47 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/106a403852134c0d3828659ef8ab9c09.pdf b60170b018329ef80a2951e70ae1096e PDF Text Text Can tourism exploitation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) be incompatible with the UNESCO 2001 Convention? Abhirada Komoot1 Abstract Tourism is a major factor of economic growth in many countries especially in developing countries. In 2010, tourism accounted for about 6% of Thailand’s GDP. In a way tourism is commercial exploitation. But is it against Annex Rule 2 of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention)? In the Annex, only active commercial exploitation –trading, selling, buying and bartering– of cultural material is obviously forbidden. Yet, there might be other passive commercial exploitations like tourism which are not stated. Can tourism be an alternative source of funds that can be utilised for UCH site protection and management? Because of the country’s commercial benefits gained from promoting tourism, it can be argued that tourism exploitation is one of the commercial exploitations implied in Annex Rule 2. Additionally, for tourism, the sites have to be opened for public which may cause the tension to in situ preservation and physical protection of sites. Also, it could create direct effects, such as damage to the sites by divers souvenir hunting and treasure hunting, etc. On the other hand, tourism can be a successful tool to get people involved and raise awareness which is essential in safeguarding UCH. Furthermore, under Rule 7 of the Annex, it allows knowledge sharing with the public but only when it is not incompatible with the proper protection and management of the sites. In other words, public approach could possibly be applicable only in appropriate ways. However, it does not expressly mention exploitation through tourism. Tourism can bring good fortune to countries as well as many advantages for UCH. Therefore, the prohibition may lead to absurd and even contradictory results. Countries may find it difficult to find financial subsidy and raise pubic awareness for sustainable protection of UCH. Simultaneously, the public is unable to enjoy leisure activities and gain knowledge from the conserved sites. The commercial exploitation of underwater cultural heritage for trade or speculation or its irretrievable dispersal is fundamentally incompatible with the protection and proper management of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater cultural heritage shall not be traded, sold, bought or bartered as commercial goods—Annex Rule 2, UNESCO 2001 Convention. 1 Ms. Abhirada Komoot is an undergraduate student. She has obtained two bachelor degrees one from the Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University and another one from the Faculty of Law, Thammasat University. She aims to combine her two specialties as a cultural heritage manager with legal background in order to perform her management task more effectively in legal scheme and make legal issues more understandable among other stakeholders. And she has a strong passion for UCH. She has gained her experience on UCH by working as administrative assistant to the UNESCO foundation courses on UCH in Thailand. Now she is accepted by the Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University in the Netherlands for the course starting in February 2012. �UCH in Concern Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) was, a long time ago, a cargo or passenger vessel, village, primitive fish trap, dike or any other human trace. Many of them were faced tragic moments like sinking, inundation, and ultimately destruction. Until, they were swallowed by water and lying undisturbed in some cases for centuries. All of them contain some cultural, historical or archaeological values of human existences. In the case of the ship, it was sailing between continents on a sea route. Then, it was hit by an unavoidable disaster like heavy storms, or sometimes overweight cargo made the ship lose its balance so that it was capsized. After the chaotic moment of trying to survive, no one could ever see it again. It had been sleeping on the sea-floor calmly and undisturbed since then. A century later2, it becomes a significant evidence of human history. It is full of the story of the past. For example, what was the purpose of the finds? How was it built? Why did people have to make the journey? What was the cause of the wreck? Generally, there are some precious objects left behind. These sites attract those who are hunting for treasure among the remains. Classically, the salvage companies encourage individuals from all over the world to invest in the venture promising high financial returns. Although the careless salvage activity can be dangerous and expensive, it is still often worthwhile to do so. The treasure hunters traditionally only expose the site for its pricey items and lack of concern for human history. Their actions result in an irretrievable loss of knowledge. This is not what we, as heritage protectors use to define the value of cultural objects by the price. They are priceless! This legacy reflects the traces of human link with on-land heritage. Therefore, these priceless inheritances should be preserved as and for the benefits of mankind and the completion of human history. Besides, an unavoidable natural disaster, there is also, undeniably human impacts on UCH. Even though the heritage, located under water, is more difficult to access than a land site; it does not mean it is impossible to do so. By the wisdom of mankind, more sophisticated diving equipment has been developed, so that, they can widen the possibility of accessibility to the UCH. In other words, it is easier to get to the site and be able to stay longer under water with modern diving gear. Therefore, it is no longer possible for the site to remain undisturbed but it is now easier to be interfered with. More people are able to reach the sites, not only the treasure hunters, but also recreational divers, researchers, archaeologists, scientists and so on. So the intrusive activities are slightly growing. Among recreational divers, they can create two kinds of impacts on UCH sites; those who care for and are respectful to where and what they are visiting and understand the value of the heritage and those who pay less attention to how fragile and important the site is, only taking a snapshot and collecting some meaningful items from the site as souvenirs to prove they once visited there (Stanley 2006:2-4). 2 Based on the UNESCO 2001 convention, the historical objects is at least 100 years (See Article 1 of the convention). In some countries it cane be determined differently. �Additionally, some accidental damage occurs because of the lack of diver’s ability to control buoyancy, usually novice and newly qualified divers. Indirectly, another human threat is air pockets, especially on the metal materials. In the case of a penetration dive, it can cause two kinds of corrosion to the sites: loss of concretion through mechanical damage and the build up of oxygen concentration inside a shipwreck’s confined spaces (Viduka 2006:61-63). With the carelessness and lack of awareness of numerous dive tourists and operators, our UCH is suffering from these human habits. Even experienced and skilful underwater archaeologists, can also disturb the site by careless excavation, lack of documentation and leaving the site behind without taking any measures to protect it. Due to the increase of the common threats to UCH and the raising of awareness of this heritage within the international community, the UNESCO 2001 Convention was elaborately constituted to mainly protect this heritage from those stresses. One of the core principles of the UNESCO 2001 Convention is the prohibition of commercial exploitation of UCH that is in Article 2 paragraph 7, Article 4 and the Annex. In particular, Rule 2 of the Annex, the integral part of the Convention, states clearly about the kinds of the active commercial exploitation of the finds which are trading, selling, buying and bartering. These activities are obviously banned by the Convention and its Annex. However, in my view the UCH nowadays is in the spotlight, it is becoming more interesting among people, not only to the scientists or archaeologists, but also the public. In some countries they have gained a great deal of benefits not only from the forbidden activities but also from passive ways. The passive commercial exploitation can also be received from other activities like ‘tourism’. Nevertheless, it is not included in the Convention. We still have to put more concern on this issue as tourism is a double-edge sword. It can be tools of potential awareness raising or greedy exploitation. The mitigation between the dirt safeguarding and the dollar earning should be brought to the international stage in order to develop the best methods of managing tourism related to our heritage. Terminology and Tourism The term ‘tourism’, in general, has various meaning. According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the definition of tourism can be indicated as follows: (1) Tourism is about displacement from usual environment. (2) The purpose of the tourism can be anything, like leisure or business or both, other than being remunerated from the visited place. (3) The maximum of duration is not more than a consecutive year. So, tourist is a person who does such activity. Since the beginning of the human history, people had travelled around to neighbouring places for many purposes, for instance, food, shelter, war, etc. They started to make a journey mostly for basic needs. Then, as the improvement of the technology, the transportation had been developed. It was easier for them to make a distant trip. And the purpose of the travel had also been changed according to the endless curiosity and needs of recreational activities. At the time of the Roman Republic, the Romans were ecstatic persons. We can see through works of art. They thought they should, once in a lifetime, �visit the great wonder place of the history and myths like the ruin of Troy, Acropolis, Alexandria and some places in Asia Minor. Heritage is still the reason for people to travel today. They want to see the exotic ruins of empires and the glory of the past. Then, in the seventeenth and eighteenth century the ‘Grand Tour’ had been developed. It was more or less like the journey in Roman period. The wealthy European would traditionally travel to the ruins of the ancient Roman Empire to appreciate the cultural legacy of the Classic antiquity and Renaissance, including the great structures and works of art such as delicate marble sculptures and masterpiece paintings. It served as an rite of passage (Wokloer 2007:205-222). After the Industrial Revolution, transportation had immensely and rapidly improved. Then, the traditional journey extended to the middleclass since they became concerned about the importance of holiday. This allowed bourgeoisies to travel for leisure purpose on their free time. Thus far, people are still keen to see new things. They need to enjoy the benefits of the relaxing time and gain knowledge. There have been numerous emergences of niche or specialty tourism including cultural tourism, nautical tourism, medical tourism, etc. Therefore, tourism had become the popular activity for most people since then. And as the population rapidly grew, the need for relaxation has also increased dramatically. Tourism has had a huge impact on the world’s economic sector. Dirt or Dollars The traces of human existence, lying under water for a long time, acts like a time machine. It is often well preserved by nature as if time stood still from when it was swallowed by the water. It can keep people close to the past. But WHY do we have to get close to the past? What is the value in caring for the dirt? If it can make a cent of dollar to feed the starving lives, maybe this is the reason. Tourism is an attractive activity to most countries in the world as it can generate a great deal of money to improve the standard of living. In the world economy, tourism has played a vital role in economic growth. It became one of the rapidest growing sectors over decades. According to UNWTO’s information, in 2010, international tourism generated US$ 919 billion (€ 693 billion) in export earnings. Similarly, Thailand has also gained a valuable benefit from tourism. The overall economic growth of the country is 8% of GDP or THB 905 trillion (US$ 584 billion) in 2010. Tourism is one of the main industries making Thailand’s economy in progress, growing by 6% of GDP, after automobiles and automotive parts (11%), financial services (9%) and electric appliances and components (8%). To exploit in the form of tourism can bring many benefits to the economic sector. On the website of Coastlearn organization it explained that tourism can be used as a nation’s economic improvement tool including foreign exchange earnings, contribution to government revenues, employment generation, stimulation of infrastructure investment and contribution to local economies. Likewise, it happens the same way to Thailand. As informed by Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT), Thailand welcomes over 550,000 dive tourists and is home to over 80,000 certified divers of its own. And the number of recreational divers is growing since 1985 according to the report from Department of Marine and Coastal Resources. �Under the Thai sea, it can provide tourists not only the natural resources but also cultural heritage. Consequently, UCH can be a good source of tourism as well. From the figure, it shows that if the promotion of tourism is applied to UCH sites, the possibility to widen the divers’ interest on the heritage resources will be bigger. Precisely, UCH is a kind of product sold for foreigners who are seeking unusual experiences. More tourists is a money generator. In a way, tourism can make a lot of money to the host countries and has human’s effects; it can create both direct and indirect damage to this heritage as well. It can cause harmful impacts to the site such as village expansion, constructions, anchoring, looting, treasure hunting, salvaging, etc. So, is tourism exploitation included in the term of ‘commercial exploitation’ in Annex Rule 2 of the UNESCO 2001 Convention? However, tourism, the way to exploit it for wealth and prosperity for the countries and their people is not the bad thing to do. Unromantically, who can live without financial support? “No profit, end of dreams! Even non-profitable organizations survive on donations from other people’s earning and revenues, which are generated by the profit” (Stanley 2006:2-4). In addition to an alternative source of funds, tourism can make a great amount of money from diving enterprises, tourists, shops and other business sectors, involving the UCH. This financial benefit can effectively contribute to heritage management projects and local sector. For example, when locals learn that they can maximize benefits by providing a boat trip to visitors who wish to experience the shipwreck, then, they will care more about the site as it now becomes their tools of earning and improving their quality of life. They will be more concerned about the site. And all the benefits gained can encourage local people and governments to care more about the legacy. The awareness and good policy for sustainable UCH will be raised. Without dirt, there will be no more dollars. So, dirt and dollars on UCH’s aspect is something that relies on each other. It cannot survive alone. And it is difficult to choose only one of them. But the possible way is to find a middle point. Only be careful of overexploitation and unawareness of mass tourism. Education Not Prohibition Indeed, in the term of the sustainable and successful management of Underwater Cultural Heritage, what we need is an education, not prohibition. The site will become more interesting for the public only when they know something about it like how important the site is. Nevertheless, no legal scheme mentions about how tourism will work on UCH. In Rule 7 of the Annex in UNESCO 2001 Convention states about the public access. It can be implied that the promotion of knowledge sharing of the heritage shall be promoted in the parallel way with the proper site management. Moreover, in Article 20, it is a state’s obligation to raise public awareness by any practical ways. However, it is still not clear enough to apply that tourism is permitted by this Convention. Only case studies will be able to bring it to light. In many waterfront countries, tourism is also a possible tool to raise public awareness and provide education about UCH to extent public interests. To educate and encourage people about the importance of UCH is the greater positive benefits for all mankind. Because when we can build the inner �passion of people, they will eager to learn how to protect and safeguard this precious patrimony by themselves. Importantly, it is the right way to build a good cooperation between stakeholders; government, local community, archaeologist, tour operator and so on. In Thailand the popularity of wreck diving is becoming famous among recreational divers but most of sites are decommissioned warships, intentionally sunk for growing marine life, or new sunken ships. SW, Bangkok, 5 August 2011, he is the professional dive instructor, operating in Pattaya.3 He said, according to his experience, most of divers who visiting the wreck around Pattaya waters only enjoy their diving with corals and marine creatures. Their knowledge on wreck sites is very limited or none. The similar result is received from a professional underwater archaeologist, EV, Bangkok, 20 august 2011. He said that there is a small group of wreck divers who are enthusiastically interested in UCH diving. They are also researchers. They visit the sites not only for leisure activities but they are also keen to learn. They are monitoring the deterioration of the sites and do some publication. Even they are in the private sector, they can be watchdogs of UCH. Still, the visitation to UCH sites is limited compared to the number of amateur divers coming to Thailand each year and the number of UCH publications. The group of interested divers is still small but qualified. They have a strong interest and conduct on-going research on the wreck. After they distribute their publication, then, here is becoming well-known among advanced divers. The example is ‘Hardeep’ or ‘Suthathip’, the most famous Thailand’s shipwreck, and it is UCH. It is put in the diving route. The gradually increasing of tourism and educated divers on the sample site is a positive sign for an appropriate growing of tourism on UCH in Thailand. Unfortunately, there is no official record. In other cases, the application of tourism has given a good result in knowledge distribution to many other countries in the form of tourism. For example, the SS Maori in South Africa, Florida’s Maritime Heritage Trail in USA, and Maritime Heritage Trail in Cayman Islands. Freedom of Movement Freedom of movement is the fundamental right of humanity which is respected in the constitution of many countries. For example, it is stated in the section 34 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand. It includes the liberty to travel. A person shall enjoy the liberty of travelling. However, a person shall enjoy their freedom and liberty within the respect of the rights of others. In the term of tourism, it is also a way to promote respect of human rights. To be able to move freely does not encompass the rights to enter another country. But in the UCH perspective, it so means the rights to access the site. Tourists, in order to appreciate the heritage and gain knowledge, shall not be prohibited to approach the site. At the same time, they have obligations to venerate the rights of others as well. They shall not do any harm to the site and keep in their mind that the UCH is the heritage of mankind not 3 Pattaya is the well-known diving spot and tourist attraction in Thailand and located in Chonburi province. �the personal belongings. They shall do no harm to the site including but not limit to looting, souvenir collecting, or even treasure hunting. Rights always come with obligations. This legacy is a shared heritage, so it is our duty to safeguard it in every way we move. Therefore, a person who enthusiastically admires the UCH shall enjoy his/her freedom and liberty of movement and travelling to the UCH site under the limitation of other’s rights and liberty. World without Tourism Most of the UCH sites are lying in the open area, under the sea or river. It is impossible to lock up all the sites and apply strict rules. If we choose to keep the site secret and forbid public access, there will be the secret access as well. This can be more problematic because the intention might go wrong. In general, people travel for many purposes including leisure and learning. Without tourism there will be no real knowledge of the ancient wisdom gained at first hand. Only an unreal source of education such as books, television and Internet can be accessible but no physical appreciation. In other words, Tourism is a joyful way to develop public understanding and raise their attention, which are the key part to promote the sustainability of the UCH safeguarding. Conclusion In many ways, tourism is a potential tool to help increasing the public awareness and financial source, the core instruments of sustainable development of UCH. Restrictive accessibility to the UCH is the way to keep the site intact but it cannot educate people particularly locals. Without awareness, the blanket legislative protection cannot be enforced effectively. And without profit, all the dream projects become useless. Additionally, it becomes a human rights’ violation instead of respect. Even tourism can create some negative impacts, pros and cons are needed to be weighed. As the idea of the traces of humanity, the issue needs to be brought to the international phase in order to find a chance of hope for sustainable and effective management of tourism on UCH. Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the help of people who contribute to this work. I am grateful to Dr. Mr. R. Rujaya Abhakorn, the Director of SPAFA, for giving me a great opportunity and support. And this would not have been possible without the assistance of my friends, Mr. Erbprem Vatcharangkul, Mr. Chris Underwood, Mr. Martijn Manders, Mr. Andrew Viduka, Mr. Takahiko Makino, Mr. Saiklang Jindasu, Mr. Siwat Worachananan, and Ms. Pimolpan Wong A-ram. Bibliography Bureau of Committee 3, The Secretariat of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E.2550 (2007), Bureau of Printing Services, Bangkok. �House of Representatives, 2007 Coastlearn, Benefits Of Sustainable Coastal Tourism, CoastLearn, viewed 23 August 2011, <http://www.coastlearn.org/tourism/why_economicbenefi ts .html>. Manders, M. R., Managing Cultural Heritage Underwater. Publication no. Oosting, R. and 3, Educom BV, The Netherlands. Brouwers, W., (eds) 2009 Ministry of Foreign Tourism, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, viewed 12 Affairs, October2011, <http://www.mfa.go.th/web/20.php> 2011 Stanley, R., “It's All about 'P'”, in Heritage @ Risk 2006 - Special 2006 Edition: Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts, pp. 2-4 International Council on Monuments and Sites / Conseil International Des Monuments Et Des Sites, viewed 18 August 2011, <http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/2006/index.htm l>. Sorabella, J., "The Grand Tour", in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, 2000 New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–, viewed 12 October 2011, <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grtr/hd_grtr.htm>. Towner, J., and "History and Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research. Vol. Wall, G., 18, pp. 71-84. 1991 Tourism Authority Tourism Authority of Thailand News Room, Tourism of Thailand, Authority of Thailand, viewed 22 August 2011, <http://www.tatnews.org/latest_update/detail.asp?id=526 4>. UNESCO, Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural 2001 Heritage, downloaded November 2009, <unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001260/126065e.pdf UNESCO, "Underwater Cultural Heritage." in Museum International 2008 LX, No.4/240. pdf. UNESCO, Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania. Print, Paris. 2010 UNWTO, Why Tourism?, UNWTO, viewed 4 August 2011, <http:www2.unwto.org/en/content/why-tourism>. Viduka, A., “Managing Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage 2006 Sites: The Yongala as a Case Study”, in Heritage @ Risk 2006 - Special Edition: Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts, pp. 61-63, International Council on Monuments and Sites / Conseil International Des Monuments Et Des Sites, viewed 18 August 2011, �Walker, P., 2005 Wokler, R., 2007 <http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/2006/index.htm Hardeep Wreck, Thailand Wreck Diving, Thai Technical Diving and Dive Software, Thai Shipwrecks, viewed 4 August 2011, <http://www.thaiwreckdiver.com/hardeep_wreck.htm>. ‘Rite of passage and the grand tour, discovering, imaging and investing European civilization in the Age of Enlightenment’, in Anthony Molho and Diego Ramada Curto (eds.), Finding Europe: discourses on margins communities, images, Berghahn Books, USA, pp. 20522. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Can tourism exploitation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) be incompatible with the UNESCO 2001 Convention? Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 Some Challenges and Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Tourism is a major factor of economic growth in many countries especially in developing countries. In 2010, tourism accounted for about 6% of Thailand’s GDP. In a way tourism is commercial exploitation. But is it against Annex Rule 2 of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention)? In the Annex, only active commercial exploitation –trading, selling, buying and bartering– of cultural material is obviously forbidden. Yet, there might be other passive commercial exploitations like tourism which are not stated. Can tourism be an alternative source of funds that can be utilised for UCH site protection and management? Because of the country’s commercial benefits gained from promoting tourism, it can be argued that tourism exploitation is one of the commercial exploitations implied in Annex Rule 2. Additionally, for tourism, the sites have to be opened for public which may cause the tension to in situ preservation and physical protection of sites. Also, it could create direct effects, such as damage to the sites by divers souvenir hunting and treasure hunting, etc. On the other hand, tourism can be a successful tool to get people involved and raise awareness which is essential in safeguarding UCH. Furthermore, under Rule 7 of the Annex, it allows knowledge sharing with the public but only when it is not incompatible with the proper protection and management of the sites. In other words, public approach could possibly be applicable only in appropriate ways. However, it does not expressly mention exploitation through tourism. Tourism can bring good fortune to countries as well as many advantages for UCH. Therefore, the prohibition may lead to absurd and even contradictory results. Countries may find it difficult to find financial subsidy and raise pubic awareness for sustainable protection of UCH. Simultaneously, the public is unable to enjoy leisure activities and gain knowledge from the conserved sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Abhirada Komoot Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9344e9ee0a6f5bca03707353f5a2bc9f.pdf b92e42add0ca5bd590bcf4b0315da853 PDF Text Text Ship’s Cargo beyond the sea: New Evidence from Dong Mae Nang Muang, Nakorn Sawan Province, Central Thailand Pimchanok Pongkasetkan1 Abstract This paper mainly focuses on Trade Ceramics and other cargo found from the Dvaravati settlement in Upper Chao Phraya basin, Central Thailand. Specifically, this paper focuses on the case study of the site of Dong Mae Nang Muang, Nakorn Sawan province. In 2008 an archaeological project was done to gain better knowledge of the site. Four test pits, one test trench and an earthen mound were excavated. These activities expanded the current understanding of the site's characteristics. The excavation revealed imported goods from all over the world such as; ceramics, glass and semi-precious stone beads and glass vessels. This important phenomenon was a strong impact on current knowledge of the inter-relationship between Dvaravati, an ancient settlement in the Upper Chao Phraya basin, 2 and the sea port town via China and Western Asia , this has reconsidered the role of economics in the area especially the details of trade-routes and the merchandise during the th th Dvaravati period (5 -12 centuries AD). Characteristic of Dong Mae Nang Muang Dong Mae Nang Muang is located in present day Banpotpisai district, Nakorn Sawan province. From an inscription (K966) discovered at the site we know that its name in antiquity was Thanya Pura (Coedès 1961; Vallibhotama 1978). Located in the upper reaches of the Chao Phraya Basin, this site represents one of the northernmost settlements of Dvaravati culture in central Thailand. Strategically placed on the tributaries of major river systems; the PingRiver and Nan River, the settlement flourished for a period of approximately 400 years between the 8 th and 12th centuries Common Era (CE)3. Despite being located over 300 kilometres north of the modern-day coastline, Dong Mae Nang Muang was not an isolated site on the periphery, but participated in and contributed to the vibrant cultural, religious, artistic and economic exchanges that took place within the Dvaravati culture of central Thailand (Murphy and Pongkasetkan 2010). Dong Mae Nang Muang is a moated site with a surrounding rampart. At some stage during the Dvaravati period it was extended to the west by the addition of an extra moat resulting in the ground plan changing from squareshaped to more oblong in character. The site measures 630 by 650 metres and covers an area of approximately 40 hectares. To date, the research conducted extends from the first surveys and excavations by the Fine Arts Department in 1956 and 1967, to recent projects of Master’s degree students of the Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University and most recently 1 Curator of Southeast Asian Ceramics museum, Bangkok University Can not be specific because the analysis results indicate that some evidence made in Western Asia, but not clearly specific where. 3 A Georgian Calendar designation that starts at year one, based on the year of the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with one added to every year after. 2 �excavations by the Fine Arts Department, Lopburi, 2008–20094. The initial surveys by the Fine Arts Department recorded up to thirteen earthen mounds at the site and excavations revealed that they were Buddhist monuments, the majority being stupas. There have also been numerous reports of votive tablets and Buddha image discoveries at the site over the past 60 or so years however, none have been excavated in situ (Murphy and Pongkasetkan 2010). On the basis of relative dating techniques the current proposed dates of occupation arising from the 2009 excavations cover the 8 th to 12th centuries CE. For example, the earthenware Dvaravati pottery discovered suggests a date from the 8th century onwards; the stoneware and Sassanid ceramics point towards the 9th and 10th centuries; stucco found during excavations at monument MS1 is late Dvaravati in style, so falls between the 10th and 11th centuries; while Inscription K966 gives a 12 th-century date. The excavations also revealed no evidence whatsoever for prehistoric occupation of the site nor did it show any indication that Dong Mae Nang Muang was inhabited after the 12th century. Excavations at Dong Mae Nang Muang, 2008–2009 Since the Fine Arts Department archaeological excavations in 1967, no further archaeological research has been conducted at Dong Mae Nang Muang. Since those excavations focused entirely on the monuments, no evidence for the length or nature of human occupation was obtained. Hence, the project “Cultural development of the ancient town of Dong Mae Nang Muang,” was initiated by the author in order to explore the cultural and chronological development of the site. Field activity entailed survey work, interviewing of local villagers and excavation from January 2008 to July 2009. 4 For a summary of all research carried out to date on the site of Dong Mae Nang Muang see Murphy and Pongkasetkan (2010). For a detailed discussion of the excavations that took place in 2009 see Pongkasetkan (2010) and The Fine Arts Department (2010). �Figure 1. Aerial Picture of Dong Mae Nang Muang and the test pits location (Adopt from Google Earth). Excavation of test pits TP1-TP4 and RTP1 Excavations took place between April and July 2009 and consist of four 3 by 3 metre test pits (TP1-4), one test trench through the rampart (RTP1) and the excavation of an earthen mound designated MS1 (Figure 2). Two test pits, TP3 and TP4, were located within the interior of the moat. TP1 was located in the area enclosed by the western moat extension while TP2 was situated outside the moat. All four test pits were excavated in order to clarify the stratigraphy and archaeological record and to provide information on the material culture, dating and past activities that were carried out at the site. The rampart test trench was excavated in the interior moat while MS1 lies just outside the southern moat. The test pit data yielded new information about population density, habitation and economic activity at the site. The main inhabited and economic areas were located within the moat. The western extension and the area directly outside the moat appear to be much less densely occupied; further survey and excavation work are need to give a complete picture. As would be expected, the moat and rampart are contemporaneous with the rest of the site. Their construction took place within the Dvaravati period. Excavation of the earthen mound MS1 Dong Mae Nang Muang has numerous earthen mounds inside and outside the moat. They are presumed �5 to be religious structures of some kind, perhaps Stupas , Viharns 6 or 7 Ubosots , but it is impossible to say for certain without detailed investigation of each individual structure. The test excavation revealed evidence of Dvaravati pottery, finger-marked bricks consistent with those found at other Dvaravati period sites, Dvaravati-style stucco and a possible terracotta stupa finial. Some of the most surprising discoveries during the course of both excavations, however, were the human burials at the foundation level of the monument. Over 50 inhumations were discovered in total throughout the entire area of the monument; however, they do not appear to extend outside of the site's boundary. Stratigraphically, the burials were found directly under the layer containing the remains of the monument proper. The layer itself is about 1 metre in depth; the burials were placed at different levels within it. The question therefore arises whether the burials predate the construction of the monument. Not only are the burials located in a separate stratigraphic layer, but also no Dvaravati material was found within the layer of the burials themselves. However, since there is no evidence of prehistoric occupation at the site, the working hypothesis continues to be that the burials date to the Dvaravati period. Imported Good: Ceramics sherds consideration The evidence from the excavation of TP3 and TP4 yielded some fascinating points-of-view of the relationship within the outer communities especially from the ceramics sherds and glass vessel. 8 9 Chinese, Khmer and Sassanids ceramics were found together in the same context, as well as glass vessel. The dating of Chinese ceramics are during the 11th – 12th centuries AD, or during Northern Song Dynasty. Around the 11th century the Chinese court had intensely turned the market from the Silk Route into Maritime Silk Route (Qingxin 2009:83) The Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) was a great empire, with great economic development the Stupas is the word from Sanskrit: m., स्तूप, stūpa, and Pāli: थुप "thūpa", literally meaning "heap"(from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa). It is the monument that establish for both of Buddhism and Jain. It is usually made in half-round or bell shape with the pointed finial. 6 Viharn or Vihara is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist monastery. It originally meant "a secluded place in which to walk", and referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by wandering monks during the rainy season.(from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara) It are formed in square or rectangular shape, and placed with the Buddha image. 7 Ubosot is derived from the Pali term uposathagara, which refers to a hall used for rituals on the upostha days -- the Buddhist Sabbath, which falls four times a month on the full moon, new moon, and eighth day after each. (from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubosot). The form of ubosot is usually similar to the Viharn, rectangular or square in shape, but there’s no need to have the Buddha image inside. 8 th th Khmer is word that called Ancient Cambodia culture during 5 -12 centuries AD. In which, it th th th th is also called sometimes that Pre-Angkorian (5 -8 centuries AD) and Angkorian (8 -12 centuries AD). 9 Sassanids ceramics is the word that author use for describe the ceramics that was produce during the Sassanian Empire. The Sassanid Empire, which succeeded the Parthian Empire, was recognized as one of the two main powers in Western Asia and Europe, alongside the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years(from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid) 5 �cities flourished and its science and technology advanced (Qingxin 2009: 81) . It was one of the world’s most advanced and wealthy states. Regardless of the outcome, the Song Dynasty was still an era worthy of special attention. It was during this time that the Maritime Silk Road was at the height of its splendor (Qingxin 2009:82) The Song Dynasty was especially focused on 10 Sino - foreign relations and foreign trade. The politico-economics caused for China’s north and west over-land passage to basically shut off (Qingxin 2009: 83). This created a natural inclination towards developing ties with nations of Southeast Asia across the sea. From above, the main factor of economics between Southeast Asia and China were caused from the inclination of the Silk Road. A number of Chinese ceramics sherds found from Dong Mae Nang Maung are good samples to confirm this theory. The analysis of Chinese ceramics sherds from Dong Mae Nang Muang are identified as follows: 1) Qing Bai, Ding Kiln, Northern Song Dynasty, 10th-11th centuries AD Qing Bai from Ding kiln. Dating of this type is around 10th century AD, bowl shape, grayish white color in fabric and glazed. This type is hardly found in Thailand except some sites in the Malay Peninsula such as Klong Ta Rua, Nakorn Srithamarat province (Chantawit 1993:184). 2) Jar, green glaze, Xicun Kiln, Northern Song Dynasty, 10th century AD Sherds of Jar with thick mouth rim, gray color in fabric, yellowish green to brownish green glaze. This type was found all over Thailand during this time in sites such as Koh Ko Khao, Punga, Klong Tha Rua, Nakorn Srithamarat (Chantawit 1993: 182), Sting Pra, Songkhla (Chantawit 1993:16), Umphang, Tak, Vichayen House, Lopburi, Sra Morakot, Prachinburi and etc. (Thammapreechakorn 2010:37) Bowl, cup, ewer and jar were commonly found 3) Bowl, Qing Bai, Jingdezhen kiln, Northern Song Dynasty 10 th – 11th centuries AD A group of Qing Bai from Jingdezhen kiln were commonly found in some Khmer settlements in the northeast and central Thailand. Some types found at Dong Mae Nang Muang include: bowl decorated with lotus petal motif, whitish gray color in fabrique, white clear glaze. The most interesting context of this sherd, when compared with the other similar wares found in other Khmer monuments in Thailand, is it is usually accompanied with the other Qing Bai from other kilns and Khmer ware from kiln sites in Cambodia and Thailand11. For example Ban Klor, Chaiyapum(Chantawit 1993: 323 ), Orapim Mound, Prasat Phnom Wan, Nakorn Ratchasima, Prasat Nang Rum, Nakorn Ratchasima and etc. (Chantawit 1993: 322 ), 4) Covered Box, Qing Bai, Nan’an kiln, Quanzhou, Fujian region, late Northern Song Dynasty, 11th century AD 10 a prefix used to refer to China (from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino) Commented by Louise Allison Cort, Curator of Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M.Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, USA, and she gave additional note that this groups are also found at port town and In-Land port town. 11 �Covered Box in the form of melon shape is regularly found from Dvaravati, Khmer, and Lanna ancient settlements (Thammapreechakorn 2010:35) Figure 2. TOP FOUR - Chinese Ceramics, Northern Song Dynasty, 10th-11th centuries AD. found at Dong Mae Nang Muang, from above left-right: Ding Kiln(CCHD1-7), Xicun kiln(CCHX 1-2) and lower left-right: Jingdezhen kiln(CCHJ 1), Nan’an kiln(CCHN 2) (Now under examination by author). BOTTOM TWO - Sassanid Ceramics from Dong Mae Nang Muang (From Left: SF309, SF313, SF322, SF323, Right: SF329) Apart from Chinese ceramics, there are also around forty percent of Khmer ceramics accompanied too. The green glaze Angkorian ware, or Phnom Kulen ware, were also found together with the Northern Song ceramics in the same context. The association of green glaze Angkorian or Phnom Kulen ware is very interesting. It has not been recognized as a maritime-merchant commodity but its appearance exists all over Khmer monuments in both Cambodia and Thailand (Pongkasetkan 2010:135). �12 The most known waster , the Phnom kulen, corresponds to types of green glaze ceramics found in Bernard Groslier archaeologically excavated sites, which date prior to 1050 AD. Green glazed covered urns also found there, however, do not appear in excavation until after 1050 AD. The characteristics of the Phnom Kulen ware are generally yellowish to brownish 13 green glaze and also show a broad range of mottled shade between brown, black and olive, obtained by heavier concentrations of iron oxides in their glazes (Brown 1988:43). The production sites of Phnom Kulen ware were located in the area of Phnom Kulen plateau. Several kiln sites were discovered along the way from Angkor region in Siem Reap province, which is situated between the Plateau of Kulen and city of Rolous (Rooney, et al. 2010:172). From several archaeological projects that were done during the last 20 years, some have 14 unearthed charcoal samples dated by the AMS technique and provide a date of 970(±30) – 905 (±30) BP (Miksic, et al. 2010) or the beginning of the 11th century AD. Generally forms of Phnom Kulen ware are covered box in the form of flat or tall shape, fruit-shaped, plain zoomorphic, plain cylindrical jar, covered cylindrical jar, bottle, and architectural ornaments (Rooney, et al. 2010:172). The Phnom Kulen ware were commonly found in Khmer monuments such as Prasat Ban Phluang in Surin province, Chau Say Tevoda, Srah Srang, Bantay Kdei and etc.(Rooney, et al. 2010:12). A number of Phnom Kulen ware were also discovered at the site of Dong Mae Nang Muang. Covered jars, jars and covered boxes were found in large numbers both in the habitation and in monument contexts. Figure 3. Covered boxes, Phnom Kulen ware, Dong Mae Nang Muang (From left above CKMP10, left lower CKMP11, covered box in the right side is now kept at the site) 12 Wasted product from the kiln Dark brown spot from Iron Oxide that appear on the pottery fabric 14 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 13 �Sassanid ceramics are yet another kind of ceramic found at Dong Mae Nang Muang. Blue turquoise glaze on earthenware is their main characteristic. It was commonly found in the Dvaravati settlement in Thailand., for example, U-thong in Supanburi province(FAD 2002: 65) or Dong Lakorn in Nakorn Nayok province (FAD 1997: 23) It is usually dated to the 3rd – 7th centuries AD but it was thought that technical production was still carried on until the Early Islamic Period(Pongkasetkan 2010: 134). During the time of the Sassanian Empire, the Iranian highlands had an important role in the history of East-West contact, both on the Overland Silk Road and Maritime Silk Road. Some Sassanian treasure were left all over Asia and Europe (Fukai 1981:35). It is extremely difficult at this time to distinguish ceramics from Late Parthian (249 B.C. – 226 AD) and Early Sassanian periods(226-642 AD); just as in other fields it is difficult to define the works of the late Sassanid Period and the Early Islamic Period (Harper 1978:160). The basic typology that was defined by Shinji Fukai (1981:36-46) composed of two glaze colours of green and blue-turquoise and in the forms of jar and cup. The excavation at Dong Mae Nang Muang revealed some pieces of Sassanids ceramics, both of green and blue glaze, probably jar, associated with Chinese Northern Song and Khmer ceramics. The stratigraphy dates these finds to the 10th-11th centuries AD, according from the Northern Song and Phnom Kulen ware, therefore, it could be implied about that there’re the usage of imported ceramics from Western Asia, Chinese and Khmer in the Dvaravati settlement in the upper Chao Phraya basin during 10 th-11th centuries AD. Glass Vessel Glass vessels were also found. From the analysis of glass vessel sherds 15, with LA-ICP-MS technique16 (Lankton and Gratuze 2010:4). James Lankton suggested that they might be made in Western Asia rather than locally made. Figure 5. Glass sherds from Dong Mae Nang Muang (SF336). 15 These glass sherds were analyzed by James W Lankton, Honorary Senior Research Fellow, UCL Institute of Archaeology, London, UK and Bernard Gratuze, IRAMAT, Institut de Recherches sur les Archéomatériaux, Centre Ernest-Babelon, C.N.R.S, Orleans, France in 2010. 16 Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry �Dong Mae Nang Muang as a Regional Centre The evidence presented here shows clearly that Dong Mae Nang Muang was an important regional centre in the Upper Chao Phraya Basin. Its location on the Ping and Nan tributaries opened it to communication with other sites in the area such as Khaogralone, Chansen, Thap Chumpon, U-Trapao and Kok Mai Den(Pongkasetkan 2010: 200). Khaogralone, for instance, was also located on a tributary of the Ping River thus facilitating access with Dong Mae Nang Muang. The Ping and Nan rivers join to create the Chao Phraya River with the confluence located at Pak Nam Po, Muang district, Nakorn Sawan. Dong Mae Nang Muang, with its direct access to those major waterways should therefore be considered a regional centre within the Upper Chao Phraya Basin. From an economic and commercial point-of-view this site can be considered a trade centre. Excavations have revealed Chinese Northern Song 17 ceramics, green-glazed Angkor-period ceramics , Sassanid Ceramics, glass and semiprecious stone beads. None of those products were manufactured locally. All were obtained through trade connections with sites along the coast or directly through the maritime network. The excavations in 2009 unearthed Sassanid Ceramics in the Upper Chao Phraya Basin for the first time. Before then, Sassanid Ceramics had only ever been discovered at Dvaravati settlements in the Lower Chao Phraya Basin close to the coast. The discovery of Sassanid Ceramics along with the other imported goods further emphasises the active role Dong Mae Nang Muang played in trade and commerce during the Dvaravati period. The earthenware pottery record also shows close connections with sites in the Chi and Mun river systems of northeast Thailand. Even though Phnom Kulen ware can not be considered ship’s cargo since it has never been found in context on a sunken ship site it is regardless a very interesting artefact to consider in the overall economic system of the Upper Chao Phraya Basin. The trade items from both the sea and inland ports were unearthed associated with each other at this one site, this fact infers that the goods distribution from both sea ports and inland-ports are similar. It appears therefore that Dong Mae Nang Muang was interacting with both the northeast and Lower Chao Phraya Basin. Bibliography Barram, A., and Glover, I., 2008 Boisselier, J., 1975 Brown, R., 1988 17 “Re-thinking Dvaravati”, in (eds.) Jean-Pierre Pautreau, et al. From Homo Erectus to the living traditions; choice of papers from the 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Siam Ratana Ltd, Chiang Mai, pp. 175-82. The Heritage of Thai Sculpture, Asia Books, Bangkok. The Ceramics of South-East Asia: Their Dating and Identification, Oxford Press, Singapore. Usually called Phnom Kulen ceramics �Chandawij, N., 1994 Coedès, G., 1961 Dupont, P., 2006 Fine Department. 1993 Chinese Ceramics from Archaeological Sited in Thailand, Fine Art Department, Thailand. in Thai language "Les expressions vrah kamraten an et kamraten jagat en vieux khmer”, in The Adyar Library Bulletin 25, 1-4, Jubilee Vol, pp. 447-60. The Archaeology of the Mons of Dvāravatī, translated with updates, additional figures and plans by Joyanto K. Sen, two volumes, White Lotus, Bangkok. Art Report on the Excavation of Dong La Korn, Muang district, Nakornnayok province, Fine Art Department in Thai language Fine Art Archaeology of U-Thong, Fine Art Department. in Thai Department. language 2002 Report on the Excavation at Dong Mae Nang Muang, Fine Art Jerinpon subdistrict, Banpotpisai District, Nakorn Sawan Department. Province, Fine Art Department, Lopburi, in Thai language. 2010 Ceramics of Ancient Persia, Weatherhill, Tokyo. Fukai, S., 1981 Glover, I. C., Ban Don Ta Phet: the 1984-85 excavation. In (eds.) Ian C. Glover and Emily A. Glover, Southeast Asian 1990 Archaeology 1986, British Archaeological Reports S-521, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford pp.139-83. The Royal Hunter: Art of the Sasanian Empire, Asia Harper, P.O., 1978 Society, New York. Krairiksh, P., “Semas with Scenes from the Mahanipata-Jatakas in the National Museum at Khon Kaen”, in Art and Archaeology 1974 in Thailand, Fine Art Department, Bangkok, pp.35-100. Regarding the Assessment at the Thanal Mrech kiln site Miksic, J., TMK 02, Angkor Thom, Phnom Kulen, Cambodia., Rachna, C., Piphal, H., and Archaeological report, PDF file. Visoth, C. www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/wps/wps09_126.pdf Early Landscapes of Myanmar, River Books, Bangkok. Moore, E., 2007 Murphy, A., "Fifty Years of Archaeological Research at Dong Mae Pongkasetkan Nang Muang: An Ancient Gateway to the Upper Chao Phraya Basin", in Journal of the Siam Society, 98, pp. 49P., 2010 74. Dvaravati, A Critical Study Based on the Archaeological Indrawooth, P., Evidence, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, in Thai 1999 language. Report on the Excavation at Muang Fa Daed Song Yang, Indrawooth,P., Kamalasai District, Kalasin Province, Silpakorn University, 2001 Bangkok, in Thai language. Indrawooth P. Krabuansaeng S., and Nakwek, P., 1991 “Muang Fa Daed Song Yang: new archaeological discoveries”, In (ed.) Université Silpakorn, Récentes Recherches en Archéologie en Thaïlande: Deuxième Symposium Franco-Thai, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, pp. 98-111. �Pongkasetkan, P., 2010 Qingxin, L., 2009 Rooney, D., Pinsri, K., and Thammapreecha korn, P., 2010 Skilling, P., 2003 Thammapreecha korn, P., 2010 Wales, H. G. Q., 1936 Woodward, H., 1997 Cultural development of the ancient town of Dong. Mae Nang Muang, Banpotpisai district, Nakornsawan province, Masters Thesis, Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University, in Thai language Maritime Silk Road, China International Press Khmer Ceramics Beauty and Meaning, River Books, Bangkok. “Dvaravati: Recent Revelations and Research”, in (ed.) Chris Baker, Dedications to Her Royal Highness Princess Galyani Vadhana Krom Luang Naradhiwas Rajanagarindra on her 80th birthday, The Siam Society, Bangkok, pp. 87-112. New Dating and Identification of Chinese Ceramics found in Thailand, unpublished document, Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum, Bangkok University. “Further excavations at P’ong Tuk (Siam)”, in Indian Arts and Letters, 10, 1, pp. 42-8. The Sacred Sculpture of Thailand, River Books, Bangkok. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ship's Cargo beyond the sea: New Evidence from Dong Mae Nang Muang, Nakorn Sawan Province, Central Thailand Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource This paper mainly focuses on Trade Ceramics and other cargo found from the Dvaravati settlement in Upper Chao Phraya basin, Central Thailand. Specifically, this paper focuses on the case study of the site of Dong Mae Nang Muang, Nakorn Sawan province. In 2008 an archaeological project was done to gain better knowledge of the site. Four test pits, one test trench and an earthen mound were excavated. These activities expanded the current understanding of the site's characteristics. The excavation revealed imported goods from all over the world such as; ceramics, glass and semi-precious stone beads and glass vessels. This important phenomenon was a strong impact on current knowledge of the inter-relationship between Dvaravati, an ancient settlement in the Upper Chao Phraya basin, and the sea port town via China and Western Asia2, this has reconsidered the role of economics in the area especially the details of trade-routes and the merchandise during the Dvaravati period (5th-12th centuries AD). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pimchanok Pongkasetkan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2e267aa8a94be98bd6fef9f6200dd39c.pdf e43a548d495d59b8fc278b77503c4833 PDF Text Text Protecting an Underwater Cultural Heritage through Visual Communication Skill Cipto Aji Gunawan Abstract The famous quotation, ―A picture speaks a thousand words‖ illustrates how effective visual communication is in delivering messages. If properly managed, visual communication tools may persuade public perception and inform audience opinion. In Indonesia, underwater heritage sites have limited range of visualization, so it is not a surprise that these sites are enjoyed by limited communities. In managing heritage, the involvement of the community and multiple stakeholders from different backgrounds are needed to enhance better management. This paper presents how to design a concept of visual communication such as video and still photography which can bridge the limited access between community and their heritage in order to build an understanding of the underwater cultural heritage protection and its historical value. Introduction Current forms of visual communication are scattered throughout our lives, from waking to sleeping, we are bombarded with a storm of visual communication through various media. Various forms of images, symbols, graphics are creating a billboard jungle that is slowly manipulating our subconscious to feel a "closeness" with the message conveyed by the billboard. Traffic signs, icons on the computer and compani‘s logos are a simple form of visual communication that is constantly affecting our awareness of the meaning of a symbol. "Seeing is believing" and "a picture speaks a thousand words", combine to create the first rank of visual communication that needs attention if we want to instill an awareness of an idea. Visual communication is done correctly and directed to the appropriate dose can be used to manipulate the masses. The development of audio visual media technology in particular is directly influencing the form of visual communication, graphic and other forms of moving images that can be combined with sound thus improving the model of visual communication into an audio visual communication that delivers far more intense impact, especially for the people of Indonesia. The most popular audio visual communication is video. Indonesian people are familiar with the concept of story telling, as it is used in delivering messages from generation to generation. This oral culture has very strong affects in Indonesia, however, development of audio technology immediately replaced oral culture. In 1960 Professor George Gerbner, a former Dean of the Annenberg School of Communication at the University of Pennsylvania, United States (U.S.), conducted a study of the impact of television on humans live and culturral change in society and pointed out "Cultivation Theory". This theory stated that a regular repetition on television show has influence on the mindset of an audience; the more often people exposed to a message, the more acceptable that message as a reality and truth. Believe on the television show could be �positive and also could be negative depending on the message that was delivered. One's initial interest in watching a show will determine how often people will continue watching the show and be re-exposed to the message that was delivered by the media. Here the role of design will determine the success of a show that will be implemented to influence the target audience. It has the potential to influence attitudes and change certain values, especially in the group ‗heavy viewers‘ (defined as people who watch television more or equal than four hours per day)1. A good design will certainly give a positive effect in accordance with the expectations of the institution that produces the message, but designing a bad audio-visual communication can have a negative effect on the messages delivered. Cultivation Theory is highly relevant in the endeavour to photograph the conditions of Indonesian society because it is very dependent on television as an entertainment center and a vast information network. Attainable television has an active role in the dissemination of entertainment and information with a relatively low cost. Although people have been exploring space, i.e. set foot on the moon and photographing the surface of mars, the underwater world is still somewhat of a mystery. Until now, many parts of the ocean floor have not been touched by human technology. The exploration of the ocean has lasted for centuries, but the seabed is still included as ‗the last frontier‘ (personal experience of over 5000 dives). For a small contingent of the community stories and underwater heritage can be easily seen but for most Indonesian people these stories and heritage will remain mysterious and unattainable. Indonesian society in particular often considers cultural remains as nothing more than a pile of junk expected to be sold as treasures. For most people the function of the underwater heritage is directly economic within a maximum extraction model (based on 10 years of personal experience). Historic function, aesthetics and science have not yet reached an understanding on the role of historical relics under water. Underwater heritage is very rarely seen by the public; even the majority of Indonesian people had never seen these sites, so that almost no attention and appreciation arises in the media. For years underwater heritage in Indonesia has been looted both legally and illegally. For some relics, it was indeed proper to lift and rescue on land, but retain greater value if left beneath the sea. For example, World War Two (WWII) relics scattered throughout the archipelago, including the remains of warships, aircraft and vehicles that were piled under the sea, have a historical, aesthetic, and sentimental value much larger than the value per kilogram of iron. It is more feasible to leave relics under the water where they can be used as historical and cultural sites that can bring economic value through the development of sustainable marine tourism. Study of the conditions and opportunities for restoration and conservation of underwater heritage is very important to support long-term planning of the visual utilization of sites and relics. 1 http://www.lombokpost.co.id/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=1708:hindari-efeknegatif-nonton-tv-pada-anak&Itemid=543 �Solutions In Indonesia where poverty rates are still very high; Sustainability concept in managing natural resources and cultural heritage is ―expensive‖ and often not affordable for local community. Instant benefits are more considerable for the locals than thinking about the future. The mindset is "there will be no next day if today cant be succeeded well". With these conditions there is a pattern of instant understanding of an economic object (relics underwater can be classified as one of economic objects). Changing the pattern of instant view of the outlook process is something that is not easy. The solution to this problem can be approached through three approaches namely Regulatory, Economic and Combined Regulatory and Economic., Regulatory approaches Regulations made by the government to restrict and regulate the use, including allowing or not allowing an activity that affected on utilization. The concept can apply on a heritage object under air. Included therein is the extraction and/or non-regulatory approaches. In this kind of rule approaches need strong control and strict law enforcement so that this rule can be run properly. Case study: Biak Establishment of Maritime Conservation Area (MCA) aims to restrict the activities at sites where there is a archaeological remain within. One of the suitable places for the application of MCA is Biak - Papua. WWII Catalina aircraft is situated near the beach. This site is tourist attaraction. The formation of the MCA has a relatively low conflict of interest, and could potentially provide economic benefits through the development of the site. This approach can be successful if:  There is strong government interest and regulatory action and limited public resistance.  If the location does not already entail (or little) activity contrary to the values of conservation.  Requires proper socialization, meaning the target-oriented rules that apply specifically to all stake holders have an interest, either directly or indirectly also to the wider community in general. Economic Approach Creating economic benefits of a heritage object which can be enjoyed directly by the public will voluntarily enact community conservation of underwater heritage. Case study: Tulamben - Bali Tulamben is a small village in Karangasem regency - Bali. This village is one of the poorest villages in Bali. On Tulamben beach there is a WWII shipwreck., In 1963 when Mount Agung erupted, the ship was dragged into the water about 50 metres from the beach and sunk under 18-30m water depth (based on personal �experience since 1991). Since the mid-1980s, small groups of recreational divers began diving at the wreck site (based on personal experience with the community since 1990). Slowly the name Liberty Ship Wreck Tulamben became increasingly popular. The local community then switched their professions from fisherman to the tourism service. The village of Tulamben is no longer poor, communities benefit directly from the existence of heritage. Several times outside forces have attempted to disturb the site but the people of Tulamben have defended the site, including violence when it needed (based on personal observation). The Liberty Ship Wreck Tulamben has become part of local people's livelihood, their economy depends on the presence of the ship; its condition, restoration and conservation efforts are very important,when Liberty Ship Wreck Tulamben became the most famous dive site in Indonesia and natural heritage conservation process has occurred in Tulamben. This approach can be successful if:  The locals have not made an extraction of these remains, or in the other words salvage does not occur as a result of the economic advantages which is opposed to the conservation values.  The community has minimal resistance especially if it is related to the existence of alternative livelihoods.  Educating the local community is intended to provide understanding the economic benefit of sustainable development of the underwater heritage objects. Regulatory approaches and economic In the location of underwater heritage that has been massively exploited, a combination of regulatory and economic approaches is the most sensible choice for rehabilitation and conservation. In this case the government must enact legislation on the protection and utilization of heritage objects and at the same time approach the public, especially related to ongoing negative utilization (salvage) by providing alternative income solutions that can replace the income earned from salvage of underwater heritage (see Ridwan this volume). Here, the role of socialization is continuous, consistent and needs to be designed and carefully follow the developmental stages of the application of the rules as well as offering alternative livelihood opportunities. Using audio-visual communication methods can accelerate this change in mindsets towards the desired concept. Case study: Morotai Morotai was an important part of the history during WW II. As a result, this island enriched WWII underwater cultural heritage such as aircraft, tanks, Armour Personnel Carrier (APCs) which have found on land and underwater. Unfortunately, from the 1980s until now there has been massive looting on the site. The remainder-war has a lot of cut and sold in kilograms by both local people and also immigrants who load the iron from the remaining-war to the wrought-smelting. Government awareness of these sites arose after Morotai became part of the new district of North Halmahera, Morotai, and later, an �independent district separated from the North Halmahera. This awareness is quite late, and very few cultural heritage sites remain intact. Remaining sites include WWII aircraft wreckage Bristol Beuford & B, an Australian-made fighter sitting at a depth of approximately 45m South of the island of Morotai. Wreckage was accompanied by several other scattered aircraft and also some vehicles that still leave the steering wheel. If economic regulatory approaches appropriately ran strictly, then rapid economic alternatives can be offered to the public. Those witness to this history of exploitation and use of heritage as part of a limited maritime tourist attraction can raise awareness of the wider community with conservation plans that have been targeted over a longer period of time. This approach can be successful if:  Local community needs a strong government to enforce the law in line with the education on an alternative livelihoods for the people affected from the consequences of these rules.  Options are almost immediately utilization, so if this could be idealized as principally conservation it will invite the attention of the wider society to help support.  Need a way of communication and socialization that are objective and oriented on the rules that apply specifically to all stake holders. This must be of interest, either directly or indirectly, to the wider community in general. An Example of a Case in utilization of audio-visual communication methods that have an impact on changing attitudes and values of the villagers in Les-Bali  Messages that need to be delivered is the use of non environmentally friendly equipment in catching fish.  Target audience: males, aged 15-40 years, public education, indigenous people bali  Language of delivery: low context  Involving stakeholders: the central character of local community  Communications media: posters, photos and movies  Range of communications: local - international  Frequency of submission: each occasion (a variety of media: posters, photos, movies)  Social value of culture: the culture of Bali Les is a village on the north coast of Bali. At first sight there is nothing special compared to other fishing villages along the north side of Bali. Only when you approach the coastal area, you will find the fish ponds and aquariums containing sea water ornamental fish. The livelihood in this village is fisherman for ornamental fish. Originally, they were using traditional fishing tools but later due to the increase of the demand of ornamental fish and also the trading pressure pushed them to switch by using potassium cyanide, which they usually called "potash" or "pushers". The use of significant potash has increased their ability to find fish and bring home a bucket of ornamental fish. �Gradually the use of potash has damaged the marine environment. Potash sprays can be potentially fatal to coral reefs covering an area of 1-2 m within two to three months. We can imagine if there were an average of 30 people working every day for years using cyanide what sort of impact this may cause. It is therefore no wonder in the early 2000s, the condition of coral reefs in Les are severely devastated. Nearly 70% of coral reefs around the village are dead and destroyed. In early 2000, several people from the archipelago's Ark Foundation and the Society palm visit the village. By experiencing handling "destructive fishing" in the Philippines, they offered an alternative way of catching ornamental fish, using barrier nets and small nets. The method used to educate and introduce the community is an audio visual communication through films and photographs. The first step was - every time the Non-Government Organization (NGO) Yayasan Bahtera Nusantara and Telapak visits Les they followed the fishermen to catch fish using potassium cyanide and documented all the activities. After that they published a video and invited all the fishermen to watch it. It aimed to show the fishermen the damage that they had done to the natural environment due to their use of potash. In 2002 the fishing village of Les consciously abandoned the potash method and switched to the net method. In that year the group that established an ornamental fish village in Les, a group of fishermen Mina Bhakti Soansari, warned others that if they continued using potash they would be punished by new village regulatory reforms (based on personal experience since 2000). Conclusion Three approaches above, we can draw a thread of thought and process that every stage of these steps need to be communicated with the community, both specific (narrow scope) and in the general (broader scope). From the description on the effectiveness of audio-visual communication as well as the condition of underwater remains that are often still mysterious it can be concluded that audio-visual communication is a vital bridge that is able to reach people in the delivery of messages of conservation-oriented utilization of long-term of underwater objects in Indonesia. Things that need to be considered in designing the pattern of effective audio-visual communication are:  Messages to be delivered (regulatory approaches, economic or regulatory and economic)  Target audience (gender, economic level, educational level, social conditions of culture, age)  Language of delivery (high or low context language, a high context language is the language conveyed not directly, often 'winged' and in a form of communicating that requires interpretation from the listener. Low context language is a language communicated directly and "to the point" without much swapped stale. The selection is tailored to the context of language habits, and social culture of the target communication) �     Involvement and role of stake holders (and surrounding communities), as a crew, talent, models) in the production process of communication media (photos, pictures, movies, etc.) is. The selection of communication media (media photos / images or movies (audio visual communication)) Distribution range communications (local, regional, national or international) Frequency of delivery (more often delivered more easily influence on the change of mindset, a note: avoid boredom by providing a variety of delivery methods, visual communication can also be interspersed in the forms of communication other) Note the values of social culture that can support the effective delivery of messages (eg. use of traditional dress in the visualization of people on guard to protect the conservation area, on Bali's people are called Pecalang). Bibliography Bell-Jordan, K.E., 2008 Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., and Signorielli, N., 1980 Squires, C., 2008 "Black, white, and a survivor of The Real World: Constructions of race on reality TV", in Critical Studies in Media Communication, 25, pp.353–372. "The mainstreaming of America: Violence profile no. 11", in Journal of Communication, pp.10-25. "Tryin' to make it real—but real compared to what?", Critical Studies in Media Communication, 25, pp.434–440. http://www.lombokpost.co.id/index.php?option=com_k2&vie w=item&id=1708:hindari-efek-negatif-nonton-tv-padaanak&Itemid=543, retrieved at 17 August 2011. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Protecting an Underwater Cultural Heritage through Visual Communication Skill Subject The topic of the resource Session 5 UCH in the Making… online session Description An account of the resource The famous quotation, ―A picture speaks a thousand words‖ illustrates how effective visual communication is in delivering messages. If properly managed, visual communication tools may persuade public perception and inform audience opinion. In Indonesia, underwater heritage sites have limited range of visualization, so it is not a surprise that these sites are enjoyed by limited communities. In managing heritage, the involvement of the community and multiple stakeholders from different backgrounds are needed to enhance better management. This paper presents how to design a concept of visual communication such as video and still photography which can bridge the limited access between community and their heritage in order to build an understanding of the underwater cultural heritage protection and its historical value. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cipto Aji Gunawan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 5 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/438d12313cbfccf82e6c2d45a73bdf34.pdf 79c81e1234bc102a7b532dcb0fa21435 PDF Text Text Archaeological, Literary and Ethnographic Evidence for Traditional Boat-building in Kerala, South India Veerasamy Selvakumar1 Abstract Kerala possesses rich maritime traditions dating back to the Early Historic period. A few types of traditional watercrafts developed indigenously and some are influenced by external contacts. Archaeological excavations revealed a medieval sailboat at Kadakkarappally in 2003 and an Early Historic canoe at Pattanam in 2007. The Early Historic Sangam Tamil texts refer to the watercrafts of Kerala. Traditional boat-building still survives in Kerala. This paper presents the evidence for traditional boats in Kerala, their historical context and the possible external 2 influences, until the 15th century Common Era (CE). I. Introduction Kerala's strategic location connects the eastern and western worlds in the Indian Ocean region Kerala‟s internal processes and external influences have caused the development of a vibrant maritime culture, including interesting watercraft types, than any other region in India. This paper presents a survey of traditional boat-building in Kerala, its historical context and the possible external influences, until the 15th century CE. With the Western Ghats on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west, Kerala (Lat. 8◦ 15' and 12◦ 50' E; Long. 74◦ 50' and 77◦ 30' N, Figure 1A) is enriched by the monsoons, 44 perennial rivers, 15 backwaters and a 600 km coast. The average temperature is between 20◦ and 32◦ C, and the annual rainfall varies from 1800 to 3600 millimeters (mm). Kerala has rich wood sources suitable for boat-building. Previous Research Experiments undertaken in methods of navigation to survive in the water-filled landscape led to the development of indigenous watercrafts, some of which still survive. The Classical texts3, medieval travelers4 and the European adventurers5 and administrators6 discuss the traditional watercrafts of Kerala. Systematic research on the traditional watercrafts was initiated by the Europeans. James Hornell (1920:21-24) offers an account of the traditional watercrafts. A.P. Greeshmalatha and Victor Rajamanickam (1993; Greeshmalatha and Rajamanickam 1995; Rajamanickam 2004) documented the nature, distribution and construction techniques of the watercrafts. 1 Department of Epigraphy and Archaeology, Tamil University, INDIA, selvakumarodi@gmail.com Designation for the Georgian „Calendar Era‟. 3 Specifically the Sangam Tamil (Zevelebil 1974) and Greco-Roman texts, e.g. The Periplus (Casson 1989; Schoff 1912). 4 For instance, Ibn Batuta (Lee 1829) and Marco Polo (Benedetto 1931; Yule 1993). 5 Cabral 1995; Barbosa, Stanley 1866; Varthema 2004. 6 For example, Francis Buchanan 1806: 419-420; and William Logan 1884: 39. 2 1 �Rajamanickam and V.S. Arulraj (1994:9-24) present the watercrafts from Tamil and Malayalam literature. Other important studies include Lucy Blue's Kattamaram Project 2005-2007, Jesse Ransley's The Backwater Boats of Kerala (2008, 2010), and Ralph Pedersen's study on the clench-fastened boat (2010). Archaeological excavations exposed an Early Historic canoe at Pattanam (Cherian, et al. 2007a; Cherian, et al. 2007b; Cherian, et al. 2009) and a medieval sailboat at Thaikkal-Kadakkarappally (Nair, et al. 2003; Pedersen 2004; Selvakumar 2006a; Tomalin, et al. 2004). An Indo-Arabian type stone anchor has been identified near Kannur (Tripathi, et al. 2005). Several publications exist on Late Medieval boat-building (Appadorai 1936; Arunachalam 2008; Joseph 2003; Malekandathil 2001; Mathew 1997). Despite these studies further investigations are essential for a holistic understanding of boat-building in Kerala. Figure 1. Map of Kerala (Drawing by Tangadurai, 2011) and Canoe from Pattanam (Photo by Mohammed 2007). 2 �II. History of Boat-building Prehistoric Age Boat-building in Kerala, perhaps, extends to the prehistoric period. Kerala has evidence for prehistoric cultures; especially traces of the early Holocene microlithic food-gatherers who existed along the littoral of coastal/riverine contexts (Rajendran 1989; Selvakumar 2006b). Kerala was perhaps first occupied by the Homo sapiens, who might have migrated along the coast from Africa in the Late Pleistocene (Petraglia, et al. 2009). Movement and fishing in riverine/coastal regions were essential for their subsistence, and hence, there is a possibility that rafts like kattumaram and teppam, which involve securing the logs of wood/bamboo with creepers, emerged as an adaptation to the environment.7 It is probable that dugout canoes were crafted using fire and/or lithic tools. In the later prehistoric context, i.e. post-3000 Before Common Era (BCE)8, it is probable that the Harappa civilization (Ratnagar 2006) and its West Asian counterparts interacted/traded with the microlithic communities of Kerala which perhaps brought in new boat-building techniques. Iron Age Little research exists on the trade, navigation and boat-building of the Iron Age communities (ca. 1000 to 500 BCE), which built megalithic burials with gravegoods for the dead (Gurukkal and Varier 1999). The iron implements suggest advanced metallurgy, and the carnelian beads and bronze artifacts indicate longdistance trade. The factors such as political conflicts, internal exchange and longdistance trade would have required the plank-built boats, extended dugouts and sails. External contacts would have influenced the boat-building traditions of Kerala. Colonization of Sri Lanka by Vijaya from North India in 543 BCE, depicted in the Ajanta paintings, means that large vessels were used in India in the Early Historic period (Panikkar 1947:32). In addition, the ships of the Indian Ocean Rim9 would have visited the Iron Age Kerala greatly. Teak wood and perfume of Kerala origin are reported to have been used during the time of King Solomon of the Old Testament (Narayanan 2004:41) and the reference to the land of Ophir in the Bible, identified with Kerala, if authentic, point to longdistance trade (Rawlinson 2005:102). 7 Such rafts are built by securing banana, bamboo and other light wood with creepers or plant fibres. They are made even today. 8 BCE=Before Common Era, a designation indicating years before the beginning of the Georgian Calendar. 9 By Indian Ocean rim, I mean the countries along the rim of the Indian Ocean from North Africa to Southeast Asia, and also the islands of this Ocean. 3 �Early Historic (300 BCE to 500 CE) The Early Historic period has comparatively better evidence. Pan-Indian interactions, "rudimentary" urbanization, political conflicts, craft-specialization and the Indian Ocean trade (Champakalakshmi 1996; Gurukkal 2010; Ray 2003; Selvakumar and Darsana 2008) induced by the internal and external factors (e.g. spice trade and Roman Empire) impacted Kerala. The Classical texts and archaeological record attest to the vibrant trade and the multi-functional towns with markets, ports and manufacturing and boat-building centres (e.g. Tondi, Muciri and Nelkynda as discussed in R. Champakalakshmi 1996: 105-141. Pattanam Canoe Excavations at the Early Historic site of Pattanam (25 km north of Kochi), proposed to be Muciri, produced the lower portion of a dugout (extended?) canoe (6 m+) (Figure 1B), near a wharf with bollards of teak. Accelerated Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Carbon14 (C-14) dates place the canoe in first century BCE/CE (Cherian, et al. 2009; see Cherian this volume). The canoe, similar to modern vanji, is made of Artocarpus hirsutus (anjiliy/aini) wood famous for contemporary dugouts. With a carved frame in one end the canoe shows evidence for caulking and repair with a piece of wood. The canoe perhaps was used for the transportation of goods/people along the rivers and backwaters. The Sangam texts refer to kazhittoni (canoe of backwater) that brought gold from the Yavanar's kalam10 (PuranaanooRu, 343, Selvakumar 2008) to Muciri. Similarly Pliny11 says that the Roman ships could not enter Muciri and, the goods were transported in smaller crafts (Sastri 1939:53). Therefore, the archaeological context perfectly matches with the texts. Was the smaller craft a kazhittoni or some other type? Texts The Sangam texts mention several watercrafts including kalam, naavaay, vangkam, timil, ambi and puNai (Subrahmanian 1966). The description and context help identify their purpose, but not their design and structure. For nautical terms in literature (Rajamanickam and Arulraj 1994; see Athiyaman this volume). The last three crafts meant for coastal-riverine navigation were indigenous; while the first two--sail-driven, sea-going vessels--in some contexts were non-local. Periplus12 mentions about colandia and sangara (Schoff 1912:46) plying in the Bay of Bengal and Southeast Asia which are considered to be outriggers of Southeast Asian origin (Sakhuja 2009). 10 The texts often mention about nankalam. Nan means 'good' in Tamil and kalam refers to ships, ornaments, weapons and pottery. Here is refers to ships. Yavanar means people of GrecoRoman and West Asian origin. 11 Pliny the Elder, who lived in the first century CE, was a Roman writer and naval commander. His account gives details on the Indo-Roman trade. 12 The Periplus Marei Erithrei is a Greek navigational guide dateable to the mid first century CE (Casson 1989). The name of the author of this work is not known. 4 �Evidence from South India Moving east of Kerala, the Early Historic port of Azhakankulam in southern Tamil Nadu, has two graffitio motifs of boat on pottery (Sridhar, et al. 2005). According to Lionel Casson (1996) one specimen (Figure 2A) is similar to the Roman ships. The sherd is broken and the double ropes of the second mast are very clear and hence it matches with the Ajanta/Satavahana motifs and not with the mosaic of the Ostia specimen (Figure 2C). The coins of Satavahana (Sharma 1980) ruler Vashistaputra Sri Pulumavi II have a double-ended ship having two masts secured with a single rope on either side; the stern has a rudder (Figure 2B).13 The coins of Satavahana Gautamiputra Yajna Sri Satakarni (Bajpai 1981:145; Mookerji 1999:51) have a vessel with twin ropes on the exterior sides of the masts and single rope on the interior, for better compactness to the ship. It appears to have a raised foreside, and both types seem to be sea-going vessels. In Deccan, the Ajanta paintings have several ship depictions (Figure 2D); one type, carrying pots, has three masts and some carry animals (Mookerji 1999:39; Schlingloff 1976), which prove that large ships were used in India. Pieces of teak, perhaps used in ships, were recovered at Berenike (Abraham 2007:290), which might have come from Kerala. The volume of ship traffic suggests possible repairing facilities in Kerala. The abundance of corroded copper and a few tin pieces from Pattanam (Cherian, et al. 2007a; Cherian, et al. 2007b) indicates their probable use in ship building/repair, and it is not clear if Roman ships were built in Kerala. Figure 2. Watercrafts of Early Historic Indian Ocean Region- A Graffito, Azhakankulam; B Motif on Satavahana Coin; C Motif from Ostia; D Pleasure Boat motif, Ajanta 13 Wilfred Harvey Schoff (1912: 244) has different versions of the boats on the Satavahana and Pallava coins; their accuracy is uncertain. 5 �Nature of Watercrafts The evidence suggests four categories of watercrafts: 1. The raft types for fishing on the sea and backwater. While kattumaram does not occur in the Tamil texts, maram does, and it means ship/boat/raft (Subrahmanian 1966: 645) 2. Dugout canoe for transport of people and goods, and fishing. 3. Ambi of the Tamil texts which exchanged fish for paddy (PuranaanooRu 343) might be a plank-built or an extended plank-built type. It is spoken of as including faces of horse and elephant. Did ambi have a keel and the extension of which had animal figureheads? 4. The large sea-going ships, e.g. vangkam, naavaay and kalam with sails and also colandia and sangara (Schoff 1912: 46). Interestingly, as in English, kalam refers to both utensil and ship in Tamil. Yavanar tanta vinai maaN nankalam in Akanaanooru 149 suggests the Roman origin of certain kalams. The poets, not familiar with the specific names of the Roman ships, used the generic label kalam. The native crafts are precisely named with their functions; e.g. kazhitthoni and ambi in PuranaanooRu 343. Naavaay could be a ship of North Indian origin, as its root word naav is Indo-European, not Dravidian, and vangkam, perhaps belonged to the Bay of Bengal region. Early Medieval (500 to 1000 CE) Data on the watercrafts and the navigation of this period is scanty. However, the ship motifs from the Pallava coins (Tripathi and Raut 2006) and Ajanta (Schlingloff 1976) prove the importance of maritime activities. Vangkam occurs in the Medieval Tamil texts (Appar Devaaram 1.84.7). Obviously state formation and commercial interests in South India boosted navigation and boat-building. Kerala witnessed the ships of West Asia, Coramandal coast, Southeast Asia and China. Perhaps Islam and Christianity too reached Kerala during this period. Increased evidence for trade occurs from the ninth century. The merchant guilds of Anjuvannam and the Christian presence at southern Kollam in 849 CE evidenced by the Terisappalli copper grants are noteworthy (Abraham 1988; Subbarayalu 2001; Varier 2003:160). The Jamat mosque inscription (late tenth century) at Patalayinikollam mentions about the guilds of Manigramattar and Valanjiyar (Varier 2003:155; SII, 8, 162:69). The maritime empire of the Cholas controlled southern Kerala and northern Sri Lanka, which further proves the importance of boat-building so the empire could be connected. By the end of this period Muslims were very active on the South India coast due to their interest in the Indian Ocean trade.14 The West Asian navigation technologies might have been introduced to Kerala. Beypore, north of Kozhikode, and other settlements perhaps emerged as major boat-building centres. 14 Ghosh 1992: 362 suggests that Muslims were pushed out of Mediterranean trade by the Christian states from the 10th century CE. 6 �Late Medieval (1000 CE to 1500 CE) Evidence for boat-building of this period is available in Arab, Chinese (Karashima 2004a; Sen 2006), European and native (Payyanur Paattu, Antony 1994) sources. The polities of Kerala which were in frequent skirmishes needed watercrafts for political and administrative purposes. Reference to the Kudiraichettis (horse traders) of Kerala occurs in Tamil inscriptions (Rangacharya 1919:1641). Merchants of Kerala were active on the east coast of India (Karashima 2004b:7), Sri Lanka (Pathamanathan 2004) and Southeast Asia (Selvakumar 2010). South India witnessed the merchants from the Indian Ocean Rim. Idrisi mentions about Fandarina (Pantalayinikollam) where ships of Sindh anchor (Varier 2003:162). The Genizah letters of Ben Yiju mention about a nakkudha named Nambiyar, perhaps a ship captain (Goitein 2001:430). The Cholas dominated the eastern Indian Ocean in the 11th century and they took expeditions to Sri Lanka, and to Southeast Asia to protect their maritime interests (Kulke, et al. 2009). The Chola inscription at Krishnapatnam of Andhra (1256 CE) mentions about the vessels named marakkalam15, thoni, vedi, padavu, kalavam, kamarasavalli and turi (Karashima 2004b: 7). Three types of Chinese ships that visited Kerala are mentioned by Ibn Battuta. Pantalayinikollam, north of Kozhikkode, was a wintering port for Chinese ships and Chinese sources mention southern Kollam as a major port (Varier 2003). Clearly West Asian dominance and Chinese interest grew in this phase (Sen 2006). Kadakkarappally Sailboat At Kadakkarappally (N Lat. 9 95. 470'; E Long. 76 18. 41' ca. 35 km south of Kochi, Chertala Taluk, Alappuzha dt), a damaged sailboat was excavated in 2002-2003 (Nair, et al. 2004; Pedersen 2004; Selvakumar 2006a; Selvakumar 2011; Selvakumar, et al. 2004; Tomalin, et al. 2004). This is the first significant example of a large boat to be excavated in India (Figure 3). 15 Marikar, surname of certain South Indian Muslims is considered to have derived from Marakkalarayar which means ship master/captain/owner (cf. Marakkalanaayakan in Barus inscription, Subbarayalu 1994), the Tamil equivalent (?) of nakhuda/naquid (Goiten 2001). 7 �Figure 3. A General view (from south) of the excavated boat at Kadakkarapally (Photo by Ralph Pedersen 2003). It is a flat-bottomed, nailed and plank-built boat; intact length ca. 18.67 m, width, ca. 4.05 m. The boat had a transom stern, partly disturbed, and a curvilinear-pointed bow, which resembles kettuvallam. It had double masts, one in the bow and the other amidships. It is made of Anjily wood (Artocarpus hirsutus) and for the bulkhead Cassia fistula wood is used. Two C-14 dates of Cal ad16 920–1160, average 990±70 years (Birbal Shani Institute of Palaeobotany (BSIP, Lucknow) and Cal ad 1020–1270 (Beta Analytic), place the boat between twelfth and fifteenth centuries CE. The boat displays a mixture of technologies some of which do not survive in contemporary Kerala. The "lashedlug" technology has interesting parallels to methods used in Southeast Asia and its compartments resemble the Chinese tradition. 16 'Cal' refers to calibrated age of the dated sample. It is the calendar age of the sample. 8 �Modern Period (from 1500 CE) The boat-building scenario changed drastically during this period because of the colonial presence (the Portuguese, Dutch and British)17 and the emergence of maritime empires (Mathew 1997), and the lack of powerful local polities. A dugout canoe of late historic period (Figure 4) was found at Uzhavur near Koothattukulam in 2006, but many such finds in Kerala either go undocumented or end up as firewood. Figure 4. A Dugout canoe excavated at Uzhavur-Puthuvely, Kottyam District, and Kerala (V.Selvakumar 2006) The water-filled southern and central Kerala produce several varieties of watercrafts. From the boat song of vanjipaattu to the Khalasi workers of Baypore yard the boat-building tradition is very dynamic (Joseph 2003). Malayalam has about 38 names for watercrafts (Rajamanickam 2004). Vanji is a canoe for river/backwater transport; kettuvallam is a stitched plank-built boat used for largescale transport, and its modified version functions as houseboats; changnadam (sangara) is used for ferries and palliOdam for ritual purpose; chundan vaLLam for the boat race in Alappuzha is an important type. Iruttukutthi vaLLam was used for piracy earlier. Caalattadi or kattumaram is used by the fisher-folk of Kerala. churulan vaLLam, Odi vaLLam, veppu vaLLam and kochchu vaLLam are other 17 Modern and contemporary ship-building are not discussed in this paper. 9 �traditional craft varieties. Craftsmen of Beypore produce large vessels, uru18, which are now manufactured mainly for West Asian customers. III. Discussion The internal and external dynamics have conditioned the traditional boat-building in Kerala, especially in Southern and Central Kerala which have numerous rivers and backwaters. The dugouts and rafts, which perhaps developed in prehistoric Kerala as an adaptation to environmental conditions, have been in constant use; however, their specific design has probably changed. Plank-built vessels, extended dugouts and use of masts and sails might have been introduced in the Iron Age when internal social complexities and external interactions intensified. The find of the Pattanam canoe is no surprise as similar canoes are used even today. Naavaay and vangkam were large seagoing vessels perhaps manufactured by the major traders in the Early Historic. While the smaller crafts were the products of day-to-day demands, the larger ships were the result of long-distance trade and the capitalist enterprise of major traders and guilds or political enterprise of the states. The chiefs did control the trade and used ships for political and economic benefits.19 The Indian Ocean trade brought merchants and watercrafts from different parts of the world to Kerala which might have led to hybridization of boat-building technologies. Reference to "the well-crafted vessels given by the Yavanar" in Tamil Akanaanooru poem 149 suggests that particular ships were Greco-Roman in origin. The indigenous ships were also used in longdistance trade. The questions of joining planks through stitching and nailing in the Early Historic period and their origin need more research. Very little is known about the early medieval watercrafts but continuity of early crafts is possible. From the 9th century the Indian Ocean witnessed increased commerce, and West Asian communities dominated the Indian Ocean trade (Arunachalam 2008). These communities with interest in Southeast Asia, traded on a variety of goods, including horses which were in great demand in late Medieval South India. Kerala along with the east coast of India was an ideal ground for these communities due to its location in the sea route connecting West Asia and Southeast Asia and the spice wealth. Therefore, the West Asian boat design dominated in certain contexts. Perhaps the native trading groups faced competition from the West Asian traders and it is probable that some of the traditional Indian designs (e.g. Vangkam, Kalam) lost their importance. The Beypore uru design is considered to be influenced by West Asian traditions (Hornell 1920). According to Hornell (1920: 7), "the Malayali adheres to the indigenous dugout design, the Arab type is largely built at those Mappilla centers 18 In the Mottupalli (1358 CE, SII XXVI, 635). and Krishnapatnam inscriptions (Karashima 2004b: 7), uru is the generic name for ships. 19 The Chera king Senguttuvan defeated his enemies/pirates on the sea and a Chera king was 'operating gold-yielding naavaay and other kalams would not pass his way (PuranaanooRu 126) in the Early Historic period. PathiRRuppattu (II, Canto, 8-10) mentions about a Chera king, who punished the Yavanar and took away their ship (?) with valuables. 10 �where the strain of Arab blood is appreciable, as for example at Calicut, Beypore and Ponnani". However, this categorization cannot be extended to the past. It needs to be researched carefully to understand if the Beypore design is entirely non-local or any of the early Indian elements were incorporated in it. Craftsmen of Beypore perhaps built boats of different types for various markets; and hence they could have copied and experimented with a combination of technologies. The Kadakkarappally sailboat, with Southeast Asian (cf. Manguin's 1996) and local features, suggests that certain types were abandoned in the past. It also proves that iron nails were used in medieval Indian boat-building, contrary to the widely held notion (Selvakumar, et al. 2004: 79). The competition over the Indian Ocean trade increased from the 15th century with the arrival of colonial powers and large watercrafts were built in Kerala to fulfill their ambitions. Several traditional watercrafts are used in Kerala and some of their names occur in ancient texts. The absence of kattumaram in the Sangam texts is puzzling; does maram in the texts refer to kattumaram? Or did it become popular later? While the contemporary watercrafts can help us to understand ancient navigation they are not static representations of the past navigation system. Modification, abandonment and introduction of boat designs have been a constant process due to social-economic and political demands. For example, traditional watercrafts have disappeared in many traditional river crossings ("Kadavu') due to the new concrete bridges. The kettuvallams have been modified into houseboats for promoting backwater tourism (Zacharias, et al. 2008). Kerala has been the meeting ground for boat-building traditions of the eastern and western Indian Ocean regions; so detailed research, documentation and preservation of traditional boat-building methods are required for the growth of nautical archaeology in Kerala and the preservation of traditional nautical knowledge. Bibliography Abraham, M., 1988 Two Medieval Merchant Guilds of South India, Manohar, Delhi. 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Vol.3, Government Press, Madras. Ransley, J., 2008 “The Boats of Munrothuruthu: Identity, Landscape and Producing the Social World”, paper presented at the Third International Congress on Underwater Archaeology, UCL, London. Ransley, J., 2010 “In response to Pedersen's „A Clench-Fastened Boat in Kerala‟: a Revealing Boat Narrative not a „new‟ type of boat”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 39, 2, pp. 423-431. (doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2010.00282.x) Ratnagar, S., 2006 Understanding Harappa: Civilization in the Greater Indus Valley, Tulika Books, New Delhi. Ray, H.P., 2003 The archaeology of seafaring in ancient South Asia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Rawlinson, G., 2005 Phoenicia in History of Civilization, Tauris, London. Sakhuja, V. and Sakhuja, S., 2009 “Rajendra Chola I's Naval Expedition to Souhteast Asia: A Nautical Perspective”, in (eds.) 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Sridhar, T.S., Thulasiraman, D., Selvaraj, S., and Vasanthi, S., 2005 Alagankulam: An Ancient Roman Port City of Tamil Nadu, Tamil Nadu Department of Archaeology, Chennai Stanley, H. E.J., 1866 A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth century, by Duarte Barbosa, A Portuguese Translation from an early Spanish Manuscript in the Barcelona library. Subbarayalu, Y., 1994 “Sumatravil Tamil Kavettukal”, in Avanam, 4, pp.114-124, Tamil. Subbarayalu, Y., 2001 “Anjuvannam: A Maritime Trade Guild of Medieval Times”, in Studies in Cola History, pp.144-152, Surabhi Pathippakam, Madras. Subrahmanian, N., Pre-Pallavan Tamil Index, University of Madras, Madras. 1966 Tomalin, V., Selvakumar, V. Nair, M.V. and Gopi, P.K., 2004 “The Thaikkal-Kadakkarapally Boat: An Archaeological Example of Medieval Shipbuilding in the Western Indian Ocean”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 33, 2, pp.253-263. Tripati, S., and Raut L. N., 2006 “Monsoon Wind and Maritime Trade: a Case Study of Historical Evidence from Orissa, India”, in Current Science, 90, 6, pp. 864-871. Tripathi, S. A, Manikfan and Mohamed, M., 2005 “An Indo-Arabian Type of Stone Anchor from Kannur, Kerala, West Coast of India”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 34, 1, pp.131-137. Varier, M.D.R., 2003 “Pantalayinikollam”, in (eds.) Kesavan Veluthat and P.P. Sudhakaran, Advances in History Essays in Memory of M.P. Sridharan, pp. 154-179, Professor M.P. Sridharan Memorial Trust, Calicut. 17 �Varthema, L. D., 2004 “The Itinerary Of Ludovico Di Varthema Of Bologna From 1502 to 1508”, in School Oriental Asian Studies Bulletin of Burma Research, 2, 2, pp.119-129. Yule, H., 1993 The Travels of Marco Polo, Dover Publications Inc., New York. Zacharias, S., Manalel, J., Jose, M.C., and Salam, A., 2008 “Back Water Tourism in Kerala: Challenges and Opportunities”, paper presented in conference on Tourism in India-Challenges, Indian Institute of Management, Kozhikode. http://hdl.handle.net/2259/597. Zevelebil, K., 1974 Tamil Literature, Harrassowitz, Weisbaden. 18 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Archaeological, Literary and Ethnographic Evidence for Traditional Boat-building in Kerala, South India Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource Kerala possesses rich maritime traditions dating back to the Early Historic period. A few types of traditional watercrafts developed indigenously and some are influenced by external contacts. Archaeological excavations revealed a medieval sailboat at Kadakkarappally in 2003 and an Early Historic canoe at Pattanam in 2007. The Early Historic Sangam Tamil texts refer to the watercrafts of Kerala. Traditional boat-building still survives in Kerala. This paper presents the evidence for traditional boats in Kerala, their historical context and the possible external influences, until the 15th century Common Era (CE). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veerasamy Selvakumar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f1055c6be0be9d64246c07116f63264d.pdf 11c1cbbe28a30bcf3f84f86fbaea0074 PDF Text Text A National Cultural Treasure Revisited – Re-assessing the ‘Balangay’ Boat Discoveries Roderick Stead1 and Dr. E Dizon2 Abstract The discovery of the balangay boats in the Butuan area of Northern Mindanao was arguably the most important find in pre-colonial maritime archaeology throughout island South East Asia. This class of vessel was well known from the accounts of early Spanish visitors to the Philippines, such as the Pigafetta journal of Magellan‟s voyage, but no extent examples had been located until the 1970s. As a by-product of an organised excavation of a settlement at the mouth of the Agusan River, a wave of illegal pot-hunting began in the Butuan area. As these ships had no commercial value they were reported to the National Museum. A total of 11 vessels were reported as discovered between 1976 and 1998, under some 2 metres of silt. In recent years a replica of a balangay boat has been built in the Philippines and it carried out a number of trial voyages in South East Asia. This replica is due to be put on show for the public in Manila. The first vessel discovered was conserved and is exhibited on site. A second ship was excavated and is on display in Manila in a partially reconstructed form. A third vessel and portions of a fourth have been excavated and are stored in pieces on site. The National Museum is planning to reopen the site in order to record in detail the remaining ships, to trace the stylistic developments of these vessels, and to test the dating evidence. The earlier excavations indicated a range of dates covering the millennium before the Spanish colonisation. This paper is a description of the plans for the re-excavation of this prominent site. The location is very sensitive as vessels were declared „National Cultural Treasures‟ by Presidential Decree in 1986. 1. Introduction The discovery of a collection of the hulks of balangay boats in Mindanao has been the most important archaeological contribution to our understanding of the maritime heritage of the Philippines in the last forty years. Many of the boats discovered were not fully excavated, dated nor recorded. This paper describes a current review being carried out to assess whether this site should be reexcavated to allow further investigation of the remaining vessels. 2. Historical References to Balangay Boats Early European visitors to the Philippines reported and described a number of indigenous vessels and boats, constructed in accordance with a local ship building tradition. The first detailed reports were from the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan. The account of Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of this voyage, was translated and published by Lord Stanley of Alderley in the nineteenth century. Soon after the arrival of the expedition in the Philippines in1521 Pigafetta records, “we came upon two long boats, which they called ballanghai, full of men. In the largest of them was the king sitting under an awning of mats” (Stanley 1 Phd student at Southampton University Head of Maritime Archaeology at the National Museum, Manila 2 �2 1874:76). He also records a conference near Samar, “the king… led us under a place covered with canes, where there was a ballanghai, that is to say, a boat, eighty feet long or thereabouts, resembling a fusta. We sat with the king upon its poop” (Stanley 1874:78). The fusta was a kind of light galley from this period, used mainly in the Mediterranean, with a single mast, a lateen sail and up to 18 oars. Ruy López de Villalobos certified the receipt of a fusta, the San Martin, as one of six vessels provided for his voyage to the Philippines in 1542 (Blair and Robertson 1903:2, 60). The spelling of balangay took various forms in the early accounts, perhaps due to Pigafetta preparing his original account in Italian, with subsequent translations into French and Spanish. Most of the modern versions of his chronicle are based on French texts, such as the 1525 Paris imprint (which has been reproduced in facsimile by the University of Michigan). The word appears as barangay, barangai, ballanghai or balangay in various sources. There is no doubt that the etymological source of this word is linked to the expression in Tagalog and other local languages for the smallest political unit of Philippine society, which is consciously modelled on a boat crew (Scott 1994:4-6). There is an extensive description of the balangay and the ship building techniques used to construct them in Francisco Ignacio Alcina‟s unpublished text, Historia de las Islas e Indios de Bisayas (1668:197-213). He recorded that he had actually built and sailed a number of these craft himself. He described the vessel as follows; barangay, llaman a la que va creciendo ya en tamaño y talle; y estas embarcaciones, llamadas así, son las mas ligeras que se usaban, y usan, por acá entre estos naturales. Lábrense sobre quilla cuadrada, añadiéndole sus tablas por banda, con que quedan bajas de bordo y a propósito para remar 3 (Alcina 1668:200-203). Apart from Alcina there were frequent descriptions of these vessels in other early accounts, notably in the Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas of Antonio de Morga (1609:190). In the translation by Alfonso de Salvio, Norman F. Hall and James Alexander Robertson he describes the barangays as, “certain quick and light vessels that lie low in the water, put together with little wooden nails. These are as slender at the stern as at the bow and they can hold a number of rowers on both sides”. These early accounts indicate that they were general purpose cargo-carrying vessels and widely used in inter-island trade. They were propelled by rowers or paddlers and by sail. They can be contrasted with the caracoa, a swifter, lighter naval vessel used for raiding and as a people carrier (Scott 1981:5-10). The barangay has not survived to the present day, but a number of more modern types of plank-built wooden craft show some influence from this tradition. 3 “Barangay is what they call the next larger in size and proportion. The vessels bearing this name are the lightest that were used and are still being used by these natives here. They are built upon a square keel, adding boards for the side. They are completed with low sides suitable for rowing…” translated by C.J. Kobak and L. Gutiérrez 2005:201-202. �3 Many of the boats used as houseboats by the sea gypsies in the Sulu Sea (between Mindanao and Borneo) have similar features to the balangay (Peralta 1980:42). Luzon Butuan Site Cebu Palawan Sulu Sea Mindanao Figure 1. Map of the Philippines to illustrate site location 3. Discovery of the Balangay Boats in Butuan No original examples of the balangay were known until a fortuitous discovery in Butuan City in Northern Mindanao (See Figure 1). Archaeological materials were found near the estuary of the Agusan River in 1974 by the Butuan City engineers who were draining seasonal flood water from the low-lying land near the Masao creek. Excavation of fish ponds in the local area also produced evidence of ancient burials. �4 These accidental discoveries were reported to Xavier University in Cagayan de Oro and a series of archaeological excavations were carried out from 1975 to 1977 by staff and students from Xavier University and Mindanao State University. A report on the earlier finds and these excavations was prepared by Linda Burton (1977:95-112). The sites revealed a number of burials with extensive grave goods, including porcelain items from the Yuan period (thirteenth to fourteenth centuries) and the Ming period (fourteenth to seventeenth centuries). A settlement area with middens was also located. The material culture excavated here included sherds, iron slag, ornaments and animal and marine remains. The discovery of undisturbed burials, with valuable imported ceramics, caused a surge in illegal excavations to loot cemeteries in the area. The activities of the pot hunters, using sounding rods and test pits, destroyed much of the archaeological potential of the area, but turned up a number of timber boats preserved in the estuary mud and silt . As these had no commercial value they were reported to the National Museum (Cembrano 1998: 2-4). It is not surprising that these vessels were discovered at Butuan as this was a well-known trading port in the pre-Hispanic era, and this area, called the Caraga, was an important source of gold (Scott 1994:164-165; Hontiveros 2006). The first recorded trade mission to China from the Philippines was dispatched in 1001 Common Era (CE) from Butuan (Pu-duan in the Chinese sources). The Song Shi (Sung History) describes it as a small country with regular contact with Champa. The King is named as Kiling (Qi-Ling) (Scott 1989:3 and Appendix 1). 4. The Geophysical Environment The Agusan River delta is an area of extensive deposition of sand and silt. The evolution of the estuary has been traced in detail by a recent geophysical report (Javelosa, et al. 2002). The site where the boats were found is a waterlogged, marshy forest, mixed with coconut, banana and nipa palm. In some areas it has been cleared for fishponds, which will have destroyed the subsurface deposits. All the boats were found buried in one to two metres of silt, within a two kilometre radius around a paleochannel which survives as the narrow Masao creek. The sites are some distance from the present channel which indicates that it was considerably wider at the date of hulking4, or that it has subsequently changed its course. The high water table means that this is a difficult area to excavate, but this is, of course, the key to the preservation of the timber structures. None of the sites was marked on the ground and it is difficult to correlate the excavation sketch maps in the National Museum files to modern topographical maps. Even the memories of those who participated in the excavations are unclear given the lack of land marks in the marsh (as discussed on site with the original excavation team members). 4 Hulking, meaning the deliberate abandonment of the vessel �5 It is not clear the extent to which illegal pot hunting has disturbed and contaminated the sites as a large number of test pits have been dug. 5. The Boat Discoveries A total of eleven hulks or wreck fragments have been reported in total. The first nine vessels were identified by serial numbers 1 to 9, and subsequently two further boats were reported. All these discoveries were accidental or due to the activities of illegal pot hunters. Figure 2. Boat No 1 on display at „Balangay Shrine‟ (Photo M R Stead 2011) The first vessel was excavated in 1976 and following conservation treatment with polyethylene glycol, has been displayed in a glass case at the „Balangay Shrine‟, just next to the original discovery site (see Figure 2). The plank hull has a length of approximately 15 metres and beam of approximately 4 metres (Peralta 1980: 43). The carbon dating of this hulk indicated a surprisingly early date of 320 CE, +/- 110 years (Ronquillo 1987:71-78). There is a detailed plan drawing of the surviving timbers in Joseph Peralta (1980:44-45). The ceramics associated with the excavation seem to suggest a much later date but the depredations of the pot hunters may have disrupted the stratigraphy (Peralta 1980:44). �6 The second vessel was discovered in 1977 (see Figure 3). This vessel is of a similar size, about 14 metres long with a comparable design. This vessel has a C14 date of 1250 CE +/- 90 years reported by Wilfredo Ronquillo (Ronquillo 1987:71-78). The vessel has been comprehensively recorded by an Australian team, including a photo mosaic and a plan drawing of the timbers derived from the photos (Clark, et al. 1993:143-159). The boat is now exhibited in the National Museum in Manila in a partially reconstructed state. Figure 3. The Balangay No 2 under Excavation (Courtesy of National Museum). The third vessel was represented by only three planks and these suggested a rather smaller boat. This vessel was reburied. Boat no. 4 was discovered after damage from pot hunters. A few remnants of this vessel are retained on site at the „Balangay Shrine‟ whilst the rest was reburied. The 5th vessel was excavated and is retained at the „Balangay Shrine‟ in pieces. It is currently the subject of further conservation efforts. This vessel was dated to 990 CE +/- 70 years (Ronquillo 1987:71-78). A plan drawing of the timbers of this vessel from the National Museum archives is reproduced by Paul Clark, Jeremy Green, Tom Vosmer and Ray Santiago (1993:145). Vessels number 6, 7, 8 and 9 have not been excavated. Subsequently two further vessels are reported to have been discovered, but have not been formally numbered (Cembrano 1998:4). The excavations mostly took place a generation ago and no site identification marks or landscape features are available to fix the sites exactly. Memories of the precise locations are not clear or consistent. The sites lie in three groups in three separate properties. The site maps from the original �7 excavations are essentially sketch maps, which are difficult to tie in to modern topographic maps. Therefore it is not always possible to identify exactly where the boats were excavated and where the unexcavated vessels lie (see Figure 4, which is a comparison of the original site map with a Google Earth image of the area today). The area is extensively scarred by pot hunter pits. Figure 1. Google Earth image (left) and old site map (Bautista 1988). Note highway bend and forks in river for reference (indicated by red arrows). Approximate site locations retrieved from this field visit are shown on the Google Earth image, and are compared with locations marked in the old map (indicated by orange arrows and encircled). Figure 4. Modern satellite map comparing site location to historic site map (Courtesy of Ms Ligaya Lacsina of the National Museum). 6. Vessel Construction The balangay boats found at Butuan seem to have followed similar designs. They correspond closely to the descriptions contained in Alcina‟s manuscript (1668:167-195). He indicates that all the larger craft in this indigenous tradition had common construction methods. He uses a number of technical terms in Spanish and the local language, Visayan, to describe the components and construction methods. The construction began with carving a keel and stem and stern posts, “la quilla y las dos rodas de proa y popa”. The strakes, “tablas”, were �8 carved two from each tree trunk using axes and adzes. This avoided using the outer sap wood and the core of the log, neither of which gives strong, resistant timber. These strakes were carved with curved ends, “lubag”, to create the appropriate hull curvature. The strakes were always cut to the full length of the hull. The size and shape of the strakes determined the beam of the vessel and the shape of the hull. On the inside of the planks were left rounded protrusions or lugs, “tambuko”, with holes for the hull fastenings. Inner ribs called “agar” were lashed to the hull using the “tambukos” to hold the vessel together. The strakes were joined and attached to keel by wooden battens or dowels which fitted into holes carved by an auger5. The number of strakes determined the height of the freeboard. Oars of appropriate lengths were selected based on the height of the freeboard. According to Alcina the ship was usually left to season for one or two months and then the dowels were checked by dismantling the hull. The strakes were caulked with a palm extract, “baruk”. The hull was then stressed by lashing, a process called “usus”. The dowels were locked in position with wooden plugs, to “cegar las junteras” called in Visayan “pamuta”. The vessel was then fitted with outrigger poles and connecting timbers, “katig”. The outriggers could support platforms especially for fighting or carrying passengers. A central hull platform, the “burutlan”, was used for working the sails or carrying passengers or freight. A temporary awning of palm leaves was often rigged to protect the passengers from the sun or rain. The ships carried either a single mast or a tripod mast, which could be raised or lowered quickly. The sails themselves were usually wider than they were high, and strung on two bamboo yards. However, there is very little evidence from the excavations as to whether these vessels had outriggers and masts. This probably reflects the theory that they were hulks and such equipment would have been stripped. The lack of finds of shipboard equipment in the excavations would seem to support this interpretation. Most of the vessels have not been published in detail although there is much information in the excavation reports in the files of the National Museum. The most comprehensive published account is the survey of the timbers of boat number 2 carried out in 1988 (Clark, et al. 1993:143-149). This vessel is about 14 metres long and the remains consist of a keel with two strakes on one side and five on the other. The dowels were not locked in this vessel, but locked dowels had been noted in the first Butuan discovery. A series of hooked scarf joints6 were observed on these strakes. It would clearly be very valuable to have all the vessels published to this level of detail, in order to easily compare and contrast the vessels and seek to develop a typological evolution linked to comprehensive dating evidence. 5 Auger, a tool for carving circular holes in wood Hooked scarf joints are a way of fitting together strakes in a potential area of hull weakness, discussed at length (Clark, et al. 1993: 150). 6 �9 7. The Reception of the Discoveries This discovery is without doubt one of the most important maritime archaeological sites in Southeast Asia from the pre-colonial era. The importance of these discoveries was recognised immediately and the early moves by the National Museum to excavate and conserve the first two vessels were commendable. There are extensive displays on these vessels in the National Museum in Manila and in the Regional Museum in Butuan City. The first vessel is now, of course, the central focus of the „Balangay Shrine‟. The importance of the discoveries was confirmed in 1986 when they were declared as „National Cultural Treasures‟ by President Corazon C. Aquino under Presidential Proclamation No 86. Since 2009 there have been three separate replicas of balangay boats built in the Philippines. A series of voyages were undertaken in Philippine and South East Asian waters with the first replica to demonstrate the seaworthiness of the design (discussed with Daniel Calo, a crew member). This vessel is to be preserved in Manila and put on permanent display. The third vessel, the Masawa Hong Butuan, was built in Mindanao and is currently moored in the Agusan River, close to Butuan (visited by the site visit team in 2011). 8. Proposal to Conduct Further Work on Site In February 2011 a visit to the site was organised by Roderick Stead, one of the authors, accompanied by Ligaya Lacsina of the Archaeology Division from the National Museum in Manila. The purpose of this visit was to evaluate if further work should be undertaken on the site. The staff of the Regional Museum in Butuan were particularly helpful in seeking to identify the original sites of the boat discoveries. To reopen the site would be feasible, but is complicated as the exact location of the boats is not always clear. The first challenge would be to locate the hulls again, which ironically would probably require the use of similar sounding rods as in the pot hunters‟ tool kits. The use of more sophisticated electronic devices would be complicated by the waterlogged nature of the site. The wet site is also a complication for re-excavation as the trenches would need to be shored up and kept clear of water by continuous pumping. Great care would be needed to avoid deterioration of the fragile wood of the vessels, even if the exposure was only temporary. However such is the importance of this site that further excavations on the remaining craft is certainly justified. This would include testing the date range of all the vessels. A fairly limited number of C14 tests were undertaken on the three excavated boats and the reported results ranges over a millennium, which would seem suspiciously broad considering the very consistent range of designs. The surviving timbers would need to be recorded accurately using photography and scanning technology. The wood species used in construction would need to be analysed. The surviving tool marks may give clues to the construction process. Computer modelling could be used to reconstitute an electronic model of each vessel. A range of environmental samples would be �10 needed to analyse the stratigraphic layers in which the vessels sit. Finally there could be an attempt to construct a typological evolution of the design if the time elapse period is as long as reported. There are two precautionary considerations. We do not know how much the trial pits of the pot hunters have damaged the archaeological layers and contaminated the site. It is also important to note that these appear to be abandoned hulks, discarded at the end of their useful lives. Therefore it is likely that all reusable equipment was stripped from the hulls at the time of abandonment. 9. Conclusion The „balangay‟ boats continue to be an important symbol of the pre-colonial maritime culture of the Philippines. This project could significantly extend our knowledge of these vessels, their use and their construction. A controlled process of reburial would protect the hulls for future re-examination. Abbreviations IJNA International Journal of Nautical Archaeology Bibliography Historia de las Islas e Indios de Bisayas, 1, 3, 3, republished in Manila in 2005 by University of Santo Tomas with a translation by Kobak C.J. and Gutiérrez L. Report on Archaeological Excavation Butuan City, Agusan Bautista, A.P., del Norte Province June 5 to July 5, National Museum, 1988 Philippines Blair, E.H., and The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, 55 vols, Cleveland Robertson, J.A., 1903-7 Burton L., "Settlement and Burial Sites in Butuan City: A Preliminary Report", in Philippine Studies, 25, pp.95-112. 1977 Cembrano, M.R., Patterns of the Past, the Ethno Archaeology of Butuan, 1998 National Museum, Manila. Clark, P., "Philippines Archaeological Site Survey, February 1988", Conese, E. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 18, 3, Nicolas, N. and pp.255-262 Green, J., 1989 Clark, P., Green, "The Butuan Two boat, known as a balangay in the J., Vosmer, T., National Museum, Manila, Philippines", in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 22, 2, pp. 143-159 Santiago R., 1993 Green, J. N., "Interim Report on the Australian-Philippines Butuan boat Alcina, I. F., 1668 �11 Vosmer T., Clark P., Santiago R., and Alvares M., 1995 Hontiveros, G., 2006 de Morga, A., 1609 Ronquillo, W.P., 1987 project", IJNA, 24, 3, pp. 177-188. Butuan of a Thousand Years, Butuan City, Butuan City Foundation Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, reissued in 2006, London, Hard Press "The Butuan archaeological finds: profound implications for Philippine and Southeast Asian prehistory", in Man and Culture in Oceania, 3, pp. 71-78. "Ancient mariners of the Philippines", in Archaeology, 35, Peralta, J.T., 1980 5, pp.41-48. First Voyage Round the World by Magellan: Translated Pigafetta, A. trans. by Stanley, from the Accounts of Pigafetta and Other Contemporary Writers Cambridge. C.U.P. J.E.H., 2010 The Voyage of Magellan, The Journal of Antonio Pigafetta Pigafetta, A. trans. by Page, William l. Clements Library, University of Michigan S.P., 1969 Scott, W.H., "Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society", in Anthropological Papers No 9, National 1981 Museum, Manila, Filipinos in China before 1500, De La Salle, Manila. Scott, W.H., 1989 Barangay, Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Scott, W.H., Society, Ateneo de Manila U.P. , Manila. 1994 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A National Cultural Treasure Revisited - Re-assessing the "Balangay" Boat Discoveries Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource The discovery of the balangay boats in the Butuan area of Northern Mindanao was arguably the most important find in pre-colonial maritime archaeology throughout island South East Asia. This class of vessel was well known from the accounts of early Spanish visitors to the Philippines, such as the Pigafetta journal of Magellan’s voyage, but no extent examples had been located until the 1970s. As a by-product of an organised excavation of a settlement at the mouth of the Agusan River, a wave of illegal pot-hunting began in the Butuan area. As these ships had no commercial value they were reported to the National Museum. A total of 11 vessels were reported as discovered between 1976 and 1998, under some 2 metres of silt. In recent years a replica of a balangay boat has been built in the Philippines and it carried out a number of trial voyages in South East Asia. This replica is due to be put on show for the public in Manila. The first vessel discovered was conserved and is exhibited on site. A second ship was excavated and is on display in Manila in a partially reconstructed form. A third vessel and portions of a fourth have been excavated and are stored in pieces on site. The National Museum is planning to reopen the site in order to record in detail the remaining ships, to trace the stylistic developments of these vessels, and to test the dating evidence. The earlier excavations indicated a range of dates covering the millennium before the Spanish colonisation. This paper is a description of the plans for the re-excavation of this prominent site. The location is very sensitive as vessels were declared ‘National Cultural Treasures’ by Presidential Decree in 1986. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roderick Stead E Dizon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b3b82e38c75d40beea529659e1f2432c.pdf 8a15184ed9434709f4ee8f5cdb005343 PDF Text Text Tanzania's Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Assets: Strategies Towards Sustainable Conservation and Management Ichumbaki, E.B1 Abstract Tanzania has a long and unique maritime history. This shared history left various signatures which are needed by present and future generations for their cultural, scientific and economic significance. However, despite such maritime potentiality, very miniature has been done by scholars to research, identify, document and assess the cultural significance of the Tanzanian maritime and underwater cultural heritages. It was until rescently that the country has started some initiatives to identify and manage her maritime and underwater heritage assets. This is done by the established Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) program which officially started in february 2009. Among others, the program initiatives has resulted to documenting some of the country‟s maritime and underwater cultural heritage assets as well as establishing a strong team from various Government‟s departments and institutions. Introduction Tanzania possesses cultural heritage assets that span from the 2.5 million years ago to the present. These assets include but not limited to Palaeoanthropological, Paleontological, Rock shelters with arts, Urban and Architectural complex sites, Ethnological and Historic sites. The assets do assist in understanding the origin and development of humanity both culturally and biologically. Also, the country is surrounded by water bodies at which human activities have had been taking place throughout history. These activities have left signatures that make Tanzania have important maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) assets. They include historic towns such as Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Kilwa, Pangani and Mikindani all of which rose as a result of commercial contact between the Tanzanian and others traders of the Indian Ocean. Noting the assets‟ significance, the Government of Tanzania and other heritage stakeholders have taken some initiatives to protect them. These measures include the establishment of various legislations and institutions. Such legislations are the Antiquities Act No. 10 of 1964 (amended in 1979) and the National Museums Act of 1963 (amended and 1980). The institutions are such as the Antiquity Division (1954) and Archaeology section of the University of Dar es Salaam (1985) responsible for cultural heritage preservation, monitoring and research and training respectively. This paper therefore shall explore the potentiality of Tanzania in maritime and UCH and provide the current strategies towards sustainable conservation and management. 1 (ichumbaki@udsm.ac.tz), Unversity of Dar es Salaam 1 �Tanzania: Geographical Considerations Tanzania covers the previous British protectorate and a Germany Colony which united together to become a republic in April 1964 (Chami 2009). It roughly stretches between 5˚ and 11˚ with approximated total population of about 40 million people (Census 2003). The country is bordered by Kenya and Uganda in the north; Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia in the south and Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the west. In the eastern part, Tanzania is demacated by the Indian Ocean which has been connecting it to the external world since probably the 6th century (Wheatley 1975; Chami 2002; Chami 2009; Christie 2011). The country is the custodianship of fresh water resources found in the form of lakes and rivers. Moreover, the coastal part has numerous bays, inlets, offshore islands and the associated archipelagos (Lane 2005; Christie 2011; Ichumbaki 2011). Tanzania’s Maritime and Underwater Potentialities Maritime and underwater archaeology are two concepts which have been discussed and distinguished from each other, along with the related concepts such as nautical and shipwreck archaeology (Bass 1966; Gould 2000; Parker 2001; Lane 2005). Although maritime and UCH assets might be different, in this paper the concepts refer to material traces and physical remains of people who at one time engaged in maritime activities. These activities may range from cultural, technology, economic to other related practices. They include but are not limited to diverse features as habour installations, tidal mills, fish traps, coastal settlements, submerged landscapes, naval defences and inundated sites (Lane 2005). This paper therefore, shall use either maritime or UCH assets to mean the same. That is, to refer to material traces, manifestations and physical remains that signify the interactions between past humans and water bodies such as ocean, sea, lakes and rivers (see Westerdahl 1992; Christie 2011). Having a long coast from the north to the south and varieties of lakes and rivers, Tanzania has much to offer as a means to understand past maritime cultures. Although there has not been a maritime based study along the Tanzania‟s lakes and rivers, I believe there are important traces that tell a lot about past societies. For instance, there should be interaction among the communities surrounding lakes such as Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa, Natron, Rukwa and many others. A study by Nancy Alexander (2010) at Kanazi village near Lake Victoria in Kagera region for instance, shows how communities used water resources to sustain their livelihoods. In this study which aimed at explicitly establishing the subsistance strategies of the lucustrine society during the Iron Age period, Alexander found that fishing outweighs domestication as distinguished from many areas where domestication were preferred by Iron Age people. This is one of the evidence which shows that implementing maritime studies to the Tanzanian marine environments (lakes and rivers) may contribute much towards understanding the marine cultures. Thus, for a better understanding of the cultures of people 2 �living near fresh water such as rivers and lakes, for that purpose Tanzania should be considered. Apart from lakes and rivers, the coastal area has much and robust evidence of social and economic interactions among the communities of the Indian Ocean. However, very little has been done to reconstruct the maritime culture. Also, the majority of works done (Chittick 1965; Chittick 1975; Chami 1994; Chami 2002; Kwekason 2010) be it in the form of historical, ethnographical or archaeological are according to Paul Lane (2005:97), “are themselves not „maritime‟ in nature”. In a nutshell, here are some of the maritime potentialities which should be considered for studying and finally reconstructing past human maritime cultures. These potentialities are found but unlimited to sites with robust maritime evidence such as Mbwamaji, Kunduchi, Bagamoyo, Mafia, Zanzibar, Pangani, Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, Ngurumahamba, Mingoyo, Sudi and Mikindani, to mention just a few. All these sites have unique and strong histories that have not been studied in a maritime perspective. Some of these sites have been discussed elsewhere (see Chami 2003; Masele 2007; Ichumbaki 2009; Ichumbaki 2011; Biginagwa forthcoming) but neither exhaustively nor with a maritime focus. Therefore, I shall briefly explain a few sites and show their potential for study to reconstruct past maritime cultures. In this case sites of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, Sudi, Mikindani, Mingoyo, Ngurumahamba, Kitunda, Msanga, Mtandi and Mwitingi shall be considered. Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara These are two islands with complexes of ruins. The islands were visited by the great traveller Ibn Batutta in 1331 – 1332 and described them as the most beautiful cities of the world (Chami 1994; Karoma 1996; Sasi 2006; Kimaro 2006). Due to their unique and outstanding history, the islands were declared World Heritage Sites (WHS) in 1981 (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/). However, due to both physical and human induced problems (Karoma 1996), the sites have been deteriorating year after year. To be able to solicit support from various partners to provide financial support and technical skills, the Department of Antiquities made a deliberate move to add Kilwa to the WHS „in danger‟ list (Kimaro 2006; DBSA and AWHF 2009). The most significant ruins include numerous mosques, the prison, palaces, cemetery and tombs of the sultans. The ruins (mosques, palaces and residences) tell of the rise and fall of the islands under various colonial authorities‟ influences. The time at which settlement began in the islands have been controversial among scholars. For instance, Neville Chittick (1965, 1975) and Karen Moon (2005) argue that these islands were inhabited since at least the ninth century A.D. Moon (2005) explains that the islands, and especially Kilwa, were at one point ruled by an independent African Sultanate. According to her, Kilwa was at its most prosperous during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the present ruins are what remains of a great Swahili city-state. Other scholars (Sasi 2006; Chami 2009; Kwekasoni 2010) argue that communities lived within the islands as early as Stone Age periods (40K). These scholars use the recovered cultural materials running from 3 �Later Stone Age (LSA) 40K – 1K, Early Iron Working (EIW 4th – 7th C) to days of active trading. Also, wattle and daub style2 settlement has been dated to the beginning of the ninth century (Moon 2005; Kimaro 2006a). The islands became major trading centers and developed major trading routes linked to Persia and Southern Arabia in the north, as well as Mozambique in the south, and the interior. Gold, ivory, rhino‟s horns and slaves were amongst the traded products (DBSA and AWHF 1999:7). Materials such as earthernware, cowrie shells, carnelian and pearls of glass (Kimaro 2006b:1– 3) are indicators of commercial and cultural exchanges between Kilwa and other inhabitants of the Indian Ocean. These are some of the evidence which show involvement of the Kilwa society in maritime business. However, nothing has been done in a „maritime‟ perspective. It is a call by this paper to investigate this site and provide education for the local communities to better appreciate its rich maritime culture both in its proximity and to the wider Indian Ocean and global context. Sudi This is an important maritime site located at about 14 km north east of Madangwa junction on the Dar es Salaam – Mtwara road (Ichumbaki 2011). This site has important maritime cultural remains which include but are not limited to inscribed tombs of the 12th/13th century, old mosque of the 17th/18th centuries and old port of the 18th centuries. The site has irrefutable evidence that it was at one time (somewhere between 7th and 12th centuries AD) trading with China, India and many Arabic countries. Moreover, Sudi has signatures of a fight between Germans and other European nations which happened during the 1st and 2nd World Wars. Also, at this site there are courts used during both Germanic and British colonial period between 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Sudi is one site amongst the area where wars of resistance (Maji Maji war of 1905 – 1907) took place (Ichumbaki 2011). This is a good and unique history which needs to be reconstructed in a maritime perspective. Mikindani A town situated along the protected bay in Mtwara region, southeastern Tanzania (figure 1). It is one of the Swahili historic towns that flourished between 15th and 19th centuries (Pawlowcz 2009). Mikindani‟s advantage was its location, whereby boats move fast along the coast due to strong monsoon winds. It was a trade centre with internal links whereby traders were coming from as far as Zambia, Malawi, Angola and DRC (Ichumbaki 2011). These internal links were destroyed due to interference from the Portuguese. However, once again the town became famous whilst the Sultan of Zanzibar (Seyyid Said) was ruling East Africa starting from 1840s. The major trade goods involved were ivory, skins, tortoise shells, copper, hides and slaves exchanged with clothes, household utensils and weaponry metals (Pawlowicz 2009:41–51). The town also experienced the influence of 2 . Traditional houses built of wood and stones bonded together by using mud or clay 4 �Europeans via the works of both missionaries and explorers. All these events resulted in growth and glorification of the town, for which the results are different architectural buildings. The buildings include Old Boma, the Agakhan House, the Gavonor‟s house, the bank house, Livingstone‟s house, old prison and the slave market. Figure 1. Map Showing Location of Mikindani and its Heritage Assets (Ichumbaki 2011) Ngurumahamba and Mingoyo (Figure 2) Ngurumahamba has tombs and a mosque. One of the tombs is famously known in Lindi and Mtwara regions. It is called Kaburi la Mtu Mrefu loosely meaning a grave of the tallest person. The so called Kaburi la Mtu Mrefu is a rectangular pile of stones measuring 16 m long and 4 m wide (Ichumbaki 2011). Meters from this tomb is a ruined mosque attacked by vegetations. Around the area there are scatters of potsherds of Triangular Incised Wares (TIW) traditions, European wares and LSA artifacts made from chert. Presences of imported ceramics such as European wares indicate the presence of interactions via the Indian Ocean. Mingoyo is found at about 25 km from Lindi urban following the Lindi – Mtwara road. It is located at the landward end of the Lindi estuary and has been hypothesized to have small fortified trading stations built by French traders (Akinola 1969; Gray 1964; Lane 2005). Documentary sources (Lane 2005; Akinola 1969; Gray 1964) explain the area to have various trading 5 �posts, warehouse and gun-boat of four cannons. A survey made by Elgidius Ichumbaki (2011) to this area identified heritage assets including the court built during the German colonial times (still in use), Swahili tombs mixed with Indian tombs and an abandoned jetty. The abandoned jetty is collapsing as only few pillars and walls remain. At about 100 m from the jetty towards inland there is a foundation. This foundation is orally explained as a collapsed sisal bundle warehouse (MA Athman). Sisal bundles from Mangawanga, Narunyu, Lua and other places of south eastern Tanzania were stored in this warehouse before being exported. Figure 2. Map Showing Location of Mingoyo and Ngurumahamba Sites (Ichumbaki 2011) Kitunda This is another site which is rich in maritime heritage assets with technological, scientific and economic value especially within the area formally known as Kitunda Sisal Estate. These assets include an old port and ruins at various locations (see figure 3). The port which is now collapsing is the one used by the Germans to import necessary sisal production requirements and export sisal bundles. Apart from the visible historic port, the area has buildings of 19th and 20th century built of stones, lime, mud and 6 �wattle. According to oral information it was at this site where charcoal run engine was firstly installed in the 1890s (YM Mpanjilu). Msanga An important site with maritime heritage potentials found to the east, about 8 km, of Lindi Municipality. The area has few tombs and many potsherds scattered over the landscape. One of the tombs is roofed and has triangulated decorations as well as Chinese porcelains. The pillared tombs found at this area are similar to those found at Kunduchi ruins site (Masele 2007) and may date to between 15th and 19th centuries. The majority of potsherds are of TIW tradition and few have incisions and ffing ted decorations. According to oral information, this area attracts many people who come to request good luck in their normal undertakings (YM Mbaraku). This means that, the area and its built heritage assets has both spiritual and cultural significance. Moreover, these tombs are located near the beach with white sands and coral caves. Thus, the area has tourism potential if well developed and promoted. Mwitingi and Mtandi Two maritime sites located close to one another. At this area there are big baobab trees (Adansonia digitata). The area is orally explained to be the port where slaves were brought before they were taken to other areas, probably Zanzibar, Mauritius and Reunion Islands (Ichumbaki 2011). How valid this information is has not been reconstructed. This marks a call for the need to undertake a maritime study to better reconstruct this unknown maritime history. The assets found at these two close areas are two ruined mosques and various tombs. However, about 75-90% of the mosques have collapsed and the area is currently used as a burial. Also, the mosques are in ruined state although sewage outlets of the Mtandi mosque are clearly seen. The local people do not know the age of the Mtandi mosque and have Thus come up with a myth that the mosque was built by an unknown architect (YM Mbaraku). It is probably due to this myth the mosque is used for spiritual purpose. 7 �Figure 3. Map of Lindi Municipality Showing location of some Heritage Assets (Ichumbaki 2011) Available Strategies towards Sustainable Management and Conservation Despite all the evidence of Maritime/UCH assets, until very recently, Tanzania had not been able to either intensively research on or even document those which are known. Strategies and plans to establish a maritime program started in early 2000 and its real implementation began in 2008. Thanks to the Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) for initiating the program. In November, 2008 CIE representative, Robert Parthesius came to Tanzania and made initial informal communication with three bodies. These are Antiquities department – Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), Archaeology Unit of the University of Dar es Salaa and National Museum of Tanzania. Also, Parthesius wrote the proposal to the MNRT to request for the establishment of the Maritime Archaeological Unit of Tanzania (MAUT). In early 2009 the proposal was accepted and strategies to establish the MAUT started. Important program stakeholders and „appropriate‟ staff were identified and signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). The identified stakeholders and the relevant staff were: MNRT – 2, National Museums – 2, Marine Parks – Dar es Salaam – 2, Marine Parks – Mafia – 1, Archaeology Unit University of Dar es Salaam – 2 and Archives, Museums and Antiquities, Zanzibar – 5. After finalization of all bureaucracies among the stakeholders, the implementation of the program began in February 2009. The program started with public lectures at the University of 8 �Dar es Salaam between February and March 2009. Identified staff from the stakeholders attended Nautical Archaeology society (NAS) Part I training in Dar es Salaam and went for dive training in Zanzibar. The training was important as it provided trainees with dive qualifications. Also the trainees learned how to implement a site survey and compile a database and fill the site inspection form. Moreover, the trainees were also introduced to the UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention). This training also provided a forum for the stakeholders‟ to meet and discuss the program‟s future prospects. In December 2009, the team members were also brought together for one week. They met at the Dar es Salaam National Museum and House of Culture. The aims of the meeting were two: 1) to conducted NAS Part II training: and 2) complete the preparation of the Great Northern Shipwreck report (see Mahudi this volume). The meeting also initiated strategies to establish a database for the UCH of Tanzania. During this meeting, the trainees were equipped with more knowledge on maritime studies and each made a presentation on various aspects of Tanzania‟s maritime story. Moreover, the team members continued to undertake various training both within and outside the country. For instance, in April 2010, four members of the team went to South Africa. They were equipped with relevant knowledge for both diving, conservation and management of UCH assets. In November 2010 the team and other archaeologists from South Africa and Namibia, conducted a project at Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara World Heritage Sites. This project at Kilwa identified some potential sites for future research and raised public awareness. The report for this work is underway to be published. After the Kilwa project, the team met in Dar es Salaam and set up work plans for 2011. Among the planned works is to develop a database and do more surveys in Mafia, Kilwa and other sites. In April 2011, the team met in Zanzibar for two days to initiate the development of a database. The meeting was conducted at the House of Wonders on 4th and 5th April 2011. It was purposely organized to familiarize team members on the establishment of databases for TMUCH. The team spent considerable time discussing the relevance of and developing the database. The samples from other countries like South Africa was also used as models for developing the database and the strategies for this still continue. Among other things, the workshop participants planned the survey in Mafia and agreed that some participants should be facilitated to attend the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Manila. Generally, the team members in collaboration with other heritage stakeholders still have the duty to accomplish the following tasks: 1. Develop a comprehensive database for Tanzanian Maritime assets; 2. Request and convince the Government to ratify the 2001 Convention; 3. Do survey of other sites e.g Mafia, Kilwa, Pangani, Rufiji and others surrounding lakes of Tanzania; 4. Attend more training and conferences on maritime heritage; and 5. Introduce maritime related courses at undergraduate and master‟s degree levels. Other requirements and research avenues for the development of 9 �maritime history of East Africa, and Tanzania in particular, are outlined by others scholars elsewhere (see Lane 2005; Christie 2011). Acknowledgements I wish to thank the following: Conference organizers for accepting and approving my participation in this conference, Prins Claus Fund for granting me a return air ticket and my employer (the University of Dar es Salaam) for permitting and facilitating me attend the conference. Also, I thank CIE for initiating the maritime program in Tanzania and TMUCH team members and stakeholders for their endless support. 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Parker, A.J., 2001 11 �Pawlowicz, M., 2009 UNESCO 2011 URT 1964 URT, 1979 URT, 1980 URT, 2003 Westerdahl, C., 1992 Wheatley, P., 1975 “Archaeological Exploration of the Mikindani Region of the Southern Tanzanian Coast”, in Nyame Akuma, Bulletin of the Society of Africanist Archaeologist, No. 72. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, UNESCO, Paris. Antiquity Act No. 10 of 1964, “An Act to to Provide for the Preservation and Protection of Sites and Articles of Palaentological, Archaelogical, Historical or Natural Interest and for matters connected therewith and Incidental thereto”. United Republic of Tanzania. Antiquities (Ammendiment) Act No. 22 of 1979, United Republic of Tanzania. The National Museum of Tanzania Act 1980, United Republic of Tanzania. 2002 Population and Housing Census General Report. National Beaural of Statistics. Government Printer, Dar es Salaam "The Maritime Cultural Landscape", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 21, pp. 5-14. "Analecta Sono – Africana Recensa", in (eds) Neville Chittick, and Robert Rotberg, East Africa and the Orient, pp. 76 – 114, Africana Publishing House, New York. 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Tanzania's Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Assets: Strategies Towards Sustainable Conservation and Management Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource Tanzania has a long and unique maritime history. This shared history left various signatures which are needed by present and future generations for their cultural, scientific and economic significance. However, despite such maritime potentiality, very miniature has been done by scholars to research, identify, document and assess the cultural significance of the Tanzanian maritime and underwater cultural heritages. It was until rescently that the country has started some initiatives to identify and manage her maritime and underwater heritage assets. This is done by the established Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) program which officially started in february 2009. Among others, the program initiatives has resulted to documenting some of the country‟s maritime and underwater cultural heritage assets as well as establishing a strong team from various Government‟s departments and institutions. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ichumbaki, E.B Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6e130f9cacb1583b65f6c4c38a30475c.pdf c6088b7e09282440d9dc86c16624c9be PDF Text Text The Flinders University Intensive Program in Underwater Cultural Heritage Management (FUIP-UCHM) Dr Mark Staniforth Abstract This paper examines the impact of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) on leadership in maritime archaeology in the Asia-Pacific region. This paper describes one model for the implementation of Article 21 (Training in Underwater Archaeology) of the Convention 2001, which involves teaching and training of maritime archaeologists in the AsiaPacific region. The model involves the AusAID funded Australian Leadership Awards (ALA) – Fellowships Flinders University Intensive Program in Underwater Cultural Heritage Management (UCHM). The Maritime Archaeology Program at Flinders University was awarded funding from AusAID, the Australian federal government’s overseas aid organization, to bring 11 mid-career professionals involved in maritime archaeology from the Asia-Pacific region to Australia for a 6 week training program in early 2009. Mid-career professional training fits squarely into the philosophy of flexibility that underpins the teaching of maritime archaeology at Flinders University, as well as going some way to fulfilling social justice and equity aspirations. It is hoped that this model can be adopted and adapted by other countries and organizations in the Asia-Pacific region as the basis for effective collaboration and co-operation in the training and teaching of underwater archaeologists. Introduction According to the UNESCO Bangkok website, “As of today, there are only a few trained professionals from the entire region actively involved in protecting and managing the underwater archaeological heritage. Without a concerted and sustained effort to build the region’s professional capacity, it is not possible to expect that the concerned underwater heritage will be protected” (UNESCO 2011). The 2001 Convention is expected to result in a substantially increased demand for well trained and qualified maritime archaeologists and underwater cultural heritage managers, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region. Training in underwater archaeology is clearly a very important issue, particularly in countries which lack trained and experienced maritime archaeologists. This is recognised in Article 21 (Training in Underwater Archaeology) of the 2001 Convention, which states: Parties shall cooperate in the provision of training in underwater archaeology, in techniques for the conservation of underwater cultural heritage and, on agreed terms, in the transfer of technology relating to underwater cultural heritage. The recently developed UNESCO Tutorial on the Rules concerning activities directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage provides an explanation of the Annex of the 2001 Convention and illustrates the 36 Rules in the Annex. Rules 22 and 23 address competence and qualifications, both very central concepts in archaeology, conservation and the heritage discipline in general. Interventions and activities directed at the underwater heritage should be carried out �professionally as the continued well-being of the heritage is at stake. The Tutorial makes the point that, “those involved must possess the necessary knowledge, skills, training and understanding to ensure that their actions do not endanger this precious record. They must be appropriately qualified and competent to undertake the work planned” (UNESCO 2011). Further, it suggests that, “The key requirement of Rule 22 is that interventions on underwater heritage should be directed, controlled and overseen by a qualified and competent underwater archaeologist“ (UNESCO 2011). There are, of course, a variety of levels of “training” in underwater archaeology starting with training like the Heritage Awareness Diving Seminars (HADS), which are partly aimed at raising awareness of the importance of underwater cultural heritage in the Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Aparatus (SCUBA) diving industry (Pacific Marine Resources Institute 2011; Florida Public Archaeology Network 2011). Another important training scheme is Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training, which is an internationally recognized, modular training program open to anyone who is interested in learning more about maritime archaeology (Nautical Archaeology Society Training 2011). The NAS training program was introduced into Australia in the 1990s and adapted to meet Australian conditions and situations (Moran and Staniforth 1998). The Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology (AIMA)/NAS training is now taught regularly in most Australian states (Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 2011). The UNESCO Tutorial also suggests that the minimum qualification for an archaeologist is, “A degree in archaeology or similar qualification recognised by the country in which the archaeologist is working” (UNESCO 2011). Throughout the world tertiary qualifications at some level from undergraduate degrees through to Doctoral level degrees from a fully accredited university are usually seen as the basic qualifications required for professional underwater or maritime archaeologists and underwater cultural heritage managers. More than twenty universities around the world now have specialised awards in maritime or underwater archaeology and many more provide Research Higher Degree (RHD) supervision for Masters and doctoral candidates who are conducting maritime archaeology-related research. This paper discusses the AusAID funded Flinders University Intensive Program in Underwater Cultural Heritage Management (FUIP-UCHM) that was developed by the Maritime Archaeology Program (MAP) at Flinders University. FUIP-UCHM is seen as one model for the implementation of Article 21 (Training in Underwater Archaeology) of the 2001Convention in terms of the teaching and training of maritime archaeologists in the Asia-Pacific region. FUIP-UCHM was designed for people already working in the field and to fit into the gap between AIMA/NAS training, which was included within the FUIP-UCHM program, and a tertiary level award. It was not exclusively practical or fieldwork-based training, although it did include these, and it was not solely theoretical classes, although it was firmly based on archaeological method and theory. It was taught by a combination of university lecturers and maritime archaeology practitioners who work for government agencies or other organisations. It was also designed to �complement the “Foundation course” training conducted through the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Regional Capacity-Building Programme on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Chanthaburi, Thailand (UNESCO Bangkok 2011). MAP and the Australian Leadership Awards (ALA) Fellowship Program The Department of Archaeology at Flinders University has taught maritime archaeology at undergraduate level since 1996 and at postgraduate level since 2002 as well as providing supervision for Master of Arts (by research and thesis) and doctoral students (Staniforth 2008a; Staniforth 2008b; Staniforth 2009a; Staniforth 2009b; Staniforth 2010). The Graduate Program in Maritime Archaeology was established in 2002 and was designed to meet the needs of students who already had a four year degree in archaeology or anthropology and wish to specialize in maritime archaeology, as well as those who came from a different academic background such as history. The Graduate Program has drawn students from more than ten different countries - Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States of America, Canada, South Africa, Sri Lanka, the Netherlands, The Philippines and Japan. MAP has been acknowledged as the largest, most successful and is currently the only active program of its kind in Australia. MAP currently has two academic staff and a part-time technical officer as well as doctoral students (on scholarships) who work part-time in the program. A survey of graduates in 2009 showed that more than 80% of MAP graduates are now working in archaeology or underwater archaeology including their work for underwater cultural heritage management agencies, museums, consultancy companies and universities, both in Australia and overseas (Staniforth 2009c). The Australian Leadership Awards (ALA) Fellowship Program is primarily funded by AusAID, which is the Australian Federal Government’s Foreign Aid Agency (Australian Government – AusAID 2011). ALA Fellowships aim to develop leadership, address priority regional development issues, and build partnerships and linkages between Australian organizations, including universities, and partner organizations in developing countries in the Asia-Pacific region as well as in Latin America, the Caribbean, Africa and the Middle East. The currently eligible countries from the Asia-Pacific region are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, China, Cook Islands, East Timor, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Laos, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Nauru, Nepal, Niue, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Vietnam and Wallis and Futuna. ALA Fellowships form part of a regional program that aims to develop leadership and build partnerships and linkages with the Asia-Pacific region by offering professional development opportunities in Australia. The fellowships are intended for those who are already leaders or have the potential to assume leadership roles that can influence social and economic policy reform and development outcomes, both in their own countries and more broadly in the AsiaPacific region. ALA Fellowships do not necessarily lead to academic �qualifications, although in this case two of the ALA fellows (Gay Lacsina and Rasika Muthucumarana) did successfully complete three topics (18 units) of study at Flinders University and were awarded the Graduate Certificate in Maritime Archaeology (GCMA). Rather than academic qualifications, ALA Fellowships are generally designed to provide short-term opportunities for study, research, leadership and professional development and attachment programs in Australia. Discussion Through the FUIP-UCHM, 10 mid-career professionals who were already working in maritime archaeology or underwater cultural heritage (UCH) management from the Asia-Pacific region went to Australia for a six-week intensive training program from 19th January 2009 to 2nd March 2009 (Figure 1). Originally 11 Fellows were nominated but one withdrew before the program started. Figure 1. ALA Fellows in the classroom at Flinders University (photo by Jun Kimura courtesy of the Maritime Archaeology Program, Flinders University) Prospective fellows were identified through the UNESCO Asia-Pacific office in Bangkok and the Asian Academy for Heritage Management (AAHM), as well as through existing institutional linkages between Australian organisations and their counterpart organisations in the region. The counterpart organisations have been involved in the investigation, documentation and management of UCH and are usually the national authorities legally charged with safeguarding the �UCH in their respective countries. Training was to be conducted in English and so candidates needed a basic understanding of written and spoken English. Candidates varied from mid-career professionals with leadership potential to existing leaders in the field. Fellows were then nominated by their organisation to participate in the program. The five nations represented were Cambodia (2 fellows - Nady Phann and Sophorn Kim), Indonesia (2 fellows - Zainab Tahir and Imam Fauzi), Sri Lanka (3 fellows – Palitha Weerangasingha, Rasika Muthucumarana and Chandraratne Wijamunige), Thailand (2 fellows – Erbprem Vatcharangkul and Worrawit Hassapak) and the Philippines (1 fellow – Gay Lacsina). Mid-career professional training, such as this, fits squarely into the philosophy of flexibility that underpins the teaching of maritime archaeology at Flinders University, as well as going some way to fulfilling social justice and equity aspirations. The program was intended to enhance professional capacity and leadership, which is seen as key to successfully safeguarding and protecting UCH in the Asia-Pacific region. The stated goals of FUIP-UCHM were to:  develop professional capacity and leadership in the protection of underwater cultural heritage through the delivery of high quality training  foster relationships between Australian organisations and counterpart agencies within the Asia-Pacific region. ALA Fellowship funding allowed MAP to employ three part-time, temporary staff (James Hunter, Emily Jateff and Amer Khan) who were involved in teaching the fellows while they were in Australia. The ALA Fellows spent four weeks at Flinders University in South Australia where they undertook a one-week intensive topic in vessel construction and analysis, a one-week intensive topic in UCH management and then a two-week intensive field school at Mount Dutton Bay, South Australia. The highly intensive program also allowed the ALA Fellows to receive AIMA/NAS Part 1 Training and Divers Alert Network (DAN) Asia-Pacific First Aid and Oxygen (O2) provider certification. Following the field school, ALA Fellows undertook a two-week placement (internship) with a museum, UCH agency or related organisation, which gave them the opportunity to work with various heritage management agencies throughout Australia. Partner agencies included Heritage Victoria, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) South Australia, Australian National Maritime Museum, New South Wales Heritage Office, Western Australian Maritime Museum, and the Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts in Canberra. ALA Fellows were trained in best practice for the investigation and protection of UCH through theoretical and practical teaching of underwater archaeological site survey and mapping, non-invasive techniques of underwater site identification, inventory and investigation and research methodologies for analysis of archaeological heritage. In the course of the lectures and practical field activities, the ALA Fellows were introduced to the legislative and policy requirements for the management and protection of underwater and coastal archaeological sites, which will help them to formulate effective policy in the light of local national and international legislative frameworks. The one-week Underwater Cultural Heritage short course, for example, comprised a series of �lectures, seminars and workshops in three areas – Legislation and Guidelines; Management and Interpretation. It provided the ALA Fellows with knowledge about the major theoretical and practical approaches to the protection, preservation and management of UCH. At the field school at Mount Dutton Bay, for example, all of the ALA Fellows had the opportunity to learn to record short videos and from this we were able to cut a five-minute documentary about teaching Maritime Archaeology at Flinders University (Carter 2010). The stated aim of developing leadership demands some exposition on the nature of leadership. Leadership, unlike management, refers to building the capacity of people to work together in groups without, if necessary, formal authority. A significant part of leadership is the ability to adapt and succeed in unpredictable situations to unpredictable problems. Leadership is necessarily a complex interaction between the leader and the social, political and task environment (Day 2001). To develop leadership among the Fellows, FUIP-UCHM was planned to encourage the fellows to engage with different environments, learn and apply new skills, solve unfamiliar problems and interact with a range of people outside their previous experience. The ALA Fellows were involved in a wide range of fieldwork and other activities while in Australia, for example, three ALA Fellows (Zainab Tahir, Nady Phann and Sophorn Kim) participated in a survey of whaling shipwrecks and associated shore sites at Sceale and Streaky Bay on Eyre Peninsula in South Australia (Jateff 2009; Jateff and Staniforth 2009). This work was done in association with David Nutley, the Senior Maritime Heritage Officer at the Heritage Branch of the South Australian Department of Environment and Heritage (Figure 2). ALA Fellow Gay Lacsina, from the National Museum of the Philippines, joined Heritage Victoria for her two-week placement where she attended an Archaeology Advisory Committee meeting and conducted fieldwork on the wrecks of the SS Casino (lost 1932) and Grange, a wooden barque that sank in 1858 (Lacsina 2009). Gay was involved in every aspect of day-to-day work at Heritage Victoria, which provided her with valuable experience of the operations of an organisation other than her own. Imam Fauzi from Indonesia and Palitha Weerasingha from Sri Lanka did their placement with the South Australian Department of Environment and Heritage, which helped to raise the profile of maritime heritage within the Department (Khan 2010). �Figure 2. ALA Fellows Zainab Tahir, Nady Phann and Sophorn Kim with David Nutley during the Sceale Bay survey (photo by Mark Staniforth courtesy of the Maritime Archaeology Program, Flinders University). Conclusion This paper has considered one possible model for the implementation of Article 21 (Training in Underwater Archaeology) of the 2001 Convention which involves teaching and training of maritime archaeologists in the Asia-Pacific region. The model is the AusAID funded ALA – Fellowships FUIP-UCHM. It is hoped that the FUIP-UCHM model can be adopted and adapted by other countries and organizations in the Asia-Pacific region as a basis for effective collaboration and co-operation in the training and teaching of underwater archaeologists and UCH managers. Acknowledgements The 2009 Flinders University Intensive Program in UCHM was managed by Flinders Partners, the MAP in the Department of Archaeology and Flinders University of South Australia, in partnership with the Australian host organizations and the ALA Fellows overseas counterpart organizations. The efforts of permanent and temporary (contract) MAP staff including Jennifer McKinnon, James Hunter, Emily Jateff, Amer Khan, Jennifer Rodrigues and John Naumann were absolutely central to the success of the program. The Maritime Archaeology Program at Flinders University could not have co-ordinated and conducted the FUIP-UCHM without the help and support of members of the maritime archaeological and museum communities in Australia, in particular David Nutley, Bill Seegar, Andy Viduka, Tim Smith, Ross Anderson and Peter Harvey. The support of partner organisations including the South Australian Department of Environment and Heritage, South Australian Maritime Museum, New South Wales Heritage Office, Heritage Victoria, the Australian National Maritime Museum and the Western Australian �Maritime Museum is very much appreciated. In addition, overseas partners which included the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (Indonesia), the Underwater Archaeology Division of the Fine Arts Department in the Ministry of Culture (Thailand), Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund (Sri Lanka), the National Museum of the Philippines (Philippines) the Department of Antiquities in the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts and the National Museum of Cambodia (Cambodia) as well as UNESCO and the Asian Academy for Heritage Management (AAHM) are all gratefully acknowledged. Bibliography Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology., 2011 AIMA/NAS Maritime Archaeology Training Course, viewed 23 August 2011, Australian Government AusAID., 2011 Australian Government - AusAID – Australian Leadership Awards, viewed 23 August 2011, Carter, H., 2010 “Flinders University Department of Screen and Media,” in Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Autumn Update 2010, pp. 12-13. Day, D.V., 2001 “Leadership development: A review in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 11, pp. 581 - 613. Florida Public Archaeology Network., 2011 Programs – Heritage Awareness Diving Seminars (HADS), viewed 22 August 2011, Jateff, E., 2009 “Survey of Sceale and Streaky Bays, Eyre Peninisula,” in Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Autumn Update 2009, pp. 10-11. Jateff, E. and Staniforth, M., 2009 Survey of Sceale and Streaky Bays, Eyre Peninisula 2009, Unpublished Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Program Field Report for the Heritage Branch, South Australian Department for Environment and Heritage. Khan, A., 2010 “South Australia Department of Environment and Heritage,” in Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Autumn Update 2010, pp. 4-5. Lacsina, G., 2009 “ALA Fellow at Heritage Victoria,” in Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Autumn Update 2009, pp. 6-7. Moran, V., and Staniforth, M., 1998 “The AIMA/NAS Part 1 Training Program,” in The Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 22, pp. 137-138. http://www.aima.iinet.net.au/frames/aimavtframe.html http://www.ausaid.gov.au/scholar/alafellow.cfm context”, in http://www.flpublicarchaeology.org/programs.php �Nautical Archaeology Society Training., 2011 Nautical Archaeology Society – NAS Training, viewed 23 August 2011, Pacific Marine Resources Institute., 2011 CNMI Heritage Awareness Diving Seminar. 12-13 April and 15-16 April 2011 on Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands, viewed 22 August 2011, Staniforth, M., 2008a “Strategies for teaching Maritime Archaeology in the 21st century,” in Journal of Maritime Archaeology Vol. 3, pp.93102. Staniforth, M., 2008b “Collaboration is the key: Developing field and work skills in collaboration with government, museum and commercial underwater cultural heritage organizations”, in (eds) Irena Radic Rossi, Andrej Gaspari and Andrzej Pydyn, Proceedings of the 13th Annual Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists (Zadar, Croatia, 18-23 September 2007), Session: Underwater Archaeology, Hrvatsko arheolosko drustvo - Profil, Zagreb, pp.111-120. Staniforth, M., 2009a “Research in Underwater Archaeology: some challenges and approaches for the future”, in (eds) Broder Merkel and Mandy Schipek , Proceedings of the International Workshop 2009: Research in shallow marine and fresh water systems.. Technische Universitat Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany, pp. 106-110. Staniforth, M., 2009b “Work-Integrated Learning in Maritime Archaeology: An Australian Approach”, in The International Journal of Learning Vol.16, No. 8, Publisher Site: http://www.Learning-Journal.com Staniforth, M., 2009c “A word from the Convenor”, in Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Summer Update 2009, p. 3. Staniforth, M., 2010 “Issues in Education in Maritime Archaeology”, in (eds) Rogerio Amoeda, Sergio Lira & Cristina Pinheiro, Heritage 2010: Heritage and Sustainable Development., Greenlines Institute for Sustainable Devlopment, Evora, Portugal, pp. 315-322. UNESCO., 2011 UNESCO Tutorial on the Rules concerning activities directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage, viewed 26 August 2011, http://www.nauticalarchaeologysociety.org/training/index.php http://www.pacmares.com/HADS.html http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater- �cultural-heritage/underwater-heritage-tutorial/tutorial/ UNESCO Bangkok., 2011 UNESCO Asia-Pacific Regional Capacity-Building Programme on Underwater Cultural Heritage, viewed 23 August 2011, http://www.unescobkk.org/culture/uch/capacity-building/ � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Flinders University Intensive Program in Underwater Cultural Heritage Management (FUIP-UCHM) Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource This paper examines the impact of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) on leadership in maritime archaeology in the Asia-Pacific region. This paper describes one model for the implementation of Article 21 (Training in Underwater Archaeology) of the Convention 2001, which involves teaching and training of maritime archaeologists in the Asia-Pacific region. The model involves the AusAID funded Australian Leadership Awards (ALA) – Fellowships Flinders University Intensive Program in Underwater Cultural Heritage Management (UCHM). The Maritime Archaeology Program at Flinders University was awarded funding from AusAID, the Australian federal government’s overseas aid organization, to bring 11 mid-career professionals involved in maritime archaeology from the Asia-Pacific region to Australia for a 6 week training program in early 2009. Mid-career professional training fits squarely into the philosophy of flexibility that underpins the teaching of maritime archaeology at Flinders University, as well as going some way to fulfilling social justice and equity aspirations. It is hoped that this model can be adopted and adapted by other countries and organizations in the Asia-Pacific region as the basis for effective collaboration and co-operation in the training and teaching of underwater archaeologists. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mark Staniforth Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8e4a80abdb9709f2c5d0ce11f0db9c0d.pdf cbe112adf5b0d3ed4187b318fd57a7d2 PDF Text Text The “Stone Four Legged Quern” (Bench) recovered in the oldest Maritime Archaeological Site at Godawaya (Ambalantota) in Sri Lanka Mr Sanath Karunarathna Abstract The stone bench that was recovered at the oldest Maritime Archaeological site at Godawaya (Ambalantota) in Sri Lanka is an unusual archaeological artifact which has become instrumental in turning the history of Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka in a new direction It has been recovered for the first time in the area of Godawaya (Ambalantota) in the Hambantota District in Sri Lanka. The particular object is a Stone Bench with four legs where the whole thing is carved out of a single stone. The main purpose of this article is to describe this stone bench and to discuss the symbols it carries with its making. Also an attempt will be made to look into the site where the object was found and other certain related aspects as well. In August 2008, Maritime Archaeologists attached to the Department of Archaeology and Central Cultural Fund (CCF) under the aegis of UNESCO launched an exploration in the area where this stone bench had been found. The location was around 30 meters under the sea at a place 4 km away from the fishery harbor in the coastal area of Godawaya village in the proximity of Ambalantota Town in the Hambantota District in Southern Province of Sri Lanka. Stone Bench An unusual artefact, which has become instrumental in turning the history of maritime archaeology in Sri Lanka towards a new direction, has been recovered for the first time in Godawaya (Ambalantota) in the Hambantota District. This particular object is a stone bench with four legs carved out of a single stone. The main purpose of this article is to describe this object and to discuss the symbols it carries. Also an attempt will be made to analyze the site and associated materials where the object was found. In October 2008, maritime archaeologists of the Maritime Archaeology Unit (attached to the Central Cultural Fund and the Department of Archaeology) under the aegis of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) launched an exploration in the area where this Stone Bench was found. The location was around 30 m under the sea, 4 km away from the fishery harbour in the coastal area of Godawaya village. This exploration did lead to recovery of a number of significant artefacts. The MUA observation of remains spread over the area of concern pointed to the possibility that this place could very well be the oldest maritime archaeological site to date to have been found in Sri Lanka. Accordingly, a number of significant samples have been collected for further studies and, at present, the research work is in progress. �Figure 1. Stone Bench Site. (Photo by R. Muthucumarana - M.A.U) In fact, the story behind the recovery of this stone bench found in the Godawaya area is rather interesting. One day in March 2003, I was participating as the officer in charge of the excavation work carried out on the premises of the Godawaya (Buddhist) Temple. In the meantime, two people named Peminda and Sunil who were commercial divers who collect conch shells for their living brought an object they had over their shoulders and placed on it the ground before me. They said that they had found it in the sea while diving and discussed it uniqueness in finding something like this on the seabed around this area. They went on to say that there was a large number of pottery shards widely scattered over the same area. Having listened to them attentively, I examined the Stone Bench very carefully. Some parts of the object were covered with sea shells and plants. On the flat surface (top part of the bench) there were three symbols which were very artistically carved. Those Symbols can be identified as Nandipada, Sri Vatsa and Mathsya (fish). Interestingly a number of similar stone benches had been recovered in the excavations performed at the Yatala stupa terrace and the surrounding area which are now kept in the Yatala museum in Tissamaharamaya In addition, some stone benches which are similar to those mentioned above, have been found in the past excavations carried out at Akurugoda and Sarwodayawatta in Tissamaharamaya (Sanath 2008:9). It was clear to me that this stone bench possessed a significant historical value in addition to its unusual recovery from the seabed. Therefore I chose to show this stone bench to Mr. Oliver Kessler, a German Archaeologist, who had come here to assist in the excavation work. His opinion was the same as mine. When I explained the situation to Peminda and Sunil, they agreed to keep it at the Godawaya (Buddhist) Temple to be preserved as an archaeological object. Subsequently this stone bench paved the way to the underwater archaeological exploration around the Godawaya area. �Figure 2. Profile of bench showing legs / close-up of symbols in bench. (Photos by Gamini Saman – MAU) This bench measures 37.5 cm in length, 16cm in width and 17cm in height and has four legs. There are three symbols finely carved along a border at the top. However, when those symbols are closely studied with the available historical evidence it becomes clear that those symbols have their origin from Hindu religious symbols but were later treated as Buddhist symbols (Wimalarathana 1991:63), It is also a fact that those symbols have been simultaneously accepted in both Buddhism and Hinduism during a certain period (Wimalaratana1991:63), Nandipada and Sri Vathsa can be seen on Amarawathie Stupa in India while the same symbols are found among Buddhist carvings available in Sri Lanka (Sanath 1979:167-193), Samuel Beal holds the view that those symbols are used to depict Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha in Buddhist iconography (Beal 1884:60), The opinion of Samuel Bell is that the Nandipada has been employed to depict the Triple Gem (Rathnatra) and Buddhahood (Beal1884:60), "Sri Vathsa" is considered to be a symbol found on the chest of the god Vishnu (Basham 1995:385; Senaratna 1992:26). There are ideas which argue that the Nandipada is only another symbol or a figure representing the Trishula symbol (Wimalaratana 1991: 64), which can be found in Hinduism. However as the Trishula is not accepted in Buddhism, a majority of scholars agree that this symbol is used to denote the Triple Gem (Rathnatra) (Beal 1884:60). The Sripada Stone (The Buddha‟s Footprint carved on a stone slab) which was recovered in Anuradhapura and is, at present, preserved in the museum in Colombo carries all three symbols and is thought to belong to the second century Anno Domini (A.D.) (Karunaratna1979:167-193). The widely recognized view is that they tend to symbolize the Chakrawarthi Status (Holding Universal Sovereignty) or Buddhahood (Karunaratna1979:167193). There is also evidence available to show that the Mathsya or the "fish" symbol had been used to imply auspiciousness (Subha mangala Sanketha or the auspicious symbol) (Senaratna1992: 26). A Sripada Stone (Buddha's Foot Print) bearing the Symbols of Mathsya (fish) Nandipada and Sri Vathsa has been found at Amarawathie Stupa in India which is also identified as belonging to the second century A.D. (Senaratna1992: 26). This further supports the hypothesis that during a certain period those symbols had simultaneously been employed in Buddhist iconography in both Sri �Lanka and India. In addition to use in contemporary works and creations, those symbols have been utilized in the gateway structure (Archway for Entrance) of the Sanchi Stupa in India, Also, a few similar stone benches found in the excavations carried out at the Yatala site in Tissamaharama have been identified as artefacts from the first and second centuries B.C.E; (Somadeva 2006:197198). Further, there is one stone bench on which a few Brahmi letters, which are believed to be of first or second century B.C., have been inscribed (Somadeva 2006:197-198). Karunarathna, in his book Shanthiya, has classified the eight Auspicious symbols (Asta mangala Lakshanas) by allocation them to different cardinal directions (Karunaratna1979:167-193); only four of them given here:  Sri Vatsa Ravi (Sun)- East  Mathsya Rahu (Shadow of the moon) - South  Nandipada Shani (Saturn) - West  Conch Budha (Mercury) - North Therefore, it has been suggested, that the symbols were used to indicate direction (Karunaratna1979:167-193). The begging - bowl (Patra) recovered in Abhayagiri bearing those three symbols along with the eight auspicious symbols (Asta Mangala Lakshanas) has been judged to belong to the sixth century A.D. (Senaratna1992: 26). However there is available evidence to suggest that there have been instances where stone benches of similar shapes have been utilized as grinding stones for domestic purposes - perhaps for kitchen work or medicinal preparations (Karunaratna 2008:9; Somadeva 2006:197-198). A number of such quern stones as well as a host of grinder stones and upper grinder stones (or Doogala,) have already been recovered in the excavations performed at Sarvodaya wattha and Akurugoda in Thissamaharamaya (Karunaratna 2008:9). Hans Josim Waighsaar (Director KAWA project-Tissamaharama), who inspected the marks on the quern, said these objects were used for domestic purposes or medicinal preparation (KAWA Excavation Unpublished Report 2008-2010). It was allowed to sit on those noble symbols which had highly and widely been accepted and respected in both Sri Lanka and India altogether? If the symbols inscribed on the stone bench represent the Lord Buddha, Buddha hood or the triple gem there is no way that these benches were used for the purpose of sitting. Some scholars argue that these comparatively shorter stone benches could possibly have been constructed to go with the Rank / hierarchy of the chief reverent / Bhikkus (Buddhist Priests) so they may have been prevented from sitting on comfortable seats in terms of a disciplinary code enacted then (Anandamaithree 2006:135-140). My idea is that either those structures could very well be the direct offerings for the Lord Buddha himself or the structures upon which offerings would be placed before being proffered to the Lord Buddha. Such structures, in this case the stone benches, in my opinion would be placed in the image House of the Temple (Aramaya). (It represents the “Great Enlightenment of the Buddha” Scholars believe it was the first brave step by the Greek Buddhists, who wanted to create a sculpture of Buddha according to the style of the more familiar Greek tradition of sculptures. Before the image of the Buddha was created, Buddhists �believed should never be created or represented as a figure of The Buddha with His Great Qualities (Wimalaratana 1991:64). Hence Buddhists considered some of the symbols in Buddha‟s likeness to be the “Representation of the Buddha” Bodhi tree (Picas Religiosa), which provides shelter, and the Seat (AsanaVajrasana), which provides seating facilities for attaining "The Great Buddha Hood” under the Bo Tree (Basham 1995:134). These were venerated as a great honour from the beginning of Buddhism. It is very obvious in early paintings and sculptures that these represent those objects on behalf of the Buddha (Anandamaithree 2006:135-140). Wherever Artist wants to show the Buddha it appears as “Asana” or “Bo Tree". And this practice has been continuous for a long time, even after the introduction of the Buddha sculpture. I believe it is a very reasonable and widely accepted view that sailors carried “Asana” to areas of religious practices while they voyaged. It mean, they may have used these “Asanas” as the representation of their religious leader and as the protector of their life. Figure 3. Grinding stones. Photo by Sanath karunarathna Considering the above information it can be deduced that the symbols that we have discussed were used during the period of the second century Before Christ (B.C.) to the second country A.D. So far a number of Sri Vathsa Symbols carved out of the copper material have been recovered from the Katharagama area (Somadeva 2006:197-198). It could therefore be said that similar symbols had been very popular during that period. The fact that this object has been recovered from the deep seabed, away from the shore, we also can think they were transported as merchandise on vessels. At the same time it could be assumed that those objects had acquired a degree of social recognition and were honoured with a sense of respect and sacredness. Nandadasa Samaraweera (Nandadasa 2010: 1-5) Has clearly �expressed his opinion that the glazed ingots found from the same site belong to a period spanning from the first century BC to the second century AD. It has been firmly established that the Godawaya harbour, by the second century AD, (Gamini 2010:32-35) had been a well organized and highly active centre where even the tariffs and customs charges were duly collected (Kessler 2001:290-300), The stone inscriptions found at the Godawaya Buddhist Temple actively help to support this view (Kessler 2001:329). However, it is possible that this harbour was functional long before the specified period. Namely, the excavations carried out by Somadeva in the area surrounding the Kirinda Harbour (Somadeva 2006:163-165) can be cited as proof that the Kirinda Harbour had been operational prior to the Christian era. Considering the archaeological findings obtained in that area, Somadeva holds the view that the functional city situated in the Akurugoda area in Tissamaharama was linked to the Kirinda Harbour while the settlement, situated at Ridiyagama close to Ambalantota, had been linked to the Godawaya Harbour via the Walave River (Somadeva 2006:115-120). Figure 4. Bench like stone object with Brahmi Letter's perod between 250-100 BCE (Somadeva 2006:197-198). Photo by R. Muthucumarana When the above facts are carefully studied and analyzed we could readily accept that those archaeological findings and the old Harbours could easily be traced to the same social era in the 2nd century AD (Paranavithana 1983: 101). However, the research is still ongoing so a valid conclusion has not been reached. Other Findings After the 2008 exploration another two small scale explorations have been conducted. The main one took place at the end of 2010 as a collaboration project of MAU, UNESCO and the Government of Netherlands. The Godawaya shipwreck discovery generated much interest among the local archaeologists as well as international historians and archaeologists with interests in Asian �underwater cultural heritage. It caused for much enthusiasm in the international layer, which provided allocation of funds towards a UNESCO training programme in maritime archaeology (post-field activity MAU 2010). The international team comprised of experts in diving and underwater archaeology from India, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines who participated in the assessment with the MAU team on the shipwreck at Godawaya. According to the previous exploration the site was identified as spread over an area of 40 X 22 m. Before initiation of the actual site survey, the team had to explore what had been previously collected such as jars, cooking vessels, stone benches and unidentified parts of the main wreckage (possible timber stacks).  Investigation of the exploration was mainly concern with the following:  To inspect and survey of the site and identify possible artefacts and antiques apparently visible on the sea bed.  To make a surface plan with the finds using measuring equipments.  To photographically document the site with digital cameras and other documentary equipment.  To make an evaluation of the site with available data and resources. The exploration team was comprised of underwater archaeologists, selected on the basis of their experience in multi-disciplinary approaches A well balanced team was thus engaged in the exploration activities for extracting maximum information and taking firsthand experience through non-disturbance survey. This survey produced observation of a large number of artefacts on the seabed, including varieties of pottery and a large area in the north-western quadrant covered with the remains of shipwreck (including the unidentified cargoes). During the exploration we found that there were more stone benches scattered around the site and most of them are different in style and size from each other and required close inspection to identify any symbols carry on them. I suppose that early mariners may have carried these stone benches in their personal belongings for making individual religious rituals and offerings. Keep in Possession these benches as in personal properties which brings symbolic message of the “Great Victory” (The Attainment of Buddha hood) of their religious leader may bring them self-esteem to do the uncertain voyages The main obstacle in this case is the fact that all the recovered archaeological objects seem to have relationships to regional countries, especially to India and Sri Lanka during certain time periods. Nevertheless, wooden remains of the wreck are in very fragile condition and worn out, so its origins deduced by construction methods is difficult. This problem could hopefully be reached by proper documentation of the site and the scientific analysis of the findings in the near future. Bibliography Anandamaitree, B., 2006 Basham, A. L., 1995 “Vinaya Pitakaya”, in Senasana Khandaka Chullawaggapali, Part 11, government of Sri Lanka. Asirimath Indiyawa , Educational Publication Department, Reprint, Colombo. �Beal, S., 1884 Fouche , A ., 1918 Gamini , P.A.L., 2010 Karunarathna, T.B., 1979 Nandadasa,S.M; 2010 Paranavithana, S., 1983 Roth, W., Kessler, O., Rocker., Wijepala W,. 2001 Sanath, W.K., 2008 Samuel, B., 1884 Senarathna, W., 1992 Senavirathna, A., 1979 Somadeva, R., 2001 Weisshar, H.J., Wijepala, W., Roth, H., 2001 Wimalarathana, B., 1991 Buddhist Record of the Western World, London. The Beginning of the Buddhist Art, London. Godawaya, S & S Printers, Colombo. “A new Interpretation of The Buddhist Trirathna Symbol”, Ancient Ceylon, Journal of the Archaeological Survey, Department of Archaeology, Colombo. “Sri Lankawe Glaze bhavitaya saha Godawaya muhuden hamu u Glaze kutti ”, in MAU News Letter, Volume ιι, Part 1, Central Cultural Fund, Colombo. Inscription of Ceylon ,Archaeological Survey of Sri Lanka, Volume II, Part 1, Colombo. “Sri Lankan -German Archaeological Project in Southern Province”, in Ancient Ruhuna, Volume Ι, Germany. Excavation report, „tissa-3 “, Regional Archaeology Office, Galle, 2008. Buddhist record Of the Western World, London. “Ashtamangala Patraya”, in Sanskrutika Puranaya, Volume 1, Part II, Central Cultural Fund, Colombo. “A Symbol Which Represent the Buddha in early Singhalese Sculpture, Ancient Ceylon", in Journal of the Archaeological Survey, Department of Archaeology, Colombo, 1979. "Urban origins in Southern Sri Lanka", in Studies in Global archaeology, 7, Uppsala University Uppsala. “Sri Lankan -German Archaeological Project in Southern Province”, in Ancient Ruhuna, Volume 1, Germany. Budu Pilimaya asana saha Mudra, Sedevi printers, Dehiwala. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The "Stone Four Legged Quern" (Bench) recovered in the oldest Maritime Archaeological Site at Godawaya (Ambalantota) in Sri Lanka Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource The stone bench that was recovered at the oldest Maritime Archaeological site at Godawaya (Ambalantota) in Sri Lanka is an unusual archaeological artifact which has become instrumental in turning the history of Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka in a new direction It has been recovered for the first time in the area of Godawaya (Ambalantota) in the Hambantota District in Sri Lanka. The particular object is a Stone Bench with four legs where the whole thing is carved out of a single stone. The main purpose of this article is to describe this stone bench and to discuss the symbols it carries with its making. Also an attempt will be made to look into the site where the object was found and other certain related aspects as well. In August 2008, Maritime Archaeologists attached to the Department of Archaeology and Central Cultural Fund (CCF) under the aegis of UNESCO launched an exploration in the area where this stone bench had been found. The location was around 30 meters under the sea at a place 4 km away from the fishery harbor in the coastal area of Godawaya village in the proximity of Ambalantota Town in the Hambantota District in Southern Province of Sri Lanka. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sanath Karunarathna Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2110a46884a982a70df582926237b63b.pdf 258ca1b5c9b77e00b0c6897d215bf590 PDF Text Text The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, SelayarSouth Sulawesi1 Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan2 ABSTRACT Indonesia has a great potential for underwater cultural heritage (UCH) but the challenge to its preservation management is also very high. Coordination among stakeholders is very important. The effort to use UCH must be aligned with the effort to preserve so that it can be sustainable for the next generations. Some problems that we are facing, namely: no optimal management; lack of awareness of people; lack of science and technology application; and no proper law enforcement. With the rapid advancement of marine technology, UCH has become increasingly easy to reach by treasures hunters such as salvage companies and local community. Many UCH in Indonesia became the victim of massive looting such as that undertaken by the local community in Taka Kappala Waters, Selayar Regency South Sulawesi Province. Marine archaeological researches in 2008 and 2009 showed the shipwreck was in a badly damaged condition due to the looting activity that has lasted almost two years. The people did not realize that the use of UCH if well-managed will improve living standards for people in the vicinity of the site. Unlike theft cases in Selayar, in Bali the local community gives high appreciation to the existence of a shipwreck site in their area. They realized that shipwrecks are one of the potential marine resources which can be exploited for marine tourism. Liberty wreck in Tulamben, Bali has become a world-class tourist destination for divers. The local people have been protecting it with the customary law they made and obeyed, i.e. with a restriction on fishing activity around the shipwreck site. So then this site is very well maintained and became a central area for growth of marine life. Liberty wreck location is an example of a very beautiful blend and harmony among the remains of ancient human objects, very rich marine life, and a very high local community appreciation. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Preservation Management, Looting Activity, Local Community, Awareness, Marine Archaeological Research INTRODUCTION Geographically Indonesia is a maritime country which two-thirds of its territory is sea areas. Indonesian archipelagic water width is 2.3 million square kilometers (km2), the territorial sea is 0.8 million km2 and the Exclusive Economic Zone is 2.7 million km2. Indonesia has 17,480 islands which stretch across 5,100 km along the equator between Pacific and Indian Ocean with 95,181 km coastline. In addition, 60% of Indonesian people live in the coastal areas (Nontji 2002; Soesilo 2006:1-2). The Indonesian archipelago has a strategic position as a very busy shipping and international sea trading line between the West and East since ancient times because it is located in “The 1 Paper presented in Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 November 2011, Manila, The Philippines. 2 Maritime Archaeologist in Research Institute of Marine and Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia, Jl. Padang – Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245, Telp/Fax. +62-751751458, e-mail: nia_arkeo@kkp.go.id, nia_hasanah@yahoo.com 1 �Silk and Spices Routes” (Reid 1993; Ricklefs 1999). Indonesia was a major producer of trading commodities in the past such as pepper, nutmeg, cloves, sandalwood, incense, and so on, and since long ago, there were many important ports such as Aceh, Palembang, Sunda Kelapa (Batavia), Banten, Cirebon, Makassar, Ternate, Tidore, which later became the great maritime empires. Besides the trade conducted by the Chinese, Indians, Persians, many foreigners came to Indonesia for the purpose of colonization, such as Portuguese, Spanish, English, Dutch, and Japanese (Poesponegoro and Notosusanto 1984). Wide waters, a busy maritime activity, sea conditions, weather conditions, war, and piracy caused the territorial waters of Indonesia to be its current rich deposition in UCH. The number of UCH in Indonesian waters until World War II is expected to reach thousands3. Those known are based on historical sources, i.e. Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) Shipwrecks List (Dutch VOC Shipwreck n.d.) English East India Company (EIC) data (East India Company Ship 1999), Chinese sources, the literature about the Pacific War, the research results of some agencies such as Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries and Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and also based on data from the National Committee for Salvage and Utilization of the Valuable Object of the Sunken Ship4. Many shipwrecks contain valuable cargo so they are targeted by treasure hunters. UCH vandalism and looting cases by individuals or companies, local and foreign have been rife in Indonesia since the 1980's until today, for example, undertaken by local community in Taka Kappala Waters, Selayar Islands Regency South Sulawesi Province.5 The lack awareness of the people about the importance and strategic value of UCH for national identity and national economic development is a big problem in Indonesia. However in Tulamben Bali, there is a local community who are aware of the presence of UCH. For that reason, there should be an effort to reduce UCH vandalism and looting cases and also to expand on the interests of the preservation and management of UCH sites. They are an opportunity and a potential new alternative to support Indonesian national development. Draft of Indonesian Ocean Policy states that management of marine resources including UCH in a sustainable manner based on Agenda 21 of the United Nations must be carried out by considering the ecological aspects, economic aspects, and public welfare/prosperity aspects. Some basic principles in the 3 One of the books that discussed about the presence of many shipwrecks in Indonesian waters is the writings of Tony Wells. See Tony Wells, Shipwrecks & Sunken Treasure in Southeast Asia, (Singapore: Time Publisher, 1995). 4 Since the number of UCH theft cases, the government established National Committee for Salvage and Utilization of the Valuable Object of the Sunken Ship, or popularly known as PANNAS BMKT in 1989. This committee consists of a number of ministries in Indonesia based on Presidential Decree year 1989 regarding PANNAS BMKT. This regulation allows private companies to conduct survey, exploration, and artifacts removal from shipwrecks. It is a likely target by non-supporters because at the time it was put in place the government was unable to handle and manage the UCH 5 See details in Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, (Jakarta: Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2008); Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, (Jakarta: Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2009); Executive Summary of Inventory and Identification the Potency of Shipwrecks for Supporting Marine Tourism Development, (Jakarta: Directorate General of Marine, Coastal, and Small Islands, 2008). 2 �management of the Indonesian sea are the principle of Integrated Management, Scientific Principles, Principles of Local Responsibility, Principles of Sustainable Development, and Principles of Community Based Development (Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources 2006; Wirasantosa, et al. 2006). SELAYAR ISLANDS REGENCY A. Location Selayar Islands Regency is part of South Sulawesi Province that consists of 123 islands, which stretches from north to south. 94.68% area of this regency is ocean. It is located at coordinates 5º42'-7º35' S and 120º15'-122º30' E bordering Bulukumba and Bone Bay on the north, Flores Sea on the east and south, and Flores Sea and Makassar Strait on the west (Pemerintah Kabupaten Selayar n.d.). For some time now Selayar Islands have become an important area in national and international trading and shipping routes (Said, et al. 2007; Heersink 1999). It is predicted that there are many shipwrecks in Selayar waters. Figure 1. Map of Selayar Island Regency and “Taka Kappala” Wreck Location (Modified from many sources) 3 �B. ‘Taka Kappala’ Wreck Marine Archaeological Survey conducted in west Selayar waters in 2008 and 2009 found the UCH site located at Taka Kappala, Flores Sea at coordinates 6º39'27,7" S and 120º21'16,9" E. Administratively it is located in Tambolongan- Appatanah Village, ± 2 miles from Pulassi Island, ± 2 miles from Nambolaki Island, and ± 5 miles from Bahuluang Island. The team obtained information about this spot from the local people and then followed up with two diving activities. A shipwreck was located at 8-12 m depth. Condition of the shipwreck is that it has been severely damaged and is difficult to identify due to illegal activity that has lasted for ± 2 years by local people. It is made of iron and wood. Based on local fishermen information, they found fragments of metal from the hull section that reads "London Srinity” (or “London Trinity"?). Artifacts found in this site are namely, ceramic fragments (white, blue, red and white), bottle glass fragments, irons, coal, and wooden parts of the ship. When the survey team came to the site looters were active in four other unknown ships.6 Figure 2. Site Condition of „Taka Kappala‟ Wreck, Showing Severe Damage due to Massive Looting by Local Community (Photographed in June 2008, courtesy Ministry of Marine Affairs) 6 Some of the looters are the local people who live in the nearest island. Recorded images of that looting activity have been delivered in the local government and the police made efforts to investigate and arrest the looters. 4 �TULAMBEN BALI A. USAT Liberty Wreck USAT Liberty wreck is located in Pekraman Village, Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali. It was a United States (US) Army transport ship launched in June 1918. In November 1940 it was one of ten ships taken up by the US Army for defense service. In December 1941, it was in the Pacific and in January 1942, it was in route from Australia to the Philippines with railway parts and rubber cargo. Liberty was torpedoed by Japanese submarine I-166 on January 1942 about 10 nautical miles (NM) (~19 km) southwest of the Lombok Strait, near position 08°54′S 115°28′E / 8.9°S 115.467°E. US destroyer Paul Jones and Dutch destroyer Van Ghent took the damaged ship in tow in an attempt to reach Singaraja, the Dutch port and administrative centre for the Lesser Sunda Islands on the north coast of Bali. However it took on too much water and so was beached on the eastern shore of Bali at Tulamben so that the cargo and fittings could be salvaged. In 1963, the tremors associated with the eruption of Mount Agung caused the ship to slip off the beach, and it now lies about 200 m from shoreline at coordinates position 8°17′3″ S, 115°5′21″ E. Liberty lies on a sandy slope in 30 to 100 feet (9.1 to 30 m) of water and providing one of the most popular dive locations in Bali (Wikipedia n.d). Liberty wreck site also contains educational aspects for visitors and has always been a training ground for underwater archaeologists. Figure 3. Liberty Wreck, Marine Life, and the Diver in Tulamben Site (Photographed in 2008 by Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan) 5 �B. Tulamben Community Involvement in Preserving UCH Site The sinking of the USAT Liberty has provided enormous benefits to Tulamben community. Since the late 1980s, underwater tourism in Bali developed. Liberty wreck has become the main diving object in East Bali and the principal livelihood for the local community. The community could provide lodging services, dive resorts, restaurants, parking, dive guide, souvenir shops, dive shops, car rental, grocery store, helper and porter services, and others. Thus it can also reduce the rate of unemployment in the village. The local community is fully aware that it can generate foreign exchange and be favorable for economic development in that region. The Tulamben community therefore felt the need to help preserve this area. With the awareness of the UCH, the people themselves feel a positive impact in the fields of social, economic, and cultural. They realized that special interest tourism, in particularly wreck diving, increased rapidly in Indonesia. The number of divers on the Liberty wreck is an average of 100–200 people per day and there are about 25 dive resorts and 8 dive shops in Tulamben (AS, Jimbaran). It is estimated that the potential and economic value of marine tourism in Tulamben is about US $3,265,777 per year (Kamaluddin 2002: 146-147). The participation of local community in protecting and preserving the UCH in Tulamben is enormous. One of the ways to preserve Liberty wreck and the surrounding water areas by local community is to make regulations or customary laws called Awigawig which is fully obeyed by villagers. Awig-awig is a set of rules that manages its citizens in the customary village. It is a part of local wisdom to conserve resources in their territory (Kusumajaya 2005; Supriyatun 2007). Awig-awig contains prohibitions evident of UCH public awareness. I Nyoman Karyasa7 said that having an awig-awig in order to live peacefully is compulsory for the Tulamben society. They consider it as a rule in human interaction. In Tulamben, moral sanctions carry greater weight than physical punishments (INK, Tulamben). The rules in Awig-awig in Tulamben are: 1. No fishing allowed within 100 meters of the shipwreck (nowadays it is 1 km) 2. Not allowed taking the remains of the shipwreck 3. Not allowed damaging the coral reefs attached to the shipwreck 4. Not allowed taking the stones around the shipwreck 5. Not allowed cutting plants around the beach 6. People in violation of the above prohibitions will receive moral sanction, be ostracized from society and not allowed to follow religious rituals. In Bali it is still relevant, especially associated with the realization of the Law No. 22/1999 regarding Regional Autonomy. One of the essences of this law is to empower the regional potential, which has existed for hundreds of years in Bali. For Bali society, Awig-awig is more revered and feared than the official Indonesian law, since it has a strong root in tradition. Each village in Bali has its own awig-awig and can be totally different from the neighboring villlages‟. This customary law manifests the uniqueness of each village and serves as a village identity. Violation of the awig-awig can be punished dependent on the degree of violation. Punishments for major offences range from the dreaded boycott from all village activity to permanent exile, total banishment. A man 7 I Nyoman Karyasa is a Kelian Adat (community leader) in Pekraman Village Tulamben, he is 52 years old. 6 �expelled from his village cannot be admitted in another community, so he becomes a total out-caste, a punishment greater than physical death (Akhmad 2002; Wirawan 2002). Raising Awareness Effort for Empowering Local Community As a huge archipelago, Indonesia does have great and invaluable potential of UCH. The challenge to management it is also very high. In Indonesia, knowledge and public awareness about UCH is still very limited. Growing public awareness efforts are needed to change people's behavior that previously tended to destroy and steal UCH towards a society that cares and commits to the preservation of UCH. In this connection, coordination and support cross-sector stakeholders are very important. UCH can only be beneficial if we can develop its potential as an asset that provides enhanced community awareness and knowledge of the history, technology, social and cultural rights through approaches such as education, tourism and preservation; provide economic impact; and can improve the welfare of the community. Preservation efforts are very important to save UCH and it can be developed and utilized for sustainable development that takes into account alignments in the community. Publication and socialization on the importance of UCH and its value for local community as a part of preservation efforts must be done to raise awareness of our national cultural heritage, to give more understanding of our national history, and to create the motherland integrity that can be passed to the next generations. We should look for alternatives to the use of UCH in accordance with conservation principles and based on scientific research results, and not only based on economic interests. The examples of alternative use are for enjoyment: i.e., marine tourism (wreck diving) and pilgrimage tours. It can also be used as a center of education i.e. underwater museum and as objects of research to explore the knowledge contained therein. These options are closely associated with the development of regional character and in strengthening national identity. Development of marine tourism will become an important part of Indonesia in the future. Immediately we need to increase human resources; improve legislation, commitment and cooperation of stakeholders; and raise public awareness. UCH is expected to improve and provide positive impacts for local people and positive effects will encourage public awareness of the importance of UCH so that people will maintain the existing infrastructure and even support efforts of protection and utilization with their own capabilities (Ardiwidjaja 2007; Green 2004). We need to involve local community in the planning and carrying out of activities that are directly of interest to them. Approaches to community archaeology including community interpretation, long term commitment, participatory action research, and identify the stakeholder who shares these concerns and interests can lead to an integrated preservation (Kettle and Saul 2006:126; Yvonne 2002). The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (the Ministry) has been carrying out awareness-raising programs and capacity-building programs such as workshops; focus group discussion (FGD); training programs in wreck diving, underwater photography, handling and managing underwater artifacts, and marine tourism for local community, government and agencies related to the protection and management of UCH (i.e. Navy, Police 7 �Waters, Ministry of Transportation, Office of Tourism Arts and Culture, Office of Maritime and Fisheries, and office of Preservation of Cultural Heritage). The Ministry has also held exhibitions relating to the protection and management of UCH and has made relevant regulations regarding the establishment of maritime conservation area8. Our institutions carry out socialization activities towards local communities when we go to the field to conduct research and survey activities in hopes that these efforts create public awareness towards the importance of culture and nature preservation. One example we carried out is an FGD in Selayar in June 2008. We provided the local people (local government, representative of local community, Non Governmental Organization, and youth) with knowledge and principles to support government of Indonesia in preserving and managing UCH in their area. We also raised understanding that the presence of sustainable UCH can increase local society welfare. The FGD purpose is to investigate the public problems/issues, causes, effects, and possible solution. We gathered the feedback of the Selayar community concerning the importance of safeguarding the natural and cultural resources. We also joined forces with the local government to support the mechanism to manage local resources and involved the community in our project, with the objective that these projects will encourage them to participate in research and preservation. Public interest in UCH is vitally important. Through a public appreciation of maritime archaeology and an understanding of its potential, the perceived value and importance of the resources will grow. This will have a positive long-term impact on the discipline of archaeology, promoting respect for the finite and non renewable resource and ensuring its inclusion in future policy and planning frameworks. Public interest in UCH should therefore be positively encouraged. The awareness of the importance of preservation and coordination between inter-institution or stakeholder and the community is the key to success for implementation of the development program which can accomodate any interest without conflict. The community needs to feel part of the UCH site, so that they have a stake in the well-being of the UCH site and the government must be firm to uphold the regulation in prohibiting redundant resources exploration and illegal activities by looters. The government has to develop and utilize UCH for community interest purposes and protect it from damage, lost, and extinction (Kettle and Saul 2006; Bowen 2009; Sedyawati 2006; Helmi 2008). 8 Law No. 27/2007 regarding Coastal Zone and Small Island Management; Regulation of the Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia No. 17/2008 regarding Conservation Areas in Coastal and Small Islands. 8 �Figure 4. FGD on UCH and the Development of Marine Tourism in Selayar Regency (Photographed in June 2008 by Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan). CONCLUSION UCH is important to preserve and manage for various purposes. Efforts can include the utilization of UCH as a research object and for tourism. The implication is for the development of sustainable tourism that gives opportunities and management of sustainable prosperity for society. It is time for the Government of Indonesia to pay more attention and integrate efforts in empowering people and institutions that have authority in dealing with UCH. This will no doubt lower UCH vandalism and theft. In addition the government should continue its efforts to raise public awareness programs and improve the quality of human resources through education, training, and dissemination. The government also needs to devise a joint program and integrated management of UCH which includes: the provision of infrastructure and facilities, provision of the budget, the implementation of surveys, research, develop an institutional/committee management team of UCH, prepare a variety of laws and regulations, guidelines, and implementation guidelines of UCH management, and coordinate with various agencies. There should be a well-designed human resources development plan to deal with UCH and to solve the problems in a proper and responsible way. Raising awareness efforts to local community could assist the efforts of government in preserving and managing UCH wisely and sustainably. The goal being 9 �to achieve sustainable national development programs in the marine affairs sector and the field of culture and tourism. UCH management should be able to improve people's lives and prosperity by engaging them in activities towards the protection, conservation, and utilization of UCH; and wherever possible to minimize negative impacts. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks to Dr. Sugiarta Wirasantosa (The Former Head of Research Center for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources), Drs. Andi Muhammad Said, M. Hum (Head of Office for Preservation of Archaeological Heritage of Makassar), Drs. Gatot Ghautama, MA (The Former Head of Exploration Division Directorate of Underwater Heritage), and Drs. Robby Ardiwidjaya, M.BIT (Senior Researcher in Tourism Research and Development Center) as the expert resource persons. Thanks are also conveyed to Research Center for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources and Directorate of Coastal and Marine Affairs, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries which have funded the field survey activities; Directorate of Underwater Heritage and Tourism Research and Development Center, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, The Office for Tourism, Arts, and Cultural, and The Office for Fisheries and Marine Affairs of Selayar Regency. Oral Sources I Nyoman Karyasa, Pekraman Village, Tulamben, Karang Asem Bali, 15 August 2011, cited as INK, Tulamben. Abilawa Setyadi, Jimbaran, Bali, 26 July 2011, cited as AS, Jimbaran. BIBLIOGRAPHY Analisis Awig-awig dalam Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Perikanan di Kecamatan Gangga, Kabupaten Lombok Barat, Nusa Tenggara Barat. viewed August 2011, <http://repository.ipb.ac.id> “Pemanfaatan Benda Arkeologi Bawah Air (Shipwreck): Satu Ardiwidjaja, R., 2007 Peluang Peningkatan Daya Tarik Wisata Selam”. Dipresentasikan dalam Forum Diskusi Sumberdaya Arkeologi Laut, Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan, Jakarta. Underwater Archaeology: The NAS Guide to Principles and Bowen, A., (ed.), Practise, Second Edition, The Nautical Archaeology Society, 2009 Fort Cumberland. Directorate General of Executive Summary of Inventory and Identification the Marine, Coastal, and Potency of Shipwrecks for Supporting Marine Tourism Development, Jakarta. Small Islands, 2008 VOC Shipwreck, viewed 12 July 2010, Dutch VOC Shipwreck, Dutch n.d. <http://www.vocshipwrecks.com/>. East India Company Ship, Voyage, viewed 08 Agustus 2008, East East India Company Akhmad, S., 2002 10 �Ship, 1999, 1999 Green, J., 2004 Heersink, C., 1999 <http://www.eicships.info/voyages/lost-t.htm/>. Maritime Archaeology: A Technical Handbook, Second Edition, Elsevier Academy Press, London. Dependence on Green Gold: a Socio-Economic History of the Indonesian Coconut Island Selayar, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, Leiden. Helmi, S., “Kebijakan Pengelolaan Peninggalan Bawah Air di Indonesia”, Seminar Arkeologi Maritim, Universitas 2008 Indonesia, Jakarta,1-9. IPTEK: Menguak Laut Indonesia, Sarana Komunikasi Utama, Indroyono Soesilo, 2006 Bogor. Kamaluddin, L. M., “Pariwisata Bahari dan Konservasi”, dalam Pembangunan Ekonomi Maritim di Indonesia, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2002 Jakarta. Kettle, K. C., and Saul, 2nd Edition Guidelines for Managing the Integration of Culture into Development Programmes, SEAMEO-SPAFA, Bangkok. L., 2006 Konsep Pelestarian dan Pemanfaatan Peninggalan Bawah Kusumajaya, I Made, Air oleh Masyarakat Tulamben, Kabupaten Karang Asem, 2005 Propinsi Bali, Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Propinsi Bali-NTB-NTT, Denpasar. Law No. 22/1999 regarding Regional Autonomy Marshal, Y., 2002 Nontji, A., 2002 Pemerintah Kabupaten Selayar, n.d. Poesponegoro, M.D., and Notosusanto, N., (ed.), 1984 Reid, S., 1993 Research Centre for Maritime Territories Law No. 27/2007 regarding Coastal Zone and Small Island Management. “What is Community Archaeology”, World Archaeology Journal Vol. 34 (2), Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISSN 0043-8243, 211-219. Laut Nusantara, Penerbit Djambatan, Jakarta. Pemerintah Kabupaten Selayar, viewed 27 June <http://www.selayar.go.id/>. 2011, Sejarah Nasional Indonesia II, Balai Pustaka, Jakarta. The Silk and Spice Routes Exploration by Sea, UNESCO, London. Regulation of the Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia No. 17/2008 regarding Conservation Areas in Coastal and Small Islands. Draft of Indonesian Ocean Policy, Jakarta. 11 �and Non Living Resources, 2006 Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2008 Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2009 Ricklefs, M.C., 1999 Said, A. M., Ramli, M., and Sumantri, I., (ed.), 2007 Sedyawati, E., 2006 Supriyatun, M.M. Rini, 2007 Wells, T., 1995 Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia, n.d. Wirasantosa, S., Ridwan, N.N., and Dilenia, I., 2006 Wirawan, K., 2002 Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, Jakarta. Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, Jakarta. Sejarah Indonesia Modern, UGM press, Yogyakarta. Directory of Cultural Tourism Potency of Selayar Island South Sulawesi Indonesia, Office for Preservation of Archaeological Heritage of Makassar, Makassar. Tinggalan Kapal Karam: Harta Karun atau Tinggalan Sejarah ?, Artikel untuk Rubrik OPINI, Jakarta. “Potensi Objek Wisata Warisan Budaya Bawah Air di Tulamben, Kabupaten Karang Asem, Propinsi Bali, Varuna, Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air Vol. I/2007, ISSN 1979-0666X. 94-108. Shipwrecks & Sunken Treasure in Southeast Asia, Times Edition, Singapore. Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia, USAT Liberty, viewed 20 August 2011, <http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAT_Liberty>. “Kebijakan dan Peran Departemen Kelautan & Perikanan dalam Eksplorasi Peninggalan Bawah Air”, dipresentasikan pada Rapat Koordinasi Penyusunan Kebijakan Pelestarian, Pengembangan, dan Pemanfaatan Peninggalan Budaya Bawah Air, Bogor. Awig-awig Diciptakan untuk Jaga Keharmonisan, 2 January 2002, viewed August 2011, <http://www.network54.com/Forum> 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource Indonesia has a great potential for underwater cultural heritage (UCH) but the challenge to its preservation management is also very high. Coordination among stakeholders is very important. The effort to use UCH must be aligned with the effort to preserve so that it can be sustainable for the next generations. Some problems that we are facing, namely: no optimal management; lack of awareness of people; lack of science and technology application; and no proper law enforcement. With the rapid advancement of marine technology, UCH has become increasingly easy to reach by treasures hunters such as salvage companies and local community. Many UCH in Indonesia became the victim of massive looting such as that undertaken by the local community in Taka Kappala Waters, Selayar Regency South Sulawesi Province. Marine archaeological researches in 2008 and 2009 showed the shipwreck was in a badly damaged condition due to the looting activity that has lasted almost two years. The people did not realize that the use of UCH if well-managed will improve living standards for people in the vicinity of the site. Unlike theft cases in Selayar, in Bali the local community gives high appreciation to the existence of a shipwreck site in their area. They realized that shipwrecks are one of the potential marine resources which can be exploited for marine tourism. Liberty wreck in Tulamben, Bali has become a world-class tourist destination for divers. The local people have been protecting it with the customary law they made and obeyed, i.e. with a restriction on fishing activity around the shipwreck site. So then this site is very well maintained and became a central area for growth of marine life. Liberty wreck location is an example of a very beautiful blend and harmony among the remains of ancient human objects, very rich marine life, and a very high local community appreciation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f3652dd25b3d76dd7d326655d335d8a8.pdf d1ef307b45df57e446ef643f5247c761 PDF Text Text Maritime archaeology in New Zealand: trials, tribulations and opportunities Matthew Carter and Andy Dodd Abstract New Zealand is an island nation that was initially settled via the sea firstly by Polynesian voyagers and later by a European maritime culture. These two groups traded and traversed in and along the coastline leaving considerable physical evidence of their seafaring ways. Today this maritime past is reflected in more than 2000 shipwrecks as well as numerous canoe landing sites, fish traps, inundated villages and sunken canoes. Despite this wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and a strong legislative base for the protection of archaeological sites, maritime archaeology in New Zealand is significantly underdeveloped with no effective program for the management or protection of UCH. As a consequence the public of New Zealand rarely views shipwrecks and other UCH as sites that need to be protected. This lack of perceived value results in limited funding being available for the investigation or management of maritime archaeological sites and as such developmental pressures, commercial salvage and fossicking continue to damage this non-renewable resource. Although these are major challenges there are still considerable opportunities for underwater archaeology in New Zealand. Increased awareness of underwater cultural heritage can be achieved by engaging the public in various ways such as through Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology/Nautical Archaeology Society (AIMA/NAS) training courses. In addition, the global nature of New Zealand‟s maritime trade means that there is enormous scope for international collaboration between researchers at a diverse range of organisations around the world. Such actions would help provide the impetus for capacity building and the eventual establishment of an effective maritime archaeology program in New Zealand. Introduction New Zealand is an island nation that was initially settled via the sea firstly by Polynesian voyagers and later by a European maritime culture. These two groups traded and traversed in and along the coastline leaving considerable physical evidence of their seafaring ways. Notwithstanding this wealth of UCH and a strong legislative framework for the protection of heritage sites, maritime archaeology is significantly underdeveloped within New Zealand. As a result no formal positions exist for the research, protection or management of UCH. Despite this shortcoming, a number of maritime archaeological projects have been undertaken by volunteer groups with considerable success. These projects have shown the potential that the investigation of UCH has to contribute to our understanding of New Zealand's past and the opportunities that exist for maritime archaeology in the future. New Zealand’s Underwater Cultural Heritage New Zealand‟s diverse topography means that UCH is not restricted to the open sea but also includes sites in estuaries, rivers, streams, lakes and swamps. These waterways include both those of natural occurrence and those created or maintained through human intervention. Where they remain in a largely unmodified state, New Zealand‟s waterways and wetlands have yielded significant archaeological finds. They have potential to preserve significant archaeological information relating to �New Zealand‟s maritime heritage. The UCH of New Zealand includes both resources of Maori and European origin. The underwater resources of European origin cover the period of the maritime exploration and the colonisation of New Zealand (17691900 A.D.) and include around 1500 documented shipwrecks (of which only around 10% have been relocated), military sites, wharves, navigation markers, ballast dumps, slipways and debris (Dodd 2003:151; Churchill 1991:7). Equally important are Maori underwater heritage sites which date from as early as the mid thirteenth century (Higham and Jones 2004:215). These sites include canoe landings, eel weirs, fish traps, inundated villages and sunken canoes (McCarthy 2006:9; Gumbley et al 2005; Campbell 1977:139). All of these resources offer significant opportunities for maritime and underwater archaeology as well as the potential for advancement of terrestrial archaeology through the provision of comparative assemblages and material culture that does not survive in a dry environment. Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage As an island nation many New Zealanders feel a strong connection with the ocean and waterways and as a result an attitude of open availability and equal participation in relation to marine resources is widespread. Perhaps as result of this outlook many divers believe sites such as shipwrecks are available to all and that anyone has the right to take artefacts or items off them (Dodd 2003:151). Unfortunately such unregulated fossicking leads to a fragmentation of the material culture and a loss of context, thus essentially limiting the material‟s usefulness in scientific inquiry (Green 2004:10). Furthermore, such looted materials are rarely conserved properly and are often lost to all through corrosion or decay (Churchill 1991:8). In addition, coastal and inland underwater sites are also becoming increasingly threatened by the plans of other users of the coastal marine area who place pressure on these sites through the construction of infrastructure such as marinas, port expansion, undersea pipelines and drilling, and carry out activities such as dredging, marine farming and mineral extraction. These developments often disturb the equilibrium of the environment which has preserved the underwater site and may accelerate the processes of site destruction. UCH resources in New Zealand are also threatened by natural post-depositional processes which include sedimentation, currents, corrosion, marine growth, and mechanical disturbances due to wave action and earthquakes (Gould 2000:2). These natural and cultural processes threaten our underwater heritage and as such have significant implications for the protection, preservation and management of UCH in New Zealand. Heritage Legislation in New Zealand The protection of New Zealand‟s cultural heritage resources (including terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites) is provided for by three main acts: the Protected Objects Act (1975), the Resource Management Act (1991) and the Historic Places Act (1993). These acts combine to create a legislative landscape that is supportive �to the protection and management of historic heritage (Vossler 2000:68). Despite the fact that this legislation provides the basis for the control and sponsoring of both submerged and terrestrial archaeology in New Zealand, its application to underwater cultural resources has yet to be undertaken in a systematic or significant way (Dodd 2003:151; McKinlay 1977:23). Protected Objects Act 1975 The Protected Objects Act provides for the protection of certain objects by regulating the export of protected New Zealand objects and also allows for the ownership of ngataongatuturu (Maori artefacts) to be awarded through the Maori Land Court. The Protected Objects Act repealed the Antiquities Act 1975 in 2006 and makes it unlawful to export Protected Objects without a certificate of permission from the Ministry for Culture and Heritage who administer the Act. Protected New Zealand objects are objects: forming part of the movable cultural heritage of New Zealand that - (a) is of importance to New Zealand, or to a part of New Zealand, for aesthetic, archaeological, architectural, artistic, cultural, historical, literary, scientific, social, spiritual, technological, or traditional reasons; and (b) falls within 1 or more of the categories of protected objects set out in Schedule 4 (Protected Objects Act 1975: section 2). Schedule 4 of the Act includes, “New Zealand archaeological objects. This category consists of any objects, assemblages, scientific samples, organic remains derived from a New Zealand archaeological site, as defined by the Historic Places Act 1993” (Protected Objects Act 1975: schedule 4). In this way the Protected Objects Act can be used to protect artefacts from underwater cultural heritage sites from being exported out of New Zealand. Resource Management Act (1991) Although the Resource Management Act (RMA) is not primarily concerned with the protection of heritage resources, it provides considerable scope for the management of terrestrial and submerged archaeological sites. The purpose of the act is to ensure the sustainable management of natural and physical resources (RMA section 5). Under this Act archaeological sites are considered „physical resources‟ and local authorities are required to recognise and provide for the protection of historic heritage as a matter of national importance (RMA section 6). Under the RMA the role of local authorities includes: The preservation of historic heritage from inappropriate subdivision, use and development. And recognition of the relationship of Maori and their culture and traditions with their ancestral lands, waters, sites, waahi tapu and other taonga. (RMA Section 6) The influence of the RMA on archaeological practice is twofold. Firstly the RMA requires an assessment of environmental effects when applying for resource �consent. This assessment process includes both terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites and the consent may not be given if such a site is threatened by the intended development (Walton and Keefe 2004:271; Gumbley et al. 2005:19). The second influence of the RMA is increased responsibility for councils in identifying and managing historic heritage. Regional councils and local authorities must now have plans, rules, policies and objectives as to how they will manage the matters that the RMA puts within their responsibility (Gumbley et al. 2005:18). Regional and local authority plans are reviewed on a ten yearly cycle, however, with the exception of the Auckland Regional Council, few plans adopted policies and schedules specific to the protection of historic heritage in the coastal marine area, but this is becoming more common in second generation plans. Historic Places Act (1993) The Historic Places Act (HPA) provides the primary legislation for heritage management in New Zealand (Walton and Keefe 2004:273). The purpose of this act is to “promote the identification, protection, preservation, and conservation of the historical and cultural heritage of New Zealand” (HPA section 4). This Act defines archaeological sites as: …any place in New Zealand that – Either – (a) Was associated with human activity that occurred before 1900; or (b) Is the site of the wreck of any vessel where that wreck occurred before 1900; and (c) Is or may be able through investigation by archaeological methods to provide evidence relating to the history of New Zealand (HPA schedule 2). In relation to archaeological practice, the HPA established a system for the control of works that could adversely affect an archaeological site (Vossler 2000:62; Barber 2000:25). At the centre of this management system is the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (NZHPT) whose purpose is to promote and preserve the historic and cultural heritage of New Zealand. The NZHPT principal statutory functions are the registration of historic places, advocacy and public education (http://www.historic.org.nz/). The NZHPT also exercises statutory power to protect archaeological sites through the HPA which essentially imposes blanket protection for both terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites making it illegal for any person to destroy, damage or modify any part of a site without an authority obtained from the Historic Places Trust (Barber 1998:59). The provisions of the HPA apply to archaeological sites irrespective of whether they are currently registered or recorded (Vossler 2000:64). �History of Underwater Archaeology in New Zealand Sports diving in New Zealand began in the 1950s, and a number of diving clubs started up around this time (Gordon 1999). The earliest underwater shipwreck surveys in New Zealand were undertaken in the 1960‟s by pioneers such as Kelly Tarlton however, the prevailing philosophy of the time was directed towards salvage and exploration rather than preservation and conservation (Sale 1988:182; Dodd 2003:155). In recent years the practice of underwater archaeology in New Zealand has been furthered in three main ways; through the work of volunteer groups, the teaching of AIMA/NAS training courses and the registration of shipwrecks as historic places. Avocational projects The need to control and direct maritime archaeology in New Zealand led to the establishment of the Maritime Archaeological Association of New Zealand (MAANZ) in 1989 (Churchill 1991:7). Through this association a number of underwater and maritime heritage sites have been subject to archaeological attention. Mahanga Bay wharf A series of coastal military defences were built around New Zealand in the 1880s, in response to a perceived threat from the Russian navy. A small wharf was built in Mahanga Bay on the Miramar Peninsula in Wellington to service the torpedo boats that were stationed there. In 1993-1994 and 2000 MAANZ undertook a survey and investigation of the remnants of the historic wharf. The purpose of this work was to locate and map the remains of the wharf and associated artefacts. The history of the construction, use and demise of the wharf was also researched and a report published (MAANZ 2005). Surveying & condition report on Hydrabad The square rigged sailing ship Hydrabad was wrecked on Waitarere Beach (north of Wellington) in 1878. Successive storms and dynamic beach action have left the wreck well above high water mark. The wreck is now inundated with sand, and is periodically uncovered and re-covered through storm and wind action. The Waitarere Residents Association invited MAANZ to undertake an investigation of the wreck to help in decision making on the future of the wreck. This investigation was undertaken in 1997 and involved the mapping and assessment of the wreck site and the taking of samples to assess the composition of the ship. A report was compiled outlining the history of the ship and also the results of the survey (MAANZ 1998) and the site continues to be visited and photographed by MAANZ members. The Horowhenua District Council has recently installed updated interpretative signage at Waitarere and the site was nominated for historic place registration by MAANZ in 2010. It was assessed by NZHPT and awarded category II historic place registration in 2011. This officially recognised the wreck site as a place “of historical or cultural heritage significance or value to New Zealanders” (HPA section 23). �Mapping & park proposal for Evans Bay Patent Slip A patent slip operated at Evans Bay on the edge of the Wellington Harbour from the 1870s until well into the 20th century. The rails of the slipway remain intact, as does buried slipway machinery. MAANZ supervised a geophysical survey of the site to determine the amount of subsurface equipment still extant, and successfully lobbied the city council to extend the extent of the protected heritage area. Inconstant project The Inconstant was wrecked on Wellington‟s coast in 1849, and refloated on the coastal edge of the city as a floating warehouse and bond store. The ship was eventually inundated by reclamation and revealed again during refurbishment of the overlying historic buildings in 1996. Archaeologists revealed and recorded the fabric of the ship, some of which remain in situ and on public display. MAANZ members were actively involved in the processing and curating of artefacts from the site (O‟Keeffe 1993). On-going conservation of artefacts on the Hikitia In 1997 MAANZ had opened their dedicated conservation laboratory aboard the Hikitia, one of the two remaining floating cranes in the world. MAANZ converted one of the below decks spaces into a laboratory to conserve objects from maritime archaeological sites. The lab operates on a volunteer basis and is available to conserve objects for the general public and museums. The lab is also a key resource for the association's education and information program. The activities of this avocational body have greatly furthered the development of maritime archaeology in New Zealand. AIMA/NAS courses Six AIMA/NAS courses have been run in New Zealand since 2002. These courses are targeted towards providing recreational divers with basic information about underwater archaeology, site recording and conservation. The first AIMA/NAS Training courses in New Zealand were held in February-March 2002 by Mark Staniforth and Cosmos Coroneos who conducted two Part 1 Training courses at the Museum of City and Sea, Wellington. Three further Part 1 & 2 courses were run in November-December 2008 in Auckland, Wellington and Dunedin. Peter Ross and James Hunter tutored the courses which were facilitated by Department of Conservation and also included input from Otago and Auckland University specialists in underwater photogrammetry and wet wood conservation. In June 2011 a Part 1 course was run in Tauranga by Andy Dodd and Robert Brassey for divers involved in the ssTaupo recording project being coordinated by Shane Wasik. These courses have promoted the field of underwater archaeology to a diverse range of interest groups. �NZHPT shipwreck registrations Shipwreck sites and sites in the coastal marine area have been under represented in New Zealand‟s Historic Places Trust Register. The first ship wreck to be registered was the ssVictory (no.5712), wrecked on the Otago Peninsula in 1861 and registered in 1985. In more recent years new registrations have included the 1881 ssTararua wreck site, cemetery and Waipapa Lighthouse (no.7785) registered 2009, ps1Tasmanian Maid wrecked off New Plymouth in 1868 (no. 9521) and ssAlexandra wrecked off Puke Aruhe in 1865 (no. 9520) both registered in 2010, and the 1878 Hydrabad wreck site at Waitarere Beach (no. 9559) registered 2011. By placing these ships on the Historic Places Trust Register they are provided with a greater level of protection and increased public awareness about these unique sites. Opportunities for the Future New Zealand has a small but active number of technical divers who regularly dive shipwrecks at depths of 40-120 metres. Collaboration with these highly skilled and trained individuals offers the opportunity to investigate shipwrecks that have only been minimally impacted by the actions of divers. Such cooperation has the potential to not only gain valuable information from these archaeological sites but also to establish a principle of custodianship which would help protect these wrecks for future archaeological investigation. Further AIMA/NAS courses for recreational divers in New Zealand could improve diver appreciation of shipwreck conservation and may encourage some people to seek further education in maritime archaeology. It can also be a positive means of promoting a responsible attitude towards wreck diving amongst dive clubs and shops that might see value in promoting the conservation of local shipwreck sites. To date, courses have only been held in a limited number of locations around the country. By ensuring that courses are spread more evenly around New Zealand more divers will be able to attend and become involved in maritime projects. Encouraging archaeology students from Auckland University and the University of Otago with an interest in maritime history and archaeology to attend these courses may also mean more students formally incorporate maritime archaeology into their studies. New Zealand‟s rich maritime heritage includes a tradition of Colonial shipbuilding and repair that is represented in the archaeological record in the form of shipwrecks and other maritime infrastructure. In Australia the archaeological study of Colonial shipbuilding has been a major area of research within the field of maritime archaeology (e.g. see Coroneos 1996; Bullers 2006; O‟Reilly 2007). This research has provided a great deal of information about the construction of early Australian built wooden sailing vessels and the role of shipbuilding in Colonial society. Like Australia the archaeological investigation of shipwrecks and shipbuilding yards 1 paddle steamer �around New Zealand has the potential to significantly increase our understanding of this formative industry and could provide an area for Trans-Tasman research. A notable component of the maritime archaeological record of New Zealand is the presence of ship‟s graveyards which are found within a number of the country‟s harbours. The vessels that make up these graveyards have considerable archaeological value with the potential to offer insights into, not only, propulsion and shipbuilding technologies from the 19th and 20th centuries but also the diversity of craft that plied the waterway of New Zealand. Such archaeological investigations could facilitate the comparison and contrast of abandonment processes in relation to ship‟s graveyards around New Zealand and also with such work undertaken internationally. Conclusions New Zealand has a rich maritime heritage which is evidenced by a range of UCH sites of both Maori and European origin. Unfortunately the underdeveloped nature of maritime archaeology in New Zealand means that this resource suffers from a lack of active management and protection. As such, much of the maritime archaeological work that has taken place in New Zealand has been undertaken by volunteers. It is hoped that by working with such interested parties and collaboration with international researchers will help to provide the impetus for capacity building and the eventual establishment of an effective maritime archaeology program in New Zealand. 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"Deep beginnings", in Dive New Zealand Magazine, Archaeology and the Social History of Ships, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. �Gumbley, W. Johns, D., and Law, G., 2005 Higham, T., and Jones, M., 2004 MAANZ., 1998 MAANZ., 2005 McCarthy, M., 2006 McKinley, J.R., 1977 O‟Keeffe, M., 1993 O‟Reilly, R., 2007 Sale, E.V., 1988 Walton, T., and Keefe, M., 2004 Vossler, M., 2006 Management of wetland archaeological sites in New Zealand, Science for Conservation 246. "Chronology and Settlement", in (eds) L. Furey, and S. Holdaway, Change through time: 50 years of New Zealand Archaeology, NZAA, Monograph 26. Investigation of the wreck of the Hydrabad, The Maritime Archaeological Association of New Zealand, Mahanga Bay Wharf Archaeological Survey. The Maritime Archaeological Association of New Zealand, "Maritime Archaeology in Australasia; Reviews and Overviews", in (eds.) Mark Staniforth and Mike Nash, Maritime Archaeology: Australian Approaches, Springer Science + Business Media Inc, New York. “The New Zealand Historic Places Trust and the laws covering Marine Archaeology in New Zealand:, in (ed.) Jeremy Green, papers from the First Southern Hemisphere Conference on Maritime Archaeology, Australian Sports Publications, Melbourne. "The Inconstant shipwreck Wellington, New Zealand", in Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 23, pp.121126. An assessment of Australian built wooden sailing vessels (constructed between 1850 - 1899) operating the South Australian intrastate trade: methods and materials, Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Monograph Series Number 5. Kelly. The Adventurous Life of Kelly Tarlton, Lee Printing Co, Auckland. "Archaeological Heritage Management", in (eds) L. Furey and S. Holdaway, Change through time: 50 years of New Zealand Archaeology, NZAA, Monograph 26. "Sense of Nonsense? Heritage Legislation in Perspective", in (ed) A. Trapeznik, Common Ground? Heritage and Public Places in New Zealand, University of Otago Press, Dunedin. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime archaeology in New Zealand: trials, tribulations and opportunities Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource New Zealand is an island nation that was initially settled via the sea firstly by Polynesian voyagers and later by a European maritime culture. These two groups traded and traversed in and along the coastline leaving considerable physical evidence of their seafaring ways. Today this maritime past is reflected in more than 2000 shipwrecks as well as numerous canoe landing sites, fish traps, inundated villages and sunken canoes. Despite this wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and a strong legislative base for the protection of archaeological sites, maritime archaeology in New Zealand is significantly underdeveloped with no effective program for the management or protection of UCH. As a consequence the public of New Zealand rarely views shipwrecks and other UCH as sites that need to be protected. This lack of perceived value results in limited funding being available for the investigation or management of maritime archaeological sites and as such developmental pressures, commercial salvage and fossicking continue to damage this non-renewable resource. Although these are major challenges there are still considerable opportunities for underwater archaeology in New Zealand. Increased awareness of underwater cultural heritage can be achieved by engaging the public in various ways such as through Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology/Nautical Archaeology Society (AIMA/NAS) training courses. In addition, the global nature of New Zealand’s maritime trade means that there is enormous scope for international collaboration between researchers at a diverse range of organisations around the world. Such actions would help provide the impetus for capacity building and the eventual establishment of an effective maritime archaeology program in New Zealand. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Matthew Carter Andy Dodd Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8