (1984): 32-44. Sissons, David Carlisle Stanley. "The Japanese in the Australian pearling industry." Queensland Heritage 3, no. 10 (1979): 9-27. Seale, A. "Notes on Philippine edible molluscs." Philipp. J. Sci 7, no. 4 (1912): 273-281. Sotto, Filipina B., and Rudo von Cosel. "Some commercial bivalves of Cebu, Philippines." The Philippine Scientist 19 (1982): 43101. Stocking, G. W., and G. W. Stocking. "Philanthropoids and vanishing cultures." Objects and others: Essays on museums and material culture 3 (1985): 112. Talavera, F. and Faustino, L. A. Industrial shells of the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science. Vol. 45. Bureau of Science Manila, 1931. Tringham, Ruth. "Engendered places in prehistory." Gender, Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography 1, no. 2 (1994): 169-203. Wood, Elizabeth, and Susan M. Wells. "Sustainable utilization." In The Conservation Biology of Molluscs: Proceedings of a Symposium Held at the 9th International Malacological Congress, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1986, no. 9, p. 41. IUCN, 1995. Yano, Takao. "The prospects for fisherfolk culture in Panay. In Fishers of the Visayas. A Study of MaritimeCommunities, edited by U. Iwao and CN Zayas, 3-51. Diliman, Quezon City: College of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of the Philippines, 1994. Young, A. E. Serna. “Country Report from the Philippines”. F. Brian Davy, and M. Graham (Eds.). In Bivalve Culture in Asia and the Pacific, Proceedings of the Workshop held in Singapore, 16-91 February, lDRC-200 e. 1982: 55-68. Zayas, CN. “Pangayaw and Tumandok in the maritime world of the Visayan Islands”. In Fishers of the Visayas. A Study of Maritime Communities, edited by U. Iwao and CN Zayas, 75-131. Diliman, Quezon City: College of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of the Philippines, 1994 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Anthropology Museums and the Maritime and underwater cultural heritage of Capiz (Placuna Placenta) artisanal dive fishery in the Philippine Archipelago Description An account of the resource My paper examines the maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the Capiz (Placuna placenta) artisanal dive fishery. There are three types of collections of the material culture of the Capiz dive fishery. These include the Capiz artisanal diving fishery materials i.e., improvised diving gears and apparel; the Capiz shells and shell craft commodities classified according to use and function and other secondary data about the Philippine Capiz shell industry, and the map showing the distribution of Placuna beds around the Philippine archipelago. The string of agents, the socioecological practices and the social relations likewise encompass the material life of fishing households engaged in Capiz artisanal dive fishery. ‘Follow the thing’, a geographical approach allows me to conduct multi-sited ethnographies covering the source communities of Trapiche and Botong, Oton, Iloilo, the natural habitat of Placuna placenta. And Banica, Roxas City, Capiz’s shell craft manufacturer Kapis atbp. The museum visits and online capiz shell craftsellers encompass the diverse sites to further document and describe the uses and function of the capiz. The local ecological knowledge embodies the intangible maritime and underwater cultural heritage of Capiz artisanal dive fishery. Thus, integrating the narratives of the development of fishing households, their labour and livelihoods. To analyze the significance of anthropology museums in the preservation of the Capiz artisanal dive fishery maritime and underwater cultural heritage, I applied three theories, namely: materialism, the biographies and itineraries of things, and object-oriented ontology (OOO). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ma. Arve B. Bañez Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Bañez, Ma. Arve B. . 2023. “Anthropology Museums and the Maritime and underwater cultural heritage of Capiz (Placuna Placenta) artisanal dive fishery in the Philippine Archipelago.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2033 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d7246c4bc36ebe6429dfbba4e90c4076.pdf f3b69ab072c9d3f494c64f9da5f09537 PDF Text Text A Real-time Experience of Underwater Archaeology: A New Approach to Museum Shivani Dindayal kamdi (Research Scholar, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University (IGNTU), India Shivanikamdi93@gmail.com Rupesh Uttamrao Dhokane (President of SocietyCenter for Archaeological Studies and Research Amravati (CASRA), Maharashtra, India rupesh.dhokane@gmail.com ABSTRACT “Museums are the mirror of what can be seen in reality” In this paper, a blueprint of a maritime museum is presented, as in what way a museum can be of underwater archaeology. The efforts are to bring together the real time experience of how an excavation is done in underwater situations, because it is not possible for each one to visit underwater archaeology sites. It will also comprise the conservation part of the artefacts retrieved from an excavation to be done in a museum. The experience of submerged sites will be established in the museum, along with the replica of the artefacts, and how conservation of the submerged artefact in seawater is done will be displayed. The expected outcome of this paper is to present a unique museum design that can result in a real time experience for the person visiting the museum and can even be a place of research for maritime archaeology. List of Figures Figure 1 Image of Exploration_01 Figure 2 Image of Excavation grid_02 Figure 3 image of excavation grid_03 INTRODUCTION In the world of artificial intelligence and space research excellence, things have become more approachable and understandable. The concept of virtual reality has excelled in the way and has progressed manifold which gives an experience of anything a human can imagine of. With excellence in technology day by day and its application in every single moment, it also has helped in education to grasp everything visually, auditory, and kinetically. Today things are achievable because the infrastructure chosen for the things to achieve has a great base of technology and interpretation. Infrastructure too plays a major role in transforming an idea into a new concept. One such concept is the real-time experience in the field of museums. Real-time experiences do not involve fully AI or VR or Holograms and such devices but it works on role-play emphasizing creating and presenting the idea in front of the audience. Different types of museums use different methods to display their concepts to visitors. Categorically museums have a wide variety of themes such as natural science, art history, maritime and so on and so forth “Museum is a hi-tech classroom for all age groups to understand, learn and apprehend things. CASE STUDIES The concept of a Museum has come from the person’s personal collection and urge to collect and store things for their belonging. The museums we see today were exceptionally different from the time they all started. This is a place of contemplation, working on thought processes and learning. The museums functioned as royal private collection storage for things gifted to royals as well as collected by royal families. Ennigaldi-Nanna’s museum is the first museum considered and dated to c.530 BCE. It was located in the state of Ur, modern-day Iraq. In an excavation, there they found dozens of artifacts neatly arranged side by side, and their ages varied by centuries; they were museum pieces. Those pieces had museum 1 �labels consisting of clay cylindrical drums with three different languages engraved on them. Later in time, the public museums began to spring up in the 18th century, notables are the British Museum in 1759 and the Louvre in 1793. These museums had grown out of private collections in which artwork was displayed. These museums were also influenced by the Paris salons, where paintings jostled for spaces on walls hung floor to ceiling with art. Now artists captivated these public spaces and museums galleries were a frequent subject of early 19th-century paintings. The story of museums dates back to the oldest civilizations of the world. Considering today’s scenario of the museums, we have come so far in having the base of these old museums. Today technology in museums has made them a place of experiencing the past and gives them the chance to live those moments in the present. Today the definition of a museum has changed completely by introducing interactive technologies to the museums, they have made a revolutionary impact on the effect of learning and experiencing the knowledge gained in a museum. The Prado Museum in Madrid 2019 introduced its first innovative 360-degree immersive experience. The National Museum of Singapore launched its exhibition “Story of the Forest”; it offers the visitor a chance to step into another world with colourful projections and breathtaking displays. Through the use of the VR Science Museum, London in 2017 offered its visitors an experience of space travel, it is one of the greatest milestones in UK space travel and there are many on the list who have excelled themselves by using technology and adding it day by day. Why are sites submerged and why is there a need for underwater archaeology and its study? Here the sea-level water rising issues and man made dam constructions play an important role in answering these questions. The effect of global warming and the rise in the sea level have made water occupy the area on land resulting in submergence. Prehistoric sites in some places got submerged due to sea level rise in places such as underwater archaeological sites called little salt spring, Warm mineral spring (Florida, USA), and Montague Harbour (British Columbia, Canada). Other sites include an Iron Age village in Swiss Lake, as well as crannogs in Ireland and Scotland. A few sites excavated within the last decade are Caesarea Maritima, Cosa Dvaraka, Hoff’s Store, Kencherai, Pontia, and Port Royal. First gallery A museum First gallery which will be infused with real-time experience and its infrastructure will be like, visitors will experience being inside the sea, will enter the dark room with the exhibits displayed on both sides and over the head too, the same experience to be in a sea. The exhibits in this gallery will be on both sides in big tanks such as swimming pools and can peek through a glass barrier. The main part of this will be the person role-playing as an archaeologist and will perform the activities to inform the visitors regarding underwater archaeological exploration, sites, and their excavations. The whole picturization will give an overall idea and the amount of responsibility and risk on the shoulder of a person doing this job. Mostly this gallery will give visitors a real-time experience, one of its kind and never experienced before. While role-playing is going on the water tanks a person (guide) will explain every movement of the person inside and will educate them about underwater archaeology and underwater archaeological sites The environment here will be the replication of a deep sea, the idea behind this concept is to give an experience of the actual underwater site, which is not accessible, and it is an impossible place to visit any visitor. 2 �Figure 1 Modified Image of Exploration_01 (Image Source: https://midwestnomads.com/2022/03/03/wonders-of-wildlife-museum-aquarium/ ) Figure 2 Modified Image of Exploration_02 (Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Marine_Biology_and_Aquarium#/media/File:ROC-NMMBA_Op en_Ocean_Aquarium_20160515b.jpg ) 3 �Figure 3 Modified Image of Exploration_03 (Image Source: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/10/deep-sea-coral-reefs-biodiversity/) Second gallery The second gallery will be displaying the artefacts that need conservation. Here in this gallery, the exhibits will be in the way that the actual work of conservation is on display for the visitors. Artefacts retrieved from the underwater excavations have to be kept for a period in saltwater and gradually with fresh water; it has to be replaced to treat the artefact and conserve it. This gallery will aim for displaying the artefacts which are chemically conserved and the ones which are in the process of conservation. Third Gallery The Third Gallery will comprise an information centre housing all information related to underwater archaeology, its scope, and its importance and will compile the smallest of its details for research purposes, tools instruments and equipment needed for underwater archaeology will be displayed here. This information centre gallery will lead the way to study the basics of oceanology, ultimately this becomes an important related field of study in understanding and dealing with underwater sites. Along with oceanology, nautical science becomes the second important branch. The information centre gallery will pave the way for young aspirants and young researchers with knowledge under one roof. This will give an insight into the related field of studies of underwater archaeological analysis and help to increase the community of researchers studying this field. Fourth gallery The fourth gallery or the visitors’ space will be the area where it will house an activity area for children where they can experience diving and likewise, activities to keep this age group of visitors engaging, and others will be the receptive audience for engaging their children in likewise activities. 4 �This will also serve as the photo gallery, it will house all the photographs of underwater archaeology and related knowledge-based photographs. CONCLUSION An Archaeological site plays an important role in the reconstruction of its past scenario. Terrestrial sites are easily approachable therefore it is conducive even in adverse circumstances to explore and excavate them, as a result of that archaeological museums are full of artefacts excavated on land. In comparison to this for underwater archaeological sites it's not possible to excavate them as frequently as it's done on land. It involves a high percentage of risk and expertise to dive in and excavate an underwater site, plus retrieval of the artefacts and conserving them is way pricier and time-consuming in comparison with the artefacts retrieved from the land. Despite its challenges, it is one of the important branches of archaeology which is mostly neglected due to its risk and challenges and even lack of expertise involved in it, therefore museums for such streams become very important to set up and make people aware. Museums are the best place to make people aware and add knowledge to already aware ones. The involvement of technology in museums has made them more experienced than ever before and made them more engaging. The main idea of this whole paper is to provide a blueprint for an infrastructure of a museum, which will give its visitors the actual situations without using any AI or VR or animated themes but to make them realize the effect of underwater sites and it's the never-ending effect on their minds which will be one of the milestones in setting higher standards for museums and its experience. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barstad, Janet F. International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology. Edited by Carol V. Ruppé, Janet F. Barstad -Springer US (2002) McKinnon ,Jennifer F. Archaeology and the Emergence of Fields: Maritime, Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology - pp 414-420) Leshikar-Denton_ Margaret E., Erreguerena, Pilar Luna, and Aviles, Jeronimo . Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in Latin America and the Caribbean-Left Coast Press (2008) Dellino-Musgrave,Virginia. Maritime Archaeology and Social Relations, British Action in the Southern Hemisphere (The Springer Series in Underwater Archaeology) (2006) Other: 1. History of the Museum Movement in the World: https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000829IC/P001546/M024845/LM/1510309011P15-M04-Histor yofMuseumMovementintheWorld-LM.pdf 2. J. V. Maranto - The history of museums 5 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Real-time Experience of Underwater Archaeology: A New Approach to Museum Description An account of the resource “Museums are the mirror of what can be seen in reality” In this paper, a blueprint of a maritime museum is presented, as in what way a museum can be of underwater archaeology. The efforts are to bring together the real time experience of how an excavation is done in underwater situations, because it is not possible for each one to visit underwater archaeology sites. It will also comprise the conservation part of the artefacts retrieved from an excavation to be done in a museum. The experience of submerged sites will be established in the museum, along with the replica of the artefacts, and how conservation of the submerged artefact in seawater is done will be displayed. The expected outcome of this paper is to present a unique museum design that can result in a real time experience for the person visiting the museum and can even be a place of research for maritime archaeology. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Shivani Dindayal Kamdi Rupesh Uttamrao Dhokane Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Kamdi, Shivani Dindayal and Rupesh Uttamrao Dhokane. 2023. “A Real-time Experience of Underwater Archaeology: A New Approach to Museum.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2032 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ab01acc95eb52bf60026e04251d7cb24.pdf 3fd12bf368ac9aed560170ccf69c7b71 PDF Text Text Maritime Trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia: The Need for a Reappraisal Janardhana Bora (Indira Gandhi National Tribal University (IGNTU), Amarkantak-India, Assistant Professor) janardhanab@igntu.ac.in ABSTRACT This paper attempts to portray maritime trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia by examining cultural materials during the third millennium BC found in archaeological sites of Indus Valley culture. The early maritime history of the subcontinent commenced with and it confined mainly to trade links between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, and needed further nuanced by re-examining the role of Gujarat in the light of recent interpretations. In this article, the author reviews some evidence for Indus external trade of maritime archaeology. The possible consequences of such a prominent maritime role are explored. The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session X because observations and deliberations of this study have presented archaeological shreds of evidence pertaining to maritime trade such as pottery, semi precious stone beads, seals and sealing, cubical weights, and other numerous pieces of evidence. Key words: Gujarat and Mesopotamia, maritime trade, and material archaeology INTRODUCTION Maritime trade between Gujarat (India) and Mesopotamia (Iraq) has a long history and has many dimensions-cultural, religious, and commercial. The manifestations of cultural, religious, and commercial interaction between these two regions have been traced from the archaeological investigations in Gujarat as well as Mesopotamia, dated back to the 3rd millennium BCE (Mackay 1928, 29; Marshall 1931). This trade was driven by the substantiated archaeological evidence such as spices, textiles, and precious metals, and played an important role in shaping the economic, political, and cultural connections between the two regions. The exact nature and scale of this trade have been the subject of much debate among historians, with some suggesting that it was a major factor in the development of the economies and civilizations of both regions, while others have argued that its impact has been overstated (Rao 1974, 70, Dhavalikar 1996, 76, Hegde 1990,152, Sonawane 2003, 4, Bhan 2003, 51-80, Irani 2003, 91-97, Gaur 2003, 57-66, Ansari 1966, Pramanik 2004,133-140).  However, it is generally agreed that the maritime trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia was a crucial factor in connecting these two regions and allowing for the exchange of goods and ideas. The ships that carried out this trade would have sailed from the ports of Gujarat along the Arabian Sea and then navigated the Persian Gulf to reach the ports of Mesopotamia. Gujarat's coast is punctuated by several creeks and seasonal rivers that facilitate safe harbors all along the coast. The waters around the Gujarat coast are also rich in marine resources, such as shells used as food and export products. Conch shells have been a primary economic source for many fishermen in Gujarat (Pota and Patel 1991, 445-450). GUJARAT AND ITS HISTORIC CONTEXT Gujarat is a state located on the west coast of India and has a rich history that stretches back over several thousand years. The region has been inhabited since prehistoric times and has been the site of several important civilizations, including the Indus Valley Civilization. In the ancient period, Gujarat was an important centre of maritime trade and had links with the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Peninsula, and the west coast of India. It was also a hub of trade between India and Mesopotamia, with goods such as textiles, spices, and precious metals being exchanged between these regions. In the medieval period, Gujarat was ruled by several powerful dynasties, including the Solankis, the Vaghelas, and the 1 �Sultans of Delhi. During this time, the region was an important center of commerce and industry, with major cities such as Ahmedabad and Surat serving as important centers of trade and culture. In the early modern period, Gujarat was ruled by the Maratha Empire and was an important center of trade and commerce, with major ports such as Surat serving as important centers of maritime trade. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Gujarat was one of the centers of the Indian independence movement, with leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel playing key roles in the struggle for independence. Today, Gujarat is one of the most economically developed states in India, with a thriving industrial sector, a strong agricultural sector, and a rich cultural heritage. The state continues to play an important role in the economic development of India, and its rich history and cultural heritage continue to influence the development of the region and the wider world. MARITIME CONTRIBUTIONS OF GUJARAT Gujarat has made significant contributions to the development of maritime trade and commerce throughout history. Its location on the west coast of India and its access to the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf made it an ideal center for maritime trade, connecting India with other regions of the ancient world. Archaeological evidence shows that the Harappans had an extensive network of ports along the Arabian Sea coast of Gujarat, including Lothal, Dholavira, and Gola Dhoro, which were important centers of maritime trade and commerce. These ports played a crucial role in facilitating trade with other regions and were known for their impressive harbor infrastructure, water management systems, and production of valuable goods such as agate beads. Overall, the ports along the Gujarat coast played a significant role in creating a thriving economy and cultural exchange with other regions of the ancient world. One of the most prominent Indus Valley sites in Gujarat is Lothal, located in the modern-day Bhal region. Lothal was a thriving port city and a center of maritime activity. It had a dockyard, which was a marvel of engineering, with a system of locks and channels that allowed ships to enter and leave the harbor even during low tide. The dockyard also had a warehouse for storing goods and a factory for manufacturing beads and other items made of semi-precious stones. The people of Lothal were skilled sailors and traders, and they had contacts with several other civilizations in the region, such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Bahrain. Archaeological excavations at Lothal have unearthed evidence of seafaring activities, such as anchors, ship models, and navigational tools. Another significant Indus Valley site in Gujarat is Dholavira, located in the Kutch region. Dholavira was a well-planned city, with a sophisticated water management system, and it had access to the sea through the Rann of Kutch. The people of Dholavira were also involved in maritime activities, and they traded with other civilizations in the region, such as Sumeria and Oman. Archaeological excavations at Dholavira have unearthed evidence of a dockyard, warehouses, and a marketplace. Rangpur and Surkotada are two other Indus Valley sites in Gujarat that have provided insights into the maritime activities of the Harappan people. Rangpur was a center of bead-making, and it is believed that the beads were exported to other parts of the world. Surkotada was a fortified settlement, and it had a water tank that was connected to the sea. These ports were strategically located to facilitate trade with other regions, including Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf. The Harappans were known for their maritime skills, and their seafaring activities played a significant role in their economic and cultural development. 2 �Textiles Gujarat was known for its production of textiles in the Indus Valley Civilization, and archaeological evidence suggests that the production of textiles was an important economic activity in the region. Some of the major Harappan textile centers were located in present-day Gujarat. The excavations at sites like Lothal, Dholavira, and Rangpur have revealed evidence of cotton cultivation and the production of cotton textiles. The Harappans used spindle whorls, weaving frames, and other tools to spin and weave cotton fibers into fabrics. One of the most notable finds related to Harappan textiles in Gujarat is the discovery of a large number of spindle whorls at the site of Dholavira. These spindle whorls were made of terracotta, steatite, and faience, and they indicate that the Harappans were skilled spinners. The Harappans also produced other types of textiles, such as woolen fabrics made from the wool of sheep and goats, as well as silk fabrics made from the cocoons of silk moths. However, the production of cotton textiles was the most prominent and widespread in the region. The Harappans used a range of techniques to decorate their textiles, including dyeing, printing, and embroidery. The use of indigo for dyeing cotton fabrics was particularly widespread, and the Harappans were known for their skill in creating intricate patterns on textiles. The textile industry played an important role in the economy and culture of the Harappan civilization, and their textiles were highly valued in the ancient world. Shipbuilding Shipbuilding was a significant activity during the Harappan civilization in Gujarat, as evidenced by the discovery of several ship-related artifacts and structures at various Harappan sites in the region. The Harappans were skilled maritime traders who established trade links with other regions, and shipbuilding played a vital role in facilitating their seafaring activities. The ships built by the Harappans were primarily used for the transportation of goods, including textiles, metals, and agricultural produce. One of the most significant discoveries related to Harappan shipbuilding was made at the site of Lothal in Gujarat. The excavations at Lothal revealed a well-planned dockyard, which was equipped with a number of features such as a basin, a wharf, and a tidal lock. The dockyard was connected to a channel that led to the Arabian Sea, and it is believed that ships were built and repaired at this site. In addition to the dockyard, several ship-related artifacts were also discovered at Lothal, including anchors, cargo seals, and fragments of boats. These artifacts suggest that the Harappans were skilled in designing and building ships. Other Harappan sites in Gujarat, such as Dholavira and Balakot, have also yielded evidence of shipbuilding activities. At Dholavira, a large tank was discovered, which is believed to have been used for testing ships. At Balakot, the excavations revealed a well-planned harbor, which was used for loading and unloading ships. Cultural Exchange The Harappans were known for their advanced urban planning, trade, and maritime activities, and they established cultural contacts with other regions through their trade networks. Gujarat was an important center of cultural exchange during the Harappan civilization, as it was strategically located on the Arabian Sea coast and served as a hub for maritime trade. The Harappans had trade links with other regions, including Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf, and they exchanged ideas, technologies, and cultural practices with these regions (Gensheimer 1984, 65-73, Kenoyer 2008a, 19-28). One of the most significant examples of cultural exchange during the Harappan civilization was the spread of the Indus script, a writing system used by the Harappans. The Indus script was found on seals, tablets, and other objects, and it was used for record-keeping and administrative purposes. The script has not yet been fully deciphered, but it is believed to represent a Dravidian language spoken by the Harappans. Another example of cultural exchange during the Harappan civilization was the spread of technology and crafts. The Harappans were skilled in metallurgy, pottery, and textile production, and they exchanged these technologies and crafts with other regions through their trade networks (Possehl 3 �1990, 261-282; Ratnagar 1981). For example, Harappan pottery has been found in Mesopotamia, indicating that the Harappans traded their pottery with this region. The Harappans also exchanged cultural practices with other regions, including religious beliefs and practices. For example, the discovery of figurines of Mother Goddesses in the Harappan sites suggests the presence of a fertility cult. Similar figures have been found in other regions, including Mesopotamia, indicating the exchange of religious beliefs and practices. IMPLICATION OF GUJARAT’S ROLE Gujarat played a crucial role in the Harappan civilization, both as a center of cultural exchange and as a hub of maritime trade. The Harappans developed sophisticated techniques for shipbuilding and navigation, which allowed them to establish trade links with other regions, including Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf. Gujarat's location on the Arabian Sea coast made it a vital center for this trade network, as ships could dock at its ports and exchange goods and ideas. The implications of Gujarat's role in the Harappan civilization are significant. The maritime trade routes established by the Harappans facilitated the exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultural practices between different regions, which contributed to the development of a vibrant and cosmopolitan culture in South Asia. The Harappan civilization was one of the earliest urbanized cultures in the world, and its achievements in urban planning, metallurgy, and other areas had a lasting impact on the region's development. Today, the legacy of the Harappan civilization can still be seen in the cultural traditions and economic practices of Gujarat and other regions of South Asia. Gujarat continues to be an important center of trade and commerce, and its ports are still a vital link in the region's maritime trade networks. The region's rich history and cultural heritage also make it an important destination for tourism, as visitors can explore the remnants of the Harappan civilization and other historical sites. INDUS VALLEY LINKS WITH OTHER MARITIME TRADE MESOPOTAMIA The Indus Valley Civilization had extensive maritime trade links with other regions beyond Mesopotamia as well. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Harappans established trade links with regions such as Oman, Bahrain, and the Persian Gulf. The Harappans traded a variety of goods, including textiles, precious stones, metals, and agricultural products. One of the most important commodities traded by the Harappans was cotton, which was grown extensively in the region. The Harappans were known for their skill in producing high-quality cotton textiles, which were in great demand in the ancient world. These textiles were exported to other regions via maritime trade routes, and have been found in archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and other regions. The Indus Valley Civilization also had significant trade links with the Persian Gulf region. Archaeological excavations at the site of Dilmun, located in present-day Bahrain, have revealed the presence of Harappan artefacts such as pottery, beads, and seals. These artefacts indicate that the Harappans had a significant presence in the region, and were involved in a thriving trade network that spanned the Persian Gulf. The exchange of ideas and technologies was also an important aspect of the Indus Valley Civilization's maritime trade links. The Harappans were skilled in metallurgy and produced high-quality copper and bronze items, which were exported to other regions. The exchange of 4 �knowledge and technologies in metallurgy, as well as in other areas such as agriculture and urban planning, facilitated the growth of a vibrant and cosmopolitan culture in the ancient world. Overall, the maritime trade links established by the Indus Valley Civilization had a significant impact on the development of trade, culture, and technology in the ancient world. The exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies facilitated the growth of a vibrant and cosmopolitan culture in the ancient world, and laid the foundations for the development of modern-day South Asia and the Middle East. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the Indus Valley Civilization's maritime trade links between Gujarat and Mesopotamia have been the subject of much scholarly debate and speculation. While there is no doubt that the Harappans engaged in extensive maritime trade with Mesopotamia and other regions, the exact nature and extent of these trade links remain a matter of interpretation and conjecture. Recent archaeological discoveries and advances in scientific techniques have shed new light on the Indus-Mesopotamia trade links, and there is a growing consensus among scholars that these links were more extensive and complex than previously thought. It is clear that the Harappans were not isolated from the rest of the ancient world, and that they were actively engaged in a vibrant trade network that spanned continents and cultures. A reappraisal of the Indus-Mesopotamia trade links is needed in order to fully understand the significance of these links for the development of trade, culture, and technology in the ancient world. Such a reappraisal should take into account the latest archaeological discoveries and scientific advances, as well as the insights of scholars from a range of disciplines, including archaeology, history, anthropology, and linguistics. Ultimately, a deeper understanding of the Indus-Mesopotamia trade links will not only enhance our knowledge of the ancient world, but also provide valuable insights into the workings of global trade and commerce in the present day. As such, it is a subject that deserves further research and investigation. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Ansari Z.D. and Mate M.S. Excavations at Dwarka, Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Pune, 1966. Bhan K.K. and Gowda D. 2003. "Shell working at Nagwada (North Gujarat) with special reference to Shell Industries of the Harappan Tradition in Gujarat." Man and Environment, XXVIII, no. 2. (2003): 51-80. Dales G.F. & J.M. Kenoyer "Shell Working at Ancient Balakot, Pakistan." Expedition no.19/2 (1977): 13-19. Dhavalikar M.K., Raval M.R., Chitalwala Y.M., Kuntasi: A Harappan emporium on West Coast, Deccan College Post-Graduate Research Institute, Pune, 1996. Gaur A.S. and Sundaresh. 2003. "Onshore excavation at Bet Dwarka Island, in the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat." Man and Environment, XXVIII, no.1 (2003): 57- 66. Gensheimer T.R. "The Role of Shell in Mesopotamia: Evidence for Trade Exchange with Oman and the Indus Valley." Paléorient no.10 (1984): 65-73. Hegde K.T.M., Bhan, K.K., Sonawane V.H., Krishnana, K., Shah, D.R. Excavation at Nageswar Gujarat: A Harappan Shell working site on the Gulf of Kutch, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Baroda, 1990. Irani A.B. "Mandovi: an Early Historic Sea Port near the Gulf of Kachchh, Western India", Man and Environment XXVII, no.1 (2002): 69-72. Kenoyer J.M. "Seafaring Merchants of Meluhha." South Asian Archaeology 1995, edited by B. Allchin & F.R. Allchin, 87-100. New Delhi,1997. Kenoyer, J.M. "Trade and technology of the Indus Valley: new insights from Harappa, Pakistan." World Archaeology no. 29 (1997):262-280. Mackay E.J.H. "Excavations at Mohenjodaro." Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, (1928-29): 67-75. Marshall J.H. "Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-daro Carried Out by the Government of India between the Years 1922 and 1927. " A. Probsthain, London, 1931. Possehl G.L. "Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanism." Annual Review of Anthropology no. 19 (1990): 261-282. Pota K.A. and Patel M.I. "Exploitation of Chanks from the Gulf of Kutch." Bulletin of Centre of Marine Fisheries Research Institute, no. 42, (1991):445-450. Pramanik S. "Hathab: An Early Historic Port on the Gulf of Khambhat", Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology, no. 1, (2004):133-140. Rao Lothal and the Indus Civilization, Asian Publishing House, New York, 1974. Ratnagar S. Encounters. The Westerly Trade of the Harappa Civilization. Delhi, 1981. Sonawane V.H., Ajithprasad, P., Bhann, K.K., Krishnan, K., Prathapachandran, S., Majumdar, A., Patel, A.K., and Menon, J. "Excavations at Bagasra-1996-2003: A Preliminary Report", Man and Environment, XXVIII, no. 2, (2003):21-50. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia: The Need for a Reappraisal Description An account of the resource This paper attempts to portray maritime trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia by examining cultural materials during the third millennium BC found in archaeological sites of Indus Valley culture. The early maritime history of the subcontinent commenced with and it confined mainly to trade links between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, and needed further nuanced by re-examining the role of Gujarat in the light of recent interpretations. In this article, the author reviews some evidence for Indus external trade of maritime archaeology. The possible consequences of such a prominent maritime role are explored. The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session X because observations and deliberations of this study have presented archaeological shreds of evidence pertaining to maritime trade such as pottery, semi precious stone beads, seals and sealing, cubical weights, and other numerous pieces of evidence. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Janardhana Bora Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Bora, Janardhana. 2023. “Maritime Trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia: The Need for a Reappraisal.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2031 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3f5efb8c7f818cca5ed0e846279246c1.pdf e988c4420337e0f82d0072147dce0829 PDF Text Text Sea Voyage: The Evolving Maritime Cultural Landscape of American Samoa Hans K. Van Tilburg, PhD (Maritime Heritage Coordinator, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries) ABSTRACT American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States with a long and continuous history of ocean connection and maritime activities, from the initial voyaging discovery some 3,000 years ago to modern cruise ships and fishing fleets. Understanding this history as it is reflected in the maritime landscape helps us appreciate not only how the maritime past has evolved, but how the cultural and ecosystem benefits related to the ocean persist and remain important today. NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries recently completed a descriptive ArcGIS StoryMap of American Samoa, drawing from tangible and intangible cultural resources inventories and data compiled by NOAA’s sanctuary staff, archival information, archaeological surveys, and site cultural information from participant workshops. The territory’s story is presented as something of a maritime voyage through time, touching upon elements of the original Pacific voyaging and discovery of the islands, Samoan settlement culture and watercraft, western discovery and mapping, fautasi longboat heritage and copra plantations, activities during the naval period and WWII, and contemporary maritime spaces (commercial shipping and fishing). This StoryMap presents our human ties to the ocean, and the maritime cultural landscape of American Samoa, placing an importance on ocean locations, activities and events that have shaped the Samoan Islands and continue to define who we are today. Hopefully, a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural significance of our ocean spaces can contribute to better conservation and management of marine resources. Keywords: American Samoa, cultural landscape, marine environment List of Figures and Tables Figure 1 Foaga or grinding holes/bait cups carved into the reef at Fagatele Bay, American Samoa. Figure 2 Modern fautasi racing in Pago Pago Harbor. Figure 3 Types and quantities of excess ordnance to be jettisoned at sea, Naval Station Tutuila, Figure 4 The industrial landscape of Pago Harbor today. American Samoa Government Port Administration. INTRODUCTION The underwater cultural heritage (UCH) consists of properties and locations associated with the narrative of past events or human story. And whether that story is reflected in oral, written and/or archaeological and cultural resources, the broader context of our relationship to the environment is critical to the assessment of UCH. In other words, the ocean possesses a legacy of submerged properties that have cultural value, as well as implications for the health of the ecosystem. Maritime cultural landscapes are places where the interactions of culture and nature have resulted in identifiable cultural and ecological imprints. Every maritime cultural landscape captures a unique combination of nature and culture that is expressed in the condition of the marine environment, in both material and intangible cultural heritage, and in the meaning attached to that location by different stakeholder groups (Barr 2014). Understanding the ocean and shoreline as a cultural landscape helps us appreciate the full significance of UCH sites that would otherwise exist as isolated properties without context and connection.   American Samoa, an unincorporated island territory of the United States consisting of the eastern part of the Samoan archipelago, consists of five inhabited volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains, plus two coral atolls. The territory has a long and continuous history of ocean connection and activities, from the initial voyaging discovery thousands of years ago to the modern cruise ships and fishing fleets of today. The maritime cultural landscape of American Samoa captures elements of this long history in terms of locations, cultural activities and UCH resources, within the 1 �broader maritime narrative of where we are from and who we are today. Importantly, the landscape approach supports a broader definition of UCH elements and inclusion of their influence upon the health of our marine ecosystems. LEGACY OF VOYAGING The sea is a highway. The first discoverers came by sea in what is considered one of the boldest maritime migrations in human history. The Samoan Islands were originally discovered and settled more than 3,000 years ago as part of the Austronesian expansion eastward into the Pacific. Over hundreds of years, double-hull voyaging canoes, guided by specialists trained in non-instrument navigation, moved throughout the western Pacific, bearing men and women, and all necessary supplies to support permanent remote settlement. Migration theory is based on dating the traces of ancient Lapita pottery, along with subsequent obsidian and basalt stone tool production, associated with this expansion and settlement. In 1973, dredge spoils from Mulifanua Harbor on Upolu Island (Western Samoa) revealed thousands of pottery sherds dated to 3000 BP, and coastal terrestrial Lapita remains have been excavated from Ofu Island in American Samoa (Kirch andHunt 1993). Coastal village ruins, reef petroglyphs, submerged whetstones, and remnants of foaga or reef grinding holes/bait cups (Figure 1) add to the UCH archaeological footprint (Clark 1980, 24). Figure 1 Foaga or grinding holes/bait cups carved into the reef at Fagatele Bay, American Samoa. Photograph by Hans Van Tilburg/NOAA. The legacy of traditional navigation extends beyond archaeology. There are a great number of legends and stories represented by geo-cultural features or locations within the marine environment. These culturally significant places range from stacked rock formations (tupua) to coves, cliffs, and even submerged freshwater springs or passages in the reef, associated with famous chiefs, voyages, or mythic events in folklore. All are potential “traditional cultural properties” associated with cultural practices or beliefs of a living community that: (1) are rooted in that community's history, and (2) are important in maintaining and continuing the cultural identity of the community (Parker and King 1992). Chants are still performed at Turtle and Shark Cove, a place commemorating the death of an old woman and young girl, and the cove is protected by nomination to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Records at the Feleti Barstow Library document at least 20 geo-cultural locations in American Samoa’s coastal and marine environment (Van Tilburg 2007, 29). 2 �Near the village of Fagasa on Tutuila, the semi-submerged formation known as Sina’s Rock recalls the time when Chief Li`ava`a’s crew, departing the island, mistakenly abandoned his daughter, her grief and tears being the origin of the local spring (Kikuchi 1963, 84). This legend accounts for the dolphins that visit Fagasa today. Such sites “are of extraordinary significance to Samoan culture. Compared to all of the archaeological and historic sites that the HPO tries to protect, these sites are seen as the most significant to local residents'' (Volk et al 1992, 32). Local and Indigenous perspectives that highly value the cultural significance of “natural” resources, and the importance of traditional practices and places to the maintenance of cultural identities, challenges us to examine the definition of UCH as “all traces of human existence of a cultural, historical or archaeological nature…” For purposes of heritage preservation and protecting marine resources, Sina’s Rock should be considered UCH. WESTERN ARRIVALS Over time, 18th and 19th century Spanish, Dutch, French, British and American explorers shaped their own routes to the islands of Samoa, opening the seaway for whalers, merchants, and missionaries in pursuit of oil, copra and converts. The intentional adoption of new tools and nautical technology would shape the Samoan cultural landscape in new ways. The story of the Samoan longboat or fautasi provides an example of this evolution. The origin of fautasi dates back to the 1840s and observation of the effectiveness of British naval longboats, leading to innovations in boat building. Samoan carpenters began to construct an outrigger-less craft known as taumualua. Given the importance of watercraft in the archipelago and the competitiveness of human nature, these soon advanced in length from 50 feet to 60 feet and onwards. Aided by the skills of the castaway whaler and shipwright Eli Jennings, who came ashore in 1847, these hybrid craft took on the lightweight shiplap designs of whaleboats. By the last decade of the 19th century, fautasi (and the smaller version known as tulula) were capable and useful watercraft that served multiple roles: warfare, cargo transportation, passenger service, racing vessels, and more (Van Tilburg et al 2018, 124). With the regulation of interisland travel imposed in 1903 by the U.S. Naval Administration, and the increasing use of motorized craft, the role of fautasi was slowly reduced to racing, which later remained as their sole function. Today, on Flag Day in American Samoa (17 April), 10 to 15 village fautasi longboats manned with 45 village members line up outside of the deep-water harbor port of Pago Pago for their fiercest competition of the year, acknowledged by some as the largest cultural event in the territory. These computer-designed modern material watercraft cost tens of thousands of dollars to purchase and maintain, and the race outcomes are intricately tied to financial benefits, village pride, community identity and a deep historical tradition of seafaring (Herdrich et al 2020, 46). The maritime cultural landscape of fautasi today encompasses the village boathouses, launching and training areas for the race (crews train for months in advance), and the race course itself from Taema Bank of Tutuila’s south shore into the inner harbor of Pago Pago. 3 �Figure 2 Modern fautasi racing in Pago Pago Harbor. Photograph by David Herdrich. The extraction of resources and increasing trans-Pacific commerce would also change the landscape and UCH resources. Throughout the South Pacific, the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) has been known as the “Tree of Life” due to the incredible value and usefulness of every part of the tree for food, medicine, shelter, and transportation. The commercial products derived from dried white coconut meat or copra, including oil for soaps and cosmetics and copra “cake” or meal for animal feed, would play a major role in the economic development of the Samoan Islands. Therefore, the collection of copra from the islands of American Samoa for shipment and sale abroad was critical. The copra export business in the territory was centralized around the U.S. Naval Station. Villages without copra sheds or wharves were responsible for transporting copra to the Naval Station (or to Leone in the Western District) by their own boat, bus, vehicle, or on their shoulders. Villages with copra sheds and wharves transported copra to the Naval Station or Leone by regular service public customs boats or public works trucks (NARA RG284). Thus, the cultural landscape components of wharves, landings, channels, and buoys came under the early management of the Public Works Department and the U.S. Navy. Additionally, the inventory of vessel losses, some 40 scattered around the islands between 1828-1993, including whalers, steamers, schooners, brigs, and fishing vessels, are landscape elements (Van Tilburg 2007, 8). ON THE EDGE OF BATTLE In 1899 Germany, England, and the United States signed a tripartite agreement (effective 16 February 1900), that granted control of the Samoan Islands of Upolu and Savai`i to Germany and control of Tutuila, Aunu`u, and Manu`a to the United States. Subsequently, The Ali’i (chiefs) of Tutuila and Aunu`u ceded their islands to the U.S. on 17 April 1900. The king and matai of the Manu`a Islands signed a deed of cession to the U.S. in 1904. Thus, a series of naval commanders served as military governors of American Samoa for the territory’s first 50 years.  Although largely insulated from World War I, during World War II the American Samoa Defense Group (headquartered at Naval Station Tutuila) was, geographically, the largest command area in the South Pacific. Pago Pago Harbor on Tutuila served as a staging area for the preparation of amphibious forces engaged in South Pacific operations. The territory was home to thousands of Navy and Marine service men and women, including Samoan recruits in the Fita-Fita guard and the Samoan Marine Brigade known as Maligi Samoa or Samoan Marines (Hudson 1994, 25). Tutuila possessed the largest 4 �jungle training center in the South Pacific. American Samoa, on the edge of the Pacific combat theater, was also an important link in maintaining communication between the United States, Australia, and New Zealand.  The scale and intensity of activities during the war years, even for peripheral American Samoa, made significant changes to the maritime cultural landscape and UCH inventory of the islands. During World War II, Tutuila supported a naval air station, maintaining up to 60 fighter aircraft and 12 long-range bombers at any one time. Moorings for seaplanes were located in the shallow lagoon near the landing strip. As a consequence of intensive wartime training and patrols, 43 naval aircraft ditched or crashed into local waters between 1942 and 1944, many in the vicinity of Tutuila (Van Tilburg 2007, 12). The naval airfield, constructed in 1942, is today the location of Pago Pago International Airport.  The remnants of numerous concrete pillboxes along the shoreline, as well as gun emplacements, bunkers, naval buildings, foundations, etc. are the more visible reminders of the war. A National Register of Historic Places multiple property nomination for many of these World War II sites was prepared in 2005 listing at least 79 coastal pillboxes (Kennedy 2005). Erosion and subsidence have placed some of these pillboxes into the ocean. The fortifications built at the entrance to Pago Pago harbor include gun emplacements at Blunts Point and Breakers Point. Both gun emplacements are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. National Archive records also locate minefields protecting the entrance to the deep-water harbor. The Naval Station significantly enlarged the harbor’s infrastructure with the fuel dock, LST landing areas, wharves and moorings, and the ship repair facility across the bay (now a tuna cannery). DANGEROUS LEGACY Many of these sites can pose potential threats to the marine environment. Following the war, on 7 October 1949, the naval gasoline tanker USS Chehalis burned, exploded and sank in Pago Pago Harbor, with the loss of six crewmen. In 2007 the American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency completed a site investigation, confirming the aviation gasoline cargo, as well as the possibility of unexploded ordnance. In April 2009, the U.S. Navy conducted a preliminary survey, and fuel removal actions (60,000 gallons) were completed in April 2010 (Goldstein 2013). Further archival research in 2022 revealed extensive documentation of disposed ordnance and military materials by Naval Station Tutuila. Deteriorated, unused and obsolete ordnance and supplies, stockpiled throughout the wide Samoan Defense Area, were sent to area headquarters (Tutuila) to be disposed. Disposal meant dealing with the hazardous material in one of several ways: excess ordnance could be salvaged, forwarded to the West Coast, kept for peacetime storage, or jettisoned at sea. Ultimately, hundreds of tons of deteriorated or obsolete ammunition and materials were jettisoned somewhere in the nearby ocean. Specific locations were unspecified, but initial orders often carried instructions stating “sink in not less than 50 fathoms of water,” changed at a later date to “dump in not less than 150 fathoms of water and not less than 10 miles from the nearest land” (NARA RG313). The extensive lists of jettisoned materials included: 500 and 1,000 lb bombs, demolition blocks, hand grenades, depth charges, mortars, howitzers, anti-aircraft ammunition, small arms ammunition, anti-tank mines, fuses, bomb tail vanes, fragmentation bombs, parachute flares, and more. An explosives dumping area of roughly 70 square miles was indicated some 15 miles southeast of Pago Pago. Disposed ammunition has been reported on Taema Bank, at the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor, and a dangerous wreck “loaded with explosives,” was reported near Aunu`u Island in 1971 (Hudson 1994, 87). 5 �Figure 3 Types and quantities of excess ordnance to be jettisoned at sea, Naval Station Tutuila, 13 October 1945. Source: National Archives and Records Administration RG313. AMERICAN SAMOA’S MARITIME LANDSCAPE TODAY Today there are some 56,000 people living in American Samoa, with about 98% of those residents located on Tutuila Island. The territory is integrated into a modern global maritime world as an exporter of marine resources, communications hub, and recreational destination. The shipping and transportation landscape in American Samoa has evolved since the early 1900s when fautasi longboats were used to transport imported supplies from large ships, and as transportation to coastal villages and neighboring islands. Today, large container ships arrive weekly with supplies that the majority of the islands’ residents rely on for food and livelihoods. Ferry services are available on a weekly basis for the domestic market between Tutuila and the Manu’a islands, and via the Samoa Shipping Corporation LTD., internationally between Tutuila and Apia. Fishing has likewise advanced. Canneries first began operating in American Samoa in 1954. Today, tuna processing and the territorial government are the largest employers and the mainstay of American Samoa’s economy. International fishing fleets supply catches to the canneries for export, while small-scale artisanal fisheries supply the local market for fish (Levine and Allen 2009, 21). The footprint of UCH resources and the maritime cultural landscape has evolved, reflecting now disposed and wrecked long liners, cruise ship moorings and cannery infrastructure, modern navigational infrastructure, shoreline armoring for protection against erosion and climate change impacts, and more. 6 �Figure 4 The industrial landscape of Pago Harbor today. Source: American Samoa Government PortAdministration. Today there is an increasing desire and urgent need to achieve sustainable commercial and recreational practices in order to address the damage of pollution and climate change impacts. Our ocean environments are increasingly understood as places of critical marine research in this context. Maritime cultural landscapes have a role to play in this research. That role includes a broader definition of UCH and understanding the interactions between UCH sites and the marine environment, for better or worse (sites as potential habitat and cultural value, sites as potential environmental threat). Shipwrecks have been, and always will be, a unique subset of UCH resources both rich in historical and archaeological value, and exciting to the general public. However, becoming better stewards of our oceans implies reexamining our UCH from a broader perspective, one inherently supported by the maritime cultural landscape approach. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Barr, Brad. “Observations on developing a maritime cultural landscape approach to managing US National Marine Sanctuaries.” In Proceedings of the 2nd Asia Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference, 51-60, edited by Hans Van Tilburg, Veronica Walker Vadillo, Jun Kimura, Brian Fahy, Sila Tripati. Honolulu: Electric Pencil, 2014. Clark, Jeffrey T. Historic Preservation in American Samoa: Program Evaluation and Archaeological Site Inventory. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1980. Goldstein, Carl. Success story—USS Chehalis: Investigation and fuel offload operation. (Pacific Islands Office presentation-Pacific Environmental Success Stories) Guam: June 28, 2013. https://issuu.com/guamepa/docs/goldstein_uss_chehalis_investigatio accessed 4/28/2023. Herdrich, David, Hans K. Van Tilburg, and Atuatasi Lelei Peau. Fautasi Heritage of American Samoa: Fa‘Aga I Le Tai: O Ala O Le Vavau A Samoa. Silver Spring: U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA, 2020. Hudson, Jack C. and Kay G. American Samoa in World War II. Cultural Resources Services Inc. 1994. Kennedy, Joseph. Results of an Archaeological Survey and Archival Research of WWII Coastal Defenses on Tutuila Island, American Samoa. Haleiwa, Hawai`i: Archaeological Consultants of the Pacific, 2005. Kikuchi, William K. Archaeological Surface Ruins in American Samoa. Honolulu: University of Hawai`i (MA Thesis), 1963. Kirch, P.V. and T.L. Hunt. The To'aga Site: Three Millennia of Polynesian Occupation in the Manu'a Islands, American Samoa (Contributions to the University of California Archaeological Research Facility No. 51). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Levine, Arielle and Stewart Allen. American Samoa as a Fishing Community. Silver Spring: U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA, 2009. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) RG284. Records of the Government of American Samoa, Office of the Attorney General, Island Government files, 1931-1964, box 461. Correspondence from Secretary of Native Affairs to Governor 22 July 1947. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) RG313. Records of Naval Operating Forces, U.S. Naval Government Unit Tutuila, American Samoa, General Correspondence 1945-1951, box 10. Survey Request, Report and Expenditure, 13 October 1945. Parker, Patricia L. and Thomas F. King. Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Traditional Cultural Properties (NPS Register Bulletin 38). Washington D.D.: U.S. Department of Interior National Park Service, 1992. Van Tilburg, Hans. American Samoa Maritime Heritage Inventory. Silver Spring: U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA, 2007. Van Tilburg, Hans K., David J. Herdrich, Michaela E. Howells, Va‘Amua Henry Sesepasara, Telei‘Ai Christian Ausage and Michael D. Coszalter. “Row as One! A History of the Development and Use of the Sāmoan Fautasi.” In Journal of the Polynesian Society 127 no.1 (2018): 111-136. Volk, Richard D., Pamela A. Knudsen, Karla D. Kluge, and David J. Herdrich. Towards a Territorial Conservation Strategy and the Establishment of a Conservation Area System for American Samoa. Pago Pago: Le Vaumatua Inc., 1992. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 16: The significance of Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Seascapes and Living Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Session 16 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 16 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sea Voyage: The Evolving Maritime Cultural Landscape of American Samoa Description An account of the resource American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States with a long and continuous history of ocean connection and maritime activities, from the initial voyaging discovery some 3,000 years ago to modern cruise ships and fishing fleets. Understanding this history as it is reflected in the maritime landscape helps us appreciate not only how the maritime past has evolved, but how the cultural and ecosystem benefits related to the ocean persist and remain important today. NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries recently completed a descriptive ArcGIS StoryMap of American Samoa, drawing from tangible and intangible cultural resources inventories and data compiled by NOAA’s sanctuary staff, archival information, archaeological surveys, and site cultural information from participant workshops. The territory’s story is presented as something of a maritime voyage through time, touching upon elements of the original Pacific voyaging and discovery of the islands, Samoan settlement culture and watercraft, western discovery and mapping, fautasi longboat heritage and copra plantations, activities during the naval period and WWII, and contemporary maritime spaces (commercial shipping and fishing). This StoryMap presents our human ties to the ocean, and the maritime cultural landscape of American Samoa, placing an importance on ocean locations, activities and events that have shaped the Samoan Islands and continue to define who we are today. Hopefully, a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural significance of our ocean spaces can contribute to better conservation and management of marine resources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans K. Van Tilburg Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Van Tilburg, Hans K. . 2023. “Sea Voyage: The Evolving Maritime Cultural Landscape of American Samoa.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2030 Asia-Pac Session 16 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/fd8eb683ee8649f7b735e530bbf99194.pdf b7e2fe268a55548ea311db4d90801a78 PDF Text Text A history and archaeology of fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia Bill Jeffery, PhD (Associate Professor Anthropology, College of Liberal Arts and Social Science, University of Guam) ABSTRACT Tuna fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is currently a sustainable and profitable fishing industry and part of the leading world tuna fishing industry in the western Pacific. This paper will outline how the FSM got to this position and what related tangible and intangible heritage exists today. It begins with how indigenous people from the region implemented their fishing practices, using techniques that were implemented in balance and harmony with their marine environment. When Japan colonised the region, they were aware of the rich marine resources, proclaiming Micronesia had about ‘one-tenth of the total known fish in the world’. In 1918 they enthusiastically began to develop a fishing industry, which included exploiting shellfish, beche de mer, mackerel, different species of tuna, and skipjack tuna that became the dominant species exploited, for the benefit of Japanese people and the Japanese economy. However, local people in Micronesia were not actively encouraged to be part of this industry. The Japanese established a research station and imposed several regulations in how the industry should be developed and implemented. This activity occurred pre-World War II, and during the war many of the fishing vessels were converted to assist in the war effort, then lost during the war. Following World War II, the U.S. attempted to revive the tuna fishing industry in association with local people, having limited success, but today tuna is the FSM’s top export, and part of a sustainable billion-dollar industry that provides benefits to local people. Coupled with the extensive tangible and intangible heritage of indigenous fishing before Japanese times, a holistic picture of the cultural landscape and seascape associated with fishing will be provided in this paper. Keywords: Tuna fishing, Micronesia, Japan, World War II List of Figures Figure 1: Locality map of various places mentioned in this paper. Chuuk Lagoon is shown as ‘Chuuk Islands’. Figure 2: Two aech (fish weirs) on the reef flat in Yap at low tide. Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2018. Figure 3: Memorial on Tonoas dedicated to the fishermen from Okinawa who died in Chuuk (Truk). Figure 4: Photograph of the bowsprit of the Tonoas dock boat looking back along the vessel. INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is relevant to this session that focuses on the sea-people of Oceania, and their cultural identity that is reflected in their maritime cultural landscapes and seascapes. These landscapes and seascapes encompass not just the tangible cultural heritage, being the ‘things’, such as sites and objects, but also the living heritage, the intangible cultural heritage including cultural practices, customs, and folklore associated with their marine environment. Central in the lives of islanders has been the exploitation of the coast and sea for their food—predominantly the vertebrate and invertebrate fish. Fish for islanders has been the major source of protein for thousands of years. Many practices and living heritage in acquiring fish developed, including pelagic offshore fishing, and fish weirs and traps for inshore fishing. The paper commences with a discussion on the traditional Indigenous cultural heritage associated with fish and fishing practices. When foreigners came into Oceania in 1521, they impacted many lifestyles, cultural practices, and their fishing practices through not allowing indigenous people to use their canoes such as in the Caroline and Mariana Islands. When Japan took control of greater Micronesia in 1914, they enthusiastically established an industry exploiting the region’s fish for their benefit, and Indigenous people’s fishing practices were greatly marginalised. Local people were not supported in the Japanese 1 �fishing industry, which soon became a viable and profitable industry for Japan, and in conjunction with other industries focusing on sugar, phosphate, and copra, this made Micronesia self-sufficient. A large influx of people from Japan, including those from Okinawa assisted in the development of the fishing industry through their involvement in pole-and-line fishing for mainly bonito (skipjack tuna, Katsuwonis pelamis), and employment in the canneries. Through the use of oral sources, primary historical documents (from the pre, during, and post-World War II periods) and secondary historical literature, together with examples of several sites and living heritage, the extent of the cultural landscape and seascape associated with fish and fishing practices in the FSM and in Micronesia is highlighted in this paper. The aim in highlighting this significant sea heritage is to raise awareness of its many attributes including the cultural, historical, and archaeological values being as valuable to land-based heritage. Many sacred and spiritual connections with the coast and sea, as well as with fish have developed for many millions of people across Oceania. They should be as important to land-based heritage given the planet is 70% covered with water. This ‘human’ connection and significance needs to be recognized especially in the United Nations Decade 2021-2030 of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. MICRONESIA AND THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA The Federated States of Micronesia is made up of four states (from west to east), Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae, with Pohnpei containing the capital of the FSM, Palikir. It comprises 607 volcanic, and predominantly coralline islands that stretch 2,736 km west to east, and Chuuk Lagoon, which is approximately at the centre is located at 7° 25’ North and 151° 50’ East. Micronesia is the broader region of the north-west Pacific that includes FSM as well as the independent nations, Palau, Marshall Islands, Nauru, and the Gilbert Islands in Kiribati, and the U.S. territories of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and Wake Island (Figure 1). The Micronesia term (meaning small islands), was used to distinguish between other regions of Oceania, being Melanesia (islands of black people) and Polynesia (many islands), all 19th century colonial terms for the more than 10,000 islands located in what is now called Remote Oceania (Kirch 2010, 133). It was through the expansion of Austronesian speaking people, originally from Taiwan, through Island Sea East Asia (ISEA), primarily the Sulu and Sulawesi Seas (Wallacea) that people came into Oceania (Bellwood 2006, 113). The oldest inhabited islands are those in the Mariana Islands (c. 3,500 BP), Palau, and the Bismarck Archipelago (3,350 BP) (Carson 2014, 1; Spriggs 2013, 1). The Gilbert Islands, Marshall Islands, Pohnpei, and Chuuk were settled later (from 2,800 to 2,000 BP), through a northward migration via the Solomon Islands into the Gilbert Islands, Marshall Islands, Kosrae, then westward to Chuuk (Blust 1976, 29). A stimuli Bellwood (2006, 110) promotes as to why people moved from Taiwan into ISEA, then into Oceania, was because of their: ‘predilection for rapid coastal movement and exploration, probably to find the most favorable environments for cultivation and sheltered inshore fishing.’ 2 �Figure 1: Locality map of various places mentioned in this paper. Chuuk Lagoon is shown as ‘Chuuk Islands’. Source USDA-NRCS National Cartography & Geospatial Center, Pacific Basin Area, 1:20,000,000, Fort Worth Texas, 1999. TRADITIONAL INDIGENOUS FISHING It is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a comprehensive perspective of the significance of fish and fishing practices to indigenous Micronesians. Throughout Micronesia, fish are valued as part of the living heritage for many Indigenous communities, and they connect people: ‘Fish and other marine animals are not only aspects of many Ocean mythologies, they are also objects of exchange between clans from the sea and the land for ceremonial purposes’ (Hilmi et al. 2016, 178). The authors found that Pacific Islanders in exchanging goods, including fish, were doing so primarily for their social, cultural, and political interactions, and the economic values were of secondary importance (Hilmi et al. 2016, 176). Many traditional Indigenous conservation and management systems are carried out throughout the FSM, such as in the pwaaw in Chuuk, where a reef section would be closed off following the death of the reef owner (Rauchholz 2016, 57); traditional bans such as ‘harvesting at specific times the resources needed for feasts and customary exchanges’ (David 2016, 239); and how certain fish collected from a Yapese aech are only to be eaten by certain individuals ((Jeffery In Prep; Jeffery & Pitmag 2010, 5). Micronesians also developed extraordinary skills in catching fish, such as in CNMI, where Driver (1983, 15) related a story from a Micronesian man named Suñama told to a Spanish Priest Fray Juan Pobre in the early 17th century about catching a marlin (Amesbury 2013, 44): …a very large blue marlin took the hook. His line was very thin and, as he did not want to break it, he hesitated to pull it in. Yet he was very anxious to land the fish; therefore he very cautiously began playing and tiring it. Meanwhile, a large shark appeared and attacked the marlin in the midsection of its back. In order not to let go of his line, the fisherman allowed his boat to capsize. Then he tied the end of the line to the capsized boat, followed the line through the water to the shark and diverted him from his catch. He then brought the marlin back to his boat, righted the craft, and sailed home, flying a woven mat as a banner from the masthead. 3 �Amesbury (2013, 40) has documented the range of fish bones found in various archaeological sites on Guam, testifying to the importance of pelagic fish in the diet, although reef fish remains are dominant. What she discovered was that this quantity of pelagic fish remains were unique when compared to a database of 75 Pacific Islands archaeological sites. Flying fish were also a very popular fish to catch throughout Micronesia, either as a source of food, or as bait during pelagic fishing. In discussing fishing practices using canoe in Yap, I learnt that the Yapese outer islanders would fish without a canoe by floating in the water dangling a line and hook to catch shark, and there are many other stories related to the extraordinary fishing skills of Micronesians (W. Pitmag, personal communication, 2008). Other fishing practices can include using spears, nets, fishing poles, poisons, and traps, activities implemented by both men and women (Merlin 2002, 27-31). Fish traps and fish weirs were extensively used throughout Micronesia for catching reef fish on the reef flats (inshore fishing). Several styles made of different materials such as wood, bamboo and rocks have been used, and it is the fish weirs made of basalt or coral rocks, called aech in Yap that is extensive today and indicative of their value in FSM. The first seven aech in Yap were built by spirits, guiding the Yapese in how to build and catch fish in a sustainable manner, and there are about 800 around the volcanic islands of Yap. They reflect a Yapese cultural identity, highlighting Yapese ingenuity and the harmonious, spiritual, and sustainable relationship they have with the marine environment, through building and utilising the Traditional Ecological Knowledge they built up (Figure 2) (Jeffery 2013). Figure 2: Two aech (fish weirs) on the reef flat in Yap at low tide. Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2018. JAPANESE COLONIAL PERIOD The FSM had Spanish, German, Japanese and the U.S., colonial rulers, which all greatly impacted the lives of Indigenous people. During the Japanese period (1914-1945) a fishing industry, as compared to Indigenous subsistence fishing, was first developed. 4 �The Japanese commercial fishing industry was administered by a Marine Industry Section of Nan’yō-chō, which established licences, regulations, and penalties for all commercial fishing, including Indigenous people although their licensing was simplified if using traditional techniques (USFEA) 1944, 20). They declared closed seasons for certain types of fishing, provided subsidies for the construction of fishing vessels, the manufacture or purchase of new and improved fishing implements, and the construction of processing plants, amongst other things. In addition, they provided several subsidies to assist Japanese fishers, including the provision of boats to groups of 30-40 men who would implement bonito fishing (USFEA 1944, 21). The commercial fishery was a Japanese industry developed for the benefit of the Japanese government and people (USFEA 1944, vii). Subsidies for Indigenous fishers amounted to just 0.02% from 1922-1937 (Purcell 1976, 207). A Marine Products Experiment Station was established in Palau in 1931 and was equipped to implement fisheries research, with surveys of tuna implemented across Micronesia with two vessels Suiho Maru (180 tons), and Haku Maru (10 tons) (Gillet 2007, 4; USFEA 1944, 20). Chuuk and Palau were the centres for this fishing industry with over 640 fishing vessels between them, and 4,750 predominantly Japanese, and Micronesians engaged in the industry in 1937. The pole-and-line bonito fishing vessels employed in the industry had distinctive features, with ‘angling racks extending around the entire outside of the bulwark, and in most cases they are detachable. Live-bait tanks are placed fore in some boats, aft in others’ (USFEA 1944, 8). Okinawan fishermen migrating to Chuuk commenced the fishing industry, and together with Palau and Saipan, the export value of bonito climbed substantially (Hezel 1995, 188; Kawashima 2008, 52) (Figure 3). A total of 23 factories implemented the drying and manufacturing process for export to Japan: eight in Chuuk, and seven in Palau, all operated by Nan’yō Kōhatsu Kaisha in 1933 (USFEA 1944, 15). In addition, two canneries were operating in 1937, one in Chuuk run by Nankō, and one in Palau, but only 50 of the 6,305 tonnes were processed into cans. Figure 3: ‘Memorial on Tonoas (formerly Dublon, and Natsushima) dedicated to the fishermen from Okinawa who died in Chuuk (Truk).’ Inscription reads ‘Tamashiro Shoei (玉城松榮) [and] Shoutokuhi (頌徳碑) [memorial]’. Photograph taken during U.S. General Robert Blake’s inspection on the island on October 4, 1945. Source: Okinawa Prefectural Archives. http://www2.archives.pref.okinawa.jp/opa/SearchPicsDetail2.aspx?pid=63260&kword=Truk 5 �Remains of land-based fishing-related activities, such as the docks, the drying factories and canneries, as well as the fishing vessels can be found throughout Micronesia. In Chuuk, the well-preserved remains of a pole-and-line fishing vessel, and several documented by Holly (1999, 2000, 2006) in the Marshall Islands are a legacy of this type of tuna fishing and a significant link to the present day profitable and sustainable tuna fishing industry (Figure 4). During World War II, both traditional Indigenous fishing and the profitable Japanese fishing industry essentially based on tuna greatly declined. Many fishing boats were adapted to serve in the Japanese military, with some being destroyed during the war together with the land-based facilities. Immediately following the war, the USA attempted to revive the tuna fishing industry, but resources were so badly damaged, and local people had such a minor role in the industry that it was not possible. A United Nations mission report to the Pacific Islands in the 1950s, partly blamed in a neocolonial tone, the characteristics of local people for the poor post-war economic advancement, in addition to ‘extensive transport requirements and a dearth of economic resources’ (United Nations Trusteeship Council 1950, 3). In the early 1950s, restrictions on Japanese vessels fishing in Micronesia were lifted and they resumed commercial fishing. In the 1960s both Japan and the U.S. established tuna bases throughout the Pacific Islands (Gillett 2007, vii). Since then, tuna fishing based on skipjack tuna, has now developed into a profitable and sustainable industry for the FSM, Palau, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Tuvalu. They have come together ‘to coordinate and harmonise the management of fisheries with regard to common stocks within the Fisheries Zones, for the benefit of their peoples…in the world’s largest sustainable tuna purse seine fishery’ as provided in the ‘Nauru Agreement’ (PNA (Parties of the Nauru Agreement) 2021). Figure 4: Photograph of the bowsprit of the Tonoas dock boat shipwreck, looking back along the vessel. Photograph by Bill Jeffery, 2006. 6 �CONCLUSIONS The most important value of the legacy of the Japanese in developing the tuna fishing industry is the well-regulated approach to research and management of the fishery. However, the Japanese commenced and pursued the industry for Japanese personnel and as a Japanese commercial endeavour with minimal support for Indigenous Micronesians. Fortunately, this has now changed with good local employment in the industry, and good revenue for Micronesians, although the Japanese still have the largest fleet of fishing vessels. From the time the commercial fishing industry in Micronesia commenced in 1922, when 16 tonnes of tuna were caught across greater Micronesia, the industry has developed where in 2020 a total of 174,476 tonnes of tuna (skipjack, yellowfin, bigeye and albacore) were caught in the FSM Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ) alone (Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) 2020). The highest catch of tuna in the FSM EEZ was in 2017, with 272,580 tonnes. In 1937, there was a total of 644 vessels employed across greater Micronesia, and in 2020, it was 312 vessels (142 purse seiners; 149 long-liners; and 21 pole-and-line), of which 69 were FSM fishing vessels, and 243 foreign vessels (NORMA (National Oceanic Resource Management Authority) 2019). Modern day fishing vessels have got much larger, with the purse seiners ranging from a few hundred tonnes up to 1500+ tonnes; and the long-liners from 50-500+ tonnes. The World Wildlife Fund (2021) regard skipjack stocks as healthy, and ‘resilient, [but] could easily slip into a vulnerable state due to overfishing if improperly managed,’ a situation the fisheries managers are aware of through lowering the maximum catches and limiting the number of long-liners and purse seiners. This paper has briefly revealed a holistic maritime cultural landscape and seascape related to fishing over many centuries in the FSM. Traditional Indigenous fishing and the pre-World War II tuna fishing industry, all of which incorporate tangible cultural heritage, and intangible cultural heritage (living heritage), is a sea heritage reflecting a cultural identity of indigenous people. It is an important focus for maritime heritage/archaeological studies in Micronesia, and throughout Oceania. BIBLIOGRAPHY Amesbury, J.R. “Pelagic Fishing in the Mariana Archipelago: From the Prehistoric Period to the Present.” In Terra Australis 39 Prehistoric Marine Resource Use in the Indo-Pacific Regions, edited by R. Ono, R, A. Morrison, and D. Addison, (2013): 33-58. Bellwood P. “Austronesian Prehistory in Southeast Asia: Homeland, Expansion and Transformation.” In The Austronesians, Historical and Comparative Perspectives, edited by P. Bellwood, J. Fox, and D. Tyron D., 103-118. Canberra: The Australian National University Press, 2006. Blust R. “Austronesian culture history: some linguistic inferences and their relations to the archaeological record.” World Archaeology 8, no.1 (1976): 19-43. Carson M. “Conclusions and Implications of Earliest Marianas Sites.” In: First Settlement of Remote Oceania, edited by M. Carson, 135-147. 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D’Arcy “Socioeconomic significance of fisheries in the Small Island Developing States: natural heritage or commodity?” In Fisheries of the Pacific: The challenges of governance and sustainability, edited by E. Fache E, and S. Pauwels, 175-197. Marseille: Pacific-credo Publications, 2016. 7 �Holly M.B. “Archaeological Survey and Inventory of Submerged Resources in the Lagoons of Majuro and Kwajalein Atoll.” Part II Kwajalein Report. Kwajalein Sites on the South and Eastern Sides of Kwajalein Atoll. Republic of the Marshall Islands: Historic Preservation Office, 1999. Holly M.B. “Archaeological Survey and Inventory of Submerged Cultural Resources in the Lagoons of Majuro and Atoll.” Republic of the Marshall Islands: Historic Preservation Office, 2000. Holly M.B. “Submerged Cultural and Historic Resources of Maloelap Atoll, Marshall Islands.” Micronesian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 5, No. 1/2 (2006): 162-200. Jeffery B “Tidal Stone-Walled Fish Weirs in Asia-Pacific: An Austronesian Cultural Identity and its Relevance in Marine Ecology Conservation.” In An Archaeology of Human Resilience: Sustainability in Indigenous Island Societies edited by S. Fitzpatrick, J. Erlandson and K.Gill University Press of Florida, (In Prep). Jeffery B, Perrin M. Yamafune, K. “From small beginnings to a leading world industry: the connection of Micronesian underwater cultural heritage with its Tuna fishing industry.” J Mari Arch (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-023-09352-9 Jeffery B. “Reviving community spirit: furthering the sustainable, historical and economic role of fish weirs and traps.” J Mari Arch, no. 8 (2013): 29-57 Jeffery, B., & Pitmag W. “The aech of Yap: A survey of sites and their histories.” Unpublished report. Yap: Yap State Historic Preservation Office, 2010. Kawashima A. “Teikokushi Kenkyu to Okinawa Shusshin Nanyo Imin: Okinawa to Iu Genba Kara.” Komazawa Shigaku, no. 71 (2008): 48-69. Kirch P. “Peopling of the Pacific: A Holistic Anthropological Perspective.” Annual Rev. Anthropology, no. 39 (2010): 131-148. Merlin M. “Documenting fishing practices.” SPC Women in Fishing Information Bulletin, no. 11 (2002): 27-31. www.iclarm.org/Pubs/Wif/pub_wifglobal.htm check URL National Oceanic Resource Management Authority (NORMA) “Annual Report 2017-2019.” 2019. https://www.norma.fm/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/NORMA-Annual-Report-2017-2019-FINAL.pdf Accessed 2 October 2021 Parties of the Nauru Agreement (PNA) “Nauru Agreement.” 2021 https://www.pnatuna.com/index.php/content/nauru-agreement Accessed 2 October 2021 Purcell D.C. “The Economics of Exploitation: The Japanese in the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands, 1915-1940.” The Journal of Pacific History, 11, no. 3 (1976): 189-211 Rauchholz M. “Resources, boundaries and governance: What future for marine resources in Micronesia?” In Fisheries of the Pacific: The challenges of governance and sustainability. edited by E. Fache E, and S. Pauwels, 49-76. Marseille: Pacific-credo Publications, 2016. Spriggs M. “Oceania: Lapita Migration.” The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration, (2013): 1-6. Wiley-Blackwell https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm839 Accessed 11 October 2021 United Nations Trusteeship Council (U.N.TC) “Major Problems of Administration in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.” NARA Record Group No. 313, Washington, NARA, 1950. United States Foreign Economic Administration (USFEA) “Civil Affairs Guide. The Fishing Industry of the Japanese Mandated Islands.” OPNAV P22-20, US Chief of Naval Operation, 1944. Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) “Annual Report to the Commission: Part 1: Information on Fisheries, Research and Statistics.” 2020. https://meetings.wcpfc.int/node/11601 Accessed 2 October 2021. World Wildlife Fund (WWF) “Skipjack Tuna.” 2021 https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/skipjack-tuna Accessed 8 September 2021. Personal Communications William Pitmag, former Yap State Historic Preservation Office Technical Officer 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 16: The significance of Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Seascapes and Living Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Session 16 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 16 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A history and archaeology of fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource Tuna fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is currently a sustainable and profitable fishing industry and part of the leading world tuna fishing industry in the western Pacific. This paper will outline how the FSM got to this position and what related tangible and intangible heritage exists today. It begins with how indigenous people from the region implemented their fishing practices, using techniques that were implemented in balance and harmony with their marine environment. When Japan colonised the region, they were aware of the rich marine resources, proclaiming Micronesia had about ‘one-tenth of the total known fish in the world’. In 1918 they enthusiastically began to develop a fishing industry, which included exploiting shellfish, beche de mer, mackerel, different species of tuna, and skipjack tuna that became the dominant species exploited, for the benefit of Japanese people and the Japanese economy. However, local people in Micronesia were not actively encouraged to be part of this industry. The Japanese established a research station and imposed several regulations in how the industry should be developed and implemented. This activity occurred pre-World War II, and during the war many of the fishing vessels were converted to assist in the war effort, then lost during the war. Following World War II, the U.S. attempted to revive the tuna fishing industry in association with local people, having limited success, but today tuna is the FSM’s top export, and part of a sustainable billion-dollar industry that provides benefits to local people. Coupled with the extensive tangible and intangible heritage of indigenous fishing before Japanese times, a holistic picture of the cultural landscape and seascape associated with fishing will be provided in this paper. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jeffery, Bill . 2023. “A history and archaeology of fishing in the Federated States of Micronesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2029 Asia-Pac Session 16 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/674c7f4c5129063426008a5a99efa1ca.pdf 4f4c925bbfb63b654fb281e57eb5aa6f PDF Text Text The Boats and Ships in the Indian Paintings: Examining the Commercial and Domestic Aspects in Maritime Activities Vishi Upadhyay (Curatorial Associate, Bihar Museum, Patna, India) vishi.arch@gmail.com ABSTRACT Paintings are visual artefacts and one of the significant art narratives supplemented as a primary source in the construction or reconstruction of social and cultural lifeways of different periods since the Early Historic period—for example, the murals of Ajanta, Cholas, Vijayanagara, and the Mughal School of paintings. Among the diverse visual content, the Indian paintings consist of the depiction of the relationship between the water and humans in the forms of navigation activities through boats and ships of various kinds. Such images are further connected with social and economic aspects, which need to be examined and analysed to differentiate between domestic and commercial functioning. The analysis has been much on identifying trade-related activities and largely has ignored the other side of the social construct with the paintings bearing the marine activities. For example, the sailors and pilgrimage are on the riverside temples, and the boats and sailors in recreational activities. Which have been lesser known and studied. In this paper, the paintings in the collections of museums in Bihar shall be examined to narrate the visual craftsmanship surrounding the identity of boats and ships in detail, including but not limited to their forms/ models, designs, and their functions. Further, they are categorically examined and studied for commercial (interstate trades) or private uses (personal rides). The paintings in Rajput, Mughal, Patna Kalam, Boondi, Pahadi, Rajasthani, Kagada and Delhi School of Art, representing the beautiful boats and ships in different fabrics and shapes, are the focus of this study. This paper is well fitted to session-29 because of the discussion on the riverine craft and associated activities. The paper deals with riverine craft i.e. boats and ships, which are illustrated on paintings of Rajput school of art, Patna school of art and Banaras school of art. Boats and ships are the obligatory part of marine activities and this paper well describes the function of boats along with design and discussion of similar riverine craft in ancient text. INTRODUCTION The association of human and water have been represented in different expressions like art, literature, Numismatic, epigraphy and travelers’ accounts. Depicting boats and ships is a very prominent and favorite part of Indian art as well as a strong representation of Indian tradition. How boats and ships are imperative in Indian society could be seen in votive boat tradition in Odisha (Tripathi 2011, 1084), boat race in Kerala and so on. Out of these, Paintings are visual artefacts and one of the significant art narratives supplemented as a primary source in the construction or reconstruction of social and cultural lifeways of different periods since the Early Historic period. The purpose of this paper is to accomplish a comprehensive study of paintings in collections of Patna museum and Bihar museum for detailing out the types and functions of boats in Indian society. CASE STUDY Types of boats The only recorded Sanskrit Sastric treatise which includes a section on ships, their classification and technical features and functions, is the Yuktikalpataru, preserved in the Calcutta Sanskrit College Library and first examined for its nautical interest by R. K. Mookerji in his pioneering 1912 publication A History of Indian Shipping and Maritime Activity from the Earliest Times (Mookerjee 1912). The Yuktikalpataru is a compilation of information on a variety of subjects, under the authorship of Bhoja Narapati. The identity of the author is unknown, but the extent to which the information it contains conforms to riverine boat type’s points to an eastern Indian, probably Bengali, origin. It is believed to date from the fourteenth century but, like other prescriptive Sastric books of this type, no doubt embodied much older knowledge. An extensive list of boat types is provided, classified according to their size and to their suitability for different sailing conditions. The critical 1 �distinction is between two classes of vessels, Samanya or "Ordinary", that is, river craft and Vishesa or "Special", that is, ocean-going vessels. The Samanya are subdivided into ten categories: Ksudra, Madhyama, Bhima, Capala, Patala, Bhaya, Dirgha, Patraputa, Garbhara, Manthara (Mukherjee 1912, 15). The boat which forms the subject of this paper broadly fits the Madhyama category under the river craft classification. This describes a vessel with a cabin in the centre (when it is identified under a further subdivision as Sarvamandira and Madyamandira), used as a pleasure boat by the king and suited for the rainy season. The Yuktikalpataru also details the appropriate colour for the masts, materials for metal fittings (gold, silver, copper), and the choice of figureheads drawn from the animal world, and the use of garlands to festoon the prows (Guy 1999, 106). These features can be seen clearly in a Bengal boat depicted in a nineteenth century Bengali patta painting of The Story of Gazi (Guy 1999, 110) as well as the paintings of Patna school of Art also known as Patna Kalam. Sastric sources refer to the organization and regulation of both riverine and ocean trade. The Arthashastra of Kautilya, for example, names the official post of Navadhyaksa, the Superintendent of Ships, whose duties included the customs control of ports, the provision of toll ferries and the assisting of vessels in distress. Other Sanskrit texts which concern themselves with ships and sailing are the Abhidhanaratnamala and the Vaijayanti. The activities of traders from such eastern Indian centres as Kausambi, Varanasi, Pataliputra, and Campa are recorded in the Buddhist Vinaya texts and Jatakas, supplying the Bengal port of Tamralipti (Ramachandran 1970, 79) on the mouth of the Ganges for the Southeast Asian trade. From the Gupta to Pala eras eastern India maintained large navies, and many battles were fought on the Ganges and its delta. The dual stimulus of commerce and warfare must have ensured a high level of ship building technology and skills in eastern India. Royal Pleasure boats The boats in this category are prolific in numbers in paintings of Patna Kalam. The deck of such boats has a number of interesting features with animals and birds’ heads. Author found the boats with the shapes of peahens, lions, sea monsters or crocodile and hoarse. A decorated cabin is erected on the centre of the vessel, where royal persons are enjoying the trip. A flag is flowing at the last corner of each ship and may represent the province. At the bottom of the flag oarsmen are stirring the pedals and moving the ship ahead. A whisk man is blowing the whisk and his face is toward the prow (Fig. 1). These types of boats represent the Survmandira type of ships as per the Yuktikulptaru.( Mookerjee 1912:18) Such kinds of boats have the largest cabin extending from one end of the ship to the other and are used for transport royal treasures, horses and women. The text gives elaborate information for decorating and furnishing such kinds of vessels. The prows of ships admit of a great variety of fanciful shapes and forms: these comprise the heads of lion, buffalo, serpent, elephant, tiger, birds, such as duck, peahen, or parrot, the frog, and man thus arguing a great development of the art of the carpenter or the sculptor. Other elements of decoration are pearls and garlands of gold to be attached to and hung from the beautifully shaped prows (Mookerjee 1912, 17). Four kinds of metals are recommended for such kinds of ships: gold, silver, copper and compounds of all three. 2 �Figure 1 : Peacock shaped royal pleasure boat, in collection of Patna Museum The convention of having an animal, natural or mythical, as a figurehead is a feature of ceremonial vessel design from the earliest times in India, as witnessed by the relief on the western gateway at Sanchi Stupa no. 1, in which a sandstone relief medallion depicts a pleasure boat with a pavilion, the bow represented in the form of a mythical winged gryphon, and the raised stern as the tail of an aquatic creature. It is interesting to note that it records the involvement of the Satavahana king Satakami through an inscription left by his chief of works (Harle 1986, 34, n. 37). The Satavahana dynasty of the western Deccan actively supported the maritime ventures of their Buddhist merchants and clearly pleasure boats were a part of royal life in this early period (Ray 1986). The earliest depiction of a boat in Indian sculpture, to be found in a decorated roundel of the Bharhut stupa railing of the second century ВС, shows two vessels (one disappearing into the jaws of a ferocious sea-monster or makar) with steeply rising prow and stern sections, constructed of broad planks of timber secured with what appear to be metal staples but in reality was more probably fibre stitching. The vessel is without masts and appears only to be propelled by two oars not dissimilar to those seen in our model. One can surmise that this scene depicts the perils of sea travel as undertaken by enterprising Buddhist and other merchants (and monks) in the Mauryan and Sunga periods (fourth-first centuries ВС) and recounted in the Buddhist canonical literature, notably in the Vinaya Pitaka, and in the later Buddhist literature, including the Jataka stories1 (Guy 1999, 107). In one of Patna Kalam paintings, a big vessel resting at the bank of a river along with attendants of some royal person, might be waiting for their lord/queen with a decorated palanquin. Boat comprises a single mast and a big cabin with a golden throne. Shapes of such boats show the function of pleasure trips. In another painting, there is a big boat being ridden by a royal man and his subordinates. The royal person is sitting at the centre of the cabin and others are sitting around him. Prow of the hull portion is in the shape of a mermaid. Boat is a single mast which is topped by a flag and a sail. Two helmsman are shown in boat, one is maintaining the sail as per the direction of wind and another one is stirring a long handle peddle at other last corner of the boat. 1 Judging from the frequent references to stitched hull construction as a feature of Indian ship building, it may be assumed that this is the method being employed in the Bharhut relief. 3 �Figure 2: Royal pleasure boats, in collection of Patna Museum In figure 2, there are nine decorated boats with a single cabin at centre, single mast and sail. These colourful boats perfectly show a scene of pleasure trips in river Ganga. The painting of Banaras school of art must show the scene of Banaras Ghat (Bank of the river Ganga) Royal ceremonial boat Shape and design of boat in fig no 3 best fits it with the Madhyamandira category as per Yuktikulptaru which are used by kings (Mookerji 1912, 18). The painting of Rajput school of art represents a scene of some festival. In the courtyard of the palace, royal women are preparing for ritual and decorating idols of goddess (Parvati?) few are keeping the idol over their head and blowing fly-whisk. Another beautiful part of this painting is a royal boat which is made of wood and painted red in colour. It is surmounted by an open pavilion which is in the shape of chatari (umbrella) and resting upon the four columns. Three decorated staircases are connected to the pavilion to rest part of the boat. A King is sitting under the pavilion and looking at the ceremony/festival, he might have come to attend the ceremony. Oarsmen are stirring the boat and a helmsman is standing at the last corner of the boat. Two umbrella and palm leaf fan bearers are up righting between the oarsmen and helmsman. The Stern section is in the shape of a swan. However, a relief sculpture of a similar boat in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, throws light on the identity of this device. The relief has an umbrella bearer mounted on the standing figure of an elephant, both of which have royal affiliations. It may be that this device is not a vase but an attempt to represent the umbrella (chattari) in the round (the sculptor has obviously not dared to cut away the stone around the umbrella's post). The elephant figurehead is flanked by two attendants, one holding a fly-whisk (chamar), the other a palm-leaf fan (taal pakka). The final feature of this vessel is the mandapa-type super-structure, a pavilion supported by four turned columns and a two-tiered pitched roof with capping finial. This covered pavilion houses three seated figures: a warrior with a bow (on the port side), a bearded priest holding a rosary (facing starboard) and a figure in princely attire in the centre, facing the prow. Interestingly, in the Calcutta relief, the side of the pavilion depicted shows the warrior figure. I shall return to the possible symbolism of this ship and its royal passenger, but first I want to situate this vessel in the long tradition of Indian royal pleasure barges reaching back at least to the Satavahana period of the early centuries AD (Guy 1999, 107). 4 �Figure 3: Royal ceremonial boat, in collection of Patna Museum Merchant, Rider boats Paintings of Patna Kalam are designated by the merchant and rider boats. The hull of merchant boats looks huge. In fig no 4 merchant boats are shown with single mast and sail and overloaded with goods, along with that two rider boats appear with elongated cabins at the centre. Roof of the cabin is downwards. Rider boats are useful for river traffic and that are the lifeline of contemporary societies. One of the rider boats in the painting shows an interesting feature. A medium size boat is resting at the bank of the river. Boat has a single mast which is topped by a flag and another flag erects at the other last corner which shows its possession by high class. Two mariners are sitting upon the deck of the boat and other three are cooking food at the surface of the river bank. 5 �Figure 4: Merchant and Rider type boats, in collection of Patna Museum Fishing boats Fig. No 5 in paintings, represents the living scenes of fish boats in different river banks of Bihar. Such kinds of boats are small in size and sometimes show a small cabin at the centre. Figure 5 : Fishing boats, in collection of Patna Museum RESULTS Describing the marine activities through the narratives is an exciting part as it echoes the context. Paintings of Patna Kalam, Rajput school of art and Banaras school of art well captured the scenes of marine activities and river crafts. Colorful and enormously designed boats show the passion of artists and classifications of classes in contemporary society as well as the occupations. Animal headed boats show the affluent classes. Horse, sea monster, mermaid, peacock, lion headed boats are instances of wonderful craftsmanship. This is noteworthy that most of the artist in Patna Kalam paintings captured the scenes of decorated boats with pleasure trips by royal persons, an eye catchy view of boats could be the reason for so but the unvarying marine activities like riding boats for ordinary people, merchant boats and fishing boats also could get a space in painting. The comparative study of these boats in paintings with prescribed boats in ancient text gives a consolidation to this paper. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Guy John. 1999, A Boat Model and State Ritual in Eastern India. In: Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient. Tome 86. Harle, J.C. 1 986,The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, Harmondsworth, Penguin Mookerji, R.K. 1912, A History of Indian Shipping and Maritime Activity from the Earliest Times, London, Longmans, Green, [repr. Allahabad. Ramachandran, K.S. 1970, Ancient Indian Maritime Ventures , in L. Chandra et al. (eds.), India's Contribution to World Thought and Culture, Madras. Ray, H.P. 1986, Monastery and Guild: Commerce under the Satavahanas, Delhi, Oxford University Press. Tripati Sila, 2011, Ancient Indian maritime trade in eastern Indian littoral, current science Vol 100, no 7, Current Science Association, Bengaluru. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Boats and Ships in the Indian Paintings: Examining the Commercial and Domestic Aspects in Maritime Activities Description An account of the resource Paintings are visual artefacts and one of the significant art narratives supplemented as a primary source in the construction or reconstruction of social and cultural lifeways of different periods since the Early Historic period—for example, the murals of Ajanta, Cholas, Vijayanagara, and the Mughal School of paintings. Among the diverse visual content, the Indian paintings consist of the depiction of the relationship between the water and humans in the forms of navigation activities through boats and ships of various kinds. Such images are further connected with social and economic aspects, which need to be examined and analysed to differentiate between domestic and commercial functioning. The analysis has been much on identifying trade-related activities and largely has ignored the other side of the social construct with the paintings bearing the marine activities. For example, the sailors and pilgrimage are on the riverside temples, and the boats and sailors in recreational activities. Which have been lesser known and studied. In this paper, the paintings in the collections of museums in Bihar shall be examined to narrate the visual craftsmanship surrounding the identity of boats and ships in detail, including but not limited to their forms/ models, designs, and their functions. Further, they are categorically examined and studied for commercial (interstate trades) or private uses (personal rides). The paintings in Rajput, Mughal, Patna Kalam, Boondi, Pahadi, Rajasthani, Kagada and Delhi School of Art, representing the beautiful boats and ships in different fabrics and shapes, are the focus of this study. This paper is well fitted to session-29 because of the discussion on the riverine craft and associated activities. The paper deals with riverine craft i.e. boats and ships, which are illustrated on paintings of Rajput school of art, Patna school of art and Banaras school of art. Boats and ships are the obligatory part of marine activities and this paper well describes the function of boats along with design and discussion of similar riverine craft in ancient text. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vishi Upadhyay Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Upadhyay, Vishi . 2023. “The Boats and Ships in the Indian Paintings: Examining the Commercial and Domestic Aspects in Maritime Activities.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2028 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/66dc0b30bc7eb962eff33cd521888c91.pdf 5af68724b3ceb7c3955a9bcb0b60f6d6 PDF Text Text Underwater Archaeology in India: Initiatives of Archaeological Survey of India Aprajita Sharma (Assistant Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India) ABSTRACT India is surrounded by a vast coastline and encircled by a terrific riverine system. Due to this travellers and merchants easily managed to reach India through sea and riverine connections along with the land routes. The trade aspect enhanced other integral aspects like cultural interactions and economic exchanges which is why India is known to all other countries since antiquity. Archaeologically, a wide range of studies have been carried-out in India, however, the underwater archaeological studies are quite meagre. The history of India cannot be completed without the inclusion and proper study of its underwater cultural heritage. To complete a wide gap in underwater archaeological studies, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Ministry of Culture (MOC) has been involved in underwater explorations since the 1980s. Collaborations with the National Institute of Oceanography were done initially for studying and analysing underwater cultural heritage in India. During this period, many sites were explored along the west coast in the Arabian Sea and along the east coast in the Bay of Bengal. Sites on the west coast viz. Bet Dwarka, an island in the Gulf of Kachchh, Dwarka, Sopara, Elephanta and on the east coast such as Arikamedu and Mahabalipuram was explored and investigated. Giving the subject a more serious thought, an Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) under the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) officially came into existence in 2001. Thereby several activities commenced viz expedition at Bangaram Island, Dwarka, Mahabalipuram, Loktak Lake (Manipur), Elephanta Island, etc. The topic of this abstract fits best within session ’29. Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums’ because it will highlight the activities of UAW carried out so far in India along with a glimpse of a maritime gallery in the Archaeological Site Museum, Goa and new initiatives and challenges in the field of underwater cultural heritage. Keywords: Underwater Archaeology, Maritime Gallery, Archaeological Survey of India, Chinese porcelain Abbreviations: Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) List of figures Figure 1 Floating huts: Loktak Lake (source: Archaeological Survey of India) Figure 2 Exploration: Elephanta Island (source: Archaeological Survey of India) Figure 3 Maritime Gallery, Old Goa (source: Archaeological Survey of India) INTRODUCTION Underwater Archaeology also known as marine archaeology is a scientific field wherein material remains of humans, and his past activities on the sea or river are studied. Worldwide, several underwater expeditions have been carried out till date, however, in India, it is still a young discipline. Considering a scientific field, it requires specialised training and expertise not only in archaeology but also in underwater related investigations. With the advancement in technology to study the underwater archaeological remains, an investigation for the submerged remnants of Pompoohar, Tamil Nadu was carried out by a team of oceanographers somewhere in 1981 (Vora 1987, 159-164). This survey is regarded as the commencement of underwater archaeological research in India. Thereafter, S.R. Rao, a retired archaeologist from the ASI started a project namely ‘Marine Archaeological Studies in Indian Waters’ (Tripathi 2020, 150). The project gained wide publicity with underwater investigations at Dwarka, Gujarat. Due to stories behind the lost city of Dwarka, underwater archaeology as a discipline became popular in India. This was the moment which became the foundation of underwater archaeology in India. As a result, scientists, oceanographers, and archaeologists of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) joined hands and thereafter collaborated for several other 1 �underwater investigations in India. On the other hand, the project also led to illegal activities and underwater treasure hunting. Even though there is paucity of underwater archaeologists in India, still, the number of works carried out by the Underwater Archaeological Wing (UAW) of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) since its inception in 2001 are noteworthy. To name a few sites related to underwater cultural heritage like Dwarka, Mahabalipuram, Loktak Lake (Manipur), Elephanta Island, etc. were extensively examined by the UAW. Considering the works of UAW, the present paper will highlight some of the significant activities and achievements of the Wing, new initiatives, and challenges in the field of underwater cultural heritage along with a glimpse of a maritime gallery in the Archaeological Site Museum, Goa. A Beginning: Underwater Archaeology Wing A wide range of archaeological studies have been carried-out in India; however, the underwater archaeological studies are quite meagre. The historical past of India cannot be completed without the inclusion and proper study of its underwater cultural heritage. Since the 1980s, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Ministry of Culture (MOC) has been involved in underwater explorations. Initially, ASI joined hands with the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) to study and analyse underwater cultural heritage in India. During this period, many sites were explored along the west coast in the Arabian Sea and along the east coast in the Bay of Bengal. Sites on the west coast like Bet Dwarka, an island in the Gulf of Kachchh, Dwarka, Sopara, Elephanta and on the east coast such as Arikamedu and Mahabalipuram were explored and investigated. Giving the subject a more serious thought, an Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) officially came into existence in 2001. Same year, UAW carried-out its first underwater expedition in Lakshadweep. First underwater expedition in India by UAW - Bangaram Island (2001-02) After the creation of UAW, the first underwater exploration in India by this Wing was carried-out in 2001 off-Bangaram Island in Lakshadweep. The exploration led to the excavation. In May 2002, ASI collaborated with the Indian Navy for excavating a British shipwreck, Princess Royal, belonging to the 18th or 19th century which had sunk off the coast of Lakshadweep. INS Jamuna equipped with the latest survey equipment was deputed to carry out an underwater survey. The INS Nireekshak was deployed for underwater archaeological excavation. The wreck of Princess Royal was found at a depth of 54 metres (Tripathi 2004, 1246). The Indian navy showed great enthusiasm in the project and extended full cooperation. As a result, it was the first systematic underwater excavation in India conducted by UAW. The excavation was recorded through videography and photography using underwater cameras and latest available technologies like side sonar, echo sounder, magnetometer, gravimeter, and satellite navigation system. The Wing always focused on the in-situ preservation, and which is why the excavation was documented considering all the archaeological norms. This excavation yielded brown glazed pottery (martaban ware) in large numbers, Chinese porcelain along with objects of copper, iron, wood, etc. (Tripathi 2004, 1246-1250). Mahabalipuram (2004-05) Underwater exploration off Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu was carried-out in 2004. In February 2004, UAW along with the Indian Navy carried-out extensive diving and exploration here. The survey ship of Indian Navy, INS Darshak was deputed for the underwater explorations. Divers of ASI and Indian navy 2 �made extensive diving near submerged rocks near the north side of the Shore temple. Though the surveys had to be limited due to the tsunami which occurred in December 2004. In 2005, following the preliminary research UAW decided to do another round of extensive diving in Mahabalipuram (Tripathi 2007, 127-139). The Indian navy again joined hands with the ASI for the work. The entire project was well planned and documented using various means of photography. Several submerged rocks having marks of human activities and architectural members were identified and examined. Besides, areas near the shore temple were excavated wherein remains of temples were observed. The evidence like square sanctum and entrance porch emphasised a temple like structure. Interestingly, a terracotta ring well was also discovered near the temple. The excavations shed a light on change in shorelines and submergence of structures in the sea. Dwarka (2006-07) In 2006, an exploration was conducted offshore and onshore in Dwarka, Gujarat, to understand the submerged archaeological remains. The coastal areas were examined during low tide wherein sculptures, and two stone anchors were discovered. Based on explorations, underwater excavations were carried-out in 2007. The objective of the excavation was to know the antiquity of the site, based on material evidence. In this offshore excavation, the ASI’s trained underwater archaeologists and the divers of the Navy searched the sunken structural remains. Findings like submerged remains, circular structures, scattered architectural members and stones were studied and documented. Apart from underwater excavations, an area near the Dwarkadheesh temple was excavated in January 2007 (Tripathi 2013, 103-124). The entire area was full of successive structures; therefore, due care was taken to document all the features through drawings and photography. Different areas separated by structures were marked and documented in detail. The excavation yielded many antiquities which includes terracotta objects, beads, fragmented bangles, copper rings, iron ingots and pottery. Loktak Lake (2009) Figure 1 Floating huts: Loktak Lake (source: Archaeological Survey of India) 3 �The UAW in 2009 focused the attention on the north-eastern part of India. Considering it, exploration in and around the Loktak lake in Manipur was carried-out in May 2009. The objective of the exploration was to find evidence of old settlements in the lake. Dwellings on floating islands in the lake are known to be quite an old tradition. These dwellings were made of organic materials which deteriorate very fast, and it is difficult to find their remains on land. But at the same time these organic materials get preserved when buried underwater. The remains of ancient dwellings in the lake could only be found through underwater archaeological investigations. Another objective of the exploration was to study ancient sites around the lake to study the changes in the lake and its impact on communities around the lake. As per the plan for the exploration, the team (author of this paper was a part of the team) explored following areas around the Kangla fort, which includes some monuments and a site near the now dried-up Imphal River (Manipur River) where excavation was carried out by the Department of Archaeology, Manipur State. Nearby areas in Bishnupur district were also explored by the team. The most interesting part of the exploration were islands namely Karong and Thanga in the Loktak lake. These are the two most densely populated islands among the 14 islands in the lake. The floating dwellings, namely, phumdi (floating huts/ islands) were also examined and documented (fig. 1). The location of Phubala in district Bishnupur was visited by the team to document a dugout canoe used by the people in the area. Ethnoarchaeological aspects were emphasised during the exploration to understand the culture and society. Elephanta Island (2009) The area around the Elephanta in Maharashtra has a rich historical and archaeological significance. The coastline of Elephanta has evidence of foreign pottery along with ancient coins and other artefacts. Considering the possibility of locating ancient port sites and shipwrecks, the area was chosen for preliminary offshore explorations. The area mentioned in ancient records namely Rajbandar was explored in October 2009 by the UAW in collaboration with the Indian Navy. INS Sarvekshak of the Indian Navy was deputed for the exploration. Divers of the Indian Navy along with the team of ASI (author of the paper was part of the team) explored the entire area using technologies like sonar scanning survey (fig. 2). Samples were collected for further examination and documentation. Figure 2 Exploration: Elephanta Island (source: Archaeological Survey of India) Besides, explorations around the nearby villages - Rajbandar and Morabandar were carried-out wherein foreign potteries like glazed ware, Chinese porcelain, roman amphorae along with semi-precious stones, copper coin, etc. were discovered (personal record). 4 �Maritime Gallery at Archaeological Museum, Old Goa Considered a hub of maritime history, a gallery at Archaeological Museum, Old Goa was planned. It highlights a wooden model of Portuguese ship alongside narrations about the maritime trade activities between Portuguese and Indians. The gallery was made to highlight the underwater cultural heritage of Goa. Though, it is a small gallery but holds plenty of information on the trade and cultural interactions which were carried-out through maritime routes. The gallery is maintained and managed by the Goa Circle of ASI as it is a part of the museum (fig. 3). Figure 3 Maritime Gallery, Old Goa (source: Archaeological Survey of India) Challenges and achievements of Underwater Archaeology Wing UAW has taken-up a few challenging works in India as mentioned above. The hardest part was the lack of underwater archaeologists in India. However, collaborations with the Indian Navy opened a new way and as a result a lot could be done. The much challenging part remains the same – training and expertise in the field of underwater archaeology. The need for training to carry-out proper underwater expeditions have been thought-up meticulously. Considering a young brigade of archaeologists, ASI is in the planning phase of extending training to youngsters. Plan also includes practical training besides theoretical lectures. Attempts are being made to materialise the process of selection of interested candidates and further training. Besides training, the need of awareness among masses towards underwater cultural heritage has also been regarded as necessary. Keeping this aim in mind, planning to include students of archaeology from 5 �different universities for theoretical lectures has been done. This step would encourage youngsters to gain basic information on underwater archaeology which will support in understanding this subject. CONCLUSIONS After the inception of UAW, legal provisions for the protection and preservation of underwater cultural heritage were pipelined. It generated a huge impact on underwater archaeology as a discipline and encouraged research in the field. Carrying out underwater expeditions at several significant sites in collaboration with the India navy was another star on the hat of this Wing. The excavations led to the international conferences wherein officers from the Indian Navy, archaeologists, scientists, and oceanographers discussed best practices. During the underwater archaeological works, UAW had also trained archaeology students and enthusiasts. Though, professional training in diving is the need of hour and collaborations with other organisations to acquire it is being done. More trained professionals mean awareness of this discipline and less illegal practices. UAW established a parameter with well documented underwater explorations and excavations in India which will further be enhanced by training more archaeologists. Bibliography Tripathi, Alok. “Princess Royal – Excavation of ancient shipwreck in the Arabian Sea.” Current Science, vol. 86, no. 9 (2004): 1246-1250. Tripathi, Alok. “Offshore and Onshore Excavation at Mahabalipuram – 2005.” In India and the Eastern Seas, edited by Alok Tripathi, 127-139. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 2007. Tripathi, Alok. “Excavation at Dwarka – 2007.” In Maritime Heritage of Indian Ocean, edited by Alok Tripathi, 103-124. New Delhi: Sharada Publishing House, New Delhi, 2013. Tripathi, Alok. “Underwater Archaeological Research and Heritage Management in India: Inter-departmental Collaboration and Utilization of State Infrastructure.” In Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management on the Historic and Arabian Trade Routes, edited by Robert Parthesius and Jonathan Sharfman, 149-158. Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2020. Vora, K. H. “A Note on Geophysical Explorations for Marine Archaeology off Tamil Nadu Coast, India.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 16, no. 2, (1987): 159-164. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Archaeology in India: Initiatives of Archaeological Survey of India Description An account of the resource India is surrounded by a vast coastline and encircled by a terrific riverine system. Due to this travellers and merchants easily managed to reach India through sea and riverine connections along with the land routes. The trade aspect enhanced other integral aspects like cultural interactions and economic exchanges which is why India is known to all other countries since antiquity. Archaeologically, a wide range of studies have been carried-out in India, however, the underwater archaeological studies are quite meagre. The history of India cannot be completed without the inclusion and proper study of its underwater cultural heritage. To complete a wide gap in underwater archaeological studies, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Ministry of Culture (MOC) has been involved in underwater explorations since the 1980s. Collaborations with the National Institute of Oceanography were done initially for studying and analysing underwater cultural heritage in India. During this period, many sites were explored along the west coast in the Arabian Sea and along the east coast in the Bay of Bengal. Sites on the west coast viz. Bet Dwarka, an island in the Gulf of Kachchh, Dwarka, Sopara, Elephanta and on the east coast such as Arikamedu and Mahabalipuram was explored and investigated. Giving the subject a more serious thought, an Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) under the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) officially came into existence in 2001. Thereby several activities commenced viz expedition at Bangaram Island, Dwarka, Mahabalipuram, Loktak Lake (Manipur), Elephanta Island, etc. The topic of this abstract fits best within session ’29. Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums’ because it will highlight the activities of UAW carried out so far in India along with a glimpse of a maritime gallery in the Archaeological Site Museum, Goa and new initiatives and challenges in the field of underwater cultural heritage. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Aprajita Sharma Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Sharma, Aprajita . 2023. “Underwater Archaeology in India: Initiatives of Archaeological Survey of India.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2027 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a82d0b29abb7d64fc85ecf6a3fb8e2c8.pdf 32c9ec6246f49812ff437c54cc53ca51 PDF Text Text Investigating the causes of deterioration and the appropriate conservation treatment method of an excavated wooden schooner found in coastal area of Bangladesh Rokonuzzaman S (Dept. of Conservation Laboratory, Bangladesh National Museum) smrokon.chem@gmail.com ABSTRACT A waterlogged wooden schooner was collected from Kuakata, a famous coastal region of Bangladesh, during the excavation period from 23rd December, 2012 to 27th February, 2013 under the Directorate of Archaeology. This schooner was measured 72 feet in length and weighed about 90 tons in wet conditions. A lot of valuable information regarding trade relations with other countries in ancient times, migration of people of certain communities, species of wood etc. can be obtained from this artifact. Unfortunately, the schooner has been kept under a canopy in the open for nearly 10 years after excavation without any consultation from conservation experts. The condition of this artifact was found to be extremely damaged and fragile when visited on 21st September, 2022. Attacks of various types of microorganisms and insects were observed in most of the woods. Different types of physical changes were also found in the wood of the schooner. Even the original shape of the artifact was disfigured by shrinkage, cracking, twisting and splitting of wood. It is known that the conservation treatment of waterlogged wood consists of four steps such as dehydration, substitution, consolidation and controlled drying processes. These are very expensive and lengthy processes. Now it is impossible to apply a conventional conservation treatment method on the wooden schooner, because the artifact has already lost all characteristics of waterlogged wood. There are three objectives of this study: (i) to investigate the causes of deterioration of wood, (ii) to revive the characteristics of waterlogged wood and (iii) to recommend an easy and appropriate conservation treatment strategy for this waterlogged wooden schooner. Recommendation of treatment strategy is the most important part of this study. Considering the capability, time duration and financial cost, the treatment strategy will be introduced. After the successful completion of this study, the countries like Bangladesh will protect their waterlogged wooden heritage using the new method. Keywords Waterlogged wood, Deterioration, Consolidation List of Abbreviations BNM : Bangladesh National Museum DoA : Directorate of Archaeology PEG : Poly Ethylene Glycol RH : Relative Humidity MC : Moisture Content ETP : Effluent Treatment Plant SS : Stainless Steel 1. INTRODUCTION Waterlogged wood refers to wood that has been under soil or water for a long time and whose internal pores, capillaries and micro capillaries are saturated with water. Besides, these places contain different types of harmful substances like mud, sand, microorganisms etc. along with the water. Waterlogged wood has special importance among the archaeological artifacts. Through scientific research, it is possible to uncover many exclusive information regarding ancient cultures and civilizations from the waterlogged wooden artifacts. Such as: (i) (ii) (iii) A clear understanding of the historical trade/other relations of one country with another country can be obtained. Information about the migration of a certain community or group of people in ancient times can be found. Important guidelines can also be derived from these artifacts in protecting ecological balance. Wood is an organic material which is composed of cellulose (40% - 60%), hemicellulose (15% 25%) and lignin (15% - 40%). Cellulose, hemicellulose both are polysaccharide polymer compounds and lignin is a phenolic polymer compound. Polysaccharides are high polymers of monosaccharides. 1 �Each polymer compound plays the different role in wood. Cellulose is responsible for giving the strength to the wooden structure, hemicellulose gives the flexibility of wood and lignin is responsible for stiffness of wood. These three polymers combined together give the remarkable physical and mechanical support to the wood. The molecular formula of cellulose is (C6H10O5) n. Cellulose participates in hydrolysis reaction with water in presence of acid, it gives D-glucose in 95-96 percent. As a result, cellulosic bonds are broken. If this type of reaction continues in waterlogged wood for hundreds of years, extensive decay occurs in the wooden artifacts. In addition, microorganisms and other harmful substances stay for a long time in the pore spaces, capillaries and micro capillaries inside the waterlogged wood and cause considerable damage to the internal structure of the wood. As a result, the wooden structure continues to weaken and eventually it is completely destroyed. Therefore, every step from excavation to conservation treatment period for any waterlogged wooden artifacts needs to be done with intensive care. Also the long-term management of waterlogged wood is a very important issue. On site inspection, the mentioned problems have been found in the different parts of the waterlogged wooden schooner. The water has removed freely from waterlogged wooden parts in uncontrolled drying. But there has not been any conservation measures of the schooner. As a result, the wood fibers have compressed and the whole structure has converted into a distorted shape (Figures 1.1). Figure 1.1: Disfigured structures of the schooner 2. CASE STUDY 2.1 Missing of Original Wood As mentioned earlier, the schooner was left for long periods in different environments such as soil or water, underwent extensive decay and its strength was severely reduced. The various parts of the schooner were closely observed during the onsite inspection. At that time the original wood was missing from some parts of the schooner. Figure 2. Excavation of shipwreck 2 �2.2 Adding New Wood New wood was added to the different parts of the schooner in order to facilitate its safe lifting and transport. Addition of new wood was the right decision during excavation period. Later, the new wood should have been removed and supports were used with the various parts of the schooner in the rehabilitation process to maintain its original shape. It is known that the stiffness of new wood is relatively higher than waterlogged wood. In this case, adding new wood of higher strength to the waterlogged wood of lower strength created additional stress on the waterlogged wood. But not removing new wood from the schooner caused various physical changes in it. The main structure of the schooner was not in its original shape. Many of the wooden parts have bent and distorted the structure. Though, there are many other reasons for distorting the schooner's main structure. Some new wood may be conditionally added to the missing parts when the schooner's conservation treatment is fully completed. According to the principles of restoration, the species, age and strength of the new wood must match the original wood. New wood should also be given a conservation treatment before being added. 2.3 Insects attack and Rotting During the inspection several parts of the waterlogged wooden schooner were observed to be rotting, infested with insects. This attack is quickly spreading to other parts of the wood. 2.4 Microscopic Analysis and Salinity A few places on the schooner, examined under a small microscope, showed extensive white coating on the surface of the wood (Figure 3). Despite several attempts with water, the white spots could not be completely removed. These appear to be salt deposits. It is possible to remove all these white coatings and other impurities by applying water to waterlogged wood for several years. Figure 3: Microscopic observations 2.5 Moisture Content The moisture content is an important part of wood. There are two types of moisture found in wood, one is ‘free water’ in the cell cavities and vessels, and other is ‘absorbed water’ bound in the cell walls. Free water evaporates up to the fiber saturation point, when the wood is air-dried. In this case the wood does not shrink. However, as waterlogged wood is very weak and its fiber loss is high. So, this rule is not applicable for waterlogged wood. At the fiber saturation point, wood contains only the ‘absorbed water’ from 20% to 36% of the total moisture content which varies the species of wood. If ‘absorbed water’ evaporates, then shrinkage starts in wood. Wood is a hygroscopic material whose moisture content fluctuates with the relative humidity of its environment (Table 2.1). Table 2.1: Moisture content fluctuates with the relative humidity SL No. Relative Humidity (%) Moisture Content (%) 1. 90 21-22 2. 70 13-14 3. 50 8-10 4. 30 6-7 5. 10 3-4 6. 0 0 3 �The moisture content is determined by the following equation: Here, U = Moisture Content (%) Gu = Weight of normal / waterlogged wood G0 = Weight of oven dried wood Physical observation confirmed that the schooner had lost the characteristics of waterlogged wood. Now reviving its waterlogged wooden nature is very uncertain. But by keeping the schooner in water long enough, it is possible to revive its few waterlogged wooden characteristics. This can be confirmed by measuring the moisture content. 3. RESOURCES Conservation treatment of waterlogged wood is very expensive and time consuming. Such treatments are usually initiated while the wood is still wet. There are many types of conservation treatment methods of waterlogged wood around the world. Five methods have been selected for this study, which are very much popular in conservation science. These are Poly ethylene glycol-4000 method, Poly ethylene glycol-2 steps method, Sucrose method, Cetyl alcohol method and Dammar method (Table 2.2). Implementation of these conservation treatments requires extensive technical capacity, which is not usually available in developing countries like Bangladesh. After analyzing the five methods, it was confirmed that the Dammar method can be modified and applied as suitable for Bangladesh. The modified dammar method must be applied to each part of the schooner separately. No. 1. 2. Table 2.2: The popular conservation treatment methods over the world Name of Dehydration Substitution Consolidation Step Treatment Step Step Method (alcohol in H2O) PEG-4000 Method Sucrose Method - - - (i) 20% PEG-4000 in H2O (ii) 40% PEG-4000 in H2O (iii) ) 60% PEG-4000 in H2O (iv) 80% PEG-4000 in H2O (v) 100% PEG-4000 in H2O (i) 20% Sucrose in H2O (ii) 40% Sucrose in H2O (iii) 60% Sucrose in H2O (iv) 80% Sucrose in H2O - 4 Controlled Air Drying (RH in Drying Chamber) (i) At 80% (ii) At 60% (iii) At 40% (i) At 80% (ii) At 60% (iii) At 40% �3. Cetyl – alcohol Method (i) 20% Methyl - (ii) 40%Methyl (i) 20% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol (i) At 80% (ii) 40% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol1 (ii) At 60% (iii) 60%Methyl (iii) At 40% (iii) 60% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol1 (iv) 80% Methyl (v) 100%Methyl 4. PEG-2 Steps Method (i) 20% Ethyl (iv) 80% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol (i) 50% t-butyl in ethyl (ii) 40% Ethyl (iii) 60% Ethyl (ii) 100% tbutyl in ethyl (i) 20% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (i) At 80% (ii) 40% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (ii) At 60% (iii) 20% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (iii) At 40% (iv) 80% Ethyl (iv) 40% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (v) 100% Ethyl (v) 60% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (vi) 80% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol 5. 4. DammerMethod (i) 20% Ethyl (ii) 40% Ethyl (iii) 60% Ethyl (iv) 80% Ethyl (v) 100% Ethyl (i) 50% Xylene in ethyl alcohol (i) 20% Dammar in xylene (ii) 40% Dammar in xylene (iii) 60% Dammar in xylene (i) At 80% (ii) At 60% (iii) At 40% (ii) 100% Xylene in ethyl alcohol FRAMEWORK The pore spaces, capillaries and micro capillaries of waterlogged wood are filled with water and various kinds of contaminants when it is buried. All these impurities need to be compulsorily removed through the continuous cleaning process before conservation treatment. Cleanup can take up to several years depending on the thickness of the wooden parts. The wood must not be allowed to dry out in any way during the entire process. When the wood is completely ready for treatment, then the modified dammar method is applied (Table 2.3). After the conservation treatment, the wood is dried by vacuum-freeze-drying or a controlled air-drying process. In a controlled air-drying process, the wood is first dried at room temperature where the relative humidity is very high. Later the relative humidity is gradually reduced. On the other hand uncontrolled drying is fully prohibited for waterlogged wood to avoid any kind of deformation of wood like shrinking, twisting, cracking, splitting, warping etc. Table 2.3: The modified Dammar method Consolidation Step Naturally Drying Time Duration (i) 20% Dammar According to the climate Time duration of dehydration, solution in xylene of Bangladesh, RH substitution, consolidation and gradually decreases drying steps depends on the (ii) 60% Ethyl alcohol (ii) 40% Dammar from November to thickness of wood. solution in H2O (ii) 100% Xylene solution in xylene March. This is the solution in ethyl perfect time to let the (iii) 100% Ethyl alcohol (iii) 60% Dammar wood dry naturally. alcohol solution in solution in xylene However, the wood H2O should be kept under close observation. To ensure minimum use of chemicals, airtight SS containers and jute mats are used. Basically, the artifacts are wrapped with jute mats before being soaked in chemicals. Dehydration Step (i) 20% Ethyl alcohol solution in H2O Substitution Step (i) 50% Xylene solution in ethyl alcohol 5 �5. RESULTS The treatment of waterlogged wood is a very risky, expensive and difficult task. Most of the undeveloped or developing countries are not able to conserve their valuable artifacts of waterlogged wood through the conventional method. This is the main reason to modify the Dammar method so that every country can protect their valuable heritage. Modified Dammar method is comparatively easy and less expensive, but it is not the health and environment friendly method. Therefore, the appropriate precautions should be taken, when the modified Dammar method is applied for the conservation of waterlogged wood. BIBLIOGRAPHY Finar, I. L., Organic Chemistry (Volume Two), 3rd edn., (1964):224-225. Harman, Kuhn, Conservation and Restoration of Works of Art and Antiquities, 3 rd edn. 19, (1987): 176-179. Plenderleith, H.J., The conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, Reprinted 5, (1974): 124-126. Desch, H.E., Timber Its Structure and Properties, Macmillan, London, 3 rd edn., 1956. In Museum 8, no. 3, 1955:139. Museum and Monuments The Conservation of Cultural Property, The UNESCO Press, Reprinted (1975): 173. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Investigating the causes of deterioration and the appropriate conservation treatment method of an excavated wooden schooner found in coastal area of Bangladesh Description An account of the resource A waterlogged wooden schooner was collected from Kuakata, a famous coastal region of Bangladesh, during the excavation period from 23rd December, 2012 to 27th February, 2013 under the Directorate of Archaeology. This schooner was measured 72 feet in length and weighed about 90 tons in wet conditions. A lot of valuable information regarding trade relations with other countries in ancient times, migration of people of certain communities, species of wood etc. can be obtained from this artifact. Unfortunately, the schooner has been kept under a canopy in the open for nearly 10 years after excavation without any consultation from conservation experts. The condition of this artifact was found to be extremely damaged and fragile when visited on 21st September, 2022. Attacks of various types of microorganisms and insects were observed in most of the woods. Different types of physical changes were also found in the wood of the schooner. Even the original shape of the artifact was disfigured by shrinkage, cracking, twisting and splitting of wood. It is known that the conservation treatment of waterlogged wood consists of four steps such as dehydration, substitution, consolidation and controlled drying processes. These are very expensive and lengthy processes. Now it is impossible to apply a conventional conservation treatment method on the wooden schooner, because the artifact has already lost all characteristics of waterlogged wood. There are three objectives of this study: (i) to investigate the causes of deterioration of wood, (ii) to revive the characteristics of waterlogged wood and (iii) to recommend an easy and appropriate conservation treatment strategy for this waterlogged wooden schooner. Recommendation of treatment strategy is the most important part of this study. Considering the capability, time duration and financial cost, the treatment strategy will be introduced. After the successful completion of this study, the countries like Bangladesh will protect their waterlogged wooden heritage using the new method. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rokonuzzaman S Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rokonuzzaman, S.. 2023. “Investigating the causes of deterioration and the appropriate conservation treatment method of an excavated wooden schooner found in coastal area of Bangladesh.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2026 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6c817530f9dced0ca81b0f9cf8aa7b61.pdf a1abec18eb1a0210fc301ba64312fcec PDF Text Text Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India. Deepak Pal (21dphis01@cuk.ac.in) and Arjun Rao Dept. of History and Archaeology, Central University of Karnataka, India ABSTRACT This paper explores the Bhima River's historical significance and navigational potentialities in human settlement from prehistoric to early historical periods. The upper and lower reaches of the Bhima River are home to numerous sites dating back to the prehistoric and Early Historical periods. However, the lower reaches have a large number of sites compared to the upper reaches, where the basin is broad and shallow in the open landscape. The importance of the Bhima River in facilitating short and long-distance navigation likely increased significantly from establishing sedentary villages to the emergence of larger settlements and towns during the Early Historic period (300 BCE-500 CE). The present study is centred on analysing two distinct types of archaeological sites, emphasising their respective geographical distributions. (i) Sites centred within a distance of 1 km from the Bhima River course. (ii) The sites centred within a 10 km radius of the Bhima River course in the lower reaches, spanning from Firozabad (17°5'3.00"N, 76°47'25.00"E) to its confluence with the Krishna River near Gundloor (16°24'39.00"N, 77°17'1.23"E). The present study constitutes an initial attempt to identify and establish a plausible connection for understanding the potential influence of navigational pursuits in establishing significant early historical sites, utilising geospatial techniques and analysis, and reviewing published archaeological reports to reconstruct the socio-economic contexts. Keyword: sedentary settlement, early historical, inland navigation, water navigation, Iron age. List of Figures and Tables Figure 1. Course of Bhima River. Figure 2. Distribution of Early Historic sites in the lower reaches of Bhima River. Table 1. Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 1 km (approx.) Table 2. Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 10 km (approx.) INTRODUCTION Throughout history, water bodies have played a crucial role in human settlement, dating back to prehistoric times. The manifestation of this particular role may vary across diverse cultural contexts and stages of development. During the early prehistoric period, specifically the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods of the later Pleistocene and Holocene ages, it is possible to establish a correlation between human activity and water bodies based on the reliance on aquatic remains as a source of sustenance. During the Neolithic Period, a correlation emerged between sedentary settlements and socio-economic activities, primarily agricultural and pastoralist activities. During the Early Historic period spanning from 300 BCE to 500 CE, the relationship between humans and water bodies experienced a notable development. This development facilitated the emergence of early urbanization, characterized by establishing religious sites, particularly those associated with Buddhism. The Bhima River, stretching a distance of 861 km, originates from Bhima Shankar in the Western Ghats at an elevation of approximately 945 msl. It then proceeds in a south-eastern direction, passing through the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka, until it meets the Krishna River at a location called Gundloor (Karnataka) at an elevation of 537 msl. The Bhima River's upper basin traverses an area characterized by a high concentration of clay-rich black soil, whereas its lower reaches flow through a region dominated by Granitic terrain. The catchment area of the Bhima River exhibits significant archaeological potential spanning from the prehistoric to early historic periods. The Bhima River exhibits human habitation dating back to prehistoric and early historic times, as evidenced by the 1 �presence of numerous archaeological sites in its upper and lower regions. The manifestation of human association is evident through the presence of Neolithic ash mounds, rock art depicting cattle images, and the occurrence of ringing rocks in multiple Neolithic and Iron Age sites. These findings suggest the emergence of a community-based settlement and the development of ritualistic practices and belief systems. The lower reaches of Bhima exhibit a relatively higher concentration of Early Historic sites, owing to the broad and shallow basin in the open landscape. A more significant number of archaeological sites can be found on the left bank of the river. The primary objective of this study is to examine the trajectory of the Bhima River, commencing from its location at Firozabad (17°5'3.00"N, 76°47'25.00"E) and extending to its confluence with the Krishna River close to Gundloor (16°24'39.00"N, 77°17'1.23"E). The Early Historic phase in South India has a potential archaeological record. It spreads from the early inscriptions of the Pandya dynasty down south to the excavated remains of stupas at Amravati, Kanaganahalli, Nagarjunakonda and the excavated remains of trade sites like Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam, and Pattanam as well as the fortified sites like Satanikota, Sannati, Kondapur and so on. The systematic study of the prehistoric lithic structures and sites in the Bhima basin region was initiated by Taylor. He was the first to discover, investigate and do justice in the systematic archaeological investigation of megaliths found in the catchment area of the Bhima River. He discovered and investigated megaliths sites, especially in the southwestern Gulbarga (Kalaburagi) district and further north comprising the Talukas of Shorapur, Shahpur and Jewargi. (Taylor 1941). It was only in the 1940s when M.H. Krishna and later Wheeler’s excavations at Brahmagiri and Chandravalli (Krishna 1940 and Wheeler 1947) brought a chronological approach to archaeological materials. A number of settlement sites were excavated, such as the Brahmagiri (Krishna 1943; Wheeler, 1948), Maski (Thapar 1958), Kadkal (Yazdani 1935-36a), Piklihal (Allchin 1960), Nagarjunakonda (R. Subrahmanyam 1954-60) Utnur (Allchin, 1961), Palavoy (Rami 1976), Budihal (Paddayya 1991-92), Tekkalakota (Nagaraja Rao & Malhotra 1965), Watgal (Devaraj et al., 1995). These excavations helped further explore and excavate early historic settlements in the region. The archaeological remains from Nagarjunakonda, which is a better documented urban centre in the early historic Deccan, illustrate the high degree of urbanisation that developed in the Deccan during this period. The early historic urban centres were enclosed by fortified walls and had planned roads and residential neighbourhoods surrounding the citadel. A few parameters that led to understanding urban infrastructure are secular and religious remains unearthed at Nagarjunakonda, indicating a thriving society inhabited this city. Bathing ghats and an amphitheatre were civic structures constructed at Nagarjunakonda, and the religious remains found at this site were Buddhist Viharas (monasteries) and Chaityas (stupas) along with Brahmanical temples located on the Krishna River (Chakrabarti 1997, 235-37; Rosen Stone 1994, 9-20). A number of PhD researches were presented on the Neolithic, Iron Age and Early Historic Archaeology (covering Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu), including but not limited to those from Subbarao (1949), Allchin (1954), Seshadri (1956), Nagaraja Rao (1961), Paddayya (1968), Rami Reddy (1976), Narasimhaiah (1980), David Raju (1985), Venkatasubbaiah (1992) and Arjun (2017). 2 �Figure 1. Bhima River. (From: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bhima.png) This research aims to study the antiquity of human association with the river Bhima, which includes1. To examine the navigable conditions and study sites centered to the river. 2. To trace the role of it in inland navigation for domestic or trade purposes in early historic society. 3. Mapping the archaeological sites to understand their distribution pattern across the river through Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis. 4. To examine the historicity of the river with early historic settlements, particularly Sannati and its surrounding sites. Overall, this research has tried to understand and evaluate the role of river Bhima (especially in the lower reaches) METHODOLOGY This research is based on the data curated from archaeological reports such as the Indian Archaeological Review (IAR), annual reports from the state archaeology department and excavation reports. The site locations are mapped on the geospatial maps and categorised into cultural periods of the sites and the metrical distance of the site location from the river banks ranging from within 1 km to 10 km. Further, the bathymetric survey reports (IIC Technologies, 2016) on the river Bhima are analysed. 3 �SITES ANALYSIS WITH GEOGRAPHY Table 1 Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 1 km (approx.) S.NO. NAME LATITUDE LONGITUDE 1. Sannati 16°49'39.00"N 76°54'26.00"E 2. Ranamandala 3. Sirwal 16°48'38.00"N 76°53'38.00"E 4. Kanaganahalli 16°51'10.00"N 76°56'20.00"E 5. Benagutti 6. Hasargundgi 16°48'42.00"N 76°54'43.00"E CULTURAL SEQUENCE Ashokan Rock Edict Site Mesolithic to Early historic Middle Palaeolithic to Mesolithic Early historic site with remains of Buddhist monastery and Stupa. Early Historic Buddhist Stupa Site belonging to Satavahana. Early Historic 7. Hotinmadu 16°53'10.00"N 76°57'4.00"E Middle Palaeolithic 8. Rajwal 16°58'52.00"N 76°56'10.00"E Middle Palaeolithic 9. Budnal 16°32'30.67"N 77°10'17.77"E Neolithic Habitation Site Sannati Sannati (16°49'39.00"N, 76°54'26.00"E) is a complex of sites located on the left bank of the river Bhima. It is surrounded by sites, namely Ranamandala, Kanaganahalli, Sirwal, and Benagutti; they are Buddhist stupa sites with monasteries and brick embankments, suggesting a larger population residing in this area and frequently accessed by a number of pilgrims. It has been identified as one of the prominent Buddhist sites in Karnataka after its discovery by Kapatral Krishna Rao in 1954 CE, which brought into light the remains of the Buddhist establishment. The exploration and excavation of this site yielded stone tools related to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Along with the remains of tools, it also yields sculptural, architectural, inscriptional and stupa remains related to Buddhism. The site got prominence after finding the remains of Ashokan Major Rock Edicts 12-14 and Separate Rock Edicts 1 & 2. Sannati was a fortified settlement during the Satavahana era, as was proven by the discovery of Satavahana’s coins of lead and the excavation of a stupa. Ranamandala In the close vicinity of Sannati, remains of fortification are found which are known as Ranamandala. This site was excavated by A. Sundara in 1986-87 AD, which resulted in the discovery of rectangular bricks (39x20x6.5 cm) and the foundation of a number of small rooms having association with Early historic antiquities of Satavahana period. Ranamandala has an undisturbed chronology from Mesolithic to Satavahana period. 4 �Period Findings at Ranamandala Cultural Remains Mesolithic Non-geometric microliths of Chalcedony, Chert and Quartz. Lunates, Bladelets, Points, Burin-cum-borer. Black & Red ware, Stray Iron Implements. Red ware, Black polished ware, Black and Red ware, Scrubbers, Polished stone pestles, Dumbbell shaped pounders, Stone block and other minor antiquities in the form of Shell bangles, Beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones, Bone-arrowheads and Coins. Red ware, Black polished ware, Black slipped ware, Beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones, Coins of Maharathi Siri Satavahana. This period marked the beginning of structural activities Red ware, Polished red ware, Stamped pottery, Black slipped ware, Russet coated white painted ware, Rouletted ware, Beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones, Shell objects, Polished pounders, Mullers. Coins of Satakarni and Sri Satakarni made of Copper, Lead and Potin. This period marked the profuse brick structural activities. Megalithic Mauryan Mauryan – Satavahana Satavahana Sirwal Sirwal (16°48'38.00"N, 76°53'38.00"E) is situated on the right bank of river Bhima. The adjacent field near the Sirwal yielded blades made of quartz, jasper, coarse carnelian, and chert belonging to the Middle Palaeolithic period. Along with it, this site also produces a profound number of Mesolithic implements made of quartz and jasper. By analysing excavated material, it can be observed that this site marked a transition phase from Middle Palaeolithic to Mesolithic Period. Kanaganahalli Kanaganahalli (16°51'10.00"N, 76°56'20.00"E) is located on the left bank of river Bhima, approximately five km east of Sannati. During the period of excavation spanning from 1994 to 2002 CE, this site reveals the remains of a massive stupa, many brick-built structures in the form of a chaitya griha, and votive stupas along with the remains of railing, pillars, capitals, Buddha padas, and sculpture of yaksha and four images of Buddha. The sculptural panel portrays various subjects, including Jataka stories, celestial objects, royal personalities, noblemen, traders, and portraits of many donors in singular or as couples servants attending to the royalty and noblemen, monks and the commoner. In addition, this particular location yielded a noteworthy sculpture depicting King Asoka, featuring an inscription in Brahmi script that reads "Raya Asoka". In addition to the sculptural artefacts, plenty of Prakrit language and Brahmi script inscriptions were discovered on the premises of the Kanaganahalli Stupa site. These inscriptions can be dated back to the period spanning from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century AD. A total of 270 inscriptions were unearthed at the maha stupa, ranging from a five-lettered donator label inscription to an eleven-line epigraph.  Benagutti This early historic site flourished between 300 BCE to 300 CE in the north-west of Sannati on the left bank of river Bhima. It was excavated by the Excavation Branch - I, Nagpur, under the direction of K. Veerbhadra Rao. During the excavation, this site produced evidence of the chaitya-vihara complex, 5 �which suggests labelling it as a Buddhist stupa site belonging to the Satavahana period. The Ceramic culture of this site includes Red ware of medium fabric, Burnished Red ware, Micaceous Red ware, Dull Grey ware, Red polished ware, and Rouletted ware. The discovery of the sherd of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) and a partially preserved inscription on a small stone has resulted in reconsidering the site's chronology, which can now be placed in the third century BC. Based on some fragmentary inscriptions in the Ikshvaku Brahmi script, it can be inferred that the site remained operational until the third century AD. Hasargundgi Hasargundgi (16°48'42.00"N, 76°54'43.00"E) is located on the right bank of the Bhima River, approximately 3 kilometres south of the Chandralamba temple located on the left bank of the same river at Sannati. During the exploration, this site produced several Red ware, Black and Red ware, and a few decorated friezes of railing beside a sculpture of Yaksha. S.NO. 01 02 03 04 05 Table 2 Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 10 km (approx.) LATITUDE LONGITUDE CULTURAL SEQUENCE Jewargi 17° 0'41.21"N 76°46'36.96"E Megalithic, Early Historic Andola 16°57'10.13"N 76°50'9.63"E Megalithic, and Early Historic Tadbidi 16°41'31.79"N 76°58'53.72"E Neolithic Habitation Site Maddarki 16°48'4.74"N 76°47'29.02"E Shahabad 17° 7'46.83"N 76°56'49.28"E Megalithic, Iron Age and Early Historic NAME The town of Jewargi (17° 0'41.21" N, 76°46'36.96"E) is located 5 km south of the Bhima River. The region situated approximately 1.5 km to the north of the town is home to several stone circles from the Iron Age, which are located on a rocky and uncultivated piece of land (Taylor 1941, 8-16). Taylor was the first person to notice and conduct a systematic study of the megalithic culture of this region. After a long gap of time, the Department of Geology of the erstwhile Hyderabad State conducted a study of this region, which resulted in the identification of a stone alignment structure in Jewargi and megaliths in various locations such as Shahabad, Chitapur, Ravur and Ekmai. Andola, situated approximately 8 km southeast of Jewargi, has yielded evidence of Megalithic structure in the surrounding area. Subsequently, further study was conducted by A. Sundara, which includes the various locations previously examined and documented by Taylor in his reports. 6 �Figure 2. Distribution of Early Historic sites in the lower reaches of Bhima River discussed in the paper. 7 �Bibliography Allchin, F.R. Piklihal Excavations. Hyderabad: Andhra Pradesh Government Publications, Archaeological Series No. 1, 1960. Allchin, F.R. Utnoor Excavations. Hyderabad: Andhra Pradesh Government Publications, Archaeological Series No. 5, 1961. Chakrabarti, Dillip K. The Archaeology of Ancient Indian Cities. 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Brill, 1973. Paddayya, K. “Mesolithic Culture of the Shorapur Doab, Peninsular India”. Anthropos, (1974): 590-607. Paddayya, K. “Ashmound Investigation at Budihal, Gulbarga District, Karnataka.” Man and Environment XVIII no. 1 (1993): 57-87. Paddayya, K. “Prehistoric Foundations of Southern Deccan, with Special Reference to the Shorapur Doab” In Emperors, Saints and People, edited by Mohammad Nazrul Bari, R. Arjun, 29-58. Delhi: Primus Books, 2023. Rami Reddy, V. The Prehistoric and Protohistoric culture of Palavoy, South India, with special Reference to the Ashmound Problem. Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh, 1976. Singh, B.P. Indian Archaeology 1991 – 1992 – A Review, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1996. Singh, Om Prakash. The Archaeology of Iron and Social Change in Early South India. Delhi: Primus Books, 2019. Soundararajan, K.V. Nagarjunakonda (1954-60), Memoirs of the Archaeology Survey of India No. 75. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2006. Stone, Elizabeth R. The Buddhist Art of Nagarjunakonda. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas Publishers, 1994. Sundara, A. The Early Chamber Tombs of South India, A Study of the Iron Age Megalithic Monuments of North Karnataka. Delhi: University Publishers (India), 1975. Taylor, Philip Meadows. Megalithic Tombs and other Ancient Remains in the Deccan, Hyderabad: State Archaeological Department, 1941. Technologies, IIC. Final Feasibility Report National Waterways-21, Region VI- Bheema River Gundloor to Hippargi (138.9 km). Gautam Budh Nagar: Inland Waterways Authority of India, 2016. Thaper, B.K. “Maski -1954: A Chalcolithic site of the Southern Deccan.” Ancient India 13 (1957): 114. Veluthat, Kesavan. “The Sannathi Inscriptions and the Questions they Raise”. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 60, (1999): 1081-1086. Wheeler, R.E.M. “Brahmagiri and Chandravalli 1947: Megalithic and other Cultures in the Chitaldrug District, Mysore State.” Ancient India IV, (1948): 81–321. Yazdani, G. “Notes on a Survey of Neolithic Sites.” Annual Report of the Archaeological Department of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions- Appendix A 20, (1935-1936). 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India Description An account of the resource This paper explores the Bhima River's historical significance and navigational potentialities in human settlement from prehistoric to early historical periods. The upper and lower reaches of the Bhima River are home to numerous sites dating back to the prehistoric and Early Historical periods. However, the lower reaches have a large number of sites compared to the upper reaches, where the basin is broad and shallow in the open landscape. The importance of the Bhima River in facilitating short and long-distance navigation likely increased significantly from establishing sedentary villages to the emergence of larger settlements and towns during the Early Historic period (300 BCE-500 CE). The present study is centred on analysing two distinct types of archaeological sites, emphasising their respective geographical distributions. (i) Sites centred within a distance of 1 km from the Bhima River course. (ii) The sites centred within a 10 km radius of the Bhima River course in the lower reaches, spanning from Firozabad (17°5'3.00"N, 76°47'25.00"E) to its confluence with the Krishna River near Gundloor (16°24'39.00"N, 77°17'1.23"E). The present study constitutes an initial attempt to identify and establish a plausible connection for understanding the potential influence of navigational pursuits in establishing significant early historical sites, utilising geospatial techniques and analysis, and reviewing published archaeological reports to reconstruct the socio-economic contexts. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deepak Pal Arjun Rao Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Pal, Deepak and Arjun Rao. 2023. “Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2025 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023