45 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/02fc270ac7df70e3420f564268028922.pdf f045a845fe19e43e97f0d2b4a9e3cd19 PDF Text Text A Global Shipwreck: Using the Internet for Research, Public Outreach, and Catching up with the Past T. Kurt Knoerl Abstract Over the past few decades historians and archaeologists have moved away from examining their topics from nationalist perspectives but instead have looked for regional connections, such as the Atlantic world. This approach seeks to understand the relationships and influences between people in geographically distant locations. Even this regional approach, however, can be limiting as researchers now trace out global connections which occurred early on in human history. A global perspective reminds us that if we look deep enough we will see that the past, no matter where it occurred, relates to everyone. Chinese porcelains excavated in the Great Lakes region of North America from the eighteenth century, for instance, show us that shipwrecks in Asian waters can be relevant to First Nations people on the other side of the globe in Canada. It has always been so; we just didn’t always know it. The Internet, however, can not only help us teach this fact but can help us find those connections. Online tools have helped bring underwater cultural heritage into the homes of viewers from around the world. Public outreach websites like the Museum of Underwater Archaeology, for example, attract viewers from over 90 countries. This paper will examine how researchers can not only share their findings with a global audience via the Internet but will also highlight the online tools available to conduct research to tease out those global connections and tap into the collaborative nature of social computing. As we utilize the web to forge new cultural connections around the world, we are reminded that those sailing vessels that crossed the seas transporting their cargos in centuries past were doing the very same thing. The more we utilize the Internet to conduct research and share data about underwater cultural heritage the more we will see that each shipwreck we share with the world is truly a global shipwreck. Introduction As a graduate student in underwater archaeology in 1989 I excavated the cove area of a colonial fort located on the Great Lakes in the middle of North America. Thousands of vessels, large and small, had utilized the cove during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to unload their cargos of men and materials traveling either west, deeper into the continent, or east, toward ships that would bear them across oceans. During the 1989 field season we discovered the remains of an eighteenth-century shoreline that contained thousands of artifacts dating primarily from the British occupation period of 1759 to 1796 (Knoerl 1994:123). One of the artifacts we discovered that intrigued me the most was a piece of Chinese porcelain (Figure 1). I wondered who had made it. Could that Chinese artisan, as he removed it from the kiln and prepared it for shipping, have imagined the distance it would travel or picture the cultures through which it would pass and eventually be used? It became evident to me that even here, in a relative backwater of the North American colonies in the mid to late eighteenth-century, there were ties between people half a world apart. Shipping made that possible as it connected hinterlands to port facilities such as wharves, shipyards, merchants, shippers, and sailors. At the end of the voyage the vessels landed at similar maritime landscapes and their goods made their way to the consumer. In this way even segments of society that never even saw �a vessel and were separated by great distances were connected by water. The maritime activities of one region, no matter how seemingly localized, became, through global trade networks, a part of the maritime history of another. Shipwrecks are an important part of world history and as unintended time capsules they illustrate not only the global connections of the past, but through the Internet, they actively participate in today’s networks as well. This paper will argue that by using a modern electronic global network (i.e. the Internet), with its ocean of data and streams of connectivity, we can aid in their preservation through collaborative research and public education. Such an interconnected approach shows that every vessel that ended up on the bottom of the sea is indeed a global shipwreck. Figure 1. Eighteenth century Chinese porcelain excavated at British colonial Fort Niagara, Youngstown, New York USA in 1989 (Photo by author). Imagine a shipwreck. Consider its surroundings, its condition, and its location. What do you see? For many there is a sense of darkness and isolation and that despite being surrounded by water it is no longer in its natural environment on the surface. It would seem that the vessel’s story has come to an end. I would argue, however, that this is a temporary phase and that its story and its travels are not over. There are parallels between a ship’s past working life prior to the wrecking event and its role in the modern world after being rediscovered. After the wrecking event and subsequent discovery the same vessel can, in a sense, travel throughout the world again via the Internet. Its mission has changed, however, from one that was commercial or naval in nature to an educational one. Archaeologists that have recovered information about the web of commercial relationships ships once participated in can use the electronic “ocean” - one comprised of data, routers, high speed bandwidth, and Internet protocols to transport a vessel’s new cargo of information around the world. The �shipwreck no longer seeks safe anchorages in coastal ports but instead searches for access to computers ports. Using the Internet Although underwater archaeologists were not among the early adopters of the Internet some did recognize its potential in the late 1990s (Hall, et al. 1997). The time required to construct websites, the costs incurred, or the expertise needed may have prevented many from moving on to the web. A more fundamental issue was the poor track record underwater archaeology as a field had with regard to setting a high priority on public outreach. Treasure hunting companies were not as reticent and publicized stories about finding gold and riches with a public ensnared by such tales. By 2004 underwater archaeologists began to post their research online through websites like the online Museum of Underwater Archaeology (MUA). Within the last seven years the development of free websites such as Wordpress and the development of social media sites like Facebook have made it much easier to post content online.1 The range of options now available for utilizing the Internet continues to grow as does the number of individuals who can access it. As of August 2011 industry experts estimate that there are over 1 billion websites on the Internet (Netcraft 2011). Many of these websites contain multiple pages further increasing the number of pages of content available A Google search on the term “underwater archaeology” returns over 600,000 websites. The term maritime history returned nearly 4.5 million pages and the term “shipwreck” returned 12.9 million results. There is a veritable ocean of information available online. How then can we as archaeologists and maritime historians best use the Internet to participate and assist in continuing a vessel’s story beyond coming to rest at the bottom of the sea. The answer depends to some extent on what our goals are. Whether it is publishing or conducting research, one has to consider who the intended audience is. This, to a great degree determines what methods should be used. Some digital humanities researchers like David Staley argue for the increased use of visualizations of data and history as a more appropriate means to convey information over the Internet (Staley 2002:3). Utilizing maps, diagrams, and other images may indeed be a better digital publishing strategy for underwater archaeologists considering the visual and spatial nature of the material culture so central to their work. Conversely, digital history pioneers like Daniel Cohen and the late Roy Rosenzweig have called for adhering to prose and suggest that screens will eventually catch up to the human eye (Cohen and Rosenzweig 2005). Indeed since their prediction six years ago several companies have marketed hand held devices touted to be as comfortable to read as printed text. 1 Wordpress is a website that provides free web pages where individuals can post articles or comments on a web log, otherwise known as a blog (http://wordpress.org/). Facebook is a social website where users can post personal information about themselves for view by other selected Facebook members (http://www.facebook.com). �One thing that remains clear, regardless of the presentation style chosen, is the overriding need for researchers to publish something rather than nothing. This inaugural Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, encompassing as it does countries of the Indian and Pacific oceans, covers a large and diverse set of cultures. Yet some commonalities exist including that which impacts all nations regardless of location, namely the scarcity of resources and funding available to dedicate to educational outreach and research. In harkening back to the trade networks and connections that existed prior to the advent of steam navigation in the nineteenth century, we can see a model that can aid not only underwater archaeologists working in the AsiaPacific Region but across the globe. Ships did not operate in a vacuum but rather through cooperative agreements and collaborative projects with other members of the merchant community. Those arrangements allowed vessels to influence the lives of people across the planet. Marine insurance companies, for instance, allowed ship owners to pool their risk and make the most of their resources. While collaborative agreements might sound like an obvious solution to the high costs of online presentations, it is not an option that necessarily comes to mind for some archaeologists. Indeed a small survey conducted by the MUA in 2006 showed that when asked what the best use of the Internet might be, only thirteen percent of underwater archaeologists cited "collaboration" as opposed to the general public who mentioned it forty percent of the time. Also, somewhat surprisingly, the general public was almost twice as likely as professional archaeologists to suggest research as a good use of the Internet. Both groups cited "publishing" most frequently (Knoerl and Watts 2007). I would suggest that these potential uses of publishing, collaboration, and research are not mutually exclusive but that through combining them we can span the distances and differences throughout the Asia-Pacific Region to the mutual benefit of all. While any publishing of research online is desirable and to be commended a collaborative model is particularly useful for making the most of limited resources. Collaborative Models When I speak of collaboration there are numerous groups and means by which to accomplish such projects. First off, by collaboration I mean the sharing of data, resources, and ideas not just with the immediate partners involved but the general public as well. Two organizations may work together but through joint online projects they open their work at nearly all stages to public view and comment so that taken together there can be an almost emergent quality to the outcome. Unintended and unlooked for outcomes can take projects in new directions or result in new research projects previously unimagined. Indeed, although the MUA was conceived of as a collaborative project from the outset its development has been driven to a great degree by the suggestions and happenstance that has come from the three part collaboration of the museum staff, the participant underwater archaeologists, and the viewers. This occurs sometimes by brainstorming ideas directly with the MUA staff but also from an offhand comment, a cited example of some other work, or the unintended end �result of a particular experiment. While not all projects succeed, each effort that does encourages other groups to either participate directly with the MUA or to engage in their own online publishing activity - either way, the amount of ethical underwater archaeological project information that potentially reaches the publiceye increases and counters the romanticized and destructive message of treasure hunters. What follows are a few examples of collaborative projects that sought not only to accomplish that goal but to simultaneously forward underwater archaeology as a field. Perhaps the MUA’s simplest form of collaboration is its publication research by numerous underwater archaeologists. Although this is described in more detail by Michelle Damian’s paper, I will cite one example of the potential benefit of one group working with another.2 In August 2011 the MUA invited Peruvian underwater archaeologist Carlos E. Ausejo to write a guest blog on the website in order to introduce Mr. Ausejo and the present state of Peruvian underwater archaeology to the MUA’s audience (Ausejo 2011). Shortly thereafter a member of the Government Maritime Managers Forum, who had read Mr. Ausejo’s post invited him to join their group.3 Indeed upon learning of the AsiaPacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage through the guest blog I was requested to extend a similar invitation to other government managers in attendance at this conference (Mastone pers. comm. 2011). From one publication intended to educate the public and professional underwater archaeologists about Peru, it’s possible that archaeologists from the Indian and Pacific Oceans may, more frequently, share ideas with their colleagues in North America. In most cases collaborative projects hosted by the MUA are directed primarily at bringing together outside parties with the MUA acting primarily as facilitator. A recent example is the Gray Literature Bibliography Database (The MUA 2011). This project seeks to encourage underwater archaeologists working in local government to share bibliographic information about the numerous site reports that have been generated over the years in response to mitigation and research work required by state or federal laws. Site reports like this contain sensitive location information that is not routinely distributed to the public in order to protect sites from looting yet can be made available to researchers with legitimate research projects. By not making the reports easily available online they become difficult to find, often requiring researchers to travel to the various state libraries to review offline catalogs for each state they are interested in. The Gray Literature Bibliography Database contains the titles, dates, and authors of site reports for several states in one repository along with information on how researchers can gain access to specific documents they wish to read (The MUA 2011). The site contains hundreds of report titles, is searchable across all participating states included in the database, and brings to light the vast resources previously unknown to the public. It will reduce the cost of future work 2 See “Bringing Asia to the World: Public Outreach via the Museum of Underwater Archaeology” by Michelle Damian this volume. 3 The Government Maritime Managers Forum is a network of government managers of underwater cultural heritage at the national, provincial and local levels based in the USA. �by eliminating lost time spent trying to track down what work has already been conducted in the past. This project in particular highlights the power of joining data sets previously kept separate. By allowing for queries across several groups at the same time previously unknown relationships may come to light. Each query then is an act of creation as it generates new information (Manovich 2002:227). Joint online projects between institutions such as museums can also make the most of scarce resources. Birchbark Canoes: A Collaborative Gallery combines images and information about a specific type of indigenous small craft housed in different museums and institutions around the Great Lakes.4 The project apprises both canoe enthusiasts and professional researchers of the number and variety of craft that can be compared for regional variations in construction techniques and design. While the project was not instigated by the various museums involved it has proved to be a cost effective way for them to publicize an aspect of their collection that might otherwise have remained in obscurity. Collaborative projects such as this allow institutions to participate in a larger exhibit of canoes brought together on the Internet that might otherwise be too costly to gather together in one place. In doing so, they increase awareness of their institutions and collections at a fraction of the price. One of the MUA’s most promising collaborative projects involves not only underwater archaeologists but the very general public we wish to engage. In a role reversal of sorts underwater archaeologists can use crowd sourcing to gather data from the general public. Crowd sourcing occurs when large groups of people participate in quickly accomplishing a task that would take individuals or small groups a far longer period. Google used a similar concept developed by computer scientist Dr. Luis von Ahn which used the enormous number of hours people spend online playing games to help accomplish tasks such as labeling images for online searches. The MUA’s Shipwrecks Over Time Project is an experiment in this area by hosting an image gallery of a particular shipwreck and posting a few images online for the public to view.5 The public is then invited to contribute their diving photos of that wreck to the collection. Each participant is credited for their contribution. Images are sorted by the date they are photographed. In this way as the collection grows it becomes a tool for researchers to use to evaluate how shipwrecks change over time. The project taps into a potentially huge volume of images that might otherwise remain hidden. Should the project prove successful it can be used to gather images for other wrecks around the world. Perhaps one of the most unusual collaborative projects facilitated by the MUA involves coordinating the efforts of researchers from different disciplines. In 2009 members of the research team, Bateaux Below, approached the MUA about an art – science initiative that combined the efforts of a cellular biologist, an underwater archaeologist, and a scientific artist. Researchers from the three 4 The Birchbark Canoes: A Collaborative Gallery is under construction as of this writing. Upon completion viewers may reach the site via a link on the MUA homepage: http://www.themua.org. 5 The Shipwrecks Over Time project is under construction as of this writing. Upon completion viewers may reach the site via a link on the MUA homepage http://www.themua.org. �disciplines worked together to study single celled organisms called testate ameba and eighteenth century bateaux both of which can be found at the bottom of Lake George in New York State in the United States6. The artist then recorded her impressions and produced works of art that were displayed in a showing held simultaneously at the Lake George Arts Project gallery in the town of Lake George and on easels at the bottom of the lake from August 25th through September 10th 2009. A permanent digital version of the exhibit was posted online on the MUA. The online launch was one of the most heavily visited exhibits ever posted on the website. Many of the viewers went on to examine other projects on the website as well. In response to the project’s success the MUA recently invited two professional artists to review the hundreds of images posted on the MUA over the last seven years. They evaluated the images in artistic terms to see which ones went beyond pure academic value. They selected three images each, of which they identified ad having artistic merit and published their comments along with their selections. Their comments helped the public see underwater archaeologist’s work in a new light that would not have been available without this cross disciplinary project. Conclusion The projects described above all benefit from the fact they all create and expand networks of support for their participants. Often there are unexpected results that branch-out into additional opportunities for learning, which in turn inspire even more projects. The Internet is an especially powerful tool for doing this because of its exponential growth and deep penetration into nearly every corner of the world. As researchers share the stories they recover from shipwreck data it makes projects seem far less remote. Frequent updates to project journals, public participation through data contributions, and increased ease of access to previously unobtainable data have brought sites closer to millions of viewers. These projects teach the public that the sea connects us all today just as it connected manufacturers and artisans from one continent with consumers on another. As we continue to show the public that all maritime history is connected and is part of the story of human life on this watery planet, hopefully we will nurture a preservation ethic that recognizes that each shipwreck is not strictly part of one nation’s story but of all nations. In being of value to people across cultures and professions they are in fact everyone’s responsibility to protect, study, and share. If each underwater archaeological site is viewed in this way we have the potential to encourage research and assist each other whenever we can regardless of where we live on the planet. The MUA was founded to promote that idea (Knoerl 2006). The reason behind our success over the past seven years can best be summed up by a quote from the late nineteenth and early twentieth century writer on human achievement: Napoleon Hill wrote, “It is literally true that you can succeed best and quickest by helping others to succeed” (Hill 2003:65). I hope that everyone who has come together for this 6 The testate amebas live in the lake’s bottom sediments surrounding the bateaux. The bateaux were purposefully sunk by the British Army during the French and Indian War to avoid capture by the French. �historic inaugural conference will take that idea with them as they return to their home waters to continue their work on the global shipwreck. Bibliography ., Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage in Peru. The Underwater Blogger. Available at: http://muablog.wordpress.com/2011/08/16/maritime-andunderwater-cultural-heritage-in-peru-by-carlos-e-ausejo/ [Accessed September 13, 2011]. Digital History: A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, And Cohen, D.J. and Presenting the Past on the Web, University of Pennsylvania Rosenzweig, R., 2005 Press, Philadelphia. Hall, A., Hall, R., Presenting Archaeology on the Web: The LaSalle Shipwreck Project. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 26, 3, and Arnold, J.B. III, 1997 pp. 247-251. The Law of Success, Vol. 3: The Principles of Self-Creation. Hill, N., 2003 Revised and Updated. High Roads Media. About the MUA. Available at: Knoerl, T.K., 2006 http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/about.html [Accessed September 13, 2011]. Beneath Niagara: A Methodological Approach to an Inundated Knoerl, T.K., Eighteenth-Century Site, MA Thesis, East Carolina University, 1994 Greenville, N.C. Knoerl, T.K. and Swimming in the Cyber Oceans: Underwater Archaeology and the Internet. The 40th Annual Conference on Historical and Watts, G.P. Jr., Underwater Archaeology, Williamsburg, VA. 2007 The Language of New Media. Reprint. The MIT Press, Manovich L., 2002 Cambridge, MA. Gray Literature Bibliography Database. Available at: The Museum of Underwater http://www.themua.org/collections/ [Accessed September 5, Archaeology 2011]. 2011 Web Server Survey .Available at: Netcraft 2011 http://news.netcraft.com/archives/category/web-server-survey/ [Accessed September 5, 2011]. Computers, Visualization, and History: How New Technology Staley, D.J., Will Transform Our Understanding of the Past. M.E. Sharpe. 2002 Ausejo, Carlos E. 2011 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Global Shipwreck: Using the Internet for Research, Public Outreach, and Catching up with the Past Subject The topic of the resource Session 10: Technology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Over the past few decades historians and archaeologists have moved away from examining their topics from nationalist perspectives but instead have looked for regional connections, such as the Atlantic world. This approach seeks to understand the relationships and influences between people in geographically distant locations. Even this regional approach, however, can be limiting as researchers now trace out global connections which occurred early on in human history. A global perspective reminds us that if we look deep enough we will see that the past, no matter where it occurred, relates to everyone. Chinese porcelains excavated in the Great Lakes region of North America from the eighteenth century, for instance, show us that shipwrecks in Asian waters can be relevant to First Nations people on the other side of the globe in Canada. It has always been so; we just didn’t always know it. The Internet, however, can not only help us teach this fact but can help us find those connections. Online tools have helped bring underwater cultural heritage into the homes of viewers from around the world. Public outreach websites like the Museum of Underwater Archaeology, for example, attract viewers from over 90 countries. This paper will examine how researchers can not only share their findings with a global audience via the Internet but will also highlight the online tools available to conduct research to tease out those global connections and tap into the collaborative nature of social computing. As we utilize the web to forge new cultural connections around the world, we are reminded that those sailing vessels that crossed the seas transporting their cargos in centuries past were doing the very same thing. The more we utilize the Internet to conduct research and share data about underwater cultural heritage the more we will see that each shipwreck we share with the world is truly a global shipwreck Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource T. Kurt Knoerl Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 10 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0bcaa6a4fbff3cc85187fa646e41d65c.pdf cf7829962d072ed65d8cc003e45a353d PDF Text Text Human Resources Development in Indonesia's Underwater Archaeology Judi Wahjudin Abstract The Indonesian archipelago position is located in a very strategic position at the crossroads of world maritime trade between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. According to archaeological and historical research, there is evidence that Indonesia has had a maritime nautical culture since prehistoric times. Some evidence of Indonesian maritime cultural civilization can still be found scattered on the ocean floor, including approximately 463 ancient ship location points according to data from the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, which is the Indonesian government agency that handles the field of culture, now has approximately 80 staff divers. Only a fraction of that number have competence in the field of underwater archaeology, so it is necessary to improve the knowledge and skills, not only in the field of diving but also the ability to conduct surveys, mapping, data recording excavation, and conservation. In the last five years, efforts to increase human resources in underwater archaeology in Indonesia continue to be done through various education and training, whether conducted in Indonesia or abroad facilitated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), such as in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. The effort is certainly not optimal and systematic, so it is necessary to develop appropriate strategies both in quantity and quality. Indonesia needs an underwater archaeological development centre that will prepare a teaching module, instructor, certification and partnerships (networking), as well as supporting facilities and infrastructure. Through this institution we can expect human resources of underwater archaeologists to have the following abilities: (1) diving, (2) various regulations relating to underwater cultural heritage, (3) development of management plans, and recording and documenting sites, (4) procedures, methods, principles and ethics of underwater archaeology, (5) artifact conservation and storage, (6) traditional knowledge, and (7) publications and exhibitions. In the last five years we have implemented several training programs to further underwater archaeology in Indonesia where participants have acquired skills in diving, survey and conservation. More skills would greatly empower Indonesians in managing their underwater cultural heritage, particularly at an advanced underwater archaeology theory and practice level. Introduction Indonesia as an archipelago has a vast territory that stretches from 95 ° to 141 ° East Longitude and between 60 ° N latitude and 110 ° LS. The total area of the Indonesian Exclusive Economic Zone's marine waters are approximately 7.9 million square kilometers (km2). When calculated, the length of the beach that surrounds the entire archipelago was recorded at approximately 81,000 km, and the number of people living in coastal areas are more than 40 million. Based on existing data on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS '82), Indonesia covers an area of waters of the ocean area covering 3.1 million km2, which consists of the archipelagic waters and an area of 2.8 million km2 of sea area covering 0.3 million km2. The position of Indonesia is as a very strategic island nation, which is located at the crossroads between lanes of traffic and world trade, between the Pacific and Indian Ocean (Pramono 2005:2). Based on Djoko Pramono's (2005: 3-6) study of archeology and history, there is evidence that the nation of Indonesia since prehistoric times has been �recorded in the nautical culture sailboat paintings found in prehistoric caves in the rock islands of Muna, Seram, and Arguni which are estimated to have been made in the year 10 000 BC. On the note of historical development of culture Nusantara civilization later found various kingdoms in the archipelago that has the basic maritime cultural values, such as the Kingdom of Sriwijaya and Majapahit Kingdom. Srivijaya kingdom was based on mastery of the political kingdom lanes and trade routes and control of strategic areas that are used as a base power of the sea. Majapahit kingdom established in the region Pull Raden Wijaya, the Brantas River near Port Canggu Sea (now in the eastern city of Mojokerto). Majapahit are renowned for their strength and fame as a maritime empire. Majapahit's political strategy was to unify the archipelago under his rule and prioritize the construction of a formidable navy. Maritime policy of the strong Majapahit had been confirmed in Amukti Palapa Oath of Gadjah Mada Mahapatih that essentially wanted to unite the whole archipelago under the Majapahit. At present most evidence of Indonesia's maritime culture peak is still scattered on the ocean floor, including sunken ships and cargo. According to data from the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. There are around 463 points of known ancient ship locations based on information from: Chinese historians, in the tenth - twentieth centuries around thirty thousand Chinese ships sailed into the territory of Indonesia but did not return; and archives in the Netherlands, which hold records of 245 Verenidge Oost Compagnie (VOC) ships sunk in Indonesian waters (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2011). These data must be verifiable by conducting surveys and field mapping conducted by staff who are professionals in the field of underwater archeology. The Indonesian government institution in-charge of culture, namely the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, currently has approximately eighty divers. Only a fraction of that number have competences in the field of underwater archeology, so it needs to improve knowledge and skills, not just in the diving but also the ability to conduct surveys, mapping, excavation data recording, and conservation. The government of Indonesia has made efforts to increase human resources in the field of underwater archeology through various education and training programs. Facilitated by UNESCO these programs have occurred within Indonesia and abroad, such as in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. The effort is certainly not optimal and systematic, so it needs proper human resources (HR) development strategies both in quality and quantity. For that Indonesia needs to development a center in underwater archeology. This institute will prepare teaching modules, instructors, certification and hierarchy, partnerships (networking), as well as supporting facilities and infrastructure. Through this institution it is expected that successful HR will entail the following:  have knowledge and skills of diving,  understand the various regulations related to Underwater Cultural Heritage (locally, nationally, and internationally),  understand and be able to create a management plan and site plan, � understand and be able to implement procedures, methods, basic principles and ethics of underwater archeology,  understand and are able to conserve, document. manage and store  publications and public outreach, such as: exhibitions and mass media (print and electronic). In the last five years, the Government of Indonesia has conducted training programs gradually and continuously to improve HR in the field of underwater archeology, but this is still limited due to the need to improve skill and abilities in the field of diving, survey, and conservation. A rich maritime Archaeological resource Indonesian waters have become a graveyard of ships from ancient times. Based on data from the Directorate of Underwater Heritage (2010) estimated there were 1234 ships sunk, and until now only 463 known location. Referring to these data, the government of Indonesia has conducted surveys in several locations. Tables 1 and 2 provide the details of when and where the survey has occurred, as well as what was found and at what depth. Table 1. Survey Data (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU* YEAR 1 2006 2 2006 3 2007 4 2008 5 2009 6 2009 7 2009 8 2009 9 2009 10 2010 11 2010 12 2010 13 2010 14 2010 LOCATION Selayar, South Sulawesi Barang Lompo, South Sulawesi Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatera Sagori, Buton, Southeast Sulawesi Nangka Islands, Bangka Belitung Wayame, Ambon Bay Lembe straits, Bitung, North Sulawesi North Halmahera, North Molucas Tidore, North Molucas Genting Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Seruni Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Kemojan Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Parang Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Kumbang Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java DEEP FINDING 21 m Chinese ship 32 m Japanese ship 22 – 28 m Iron ship 7m VOC ship 28 m Iron ship 17 – 35 m Aquila ship 20 – 28 m War ship (Mawali) 3-7m Tosimaru ship 50 m Iron ship 2m ceramics 10 m Iron ship 15 m Indonor ship 34-38 m Timber ship 2-13 m Iron ship �15 2010 16 2010 17 2010 Taka Manyawakan Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Geleang Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Menjangan Kecil Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java 3-9 m Iron ship 48 m Timber ship 28-30 m Timber ship Table 2. The survey by the National Committee (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU YEAR LOCATION 1 2004 Tegal Waters, Central Java 2 2004 Cirebon Waters, West Java 3 2005 Sumpat Bay, North Bintan 4 2005 Natuna Waters, Thousand Islands 5 2005 Maspari Waters, South Sumatera 6 2006 Selayar Waters, South Sulawesi 7 2007 Karang Baginda, South Bangka 8 2007 Karimata Waters, West Kalimantan 9 2008 Karang Baginda, South Bangka 10 2008 Tanjung Menjangan, South Sumatera 11 2008 Cermin coast, North Sumatera 12 2008 Belitung Waters, East Belitung 13* 2008 Mandalika Waters, Jepara Central Java 14* 2008 Kerawang Waters, West Java 15 2009 Gelasa strait, Bangka Belitung 16 2009 Subang Waters, West Java 17 2010 Bangka Belitung Waters Survey activities conducted by the Directorate of Underwater Heritage, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, (see Table 1) helped to establish a framework of cultural resource preservation potential under water. If the survey has significant value to science, history and culture, then the existence of such sites must be preserved and protected by the Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2010 on Heritage Act, which was published to replace the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects. Meanwhile, the survey by the National Committee Appointment and Use of Valuable Cargo Ships Sink origin (see Table 2) was performed in order to determine the potential of underwater cultural resources for the sake of exploration. If the survey results have indicated high economic value, then they were followed up with the activities of the appointment. National Committee Appointment and Use of Valuable Cargo Ships Sink origin was established by Presidential Decree. 43 of �1998. Under this rule, the appointment must first be selected for the collection of State and deposited at the museum. The rest can be traded and resulting income partly added to the state treasury. Since the opening of the first appointment until the last, there have been no sales activity in which the results benefit the Government of Indonesia. The appointment of activities that have been done are as follows. Table 3. Removal of Ceramic Data (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU LOCATION THE NUMBER OF TILES 1 Crocodile Islands, Riau 16.031 2 Batu Hitam, Belitung and Tuban 10.757 3 Thousands Islands (Eks Intan Cargo) 664 4 Blanakan Islands, Subang, West Java 13.590 5 Karimata Bay (Karang Cina) 31.029 6 Java Sea, North Cirebon 271.834 7 Karang Heliputan Waters,. Riau 21.521 8 Sumpat Bay, Riau 15.461 9 Java Sea, North Karawang 14.814 10 Java Sea, North Karawang 6.442 11 East Belitung Waters 34.680 12 Ujung Waters , Pamanukan 18.469 13 Gelasa Strait, Bangka Belitung 32.150 14 Jepara, Central Java 328 Total 487.770 The magnitude of the potential of underwater cultural resources in Indonesia attract many foreign and local businessmen. They assume the archeological remains under water are a treasure trove of unknown owners. Underwater Cultural Heritage Management of underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia has not been done optimally. This condition is caused by several things, as follows:  Harmony between some regulations related to the handling of UCH. Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects was formed to mandate the use of education, science, culture, religion, and tourism; while the Presidential Decree No 43 of 1998 on the National Committee for Salving and Exploiting Valuable Objects Retrieved from Shipwreck gives permission for exploitation activities of UCH for monetary �reward. Institutionally, there are several government organizations that are not synergistic in the management of UCH. For example: the government agency in charge of culture and environmental conservation prioritize aspects of sustainability, while the government agency in charge of fisheries and maritime affairs, as well as local governments, prioritize commercial use. Efforts have been made the rectify these inconsistencies by the Government of Indonesia in the recently issued Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2010 on Heritage, in lieu of the Republic of Indonesia Law No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects. In which law? (Article 1, point 1), "the cultural heritage that is protected by law is not only the land but also in the water (including under water)". In addition it is also mentioned in (Article 1, point 33) that, "its use should still maintain its sustainability". Mandate of this law in accordance with the UNSCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in particular related to the Annex of the general principles (rule 1) which states, "in situ conservation is a priority", and (rule 2) that, "the UCH can not be bought and sold as commercial goods, nor be of other uses that could undermine its sustainability".  Community understanding of the responsibilities and mandate of the Underwater Heritage Directorate is still limited. The high level of violations on UCH indicates that the level of understanding about the importance and variety of regulations have not been socialized with optimal management, so various efforts need to be done to improve it. The Government of Indonesia has been working with stakeholders (government agencies, universities, museums, and community). It has conducted various activities both in the form of exhibitions and publication.  More synergy in the management programs on UCH among government agencies, academia, and society. The Government of Indonesia is working to improve coordination and cooperation with various parties. Our more successful improvement of HR competencies in the field of underwater archeology have been through collaboration with universities and professional divers. 1) Mapping and survey have been done in cooperation with the Coordinating Agency for Surveys and Mapping, Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesian University, Hasanuddin University, Gadjah Mada University, Diponegoro University, and fishing communities. 2) Protection of UCH has been coordinated through cooperation with the Ministry of Forestry, the Navy (Indonesian Military), Local Governments, and the fishing communities. 3) Public awareness involves cooperation amongst museums, mass media, local government, and society.  Our HR competence in the field of underwater archeology is still limited. Until recently the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, particularly in institutions that deal with UCH, has a total diver count at 87 people: consisting of level 1 (42 people), level 2 (37 people), and level 3 (8 people) . 30 persons of the divers �are trained in underwater archeology. Likewise, the equipment for underwater archeology is still limited to the diving equipment and some survey tools, documentation, and conservation. To enhance human resource capacity in the field of underwater archeology Government of Indonesia since 2006 has conducted various training initiatives (see table 4). It also collaborates with several universities in Indonesia and sent several people to follow the Underwater Cultural Heritage Training, UNESCO. Table 4. Training Activities Data (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU YEAR 1 2006 2 2007 3 2008 4 2008 5 2009 6 TRAINING PARTICIPANTS 26 2009 Diving Underwater Archaeology Excavation Underwater Archaeology Photography Conservation Underwater Archaeology Photography Ship Identification 7 2010 Diving 16 8 2010 Conservation 25 27 20 25 15 15 In 2012 the Directorate of Underwater Heritage is working on realizing the concept of establishing a formal training center for underwater archeology in Indonesia. Underwater Archaeology Training Center In 2011 the Government of Indonesia is preparing the establishment of the Underwater Archaeology Training Center (Training Center) aimed at improving the ability of archaeologist and conservationist personnel in the handling of UCH. The Training Center is expected to generate HR who not only have the capabilities in the protection of UCH, such as data recording, conservation, and case study management but who are also capable of conducting activities towards the development and information sharing for the benefit of society. Specifically, people who can work on development activities through research programs, publications and exhibitions. Public awareness could be more engaging through cooperation with educational institutions and tourism. This is due to the fact that UCH has a value of history, science, and culture. It can be studied by research and education institutions, as well as having recreational value and the draw of adventure. All these activities still have to prioritize conservation so that sustainability is maintained The framework plan for the establishment of the Training Center include: �a. Subject Matter and Trainers Course subject matter being prepared is not only related to diving and underwater archeology, but includes material about the various regulations concerning the protection of UCH. The course subjects under consideration include: management and site plans, nautical-architecture, history, anthropology, museology, and publications. b. Participants' Criteria The minimum criteria for people to participate are that they must be able-bodied, have interest in the development of knowledge and skills in UCH and its preservation, and are actively working in the field of the protection of UCH. The criteria should be determined carefully so that the output of the training is in accordance with the principle of 'the right man on the right place', so it can improve performance in the field of the preservation of UCH. c. Equipment and Accommodation The equipment must be prepared not only to support practical activities (such as diving, survey, excavation, removal, documentation, and conservation) but also include data processing equipment, transportation, and communications. Accommodation for the various needs of the Training Center need to be prepared including: classrooms, laboratories, equipment rooms, data processing space, artifacts storage space, teaching rooms, and dormitories. d. Education Level and Time Level and time for training is being arranged. Given the output of this training is focused on the development of skills, the time will be focused largely on practical field training than on classroom learning. e. Location Location must be strategic for accessibility and security. The criteria for location includes access to convenient transportation, close to the various supporting agencies (such as museums, research institutes, hospitals, navy, and rescue teams), not far from underwater archaeological sites. Thus the participants can practice on site. Conclusions Territory waters of Indonesia have UCH rich and valuable for science, history, and culture, so its existence must be protected and utilized for various purposes that are not in conflict with sustainability. For that we need regulatory harmonization efforts coordinated under the Underwater Heritage Directorate management, so there are no rules that overlap or contradict each other. Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2010 on Heritage expressly states that cultural heritage protected by law includes UCH. When working with this valuable material we must always consider the �best method to ensure its sustainability. This is in accordance with the 2001 Convention, in particular, to the Annex which gives priority to conservation in situ and bans commercial sale of objects. We aim to improve networking among stakeholders, both domestically and abroad, in the form of cooperation programs in the field of human resource capacity building, provision of equipment underwater archeology, dissemination and publication, as well as monitoring and securing the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Regulation and networking will not run properly without the support of competent HR. For that we have increased efforts towards HR in the field of UCH management according to the needs and potential of UCH in Indonesia. The establishment of a training center is our method to increase capacity building in HR specialized in the field of underwater archeology who have the ability to protect, develop and utilize the UCH based on principles of conservation and for the overall benefit of society. Bibliography Directorate of Directorate of Underwater Archaeology Profile, Directorate Underwater General of History and Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Archaeology and Tourism, Jakarta (not yet published) 2011 Law of The Republic of Indonesia Number 11 of The Year Ministry of 2010 Concerning items of Cultural Property Cultural and Tourism 2010 Budaya Bahari, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. Pramono, D., 2005 Convention on The Protection of The Underwater Cultural UNESCO Heritage 2001 Presidential Decree No. 43 of 1989 on the National Presidential Committee for Salving and Exploiting Valuable Objects Decree No. 43, Retrieved from Shipwreck 1989 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Human Resources Development in Indonesia's Underwater Archaeology Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource The Indonesian archipelago position is located in a very strategic position at the crossroads of world maritime trade between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. According to archaeological and historical research, there is evidence that Indonesia has had a maritime nautical culture since prehistoric times. Some evidence of Indonesian maritime cultural civilization can still be found scattered on the ocean floor, including approximately 463 ancient ship location points according to data from the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, which is the Indonesian government agency that handles the field of culture, now has approximately 80 staff divers. Only a fraction of that number have competence in the field of underwater archaeology, so it is necessary to improve the knowledge and skills, not only in the field of diving but also the ability to conduct surveys, mapping, data recording excavation, and conservation. In the last five years, efforts to increase human resources in underwater archaeology in Indonesia continue to be done through various education and training, whether conducted in Indonesia or abroad facilitated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), such as in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. The effort is certainly not optimal and systematic, so it is necessary to develop appropriate strategies both in quantity and quality. Indonesia needs an underwater archaeological development centre that will prepare a teaching module, instructor, certification and partnerships (networking), as well as supporting facilities and infrastructure. Through this institution we can expect human resources of underwater archaeologists to have the following abilities: (1) diving, (2) various regulations relating to underwater cultural heritage, (3) development of management plans, and recording and documenting sites, (4) procedures, methods, principles and ethics of underwater archaeology, (5) artifact conservation and storage, (6) traditional knowledge, and (7) publications and exhibitions. In the last five years we have implemented several training programs to further underwater archaeology in Indonesia where participants have acquired skills in diving, survey and conservation. More skills would greatly empower Indonesians in managing their underwater cultural heritage, particularly at an advanced underwater archaeology theory and practice level. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Judi Wahjudin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1583f3f86fb152a40307a20678be80f2.pdf 4e827215d6b0475416524a37d43c96b3 PDF Text Text An Advocacy Approach on Underwater Heritage in Indonesia, Case Study: An auction on underwater heritage from Cirebon waters in 2010 Jhohannes Marbun1 Abstract Despite the country’s assertion about its ancient, international history and its diverse culture, there are many cases in Indonesia where some cultural heritage objects are under the threat of ignorance of both the people and the government. Various sites and/or artifacts are damaged or lost due to infrastructure development, or being looted to be sold to some collectors or goes out to some auction houses abroad. A Bill was issued in 1992 to manage this situation, and recently (2011) another bill was issued to put a more severe punishment and to put a more relevant context toward this matter, but so far these seem to be ineffective. No one was ever punished for any crimes regarding this matter. Based on experience mentioned above, an advocacy for the law deemed necessary to preserve and protect the nation’s cultural heritage, including its underwater cultural heritage. In 2010 treasures were surfaced from a shipwreck on Cirebon waters. The treasure went to an international auction, committed by the government of Indonesia, and actively monitored by the media, activists, and the community in general. The government supported looting and auction could start a through advocacy for preserving and protecting underwater cultural heritage. Some clues include: prohibition for local fishermen to come near the area, permissions improperly issued for international divers around the shipwreck, a Presidential Decree issued against a higher law (Act No. 5 Year 1992 on Cultural Heritage), and the auction itself which disrespects the artifacts status as a cultural heritage. This experience can become a precedent for advocating a better policy and enforcement toward preserving and protecting underwater cultural heritage, particularly in Indonesia. Keywords: advocacy, Indonesia, preservation and protection of cultural heritage, policy. Introduction Advocacy is a way or a systematic and organized strategy to influence and push the gradual changes in public policy-forward involving a variety of strategies including lobbying, campaigns, creating coalitions, creating pressures through mass action, as well as research (Insist Pers 2002). Various strategies and forms of advocacy have been conducted as part of efforts to strengthen the bargaining position of advocate side in their effort to make a deal with regulators so that the policies resulted have sense of justice. Advocacy is also an effort to defend parties who are harmed by authorities so that a proper balance and fairness in society can be reached. Advocacy approach is very useful in order to encourage a policy that is oriented to the preservation of cultural heritage, as well as a vehicle for public awareness at the community level. This is an important thing to 1 The Coordinator of Society for Cultural Heritage Advocacy, (MADYA, Masyarakat Advokasi Warisan Budaya), joe_marbun@yahoo.com �do as the complexity of preservation of cultural heritage management issues in Indonesia are either with underwater cultural heritage (UCH) or cultural heritage in general and involve stakeholders such as government, business/private sector, and society. Masyarakat Advokasi Warisan Budaya (MADYA) had started to implement an advocacy approach by conducting the first public discussion with the theme, "Pannas BMKT: Solution or Euphoria?" It was conducted at the Centre for Asia Pacific Studies of Universitas Gadjah Mada in Yogyakarta on September 12th, 2009. The discussion and results were published by local newspapers and via online media (Ulum 2009). Coverage through the online media was very effective to consolidate the ideas or concepts of the campaign of UCH preservation. This had become one of the triggers encouraging other communities to conduct similar advocacy such as the Consortium for Rescuing National Assets (KPAB, Konsorsium Penyelamat Aset bangsa) has implemented the concepts by trying to reveal illegal cases that have surfaced on the UCH in Ujung Pamanukan West Java, as will be described below. The Potentials of UCH in Indonesia Geographical location of Indonesia which is located between two continents, Asia and Australia, and two oceans, the Pacific and Indian oceans, has put this country into a main traffic of international trade since ancient times until the present time. As most of its territory are waters, there has been a lot of shipwrecks containing valuable goods in Indonesian waters; they are valuable not only for Indonesian history but also for world history as well. They are important as a clue for reconstructing maritime inter-connection, international relations, migrations, and globalizations in past time. Besides that, they also have high economic value due to their nature as trade and diplomatic goods of the past. According to the Ministry of Ocean and Fisheries, there are roughly 700800 potential shipwrecks located in Indonesia, 463 locations are positively identified. Below is the list of the number and locations of shipwrecks in Indonesia: Table 1. The Location of Shipwreck Treasure in Indonesia (Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Research Department, Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries of Republic of Indonesia) Amount of ID Territorial/Location shipwrecks at No. Location 1. Bangka Strait 7 2. Belitung 9 3. Gaspar Strait, South Sumatera 5 4. Karimata Strait 3 5. Riau Waters 17 6. Malaka Strait 37 7. Seribu Archipelago 18 �8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Perairan Jawa Tengah Waters Karimun Jawa, Jepara Madura Strait NTB/NTT Port of Ratu Makasar Strait Cilacap Waters, Central Java Arafuru Waters, Maluku Ambon Waters, Buru Halmahera Waters, Tidore Morotai Waters Bay of Tomini, North Sulawesi Irian Jaya Enggano Archipelago Total 9 14 5 8 134 8 51 57 13 16 7 3 31 11 463 The origins of shipwrecks in Indonesia waters are varied. These shipwrecks generally were coming from China, Asian countries and European countries such as the Dutch Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), England, France and Spain. These ships were sunk near the main route of trade or harbor at that time. Some of them carried valuable goods such as various types of ceramics, coins, statues and figurines, gold, silver, gems, diamond, and Other objects such as merchandise or for a gift of special items. They are artifacts with high economic value which attracts both domestic and foreign looters. There are some shipwrecks, however, that their economic values are low or have no economic values but contain great values for science due to the historical information they encapsulate. For archaeologists such shipwrecks are important but they are not too important for the treasure hunters. Treasure Hunt: Indonesian Problems Based on data from Kompas Information Center cited by Yurnaldi (2010) in his article Bermitra dengan Media Massa untuk Sosialisasikan Warisan Budaya Bawah Air it is known that illegal hunting of UCH in Indonesia has existed at least since 1965. The first article by Kompas about this problem titled Pemburu Harta Karun was published on August 24th 1965. Five months later Kompas published again about this problem in an article titled Harta Karun Terpendam di Dasar Lautan. The next period of illegalities that surfaced concerning shipwreck treasure in Indonesia was in 1985. In that year Michael Hatcher, an Australian and international salvage diver, conducted an illegal removal in Karang Heloputan, Riau Islands and reaped huge benefit. Hatcher continued his action on early January 2001 in Ternate-Tidore waters collaborating with PT Tuban Oceanic Research and Recovery. On October 2004, PT Marindo Alam Internusa (MAI) requested survey permission for legally surfaced objects to be sent to the National Committee for the Salvage and Utilization of Valuable Objects from �Sunken Ships (PANNAS BMKT, Panitia Nasional Pengangkatan dan Pemanfaatan Barang Asal Muatan Kapal yang Tenggelam). In the letter the name of Michael Hatcher was written as the leader of the survey, attached with his working document. However, when PANNAS BMKT rechecked the document it was full of tricky (Marbun 2009: 2). Consolidating for Advocacy On April 20, 2010 the Consortium for Rescuing National Assets (KPAB, Konsorsium Penyelamat Aset Bangsa), conducted a limited meeting, a Focus Group Discussion, in Jakarta to analyze the problems and to plan an advocacy action to the illegal activities involving foreign parties, especially Hatcher cases. Based on their reports and data KPAB convicted Hatcher and his syndicate to have committed violations of law in Indonesian waters, especially for their activities in Java Sea waters. The legal basis KPAB used was Presidential Decree of Republic of Indonesia number 19 Year 2007; in conjunction with (Juncto) Presidential Decree of Republic of Indonesia number 12 Year 2009 about the National Committee for the Salvage and Utilization of Valuable Objects from Sunken Ships. In article 2 paragraph (1) of the Presidential Decree of Republic of Indonesia number 12 Year 2009, it is described that, “BMKT is an object owned by Republic of Indonesia and managed by the government”. It means that all BMKT wealth is controlled by the state and administered by the government so that all activities of private/business entities that do not obtain permission from the government are unlawful (illegal). The KPAB noted some illegal activities by Hatcher in Indonesian waters, as follow:  The surfaced artifacts on 1986 of VOC shipwreck Vec De Geldermalsen (sunk around 1751), in Bintan Timur waters, Riau Islands Province,. The value is at United States of America (US) $ 15,000,000 and the historical values lost because of the illegal removal are invaluable. The artifacts surfaced were 100 bars of gold and 20,000 ceramics of Ming and Ch’ing dynasties. It was published in a book titled The Nangking Kargo (1987).  The surfaced artifacts in Tek Sing shipwreck in Bangka Islands waters, South Sumatera in 1999 with value at Indonesian Rupiah (Rp) 500,000,000,000 and cultural value which is invaluable. Hatcher collaborated with PT Pratama Cakrawala Dirga in doing the illegal activity. The Indonesian government found out about the looting after 43 containers of artifacts surfaced from Tek Sing Ship had arrived in Australia. The information delivered from the customs and excise institution of Australia in 2000 before the valuable things were brought to the auction in Germany (the interview with Bambang Budi Utomo: 2009; see also KPAB: 2010).  From November 2008 to June 2009 it was believed that Hatcher came back to Indonesia and did illegal activity. On June 2009 he published the Catalog of Investment Opportunity Document of Ming Dynasty Porcelain and BMKT CD to international public with sample of porcelain surfaced by him from the shipwreck in North Cirebon waters, Blanakan, Subang regency, West Java. �His activities were illegal because he had not obtained a work permit as a surveyor/researcher recommended by Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia). On the other hand, survey permission of UCH Removal issued by the PANNAS BMKT was just on August 11, 2009 with No. B.435/MEN-KP/VII/2009, while the surfaced permission was on November 25, 2009 with No. B.666/MEN-KP/XI/2009. The permission was given to PT Comexindo Usaha Mandiri. Hatcher activities had been detected by PANNAS BMKT. The indication came from a letter of PANNAS BMKT secretary II on February 5 th, 2010, and letter from main military station of Indonesian navy III in Cirebon on March 22 nd, 2010 delivered to chairman of PANNAS BMKT. Figure 1. Hatcher dive to do a survey and held UCH in Bintan Timur Waters, Riau Islands Province on 2002 (resources: MADYA) The Performance of PANNAS BMKT The National Committee for the Salvage and Utilization of Valuable Objects from Sunken Ships (PANNAS BMKT) was established on August 14 th, 1989 based on Presidential Decree of Republic of Indonesia No. 43 Year 1989 as a response to illegal surfaced activities of Underwater Heritage done by Hatcher in 1985 in Riau waters. The Indonesian government seemed to realize that shipwrecks and the valuable goods spread in Indonesian waters are valuable state assets needed to be managed as well so that they can be beneficial to Indonesia. However, there are some problems faced by PANNAS BMKT in managing the Indonesian Underwater Heritage. Some of these are:  In the tender system the third party has an interest to obtain maximum profit from the sale of UCH objects. On the other hand, the government, especially the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, also has interests to save the objects of �high historical, scientific and cultural values. Another stakeholder is Local Government. With Act No. 32 Year 2004 they have the rights to receive distribution of profits from the auction of UCH objects from their territory (as is the case in Cirebon from 2004 to 2005). Conflict can occur between employers and government because every object containing very high historical value would be valued very expensive. Expensive prices are expected by employers but on the other side it should not be sold because of the high historical value.  Conflicts of interest in PANNAS BMKT relate to the utilization of UCH. There are interests of making the UCH objects an economic commodity. On the other hand there are interests of preserving the historical and cultural values. These problems affect the decision to ratify the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention). The rise of illegal treasure hunt in Indonesian waters shows that the government still has no good intentions in preserving the cultural heritage. One of the examples was the government planning to auction the UCH objects surfaced from Cirebon waters on May 2010. Public had opposed the auction and the results was that no one was ant longer interested to buy the objects. After the failure of the auction, there has been no official statement from the government related to the steps to be taken.  The committee of PANNAS BMKT has become a prosperous arena for corruption and manipulative activity with the presence of law enforcement officers such as police, army and prosecutors. The law enforcement agencies should remain neutral in the management of State assets. They have an obligation, whether requested or not, to oversee and secure any unlawful action. In regards to public demands to arrest Michael Hatcher and bring him to court, the Police of the Republic of Indonesia did just block him. Communities are looking forward to decisive action the Government to end the international mafia adventure treasure hunter. In addition, the government can conduct real steps to manage the underwater cultural heritage so that it can be useful for science and public welfare. Paradigm of UCH Utilization From problems described above the following can be concluded about the condition of underwater cultural heritage preservation in Indonesia:  Government lacks attention on underwater heritage  Handling of law violations tend to not complete  Coordination of inter-institutions is not yet solid  Law enforcement is not optimal and now more complex because it must deal with the conventions and international laws  Surfaced UCH objects can not simultaniously benefit financially as well as for culture. �In the context of the nation’s wealth, the utilization of underwater heritage to cultural and economic interests cannot be separated. The utilization merely for economic interest without concerns towards cultural interests are an action with narrow paradigms that are focused on short economic benefit and not for the future generations (Arif Budiman pers. comm. 2010). One of achievements and great works of archaeological institutions in the protection and preservation of cultural heritage is the preservation of Borobudur Temple. It is one of the seven wonders of the world and is still an endless benefit to science, history, culture and economy for Indonesian people and world community. Many communities such as hawkers, food stalls, hotel entrepreneurs, taxi drivers and others benefit from the tourism around the Temple. This historic site is even one of the big foreign exchange producers. It also occurs at underwater archaeological sites such as Tulamben site in Bali where the Liberty ship belonging to the US Navy from World War II sunk. This site has attracted many tourists. This situation can be perceived by anyone and can continue to impact future generations. Decree of President of Republic of Indonesia Number 19 Year 2007 in conjunction with Decree of President of Republic of Indonesia Number 12 Year 2009 has become a reference for the PANNAS BMKT to perform legal acts of UCH management, as opposed to Act No. 5 Year 1992 on Heritage objects which it is hoped can be terminated immediately. The birth of Act No. 11 Year 2010 on Cultural Heritage to replace the Act No. 5 Year 1992 is hoped to become a bridge in managing the nation’s cultural heritage, including underwater heritage. Conclusion Public policy advocacy in the cultural sector is expected to encourage the participation of communities to preserve cultural heritage and encourage governments to be more transparent and able to act as facilitators in the nation’s cultural heritage preservation. In the future, UCH may be managed properly by a professional and independent institution. Especially for the management of UCH there are some things to note:  Research and disclosure of evidence of the Underwater Heritage/Shipwreck need to be conducted intensively so that it can be added to efforts in the development of understanding of history, science, and culture as well as the development, preservation, and utilization to advance the national culture for people`s prosperity. The management should not solely be exploited by economic interest. Economic interests that are too big in the management of cultural heritage has proven to be highly detrimental to the public. The motivation to do the treasure theft or illegal cooperation became more and more increasing. It is not a positive impact for improving the welfare of society.  In managing and utilizing cultural heritage, it should be based on legal norms, socio-cultural conditions, global development and international law. The birth of Act No. 11 Year 2010 on Cultural Heritage is a hopeful solution and � encourages the good will of stakeholders to protect the nation’s wealth. Economic utilization of cultural heritage should not be narrowly conceived as it can sacrifice the cultural and historical values. The management of Borobudur Temple or Underwater Site in Tulamben can be positive lessons in the nation’s cultural heritage preservation. It is important to strengthen the capacity of each stakeholder, whether they are government, private sector, and enthusiasts societies of cultural heritage preservation. Bibliography Insist Pers., 2002 Kuswardono A.A., Edy, C., Indra, D., 2009 Marbun, J., 2009 Nn, 2006 Pannas BMKT Publishing 2008 1992 2010 2007 2009 Ulum, M., 2009 Yurnaldi., 2010 Memecah Ketakutan Menjadi Kekuatan: Kisah-kisah Advokasi di Indonesia, Insist Pers, Yogyakarta. “Hatcher dan Becking Maut”, in Tempo Magazine No. 43/XXXIII, December 20th 2004, viewed 10 September 2009. (http://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/2004/12/20/ NAS/mbm.20041220.NAS95244.id.html) “Pannas BMKT : Solusi Atau Sekedar Euforia? (Sekelumit catatan tentang BMKT)”, in On Public Discussion, 22 September, PSAP UGM, Yogyakarta, Tidak terbit. “Harta Karun Di Laut Indonesia”, in Inovasi online, Vol.6, XVIII, Maret. Laporan Tahunan 2008 Pengelolaan Benda Berharga Asal Muatan Kapal Yang Tenggelam, Panitia Nasional BMKT, Jakarta. Act No. 5 Year 1992 on Cultural Heritage Act No. 11 Year 2010 on Cultural Heritage Presidential Decree of Republic of Indonesia number 19 Year 2007 about the National Committee for the Salvage and Utilization of Valuable Objects from Sunken Ships Presidential Decree of Republic of Indonesia number 12 Year 2009 about change to the Decree of Republic of Indonesia number 19 Year 2007 about the National Committee for the Salvage and Utilization of Valuable Objects from Sunken Ships. “Benda Cagar Budaya Bawah Laut Tak Terjaga: Pencurian Harta Karun Marak”, in Harian Jogja, 14 September, Yogyakarta. Bermitra dengan Media Massa untuk Sosialisasikan Warisan Budaya Bawah Air, viewed 28 August 2011 (http://sejarah.kompasiana.com/2010/09/20/warisanbudaya-bawah-air/) � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An Advocacy Approach on Underwater Heritage in Indonesia, Case Study: An auction on underwater heritage from Cirebon waters in 2010 Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource Despite the country’s assertion about its ancient, international history and its diverse culture, there are many cases in Indonesia where some cultural heritage objects are under the threat of ignorance of both the people and the government. Various sites and/or artifacts are damaged or lost due to infrastructure development, or being looted to be sold to some collectors or goes out to some auction houses abroad. A Bill was issued in 1992 to manage this situation, and recently (2011) another bill was issued to put a more severe punishment and to put a more relevant context toward this matter, but so far these seem to be ineffective. No one was ever punished for any crimes regarding this matter. Based on experience mentioned above, an advocacy for the law deemed necessary to preserve and protect the nation’s cultural heritage, including its underwater cultural heritage. In 2010 treasures were surfaced from a shipwreck on Cirebon waters. The treasure went to an international auction, committed by the government of Indonesia, and actively monitored by the media, activists, and the community in general. The government supported looting and auction could start a through advocacy for preserving and protecting underwater cultural heritage. Some clues include: prohibition for local fishermen to come near the area, permissions improperly issued for international divers around the shipwreck, a Presidential Decree issued against a higher law (Act No. 5 Year 1992 on Cultural Heritage), and the auction itself which disrespects the artifacts status as a cultural heritage. This experience can become a precedent for advocating a better policy and enforcement toward preserving and protecting underwater cultural heritage, particularly in Indonesia. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jhohannes Marbun Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9b07e93589094c191c5afba278c6f3aa.pdf 2a3351954a1284e5c8c2111db8cc8acd PDF Text Text � � � � � � � � ! � � 5 � , � � � � ! 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] g g � � \ � b g _ ] ` – [ h � i Œ † ^ † � ’ † � \ † � Á [ c a » ` e � � g � b ` ^ y � c f ^ c _ � ^ ] � � c [ ^ a c k � _ ` � � [ e � � c c ] � _ y b ^ h � g � b ` _ � [ � c b � ] _ � m _ ] ` b � [ m [ \ _ o ‡ ` „ † ] c „ h † † ‰ Á � b ’ c Z „ † Á � ° c [ \ ] ” ° ^ Œ � � „ Œ ˆ ‰ ‹ Á � ¿ † Ç v � † � g c † † � � Š � ^ Œ È g „ † � � Œ Ä † _ Å ’ � � � s † � b Æ † [ c ] ½ Á ] � � „ � a g � ¿ s g c ^ � g ] c f � c [ ` ] _ [ c ^ � Œ † † ’ † † Á � c y ` ] _ � [ a � – � a ` [ _ c _ e � c ^ � \ � � a c c � ^ [ � v c \ � � � ^ � � � g ] � � [ _ – � � � [ � e i É � % ' � Ê � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � " � � � � � � Ì � � 8 � � � � � � � � � ' � " � � ! � � � � � ' ! � " � � C � � � � � � " � � � � ; � � � � < � � � � $ � " � � � � � � Ë ' � � % � � � � % � � � � Ì � C � � � " � � � � � � � ' � � � ' Ê � � � � � � � � � � � " � �  * � ' � � � � ! � � ! � � � � � � ' � � � � < � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � & ž ' �c ^ � � g c ` h _ ^ k ] � ] \ ] [ � a [ c \ ^ � y ` b c [ g k ] c � f \ ^ b 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` � � [ � a \ k ] d b _ [ � � r [ c ] m Z f g � ] � � “ r ` g ` h d � ] _ f � ^ � o � � r \ r ž [ c [ p ^ ] s � g ` w ž c o t c ^ � ^ � � _ c » _ � ] [ – ] [ a ` \ f ` h p � f g ` � � [ � [ _ c e � � g � y ` h e � � g a _ f � � c [ ` � \ h � c c ^ c � ^ � i g � �  k ] � � g _ � c � ` h ` \ c ^ � [ � c � ` ] g _ [ � ] c � ] � ` y c � ^ – � c ] � [ m a f � ³ ‡ � „ � ´ Š [ † ‡ c \ µ „ ` † ¶ n g Œ �  ^ „ ” f † ] ž _ [ ¯ ž � “ ž c “ ® d � x s � a � i o ^ ` � _ � � _ m Ö � � � • x r s � l ^ � _ � � ^ ` � l c c ^ ] � � [ � f g t � ] c � ] ^ � y � � _ – � � g ] [ � a c b � ] ] c � ] _ ] [ g b � � _ � \ ] c [ [ � f a ` i h ] g c � ` h � \ c ^ � i ^ _ ] � g ` ] t \ � _ ` � � g _ � � _ c g � � \ i e � [ ` b g � � a k \ y c ^ � o � � � c � c � � Ø � ` c c [ � a d g Z ` f ` c � h \ ` g � ] a c [ g � � \ k y � k ` � _ ] ^ ] [ a i c ^ � c ` � � � [ � \ � g � [ c \ ^ � c c ] � � Ó Ç Œ ´ † ‹ ˆ † ’ „ Š ˆ † ƒ µ ° … † m c ^ � ^ b ` � � – ] [ e a ^ ` � ‚ � f c � c \ ^ � c ` � � s i m � � _ c g • ] l w ^ w s � � o ^ ] � \ f k � g � f ] _ [ g b c ] ` ] ` [ h Ø � ` c c [ � a d Z a � ] � _ ] c [ � g � _ c ] [ a ] h [ ` g f � c ` ] [ i g b � � a ` g [ \ c ] g y [ c a t ` ^ [ � c – ^ ] � [ ` a e � h � � Ø ` � h f c k ^ � � f � � \ � ] [ _ � _ m ^ o g � ] [ f � k � ` c \ o ] ^ � s ] \ e � ^ f ` h k � ‚ ] g � � � \ f t _ Z [ c \ ` [ ] � � _ m Õ � ¶ � ¶ k w t ¯ k g r `  s ^ a � Z c c h ] [ g ` \ f ] ^ b � c _ ] � _ q �c ^ � c ^ � ` b g \ � ] � g � � � c ` ] _ [ ^ ` ] h c ^ � Ø � f k � � � \ _ � m o � f k ` \ � ] s – ] [ e a c ] ^ c ^ � o ^ ` � � ` b c [ g y � [ \ i c e ` _ c � Î c � g ] _ [ � [ Ø a ` b � ` g c c � � a [ � \ � a ‚ c Z ^ b f ] � [ � c � a ^ _ � k � [ � c c e g � � � � _ [ ^ � g � k � ` h � g g � ± g × ] _ � � � – � i � [ f � s e � _ g � � � g � � \ [ \ � [ f � � \ h c � g c ^ � – ] [ � a _ Ø � ` c c [ c c ] � [ f ] » [ [ ^ \ g � m g i � _ � c [ i � a o ^ ` � � � c c ] � [ f m Õ ¶ ¶ � ž ¯ { r s � i » ` [ c ^ � g ] _ [ g b c ] ` ] ` [ h c ^ � _ � f � – ] [ h a g ` f o ^ ] � \ f k � g � f g � h � g _ c ` c ^ � ^ ` � y � _ ] c ] ` h i g ] [ � b _ ` h v � g _ � ] c ` c ^ � c � f � i � ` h o ^ ] � \ f k � g � f m Õ ¶ ¶ w ¯ r  s � c Z _ a � a _ c _ c ^ � � [ � ] � a c ` ] [ i � ‚ c � [ � \ \ \ g ] [ c a ^ _ ] c f ] � c ` c ^ � ¸ � _ c » _ � ] [ ` b c [ g � ] _ � » [ ] c [ � g � _ c ] [ a ] _ [ g b c ] ` ] h [ g ` f i n � m g � _ k ` k � c [ g � y ^ � � � e � r ž r _ c ¯ ž ` b • d � ž _ c s { ` � l h ^ � � y f e � � g c g � � c f ^ � � c [ � ` [ \ c ] _ � b c � ] ² [ Œ † Á † ‰ † Œ Ù � [ ‰ \  ’ „ Ó ` g ` � g _ _ [ � i � ` ] � c ` h ^ c � ^ ` b � ] [ \ ^ � l � f � ] ` ] y [ � a ` ` [ � � g ^ b � c [ _ Ú � b g ` a � � _ _ � � _ � l ^ � _ � l _ � _ f ^ f � g � ] f t ] ‹ � † g Š † ^ b ‰ � ‰ c [ † … † _ ‹ i � [ l ^ _ ] ] _ [ g b c ] ` ] g [ i f h i f i c � ^ b � c [ _ ^ � � \ ` � ] � \ _ ] h [ ` g f � c ` ] ` [ h i � g f � � [ c [ ` b � ` y [ � c n � g _ i � g ` Ÿ � l [ \   ^ Y � � b ¡ � v � � � r Y [ V U y \ r o X � p U _ ` m W � } h � k � ` � c k � ¢ g } ^ � � y £ g � � 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y \ � i � ] � \ [ � b c ^ � c f � g � b c [ � ] � � c b � ] c ] � ] _ \ g ] [ c a ^ _ ] � g ` ] \ i g � � ^ b � � \ n _ � h _ ] � g � � \ _ _ ® t h � ` g e � Þ ] a � � � [ � b � [ m \ ` b � c [ g ] _ ^ \ ` � h g c � ^ • [ _ ] x � s ž g ` ] � \ a � ] � h g c ^ � g � � � � k � � ] h [ ` g f � c ` ] � [ l ^ � i c g � � � � � g _ � [ \ ^ b g ` [ ] � b � g _ f � ] � [ y h ` b _ ` c [ ^ � ` b f f ` \ c ] � ] _ c ^ � c e � g � f ] ` g c � � \ [ \ i � ‚ ` g c � h \ g ` f c ^ � ` i c ^ g c _ ` h _ ` c Z [ \ � ] � l ^ � y ` k _ � g � � c \ ^ � � [ � ] � a c ` ] ` [ h c ^ � ` b � _ c � [ ` \ h i � _ � � g ` c � _ t c y � _ ` h _ ^ _ ] i e ^ � c � g _ � l ^ � f � \ � ] _ � k \ y c ^ � f � g ^ b � c [ _ h ` g _ � � _ � � ] ] [ � a [ h \ ` g ] � [ � [ \ i � � � � g ` ] c \ g � � � � � g _ � � � f ] � � [ [ » \ k Þ � ] _ \ c � c � \ ] c [ ^ � g ] ` [ c � _ c ^ � c i c ^ � f y ` b � c [ [ ` ] \ _ [ c b c ^ � ` \ � � � � g � ` ] g _ � _ � – _ ] _ [ � � _ \ � ` h ` y ` a � ` � a _ _ \ c � ^ � [ f \ c e 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� Z “ Z ¯ “ { • s l ^ _ ] � � _ _ � � g � � ^ b � c \ ^ � v � � � � � g � – \ ` g c � c Z e � _ � i ] � [ _ � � � _ _ � � � [ \ ] � [ � � g ` k � k � ] c ] y � � [ c – y � i � [ _ � \ ^ c � _ ] m ] � [ � – � _ c � g � ` [ y r ž g � r ¯ ] d [  ž � d d � ] m [ w ž � l ^ _ ] c c ] � s � o � c [ � ß ` � [ s [ g � � � � k Z y t n [ c ^ � _ ] c – ] ` h _ ^ e ] i c [ � � \ ` \ h _ _ g b ^ k ] � _ k � ] c � c Þ � y c ` c � [ i � e ] i e y i _ � c _ ^ � f � \ � c � \ � � ] ` h _ c ` h f ] c k ^ � � g o ^ ` b [ ] � [ � [ _ b � \ i ^ c ^ ] b _ – � � k _ ` h e ` ` � \ l ^ � c f ] k � g _ g ` � � c b ] [ h a g ` f c ^ � _ ] � \ _ c ` e � g _ \ c ^ � e � c � g _ � g � � \ i c ^ c ` � g b � e h ` g ` a ] [ a ` \ e c [ ` e � _ ^ � [ h \ ` g ` c ^ � g � [ � _ \ � l ^ � ^ � a � � [ c a ^ y _ ] � – _ [ c ] � \ i � a å c } ^ � W l ^ � l ^ � Y g } � �   � _ e � _ � € c � £ V ` b � � _ ` � _ � c h c ^ � V ^ � � æ � f \ � _ ¢ _ } � � ¬ y [ � � � � f ] ` } g � c � U « ` i y e � g � Ø g _ ] ^ � [ � c � [ f ç 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h � » � [ [ ^ \ g l \ � � v � g � � \ a o _ ^ ^ � ` � � i ] _ [ g b c ] ` ] _ [ m n c c � g e ` g c ^ � [ o \ ^ � c c y • r w ¯  d   s � l ^ � ` i ] _ [ g b ` ] _ [ � _ Ø ` � � c ] c g � † ] … „ † Ó Ø � [ � \ ` ß � i l � � � � v � c c ] � [ f t � [ c e g \ i a g � _ g � h � g g � c \ ` ] [ c ^ � c ^ � i c ] o ^ ` � � – ] [ ± a g ] � � � � � [ g \ � e [ ^ ` k � k � y � [ f � � \ h c � g i ` g � � � \ g ` [ \ w ž d { w “ o p � l ^ _ ] ` g c e � _ i � � [ a [ \ � � a k \ f � g y ^ b h � ` g c [ � _ ] � a � [ l ^ g � _ ` e h ` g � � g � \ ` ] � f _ � ` b _ ^ c [ � � g � ] g � _ m � \ ‡ � † _ Œ ]  „ � a Œ �  g Œ � h ¼ � g µ g Ç � Ç ‹ c \ „ ` Ó ] † ‹ c [ † ^ Ó � ] µ † _ [ ‡ g b † c ] i c ^ � h ` g � ] a � [ g _ e ^ ` � b f � h g ` f x Š †  ` ]   _ [ Ó „ � \ ´ † … ` [ s c � i ` b c [ g � ] _ m � \ ] � [ k [ ^ f s ] � l ^ � � [ f � _ ` h c ^ � x i ` b c [ g � ] _ e � g � ` [ c _ � b h ] ] � b � � y f � c [ ` ] � [ \ ] c [ ^ � ] _ [ g b c ] i c y � _ ` h � � _ _ � � _ � [ � c Z � � _ ` g � ` b g _ \ c ^ � c � � g ` ] ` � c _ e � g � � [ ^ b ` g � \ ] c [ ^ _ ] ` g c � l ^ � y e � g � g � h � g g � c \ ` ] c [ _ ^ � i _ [ _ [ i k \ i ] ` ] g b c ] ` ] _ [ � _ ‰ † … † ‹ à ˆ ° Œ Ç Š Ç Ã ˆ Ç … „ à ‰ † … † ’ † ‹ à ’ „  † ’ Ç � c � b Ò † … † ‹ _ ] ] � \ c [ ] � b � e c ] ^ ‰ † … † ‹ i m f � \ ] f _ × ] � k ` � c s f � c [ ` ] � [ \ ] c [ ^ � l � f � ] � c ] � g � c g � � [ ˆ \ ° Œ Ç Š Ç Ã g ` k � k � y ] � \ c [ ] � b � e c ] ^ i l � _ f � ] f � � ˆ � ° � Œ � „ à _ c Z _ � ^ � � _ _ c � e ` k \ e ` c ` ^ h g ` _ \ g ] ˆ � [ ° Œ � „ [ è Ç � \ [ Š Ç \ e ` b ^ � ] _ c ^ b � � � � [ c f ] � ] � � a c c � � ` ] y k h [ � ` � b g k f ` � � g ˆ \ ] ° Œ [ Ç Š � a Ç [ à Ç � \ Š ` Ç _ ] � \ ] � [ � _ ` � a � _ ^ ] i � [ Î g ` b � \ ] � [ _ ` h c a c [ g ^ � ] _ ] ^ ] � [ c _ g � a f ] _ ] ] c [ � \ ] ^ ` [ � h a ] ` b g Z c [ � _ f ^ c � � \ _ ] � � l ] ` g g � g ] c � – ` \ _ t � – � [ ] c � [ � � � c \ c ] c ] � \ ` \ \ � c [ � � [ ` ] g h ` c m ` ^ “ ž g c � g ] • ^ ` _ o h c � 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g b c ] ` ] � [ c n � g _ t Z [ ` \ � [ _ � ] ¯ » i r ž g r � \ ž ” ] ° „ _ ‹ Œ ` b ‹ Ó ” � �  Š „ Š ‡ ˆ „ g ” „ ° y Ô † t ] … Œ † Ó m [ ” † ˆ Œ � „ � \ ’ „ ˆ „  s ®  � k Ó ƒ „  Š † � g Œ ` ˆ ‹ „ µ Ø �  ” ¶ Ó µ  g Œ �  Š _ „  ^ † Ó f ] � Œ t ô t l ” �  _ ] Œ ð † ^ ” „ Œ  Œ ½ ` ˆ † ˆ ð é Œ [ � ] �   Ž Ó g _ ˆ c ] „ ‹ y   „ ° Œ Á t ¹  ’ † … ° � � ï t [ i � i ± � m g � � � \ � \ s g � � � t [ � Ñ t l t • d ž � { i ^ � z � � � [ ^ � f � � ` [ h � Ñ ` ] h _ – z ^ � � v � e \ Ø � ^ [ � t ] z – � ^ [ ` [ z ] ^ � � g � v f ` ] k � ] _ h Ø ^ � � g � � _ � g [ � c c ] ¯ » Î \ � _ ] c g � k ] � ] c ] ` [ a g _ t i ž r ± r �  ® [ ® � � – z � c t � � _ [ � f ] Î \ � [ g � � c ] _ c � � � f g y t � o � ] � e ] Î c c � � � ] � � � ^ ] � � b � ] � ] � \ c ^ ^ \ c ^ � � c [ � [ � ¸ � g ` ] g – y � g g _ ] y � k z � ] _ � ^ ] [ [ ] a f � � � ` � – b ] � � c � y ] t l l ^ ] [ � [ � � � ` � � ] c ^ Ñ Z ] f [ ] \ c � ] � t \ i v ] � � � ] t � � m � \ _ � s t o ^ � [ [ � ] m � � g ] [ c s i • x w x � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ships and Navigation in the Medieval South India Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource The maritime activities of Indian sub continent have a hoary past. The inscriptions of medieval South India disclose information about the ports of Coromandel coast, the various kinds of boats and ships and goods that were imported and exported through these ports. The inscriptions of the Cholas, Pandyas and the other major dynasties in the Andhra region give valuable evidence on this aspect. Besides, the inscriptional evidences there are quite a number of sculptures, coins bearing the figure of ships and boats attest to the various kinds of vessels of that period. The Cholas who ruled over the entire Tamil country in the medieval period made sevaral voyages to the South-East Asian countries through big vessels. Rajaraja I, the great Chola king (A.D.985-1014), allowed Srivijaya king Sri Mara Vijayadunga Varman son of Sulamanivarman to build a Buddhist vihara in the name of his father Sulamanivarman at Nagappattinam, which suggests that he had a cordial relatio nship with the kingdoms of far east countries during his regime. His able son Rajendra I (A.D.1012-1044) he crossed the Bay of Bengal and reached many countries which were listed in the lengthy prasasti. His prasasti mentions that he used many kinds of ships on the ocean to reach the Southeast Asian countries such as Kadaram (modern Kedha) Java and Sumatra. An inscription from Mottuppalli refers to the various kinds of ships which were anchored on the Andhra coast. The port had a yard for ship repair. This port was declared as a tax-free zone for the ships affected during storms. An inscription from Nagalapuram near Chittor in Andhrapradesh refers to a kind of ship knows as tongukappal in Tamil. In all probability it could be a big Chinese vessel, namely the jung. This paper discusses in details the nature of the ships and navigation in medieval south India Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource S.Rajavelu Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/64ad8a22c5cfe1fe1f59018aba5e92dc.pdf 9e58dafb955ba10bfe12719524c7f38c PDF Text Text From Infrastructure to Icon: a Historical and Archaeological Analysis of the Randell Dry Dock. Britt Burton1 Abstract On the banks of the Murray River in the small township of Mannum, South Australia, lies an impressive and rare feat of early colonial maritime infrastructure; the Randell Dry Dock. Originally constructed as a timber floating dock in 1873, it was purchased by Captain William Randell and towed to Mannum. The imposing structure docked over half of all the paddle steamers on the Murray-Darling river system before being superseded in 1927. It is now only one of a handful of timber docks from this period still existing internationally. Archaeological investigations have been minimal on maritime infrastructure sites along the River Murray. A heritage trail has been implemented by the SA Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the SA Tourism Commission. The Randell Dry Dock is part of this trail and on the State Heritage Register. Archaeological investigations have revealed new information about the dock’s unique construction. This paper will outline the history and construction of this architectural gem, the seriousness of its current condition, and the ongoing fight against the clock by archaeologists and the local community to protect this rare and significant example of South Australian Murray River history. Introduction The Murray-Darling Basin river system in Australia began to take shape over forty million years ago. Encompassing three-quarters of New South Wales, over half of Victoria, an area of Queensland and the south-east corner of South Australia; it is approximately one-seventh of the entire Australian continent (Bennett 2004:8). The Murray River combines environmental beauty, rich cultural heritage and is the world’s sixteenth longest river at 2,530 kilometres (Griffiths & Jeffery n.d.). Rising water levels in the Murray are good news for the river’s health, but for Flinders University archaeologists working to conserve the unique nineteenth century Randell dry dock in the small riverside town of Mannum, South Australia, it creates an added sense of urgency. The project was first brought to the attention of the Flinders University Archaeology Department by the Mannum Dock Museum, because of their concern regarding the long term conservation and management of the dock. 1 1/23 Towers Terrace, South Plympton , South Australia, Australia, 5038, Email: burt0081@flinders.edu.au, Mobile: 61 0427 865 602 1 �Figure 1. Locality map, South Australia. The dock is located approximately 85 kilometres east of Adelaide (Image courtesy of H. & J. Griffiths, 2010 <www.jestercruises.com.au>). At the time Randell’s dock was built, iron was the prominent material for dock construction. This research is significant because few timber floating docks have survived into the modern era, and relatively little is known about their construction. Over one hundred years and countless physical changes later, it appears that elements of the dock’s original construction remain. As a result, it has the potential to yield information about the construction and development of timber floating docks. Historical Background The pattern of settlement and development along the River Murray from the 1850s onwards was determined by distance from large trade centres (like Adelaide) overland and the methods of transport available. Transport by water was very cost effective, and the River Murray provided the opportunity to open up huge areas inland (Swanbury Penglase 2002:9). 1848 saw the arrival of Albert Henry Landseer to South Australia. He capitalised on the huge expansion in river trade during the 1860s and 1870s (Swanbury Penglase 2002:11). After relocating his headquarters to Milang at the mouth of the Murray River, Landseer proposed a floating dock to provide an alternative to the slip at Goolwa (Southern Argus 2 �22nd August 1873: n.p.). Constructed in 1873, the dock was originally designed as a floating dock for use on Lake Alexandrina (Swanbury Penglase 2002:14). A floating dock is a structure that can be submerged to permit the entry and docking of a vessel, which is then raised to lift the vessel from the water for repairs (Gaythwaite 2004:446). Referred to as ‘the largest floating dock ever built in the southern hemisphere’ (Southern Argus 19th September 1873: n.p.), the Randell dry dock was the only floating dock active on the Murray-Darling river system. Built of red gum, an abundant source of reliable timber along the Murray, it contained framing and two layers of planking very similar to the structure of a wooden vessel. Historical sources suggest that the original length of the dock was 144 feet long, 40 feet wide, 9 feet deep and was estimated to carry 1000 tons (Southern Argus 19th September 1873: n.p.). As relatively new technology in Australia, there were only two similar facilities in the colony at the time the dock was built: the floating dock at King George Sound in Albany, Western Australia built in 1866 (Perth Gazette and West Australian Times 4th May 1866: n.p.) and Maggie, a Tasmanian wooden floating dock constructed in the 1880s (Richards 2003:145). Not suited to the shallow waters of Lake Alexandrina, the dock was purchased by Captain William Richard Randell, a prominent river pioneer, for use as a dry dock at Mannum. Randell arrived at Mannum with the dock after a harrowing trip up the Murray. He reported that the dock ‘moved like a snake’ because it had no keel, making navigation extremely difficult (Swanbury Penglase 2002:16). In order to install the 43.89 metre long structure, the river bank had to be excavated. It was eventually floated into place in February 1876 and officially opened on 5th June (Southern Argus 17th February 1876: n.p.). Over its forty-seven year commercial life about half of the steamers on the Murray and Darling Rivers spent some time in the dock (Swanbury Penglase 2002:5). It was officially closed with the introduction of a new slip upstream at Morgan (Swanbury Penglase 2002:5). The dock gradually silted up until the late 1980s when it was rediscovered and cleaned out by the local community with the aim of using it to dock and restore the paddle steamer PS Marion. After the restoration of the Marion, a pump kept the dock free of water so it could become the centrepiece of the Mannum Dock Museum (Swanbury Penglase 2002:29). Archaeological Investigations Four archaeological investigations for this research were carried out over a two year period beginning in 2009. Initial non-invasive investigations consisted of visual and GPR surveys as well as the creation of a full site plan. Two field seasons followed, which led to excavation on a number of areas in and around the Randell dry dock, photographic documentation, a second GPR survey and further site and feature drawings. 3 �December, 2009 Excavations in December 2009 yielded some of the dock’s structural secrets. The largest trench (Trench 1) was opened on the northern side of the dock. This focused on excavating to the base of the dock (two metres down) to assess the condition of the timbers and identify any original floating dock features. Trench 1 revealed the beginning of prominent structural features including a walkway and retaining wall (visible in historic photographs). The vertical posts running along the northern perimeter have attached joists. The wooden beams uncovered throughout the trench were in a similar pattern as those found immediately to the north-west and as such constitute part of the same structure. A cavity at a depth of 0.70 metres had a joist forming the south-eastern hip of the cavity which was supported by a large horizontal pile, 0.47 metres in diameter. This pile also supported the joist in the north-west corner. Excavation also commenced underneath three of the newer floor planks (Trench 3), which revealed three large vertical pylons. In between the pylons were a series of flush planks, still in very good condition due to their muddy and wet environment. They are assumed to be the final layer of planking or the ‘base’ of the dock. Figure 2. Looking east along the uncovered walkway in Trench 1. (Photograph by B. Burton, 2009). 4 �September, 2010 A team of archaeologists returned to the site with the aim of revealing a section of the outer structure on the northern side of the dock. The project combined surveys and the excavation of two trenches and two test pits in order to expose and document the structure underneath the dock. Reopening Trench 1 revealed a second horizontal pile, similar to the one discovered during the December excavations. The work on the outer wall of the dock revealed 1.5 planks of a substantial size (0.25 metres wide). While obviously dried out and deteriorated, the flushness of the planks indicated that at one time they would have been watertight. Trench 4 was not in the original excavation plan for the September dig and was added at the request of the Museum. Excavation of the trench ceased when the digger uncovered two timber planks at 1.12 metres. These were horizontal planks running parallel in a north-south orientation, but confusingly did not sit flush with the edge of the outer wall of the dock. The planks were 0.25 metres by 0.06 metres and were at least a length of 1.50 metres but the full length could not be determined as they ran into the southern embankment. Test pits 1 and 2 contained similar planking to that of Trench 4 but at a shallower depth of 0.62 to 0.70 metres. Test Pit 1 contained two planks 0.25 metres by 0.06 metres, which ran a length of 0.58 metres from the outer dock wall south into the embankment. The wood was in poor condition, appearing very damp and spongy; the result of fluctuating river levels. Test Pit 2 was 2.70 metres long by 0.65 metres wide. Three timber planks were identified at a depth of 0.62 metres. The planks were not straight and had varying widths and sizes. As in Trench 4 and Test Pit 1, the planks were running parallel with a north-south orientation. Similar to the wood in Test Pit 1, the timbers visible in Test Pit 2 were damp, spongy and badly corroded. There appeared to be some sort of black stain on the planks. This could have been caused by the dark clay staining the wood or perhaps evidence of tarring. Discussion What remains of the original floating dock structure? It cannot be said with absolute certainty that there is nothing left of the dock’s floatation apparatus. Not reaching the base of the dock during the two excavations means that the remains of a chamber somewhere at the base cannot be discounted. However, it can be deduced that two things do survive from the floating dock era: the vertical outer walls and the walkway. During excavations in Trench 1 and Trench 4, it was found that the vertical walls had a black substance on the outside. This appears to be evidence of tarring which would have been used to keep the dock waterproof. Working in Trench 1 determined that towards the base of the dock, the walls must still be waterproof as river water was leaking into the trench and not out into the dock. Historical research has found that some wooden floating docks had overhanging side walkways, such as floating dock Alpha in New Zealand. This would allow workmen to move about the dock freely and allow another vessel to 5 �berth alongside (Maritime Museum, Port Chalmers, 24 September 2010). The results of Trench 1 suggest that the walkway appears similar in design to that attached to Alpha in New Zealand. Randell’s dock has three layers of planking attached to 0.67 metre vertical support beams. However, unlike Alpha, there are no diagonal support beams underneath the walkway to ensure its stability. A more likely scenario is that the walkway was constructed at Mannum. An attached walkway was a possibility for a floating dock and could have been potentially detached, modified and reattached later. It is much more plausible however, that this is a later addition to the site; constructed elsewhere and moved into place on top of the surrounding clay. There are historical photographs showing the walkway on the northern side along with a retaining wall. The vertical piles appear to be the supports for the retaining wall. An additional and unlikely possibility was that it was purpose built. If so, it was an exuberant piece of construction. With three layers of planking at 20 metres long, it would have been quite heavy and therefore have been a nightmare to manoeuvre. What is puzzling about this walkway is that it does not appear to be attached permanently or solidly to the dock. This suggests it may have been a temporary structure that eventually became permanent. Figure 3. PS Cumberoona in the dock circa 1885 showing a walkway and retaining wall on the northern side (left) of the dock. (Photograph in Swanbury Penglase Architects, courtesy of the Mannum Local History Collection No.288, 2006). 6 �The large horizontal piles in Trench 1 were unexpected. With their size and placement, it appears as if they may have been used for structural support when the dock was inserted into the bank at Mannum. Due to the difficulty of manoeuvring the floating dock, Randell would have excavated an area slightly bigger than the structure in order to ensure the insertion process ran smoothly. It is then possible that the large piles were rolled into place on the northern side pushing the dock hard up against the southern side to stop it moving. However, the piles are not lying flush alongside the outer walls of the dock. Is there evidence of the dock’s floating apparatus? While it has been acknowledged above that little evidence of the dock’s floatation chambers survive, it does not confirm or disallow the possibility of such structures during its time as a floating dock. A floating dock, by definition, needs to have pontoons to help it float and they need to be substantial enough to support whatever vessel it is carrying at the time. Due to the minimal tidal movement on Lake Alexandrina, the dock probably would have had watertight chambers on the sides and underneath the floor. The dock has a double floor with 0.20 metres of space between the two layers of planking. This is not sufficient enough to float a dock reputed to weigh 350 tonnes. The cavities created by the sloping walls of the dock are another possibility. However, even if they were part of the original floating dock, they are different sizes and would therefore be uneven in weight and air distribution. If they were the same size, along with the floor; the combined air chambers would still not be substantial enough to raise and lower the dock as well as accommodate any vessels. Conservation Issues While the dock has been maintained by the Mannum Dock Museum and local community in accordance with the original conservation plan, it became apparent from the dock’s rapid deterioration that the original conclusions needed to be reviewed. After it was closed commercially the dock was kept filled so that the bulk of it was generally below river level and in safe anaerobic conditions. After the dock was cleaned out, the timber of the inner lining was virtually crack free, smooth and level. Today the wood of the dock is badly desiccated and undulating with very obvious corrosion. Less obvious but more worrying is the biological deterioration (or rotting) in the cells of the structure. Deterioration is occurring at a much faster rate than envisaged due to fluctuating river levels. The widespread clearance of native vegetation for agriculture and irrigation has led to an increase in the infiltration of rainfall to the groundwater. This has raised the local and regional groundwater table greatly increasing salinity in the river systems (Harris 1992:2). Over the past few years the river has fallen about 1.8 metres, even though Mannum is 150 kilometres from the Murray mouth (Swanbury Penglase 2006:6). It has recently begun to rise again and once more the dock is completely submersed. Fluctuating river levels are a constant danger to the dock, as they create cycles which increase 7 �deterioration and change the surrounding soil from an anaerobic to aerobic environment. Figure 4. Looking east across the dock (Photograph by M. Fowler, courtesy of the Maritime Archaeology Program, Flinders University, 2010). Conservator Christopher Payne from Art Lab Conservation in Adelaide voluntarily gave his time regularly throughout the project to assist the Mannum 8 �Dock Museum and the author with an analysis of the condition of the dock’s timbers. The principal modes of deterioration have been identified as follows: Increased rates of weathering Previously with higher water levels, water evaporating from the surface was being replaced by more water drawn up through the wood. When the underside of the floor was not in contact with water, the topside was drying out badly with deepening cell collapse, showing as deep splitting in the wood (C. Payne, Adelaide, 24 March 2010). Increased rate of rotting of underside timber This is due to a change from anaerobic to aerobic conditions in the soil under and around the dock as the water level falls. This provides optimum levels of moisture and air for biological activity, encouraging rotting (C. Payne, Adelaide, 24 March 2010). Increase in soil activity An increase in acid sulphate has been reported at many river sites with unstable river levels which rapidly increase weakness in the structure (C. Payne, Adelaide, 24 March 2010). Increase rate in floor movement This is due to uneven drying out of soil beneath the dock. Some parts of the dock appear to be still secured to the piles, but others are not. This gives rise to the undulating effect in the floor. Observed over the past two years, this movement is creating greater strains on the structure especially where timber is already damaged by corroding iron fastenings (C. Payne, Adelaide, 24 March 2010). Future Conservation and Management With the current rate of deterioration there is an urgent need to support and stabilise the dock’s timbers. Conservationists have reassessed the dock and the outlook is bleak. There is a window of less than ten years in which to take major preservative action before the dock becomes too rotten to save due to fluctuating river levels rotting away its timbers from beneath. The active Save Our Dry Dock (SODD) group at Mannum has researched options to slow down the increasing rate of deterioration. These have included treating the dock in situ with boron based wood preservative chemicals or keeping the dock filled with water and introducing biocides to keep it clear and therefore visible to museum visitors. Unfortunately, both of these solutions would cause chemical leakage into the Murray River, and therefore contamination to flora, fauna and a widely used water supply. A more expensive option would be to excavate it entirely, lift it from the area and put it undercover where it can be preserved without risk to the environment. While the significance of the dock can justify the expense, it will ultimately remove it from its historical context. In the short term, the construction of a roof to protect the dock is being considered. With a goal to see the dock on 9 �the National Heritage Register and public awareness increased about this rare feat of engineering, it is important that a solution is found and implemented to ensure the longevity of this site. One hundred and thirty seven years on, it is amazing that this incredible example of colonial maritime engineering still survives. With relatively little known about wooden floating docks from the nineteenth century, the Randell dry dock holds vital information about the river trade industry; it is a significant historical landmark for Mannum and is evidence of South Australia’s colonial adaptation to the River Murray. Acknowledgements When I first started this project I could not have foreseen what an adventure it would be and how many people were willing to come along for the ride. Thank you to everyone who helped me out in some way, especially: my supervisor Associate Professor Mark Staniforth; the wonderful people at the Mannum Dock Museum; the SA Department of Environment and Natural Resources; the Flinders University Archaeology Department; and the maritime archaeologists across the world who took the time to respond to my barrage of emails. Finally, a big thank you and lots of love to my family for their support and a few special people who I couldn’t have done this without: Kako, Amy, Denise and Brad. Abbreviations DENR South Australian Department of Environmental and Natural Resources Bibliography Bennett, K., 2004 Gaythwaite, J., 2004 Griffiths, L. & Jeffery, B., No Date Harris, C.R., 1992 Perth Gazette and West Australian Times 1866 Richards, N., Paddle steamers of the Murray River. Lothian Books, South Melbourne. Design of marine facilities for the berthing, mooring and repair of vessels. 2nd Edition, American society of Engineers, Virginia. SA river boat trail, South Australia Department of Environment and Natural Resources (State Heritage Branch) with the South Australian Tourism Commission, Adelaide. ‘Issues and management responses in the Murray Darling Basin’, in (eds.) S. Kenderdine and B. Jeffery Muddy Waters – proceedings of the first conference on the submerged and terrestrial archaeology of historic shipping on the River Murray, , State Heritage, Branch, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Adelaide. (WA: 1864-1874), No title. 4th May. Unfit for further use: a guide to the watercraft discard 10 �2003 Southern Argus, 1973 Southern Argus, 1874 Southern Argus, 1876 Swanbury Penglase Architects, 2002 Swanbury Penglase Architects, 2006 sites of Tasmania (1808-1977), Tasmanian Heritage Office, Hobart. No title. 19th September. No title. 22nd August. No title. 17th February. Randell Dry Dock conservation plan, first report for the PS Marion and Mannum Dock Museum Board, Swanbury Penglase Architects, Adelaide. The Mannum Dock Museum Board Randell Dry Dock conservation plan review, Ref: 02070, Swanbury Penglase Architects, Adelaide. 11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource From Infrastructure to Icon: a Historical and Archaeological Analysis of the Randell Dry Dock Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource On the banks of the Murray River in the small township of Mannum, South Australia, lies an impressive and rare feat of early colonial maritime infrastructure; the Randell Dry Dock. Originally constructed as a timber floating dock in 1873, it was purchased by Captain William Randell and towed to Mannum. The imposing structure docked over half of all the paddle steamers on the Murray-Darling river system before being superseded in 1927. It is now only one of a handful of timber docks from this period still existing internationally. Archaeological investigations have been minimal on maritime infrastructure sites along the River Murray. A heritage trail has been implemented by the SA Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the SA Tourism Commission. The Randell Dry Dock is part of this trail and on the State Heritage Register. Archaeological investigations have revealed new information about the dock’s unique construction. This paper will outline the history and construction of this architectural gem, the seriousness of its current condition, and the ongoing fight against the clock by archaeologists and the local community to protect this rare and significant example of South Australian Murray River history. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Britt Burton Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/53e747dab4bc7b186e474731863b47a9.pdf 7f9c4a50528db5bafa6664a0403fd4f1 PDF Text Text Urdaneta and the health cargo of the Tornaviaje1 Mr Xabier Armendáriz2 Abstract The aim of this paper is to analyze the food cargo of Urdaneta’s Tornaviaje and it’s direct consequences over the health of his sailors. The paper will focus on health issues on board, specially in view of the unknown route that they would follow to go back to the Americas. We will focus on how Urdaneta planned to overcome problems related to prolonged stays at sea, specially health problems due to lack of fresh food. Through contemporary accounts and diaries, we know that Urdaneta understood the necessity of having fresh fruits on board, and took action to ensure the safety of his crew by introducing local fruits from the Philippines such as coconuts. His efforts were successful, and his perilous trip was made with less than 10% of mortality, with no direct mention to scurvy. 1. Introduction If Friar Andrés de Urdaneta (birth Villafranca de Ordizia, Gipuzkoa, 1508 – death Mexico city, 1568) is known to history is, due to his extraordinary return trip from Asia to Mexico, his deed is a milestone in the history of navigation. On the 8th of October 1565, on board the nao San Pedro, he arrived in Acapulco after a long and difficult journey across the biggest Ocean on Earth. He had just established a secure and passable route to go back to the Americas from the Philippine Archipelago. However, Urdaneta's achievements do not end in his nautical knowledge and his ability to successfully complete the crossing of the Pacific Ocean eastwards. Other aspects of his personality and knowledge as a sailor and as a man of science can be found in documental sources and his own personal comments, such as the comparative analysis made by him regarding the different experiences that arose during these great maritime expeditions of his time. We will discuss exclusively Urdaneta's knowledge of an illness that has ravaged sailors since human populations started conquering the waves: scurvy. That Urdaneta was aware of this disease and that he took measures to fight it can be inferred from the fact that none of the sailors in his ship, the San Pedro, died of it during he return voyage from the Philippines to New Spain - which lasted four long months. 2 . The diet on board during the exploration of the Pacific One of the biggest problems on board ships during the 16th century was the conservation of food. Generally speaking, the small amount of fresh food available - fruits and vegetables - was distributed following a hierarchical order that gave preference to the officers of the ships, not usually reaching the sailors (Mira-Caballos 2010:9; López-Ríos 1993:67), and it had to be consumed during the first days of travel. The deterioration of fresh food was extremely fast, not 1 2 to Mari Society for Basque Studies, SPAIN, info@xabierarmendariz.com �only due to the natural cycle of cellular decomposition, but also due to the storage conditions in the cargo hold. The high temperatures of some areas and the humidity destroyed all food that had not previously been dried, salted or smoked. Even these processes did not guarantee that the food would be preserved for the whole voyage (Fernández Duro 1957:140). The need to submit the food to these processes of preservation limited the type of products that could be carried on board, since not all types of food can receive such treatments. Not many fruits and vegetables can endure the process of preservation, so their presence on board a 16th century ship is extremely rare. The diet of sailors was basically two types: the first one was the navy hardtack, a sort of unleavened bread made with flour and water and baked twice or more to prolongue its preservation (Marañón 1940:220)3. The second group was made up of legumes (chickpeas, lentils, and beans), dried or salty fish and meat, vinegar, oil and cheese. Even when this diet contained a good amount of calories, its nutritional value was very deficient (Mira Caballos 2010:8). The legumes were toasted in the oven to improve their preservation, destroying any vitamins that they might have contained (Marañon 1940:221). The food was weighted carefully and distributed among the sailors by a steward, who could reduce the rations under the captain's orders in times of shortage4. The main course consisted of a bun mixed with a stew of legumes and water. A few days per week,5 salty fish or meat was eaten along with some cheese. The remains of the maggoty hardtack was mixed with water to produce a dull soup that was served for dinner. This soup was known as mazamorra. The only consolation they had was the vinegar, which was served on rare occasions, and the wine, of which the sailors received around one litre (L) per day each. The wine helped to calm the hunger, as well as the thrist produced by the salty rations (Mira-Caballos 2010:10)6. Such diets were rich in carbohydrates and provided some proteins, but it was lacking in vitamins. 3. Scurvy: the disease of the sea Scurvy is the most common nautical disease. The prolongued periods of time spent at sea and the lack of fresh food provoke a general state of avitaminosis in a short period of time, specially vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid). The symptoms start with tiredness and depression, then changes in the gums and in the skin appear followed by strong pain and swelling of the joints. The peak of the disease comes when the gums are so swollen and weakened that the act of eating ends with loss of tooth and a strong smell of rot. Other symptoms that usually accompany scurvy are hemorrhage, edemas, jaundice and high fever. 3 Even though hardtack was more nutritious than the common bread because it was made from bran, its hardness was so great that it had to be soaked in salty water in order to eat it (Marañón 1940 :220). 4 These were unforseen circumstances, like for example bad weather and bad winds that might delay the trip more than expected; or perhaps the inability to call at a port due to political conflicts. 5 The disponibility of meat and fish was sometimes diminished by the damage made by rats, insects and rotting. With some luck, fish was abundant in the seas that the ships were sailing, which was always a great improvement over the poor diet on board. 6 The wine given among the sailors was of low quality, unlike the one provided to the officers on board. However, even the distinction between food qualities was not enough to prevent scurvy among the higher ranks. 2 �Death overcomes the patient between convulsions and shock. Due to the severity of its condition, scurvy was the deadliest nautical disease in long distance navigation (López-Ríos 1993:97-99). References to the disease are common since Classic Antiquity; Hippocrates, Celsus and Pliny wrote about it (López-Ríos 1993:98)7. Vasco de Gama himself lost a hundred men of a hundred and sixty-eight to the disease on his expedition to India; according to his logbook Diario de a bordo (1496-1497) (López-Ríos 1993:99) The disease was so widespread that they were down to eight working men per ship at one point. The symptoms can show up in a span of between one month and a half and three months, depending on the availability of fresh food on board. In general, a person needs around 10 miligrams (mg) of vitamin C per day. The body's reserve of vitamin C is around 1,5 grams (gr) and 3 gr, depending on the health of the sailor prior to embarking. A rough estimate of the lapse of time that it takes to develop scurvy in oceanic expeditions can be made, taking into account that in periods of shortage the maximum loss of vitamin C is 4% (López-Ríos 1993:97-99). Until the mid 18th century, medical science considered scurvy a contagious disease of unknown origin, and that it was most likely triggered by the climate, the digestive system or humorism (López-Ríos 1993:106). It is commonly accepted by the history of medicine that Dr. James Lind (1716-1794) was the first person to cure scurvy. Lind, who was a surgeon on board the Brittish vessel HMS Salisbury, conducted a clinical trial on board, testing changes in the diet of his subjects to see whether such alterations affected the development of scurvy. A few selected subjects afflicted with scurvy kept the standard on-board diet, while two sailors were given cider and two other men were given lemons and oranges8. In his famous book, A Treatise of the Scurvy published in 1753, he described the results of his experiments: the two men who drank cider improved, while the two sailors who were given lemons and oranges made a full recovery (López-Ríos 1993:107). 7 Cited by López-Ríos: Hipócrates: “LIber de internis affectionibus” In Enciclopedia Internacional de Cirugía. Madrid, Moya, 1883, I, p.206.; Celso: De Medicina, II, chapter III; Plinio: Naturalis Historiae. XXV, chapter III. 8 Due to the relevance of his experiment, we transcribe the most enlightening sections: On the 20th of May 1747, I took twelve patients with scurvy, on board the Salisbury at sea. Their cases were a similar as I could have them. They all in general had putrid gums, the spots and lassitude, with weakness of their knees. They lay together in one place, being a proper apartment for the sick in the fore-hold; and had one diet common to all, viz, water-gruel sweetened with sugar in the morning; fresh mutton-broth often times for dinner; at other times puddings, boiled biscuit with sugar, etc.; and for supper, barley and raisins, rice and currants, sago and wine, or the like. Two of these were ordered each a quart of cyder a-day. Two others took twenty-five gutts of elixir vitriol three times a-day, upon and empty stomach; using a gargle strongly acidulated with it for their mouths. Two others took two spoonfuls of vinegar three times a-day, upon and empty stomach; having their gruels and their other food well acidulated with it, as also the gargle for their mouth. Two of the worst patients, with the tendons in the ham rigid, (a symptom none of the rest had), were put under a course of sea-water. Of this they drank half a pint every day, and sometimes more or less as it operated, by way of gentle physic. Two other had each two oranges and one lemon given them every day. […] The consequence was, that the most sudden and visible good effects were perceived from the use of the oranges and lemons; one of those who had taken them, being at the end of siks theis fit for duty. (Lind, J. 1753: 145-148) 3 �4. Andrés de Urdaneta Urdaneta was born in the gipuzkoan village of Villafranca de Ordizia towards the end of 1507 or the first months of 1508. His family was most likely involved in the maritime trade with the recently discovered West Indies, the Spice islands and an area well known to the Basque whalers: Terranova, el mar de los bacallaos - the cod sea (Miguel 2002:21). This link between the sea and Urdaneta's explains his cunning ability in trade. It also sets him within the world of Basque seafaring. Basque sailors who traveled to Terranova in search for cod or whales did not usually suffer from scurvy (Agirre 2004). Contemporary documents show that the most common beverage on board was cider, since wine was too expensive for the Basque shipowners. Cider is a good source of vitamin C, which would account for a reduced number of scurvy cases in Basque ships (Agirre 2004)9. This knowledge was most likely known by Urdaneta. Urdaneta was only 17 when he set sail to Asia with the doomed Loaysa expedition. Of the seven ships that left Corunna on 24th of July 1525, only one managed to arrive in Mindanao (current Philippines). We don't know what Urdaneta's role in the expedition was, but he seemed to have been well considered by the officers of the ships since he signed as a witness in Elcano's last will. Urdaneta and the remaining crew (26 sailors) were stranded in the Spice Islands. He remained in the Pacific region for almost a decade, until he reached Spain on a Portuguese ship, on 26th of June of 1536. During these years he suffered many misfortunes, but he also acquired a vast amount of knowledge. The sources of this knowledge were diverse, but possibly the most interesting was the rescue of castaway sailor Gonzalo de Vigo, from the Magellan expedition. He survived in the island of Guam, and knew the language of the local population. Urdaneta spent most of his years in the Pacific with Gonzalo de Vigo, from whom he learnt that language (Miguel 2002:40-42; Arteche 1943:160). On his arrival to Europe he was captured by the Portuguese, who seized Urdaneta's diaries, in which he wrote about his time in the Pacific. He escaped from Lisbon and upon his arrival in Valladolid, he started re-writing his experiences in Asia-Pacific. Based on his writings, both the diaries and the memorial, it is clear that Urdaneta had a deep knowledge of the Spice Islands, their geography, the people who inhabited them, their customs, wind patterns and so on (Arteche 1943:160-162). This knowledge helped him undertake such a difficult task as the “tornaviaje”, the return trip Westwards to Mexico, and it most likely helped him to control direct health issues that threathened the voyage. 9 Cider has been the alcoholic beverage traditionally consumed in the Atlantic coast of Europe and the south of the British Isles. The humid climate made it difficult to grow vines, but apple trees grow abundantly. There are many references to the Basque custom of drinking cider, but perhaps the most interesting was made by French Inquisitor Pierre de Lancre. De Lancre defined the Basques as bad farmers who prefered life at sea and their women as witches who used the cider from the apple, the fruit of sin: “ne mangent que pommes, ne boyvent que jus de pommes, qui est occasion qu'elles mordent si volontiers à cette pomme de transgression, qui fist outrepasser le commandement de Dieu et franchir la prohibition à notre premier père”. Lancre, Pierre de., 1612. Tableau de l’inconstance des mauvais anges et démons… Livre I, Discours II. Chez Jean Berjon. Paris. 4 �The Tornaviaje Urdaneta's life was quite remarkable. In 1538 he accompanied Pedro de Alvarado to New Spain to help him organize a new expedition to the Spice Islands (Miguel 2002:48). However, after the death of Alvarado, Ruy López de Villalobos took control of the expedition, which was meant to seek a return route to New Spain. Urdaneta was left behind, and Ruy Lopez de Villalobos' expedition failed. Meanwhile, Urdaneta occupied relevant roles related to maritime issues, working in the service of viceroy Mendoza (Miguel 2002:50). In March 1553, Urdaneta's life changed after he joined the order of the Augustinians. Although he led a monastic life, he was mentioned repeatedly in connection with the Spice Islands. In 1560 the new viceroy of New Spain, Luís Velasco, received a letter from king Philip II ordering him to mount a new expedition to the Spice Islands.10 The Spanish king was aware of the need to establish a Spanish presence in Asia, specially in the Philippines after disputes with Portugal arose regarding the ownership of the Maluku Islands. Philip II was also pressed by the need to find an alternative way back through the Pacific Ocean, and not around Africa, which was controled by the Portuguese. In the king's own words: “porque lo principal que en esa jornada se pretende es saber la vuelta, pues la yda se sabe que se haze en breve tiempo” [Translation: because our chief concern of this journey is to find a way back, since the outbound journey is known to take a short time] (Miguel 2002:54). The command of the new expedition was asigned by Gipuzkoan Miguel López de Legazpi. However, the technical command felt in the hands of Urdaneta (Arteche 1943:146), who had mentioned several times his absolute certainty that he would be able to find his way back through the Pacific Ocean to complete the return trip. Each man had different missions: Legazpi was instructed to take control over the Philippines, while Urdaneta was ordered to find his way back to New Spain through the Pacific Ocean in what will be known as the Tornaviaje. It was during the organization of the expedition that Urdaneta showed his deep knowledge of naval medicine gathered from his experience on board the Loaysa expedition and his observations during his stay in the Pacific Ocean. In several letters to Philip II and viceroy Velasco, he insisted on provisioning the ships with kidney beans (which contains vitamins B1,B2,B3,B9), broad bean (rich in vitamins C, A, E, B1, B2) and guarana, a tropical fruit with a high content of vitamine C (Miguel 2007). In a report for viceroy Velasco related to the Tornaviaje, Urdaneta explains the characteristics of a disease that he himself had observed first-hand in the Loaysa expedition: De mas de [e]sto, da una enfermedad en esta Mar de Poniente a los hombres que se les creçen y podreçen las enzias y mueren muchos de [e]sta enfermedad, que a nosotros solo en una nao se nos murieron desde el estrecho hasta las yslas cuarenta hombres y aun a los que an ydo desde a Nueua España para la Espeçieria no les a dexado de dar esta enfermedad empero como la nauegaçion se haze em poco tiempo y lleuan bastimentos frescos, no haze tanta impresión como haze en los que ban desde España por el Estrecho (Miguel 2009: 483-484). [Translation: Besides this, there is a disease in this Sea of Ponente that makes men's gums grow and rot and many die from this disease, in only 10 (Archivo General de Indias (AGI) Section Patronato, 23, 12). 5 �one nao forty men died from the strait to the islands, even those who went from New Spain to the Spice islands have also been affected but since the navigation takes a short time and they have fresh food, the disease does not affect them as much as those who travel from Spain through the strait] Both references indicate without a doubt that Urdaneta knew of the effects of lack of fresh fruit and vegetables in the development of scurvy, even when he was unable to identify the agent that was involved (vitamine C would not be discovered until the 20th century)11. Legazpi's expedition set sail on 21st November 1564, and reached the Philippines in 22nd January 1565, without any loss attributed to scurvy. Urdaneta served as the interpreter for Legazpi on his arrival to the Philippines, and in short he was ordered to start the journey back. The nao San Pedro was ready for her return to New Spain. On 1st June 1565 they set sail from Cebu following a North-East course. In command of the expedition was Legazpi's own grandson, Felipe de Salcedo, who was only 18 years old. However, Urdaneta was in charge of the navigation. The story of the trip was recorded by Esteban Rodríguez, first pilot, and Rodrigo de Espinosa, second pilot. Unfortunately, Urdaneta's account - which can be found in the National Library of Paris - is badly preserved and barely legible. From the pilots' accounts we know that Urdaneta stocked up the vessel for eight or nine months, although he knew that the trip would take around four months at the most. They sailed between the islands of the archipelago until they reached Luzon, and there the pilots wrote that Urdaneta replenished the food they had already and ordered to stock a large amount of coconuts (Miguel 2002:77). After this last call, the ship never touched land until they reached Acapulco. The relevance that Urdaneta places in coconuts is not casual. The coconut can be easily preserved and it lasts for a long time, something he would have known from his experience in the Maluku islands. Also, it is a reliable source of water in case of shortage. Perhaps its most remarkable feature is its great content of vitamin C, which is 3,3 mg (around 6%). The vitamin is present in the pulp, as well as in the water12. It could be argued Urdaneta knew about the use of coconut in the prevention of scurvy during his stay in the Maluku islands. He spoke fluent Malay and Tagalog, and he knew local maritime customs and their types of ships (Miguel 2002:71; Arteche 1943: 160). 5. Arrival in America During the trip, Urdaneta made several tackings to calculate longitude estimates, prolonguing the trip more than necessary. On 18th September 1565, after navigating across the Pacific for three months and a half, they sighted the 11 Albert Szent Gvordyi, Chemistry professor at the University of Budapest, isolated the vitamin C of a green pepper in 1928. He received the Nobel Price of Medicine and Physiology in 1937 for this and other achievements. 12 It is worth noting that the biggest producers of coconuts are currently located in Southeast Asia. The Philippines tops the list with 17 million tons per year. Indonesia and Malaysia, the old Maluku islands, produce 16 million and half million respectively (Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department. The Statistical Devision. (2007) http://faostat.fao.org/ 6 �coast of California, approximately around the island of Santa Rosa. The balance of deaths on board was of 16 out of a 200 men crew, just around 8% of the sailors when most vessels of the same period lost between 33% and 40% of the crew to scurvy, while many more were suffering the last stages of the disease (Miguel 2002:81). None of the accounts that have survived mention scurvy, although they do tell of the bad health that suffered most of the crew - just a few who reached the Americas were fit to work - even under the care of Urdaneta, who also acted as the nurse on board13. Within sight of land, Urdaneta decided to continue to Acapulco, where they arrived on 8th October, two weeks after reaching California. It would have been surprising that Urdaneta would not have stopped for provisions if there had been cases of scurvy on board. That would have meant depriving the crew of the fresh food that he knew was essential against scurvy. He also prolongued the trip to make tacking maneuvers. The sixteen deaths on board and the general exhaustion of the sailors can be attributed to any of the common infectious diseases, tropical maladies or traumatisms that usually affected life on that type of vessel - the nao - (Marañon 1940:223). We cannot forget that these men had been at sea for almost ten months since the outbound trip. Another point that hints at Urdaneta's knowledge of naval medicine comes from a surprising source. A deserter of the outbound expedition, Alonso de Arellano, completed the return trip before Urdaneta on board the patache San Lucas, thanks to the knowledge shared with him by Urdaneta. However, the men that were still alive when they reached the Americas were severely ill with scurvy14. Eleven years after the death of Urdaneta, an augustinian friar called Agustín Farfán, published in 1579 his Tratado Breve de Medicina (Brief Treaty of Medicine). He must have known Urdaneta, since they were members of the same order. In his book, Farfán writes that to prevent scurvy the patient should be administered: “un medicamento con medio limón y media naranja amarga, con un poco de alumbre quemado” [translation: a remedy with half lemon and half orange, with a bit of burnt alum] (Farfán 1579). These observations were made 200 years before Johann Georg, Heinrich Kramer or James Lind made their observations. Once the Manila galleon route was established,15 we find constant references regarding the use of citrics in the galleon's infirmary cabinet: Variedad de naranjas: Lumben, amumontoy, aoson, apugan, caramisca, malcape, cabuagao, opong-opong y samugao, bien naturales o en conserva se cargaban en los galeones. La variedad del limonero biasung, abundante en Visayas fue muy eficaz para evitar el escorbuto (Cabrero 2009: 574) 13 Urdaneta was accompanied by a member of his order: friar Andrés de Aguirre. In contemprary accounts there is an explicit mention by the crew thanking the friars for their care (Arteche 1943: 181) 14 “La gente estaba turbada, que no había quien acudiese ni acertase con cabo ninguno por la grande oscuridad (sic) que hacía y también por estar toda la gente enferma de la grande hambre y sed que han pasado y pasaban y aunque hubieran que comer no podían, porque a todos se les andaban los dientes y les creció mucha carne de la boca, tanto que les tapaban las encías y en tocando en cualquier cosa se les caían los dientes”. (Cuevas 1943) 15 It was also common that upon arrivel on the Californian coast the natives would approach the galleons on canoes to offer the exhausted sailors citrics and other fruits cultivated by the missionaries ( Lyon 1990: 27). 7 �[Translation: “variety of oranges: Lumben, amumontoy, aoson, apugan, caramisca, malcape, cabuagao, opong-opong and samugao, either natural or preserved were stocked in the galleons. The lemon tree variety called biasung, abundant in Visayas was very effective in the prevention of scurvy”] In any case, it seems that not all sailors and explorers serving under the Spanish crown shared this knowledge. It could be perhaps that this information was not transmitted generally among captains of the fleet or the officers responsible of the vessels16. Another possibility is that this knowledge was ignored in lieu of commercial gain in view of cargo distribution and the costs of the quantity and quality of the crew's food. 6. Conclusion Taking into account the Tornaviaje and Urdaneta's knowledge, it is unsustainable to maintain that scurvy was considered a contagious disease up to the 18th century. Contemporary documents show that Urdaneta was a Renaissance man, whose knowledge and experience were taken into account by the Spanish crown. His indications were applied broadly to long oceanic travels, such as the Manila galleon route. On the other hand, Urdaneta's notes about health on board are clear and concise. From them it can be determined that Urdaneta possessed ample knowledge of the nature of scurvy. In fact, if we take into account the language used in his anotations, it could be suggested that this knowledge was shared with other pilots, although it was not a general knowledge among every pilot. The familiarization of Spanish pilots with scurvy and its treatment using fresh food and citrics could have been wider than previously thought. However, as mentioned before, there was not a general education plan that would have guaranteed that every pilot in a Spanish vessel had access to this information. In later oceanic travels scurvy was again present, but it is difficult to determine if this is due to ignorance or to stocking and logistic issues related to supplies and preservation. After reviewing Urdaneta's work, it seems more likely that the latter option was to be blamed. It is not the aim of this paper to establish whether it was James Lind or Urdaneta he conqueror of scurvy, like English literature portrays the former. Instead, our goal is to point out the lack of communication between the navies of the great world powers, which were battling each other for territorial expansion. In this sense, the lack of communication postponed the generalization of the cure against scurvy, which led to the deaths of too many sailors who met a horrific and painful end. Bibliography Agirre, E., “La sidra” In Euskonews & Media. Nº CCLXXXIII. [html], 16 An example can be found in memorial nº 4, that captain Pedro Fernández de Quiros sends to don Luis de Velasco, viceroy of Peru, in 1598. In a long list of the provisions that were needed for his 1605 expedition to the mythic Terra Australis, he lists the required food, giving little relevance to fresh vegetables and a total absence of citrics and other fruits (Fernandez de Quiros 1597-1614: IV, 62-63) 8 �2004 Arizaga, B., Martinez, S., 2006 Arteche, J. de., 1943 Cabrero Fernandez, L., 2009 Cuevas, M., 1943. Farfan, A. Fr., 1579 Fernandez Duro.C., 1857 Fernández de Quirós, F., 2002 Gargantilla, P., 2011 Lind, J., 1753 Lopez-Ríos Fernández, F., 1993 Lyon, E., 1990 Marañón, G., 1940 Eusko Ikaskuntza- Basque Studies Society, Donostia-San Sebastián, available at: <http://www.euskonews.com/0282zbk/gaia28203es.html> [Accessed 20 August 2011 ] Atlas de las villas medievales de Vasconia, Bizkaia, Eusko Ikaskuntza, Donosita-San Sebastián. Urdaneta. El dominador de los espacios del Océano Pacífico, Espasa-Calpe, Barcelona. “Alegría, tristeza y ansiedad en la travesía del Galeón”, in (ed) Susana Truchuelo, Andrés de Urdaneta: Un hombre moderno, Ayuntamiento de Ordizia, Lasarte-Oria. Monje y marino: La vida en los tiempos de Andrés de Urdaneta. Galatea, México. Tratado Breve de Medicina, Ciudad de México. Disquisiciones náuticas. La mar descrita por los mareados, Imprenta de Aribau, Madrid, Electronic edition available at www.openlibrary.org Memoriales de las Indias Australes. Edición de Pinochet de la Barra, O. Crónicas de América 1597-1614, Dastin, Las Rozas. Breve historia de la medicina. Del chamán a la gripe A, Nowtilus, Madrid. A treatise of the scurvy, (ed.) Facs., Edimburgo University Press, Edimburgo,1953. Medicina naval española en la época de los descubrimientos, Editorial Labor, Barcelona. “Track of the Manila Galleons” In National Geographics, Sep.1990. “La vida en las galeras en tiempos de Felipe II” in Ars Médica. Revista de humanidades, From Historia y Vida, Espasa Calpé, Barcelona. Miguel, J.R. de., “Urdaneta, un hombre moderno”, in Euskonews, CDXV, 2007 [html] Eusko Ikaskuntza-Basque Studies Society, DonositaSan Sebastián. Available at: <http://www.euskonews.com/0415zbk/gaia41502es.html> [Accessed 20 August 2011] Miguel, J.R. de., Urdaneta en su tiempo, Sociedad Oceanográfica de 2002 Gipuzkoa, Donosita-San Sebastián. Miguel, J.R. de., “Las dificultades náuticas del Tornaviaje", in (ed.) Susana 2009 Truchuelo, Andrés de Urdaneta: Un hombre moderno, Ayuntamiento de Ordizia, Lasarte-Oria. Mira Caballos, “La vida y la muerte a bordo de un navío del siglo XVI: E., algunos aportes”, in Revista de Historia Naval, CVIII, 2010 Ministerio de Defensa, Madrid. 9 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Urdaneta and the health cargo of the Tornaviaje Subject The topic of the resource Session 9 Spain and the Asia-Pacific region Description An account of the resource The aim of this paper is to analyze the food cargo of Urdaneta’s Tornaviaje and it’s direct consequences over the health of his sailors. The paper will focus on health issues on board, specially in view of the unknown route that they would follow to go back to the Americas. We will focus on how Urdaneta planned to overcome problems related to prolonged stays at sea, specially health problems due to lack of fresh food. Through contemporary accounts and diaries, we know that Urdaneta understood the necessity of having fresh fruits on board, and took action to ensure the safety of his crew by introducing local fruits from the Philippines such as coconuts. His efforts were successful, and his perilous trip was made with less than 10% of mortality, with no direct mention to scurvy. 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k M � | R F S R P � � R d H R T F � � N Q P � � F � ¢ R X F P T � � � � T F � d � � X � P � � L N � F Q P N O � } � S N ] � R L � � � E F � W � N � e U � P � Q S � P � � � � � X F Y � � W P � � � � R M Q U W � � R Q W N N U F � Q � W N � � R F U � � F e R e � € � � F � M N � k � Q O � � P F N � � N � E � � M N � U P U M � F W F N � Ÿ M � � Q Ÿ L � M E ž P e F � � � P � G Q ž Q M � � � F F � L P � � F � � � P � � X � L � U S � T Q P � � i R � — F b R G � F ž � ] F N ‘ Q � X N M N e � R G i W � � W Q n � M F � � R P — N F � F – P � T � � � � R U ] G R P � e S � � � � W � \ N M � X R � � P � � X � � k P F � � W P P N M P � W • F � � � L N W E � � � G M N W U � M N � � � � F _ F � R [ � Z � G � [ � \ Q � V R U R � P Q G � � V � M N � � U W X L M [ � U M � b � F ” R � � “ U n � M N � ’ P F � M N V R ‘ N O R � r �  � F S � R K � U � O P q � W � F F N W W � ¦ Y R ] N F Q � � N X H M c � R Y U R Y � R F P � � N � P X Q N F T � P � N N e P Q U � � � M F � S � F � P M e � � � N F � P P U P } Q � � W M P � N P ¥ � N F � R � P F W M � U � F � � E W N � U X M M � W N � N N � € � W P � Q Z E � � � � R T N N � � � e i � M N �  R Q \ M � F � � F � � � � � U P � N S G � S � X � T � P N � Q P e N � � � � � R L F R � � N P M N S M N M � � � R N ^ P N �  � W P � R � € � � � � � S � � _ F � Y � � k � � � � � P X � X V R S � � U � � � P � R N � Ž R � Q S ] � Q F N F � � � � P e L R X R T R � � � � N ® � N N M b F ] Q � � � F � N P � � � � F \ M N � F � Q P N �� s � S � Q b � � k � � P P � � R � g � � � S � � � � µ Y � Q T } ] � R M N � m G N � � Q P � � F � N S P � M N � Y � W M N e � N � N P � � � � R E R € � R F � � R Q P � i R E � R � F � �  R Q i W N � � R W U � € � � � W N � � P � P _ F W U � � P G N X � � � � � � � � F � � N � 8 · . � � � � 1 " � � � � 1 2 � � � % � 2 " ( � � � 9 " � · " / 3 2 ¸ � ¸ � � ! . � � � " � � � � � � m � � M ´ � � F � � F � � P b M � _ � � Y X P S � � R W � R M � � � F M N S � � Y � R � � � � R W R P � P M � � S F X R R � S P G k � S R R c � W � P M M Œ � � W � � � d � � ] R � M N � F M N � F } � L Q � F M e � R € � N � � P P � � � � S k R R P � Y } G � � k � R Q � P � � F � Q F 1 � � P F P X � W N � � F ] É � � Q � Y � R � k � � X F � � � � M e F F � � 5 � " " � � � � � � � � � R � � M N m � W W S � X N S P ] � N � � F F � � U � Q � � " ( " " � � � � 2 ( � � � � " � & � � $ � � � � � � � � � � " � 2 9 � � � � " � � � � � L 2 � ( � � � � � � � � � � � � � " 2 � � " � : ( � � � � ^ � | H R F � � Z � � R R T R � Q X � � Q � F � � ž P ž H | � N ] � Q � � � U � � � � � N � � G F M � � ª � � � R P � R ( � 2 � % � 9 � � � � � ´ � � ´ � : � 2 � � � $ � � � " � � " � & # � � - � . ) � � � � : � " � 2 " � � � 2 v ( � ( � � � � � � ( � � � � � " � � � � 9 � � ( � � � R " P M � Á � # � S N � F R E � F Z Q � L � Q T E � P F � � ‘ � � P � G R L N � � U Á � � � F e « X R F R � Æ � � G € R F Y R N � M N \ � Y Å P F M Z W S R � T ” � � N M ^ ª N � Q F � � � T ‘ S � b � � � � � P L • R ] R R N M � P � Ÿ b P � � � � � Ä T T � R W ˜ s R M R } ” � � b � N S | � Q � ] � º F � W R P R ‘ � F � H V � � N G d F � � � � O F U L � � F F � R N � R M N P P Ÿ ^ � R N � F � n U È R � N M à P P Q � Ç P Q R � J R � W N � P g n � � b M N F c � ] � F S � S R  L R � � X P N � S X F � � F X P W F � � P M � Y X � � N � � R S P Ž W � L R L � W X s M q O P F X � F � S N Q � � F � � P M H � R S U " � P � F u � N S - $ � F R V � � N N ] Q N � � R � � M M N P P F R N R N � � � � U R Q R T R � Q � Y S � R P T P � Q P � � e � N s � \ � � Q N P k L N N � W � R P � � � � � � � � � m M � � R R T � � � R P R X � M � � � R P � F � G R M N M � � N � T � W P N X � � � P � W  S R M N ] � k � M � � M N F L F k F N � � N L L � � R M N � � N � � Q � R F � U P P W � F � N � N S � F � X � k M � L � � � R � � Q � N P P L W � � Q G � U R � F � \ F � P � X U � � � U S � M U Y L � N P � � R R � E � � P b � N � � � � � � � � � � � G L � F E X � Q � � � � e P ] � P � � P Y M � � R � F � R � U � X M N � X R N U � � Q Y � L N � � Q � � � � O W k � � P N � � � � U P S Q � � Q � 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q � X N � � F F G } � � G � � I ] € � F � P � R k N Q Q � � M � � e M H e � � � N � � � � N � F S R � � N R X � � � F a X R � X Y X � P � F Y R F M N M � F � � N F � W W U G S F R N F N � Q � � N � N M F a E X � L M U � Y F � b � € k Q U ] � e � � M I � � P � § P M N Y F � � ] N _ ^ � P N � R � � � R ` W P F � X P } U N M P W � � P ´ P � ‘ � � � N ¬ � M � ¿ P k N U I � U M ž � � � � R — � � � U F ¬ � � H P � U R R R Y M � � F � � � � � � � � ³ R T � P ¾ � R � � œ � R ³ � _ N � � � � Q � N P ‘ N P N N � P F F � W F � � U � W � U N N W � � � � � � F M G Q ½ � � N P � U � � � N F � P � W M R R R N � � W P � � Ÿ O F M Y » R P L L � Ÿ G N T � P \ � N R N � P ¼ F R N M � R � � Ÿ � � � T � X � � M Q � � N Q » Y � � º R € N F X M N P N � e R F P F � Q � R � N � Z � N } R � U � � M N M N � � � � � � Q N T M Q � R ³ ³ � U � X � � � � � � � � � � � � � " X # � � � � � N L � ; ¶ ´ ¶ % b N ³  � 9 � � � " " " � � " � � � � u 8 � � � X � � x 8 � Q ] � � F � ( � ] �b M X � R R N � F � � X X W N S T � 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� P � N � S � � � U R � � � Q F � � � Q ] P � F Q � Q P R X � N Q N � k S R � P T L N N � E � � � S R Y L � � � � � P N � � E R T T � � � � � � R � G � P � � X R Ž � V P � M X � P F � b � � � � ] � k � N R R Y � s e F Q � � � � � N P T P R � � � P F W W Y M N � E V P R Z M F � P � F � P M � � � � � � P [ � P Y � W J K ` R F J K � h R N P P N � N ] \ � � � S ] � J W Q X R g U � P � � F J I � � F W _ F M � H � � L Q P U J Q F F M � M N � � � � ^ F b M N � R Y N � M � W I � h S M � R H � q R G F n V f � � M N J � N � � N Q c p R � ] � � � F F P F Q R � � J n T R N � Q S � F R � F T R Q W Z Q � Y N � F R Q F Q � � F F � � R Z Y F � Q F R � F � F � S N P F M W F E � M R � N G F L � � � � � F M N Q M R � � Q F L � � P Q g � � N R � � � V \ F � G � X � � F T P � N � R Q � � � � � R N � F F � U S L Q U � G R � E � � Y N s S F � Q U G S P N M � F W N � � � F N Y P E � P F � � W N � W U � T � e O � � Z R n R R W N � � F � � N N P � � N N W Y O M P � R � R Q � P N R Y R � R � P � S � � W � � P � � � P N � � L � Q O � R � N F � � � W N L W M L � [ S M N _ M Q � Q � � � N � M N P � � P V � Q � R � F � R P � T R M U U S � M N P � U M M � N W U � T F N � � } F F N R W � � S R � � R \ V c X P P o N � E \ � W W Q � � M N U � G � X F � � N R F Q � F R € R R R P � � � S R � F L � ^ � � F N � � W W N W � R � P W � k � � P P M � � U � Q � � S \ F X � P T N R } R W � U � � Q � � P N � F � � � F M P i R N N P � R � W M � � M N e � M R � � P R R P F Q � M S � R � L F � R P F W Q � � � P U N Q R ` � � Q T } X R Q M � O P P � � � R � [ � � P W Z M O T S N � � � R � N W � Q � Q � R F L � R � E � F � � Q � N P N W M N � � � R � N � N � R P M M M � V F b � � F T U N R � � � X \ � T � Y � � U � R F � F � � � P � � N R � � S � � � � R � N � � � N L M R � F G T R � � P Q � � G � ] E Z X R N F � P R � G � i � Q � � F F N P F � s T P R N � N P � � P F X F � ] p S � � X � � M N F � � F P s � F H Q � X � | _ G N K V P F N � M R � � N � X � � F � � N � � � N Q � N T � R � � G I R V ` R ] M M � N F X R R e � � T P � � � N U P � � N F € F R � � P N F � F R W � Q � � N R R P � � ^ � Q � P Q f � � � N � F } � � � � � R R � M N L � M N � P F � � T G T Z m F M R R � k R S � S R � � � N � M Y S X P � N � � N � � � W N � _ W R N � � P e F � � F ] P F P � � P Q � � F F V M N W � R F M ^ � � N N X � � X R � E Q M � � W F P W U M N S P S W N F L � R � � R k � R � N F M P � M � � F P P � F U � � � � � U R � � N P � � M Q � N F � M N � � � P M N P � � � Q � � � � F � S P R N G � F R a � � � M � � � Q  P M � F M M N Q � Q � N � � V � � Y F P � � \ W N Q L � P M N � U ˜ � G � W ” P  � R Õ } ] T � ‘ F F � E S Q N M M � X S N � L � N O ­ � � F G ž Q � � F � F S R P ] � Ÿ L � N P Q F P � Q � N � ½ F P N F W � R N M U � P � P F � � X F � � � N � N M N e P S M N P Q � � N F F Q � � O X � M N � � e � R P � V M � P � � U P � L F N N M � R F Q � � � T � � ] W M N P k � � R F � � R T � G Q � W U X S � � F � k Y J � X i � � F � F P R W W L E q � N M � i I F G � � N � R � Q X � � � W N � F P R � R X P f � � R P W Z R P L W � F R R N R S R � � � � X � F k � � L � N R U N � X Q M F M X � F � N � � V p � Y M N \ U L H � � � � F P � Q ] �  M Y F � � M � � X F U P � W � � i ] Q � Q � i � F W F � � P X � P R R N � � N � P F M � F N W e W k � F � T P � S P T k R W � � N � R T � U � � R � P R R N G � M N R � U F � � R P � � Y � Q � P M F R � � X T � M N W ] � X R � � � M Q Z � S N P \ F � � � N E � Z R R T � P N � F P � � � � � R M N M Z � � � o R � � k Z R � V � W L Q G F N L i F F � P W Q � �  M N � S M O P � � ¹ N F P � � M � U � M N � N F O F � R F � � M M W � � N N P � � M P R � � M N \ P � � L F R � � M € � � P R W N N � T � M P � � P � � N P � � R N � G � X � Y � � � � F � S G � L N � P N o M U � � � � � � U � � � � F M � Q F � �  P M Q Q � � � T k � R U S M N Y � U S F � F R R � X F � U � � � P � � N F } � F N � R Z W � [ � S � b � N � R � R � � N W F � N F R R � � P N � F � W � k � N F O � L � � W Q R R � � N � N � Q � P � e T � P W � M � R � � � � S P � Q � Q R N P P � � S � U e F � \ X F � � F � � � N N F � M N S O � S � � G W P � U � s P § R W R P X � � � Q � R P R � U � P � ¹ F M L N � F � � M � N S Q P M f � � � N �  � � N � R V � X P � n � N ] N � � F � ] Q W F d � � P M � j � � N � � U [ � X � Y M N � � N F � R M N � � � N � s P P e G � Q R � � � Q F � S � � X H P � F P i Q \ N � P Q G L Q � F � X R e � N � � P i j F M � P � U � W U � F X M � � T M W N � W N � N P N � T W h W M X R q N P � P M N � � M N N � Y � Q W � m P R } � J � U � E k � � � \ � P M � � E M R � F � M L L � R R P P � Q ] � P X � K � � P e Q � � Q P M � Q � P N � U � � � P N T R � � � V F P � � M � � � � P T � M F � R � N � � P � � � Q U F M J P W M N N g F U Z W � � R F ] X � � S � � � � F � X F M T � � b � k � M P R �  � R � G � Q � � X R � W � R k P � P R P O N � G Q � � X R Q � M N O T � Q R Q F � � T F F � M R T N � P G F U � R Q Y � M n R � � P M W N F � � W � � N Q � R N F F R � R Y � T P � W ¹ F O � U ] � T � Q � � X � � � S G � � P � M � � � � � � M � � N P � P � R M � b � M N N 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Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Luso-Asian influences in Macaronesia Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource In early 1607 when the East India Company was preparing to send its first fleet to India, four Asian men were already in London and requested work on these ships as a means to getting home. The men all had Portuguese names; Marcus, John Mendes, John Rodrigues and John Taro. Where did these men come from and what was their story? Through original interdisciplinary fieldwork in Macaronesia, as well as in South and Southeast Asia this paper is an investigative research into the origin of the earliest medieval seaborne Asians to arrive into the Atlantic Ocean from their homelands in the Indo-Pacific regions. Throwing light on a narrative that has been usually projected from the perspective of “European pioneers” from the opposing direction. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cliff Pereira Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e8283281db42da3c0b3898c48550e33c.pdf ad8910bc010314434243720d02d3e0d6 PDF Text Text The Centenary Impact Since RMS Titanic Sank upon Universal Regulation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in International Waters, and the Necessity of New Law-Making in Japan NAKADA, Tatsuya1 Abstract 2012 is Centennial since Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic sunk. The Titanic was found in 1985, as early as 1986 United States of America (USA) enacted the RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act. It aimed at the conclusion of international agreement for the conservation of the Titanic by states concerned. The agreement was started drafting in 1997 and adopted in 2000. It was USA, France, England and Canada that adopted Agreement concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic (the Agreement). On the other hand United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) was made through four diplomatic conferences since 1998, and entered into force in 2010. Thanks to 2001 Convention, the term “Underwater Cultural Heritage” (UCH) has been well-known to people around the world. Be that as it may, to be an UCH needs passage of 100 years; the Titanic will be an UCH next year. Although the importance of 2001 Convention has recently attracted considerable attention, its new trend toward universal regulation has just started emerging from international society. It is the Article 9.2 of the Agreement that attention should be paid. It provides, “If a general multilateral Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage enters into force for all Parties, they shall consult to discuss the relationship between this Agreement and that Convention.” Assuming an appropriate coordination of them gives rise to a new trend, it appears more desirable to foresee the near future and timely accede to 2001 Convention after the preparation of domestic laws in Japan referring to 2001 Convention. Introduction Next year is Centennial since RMS Titanic sank. According to the definition of Article 1.1.a of Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural heritage (2001 Convention) the Titanic will be an Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH). While large projects at Southampton (Bates 2009) are being prepared toward the day, a wide variety of plans are also being pondered all the world. Since 1985 United States of America (USA) and France joint-party, led by Robert Ballard, found the Titanic and, some 6,000 artifacts have been raised (Murphy 2002). As early as 1985, Nancy 1 Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, picono@kaiyodai.ac.jp 1 �Foster, former assistant administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Ocean Service, testified before Congress on a house Resolution to protect the Titanic. Ballard also stated that the most desirable option for the conservation of the Titanic be to take separate measures among cooperating states as it was located in international waters. R.M.S. Titanic Maritime Memorial Act （ ） of 1986 1986 Act was enacted. The Agreement concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic (the ） Agreement drawn up by USA, United Kingdom (UK), France and Canada states, “the agreement shall enter into force on the date on which two states have indicated their consent to be bound” (Art. 11.2). Signing the Agreement and enacting new legislation in November 2003, the UK set up the legal institution no. 2496 Merchant Shipping, Casualties, Wreck and Salvage, The Protection of Wrecks (RMS Titanic) Order 2003, [Dft 13155], (no.2496), which entails summary conviction to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum (£5,000) or conviction to an limited fine to the salvage in unconformity with the criteria in the Agreement (Art. 6.1 and 6.2). On April 12th 2001 NOAA published the Guidelines for Research, Exploration and Salvage of RMS Titanic, 66 Fed.Reg. 18905, 18908-09 (Fed.Reg. 18905) according to 1986 Act. Moreover a Draft Charter for a Titanic Preservation Alliance (the Alliance) was drawn up to make it clear the standard of explorations of the Titanic. In 2003 and 2004, NOAA conducted scientific research with various partners. On June 2004, Ballard with NOAA carried out research which surveyed how the Titanic has deteriorated since its discovery. This progress of research resulted in the Return to Titanic (directed by Tracy Barry and Peter Schnall, 7th June 2004) and was put on publicly accessible media throughout the world. This campaign induced the USA to sign the Agreement on 18th June 2004. RMS Titanic Inc. (RMST) has exclusively explored the Titanic, recovering and conserving some 5,500 artifacts. RMST has fascinated more than 25 million people through many exhibitions. In 2010, RMST carried out the latest survey in conjunction with NOAA, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the USA National Park Service (http://www.rmstitanic.net/about-us.html). How the entry into force of the Agreement impacts upon a series of the Titanic litigations in USA admiralty courts will be examined. In fact, the USA movement toward the entry into force has made steady progress. Taking universal publicity into account, it seems the Agreement will be approved by Congress which was transmitted Bill titled R.M.S. Titanic Maritime Memorial Preservation Act of 2009 (re-amendment of 1986 Act) around 15th April 2012, the Titanic’s 100th anniversary. The day has two implications, the fact that the Titanic becomes UCH in 2012, and the turning point of shifting salvage law to cultural heritage law. 2 �Two Trends in USA: 1986 Act and Admiralty Court The Trend of 1986 Act Ballard has not raised artifacts that he found on the Titanic as it is considered a non commercial and scientific research (Ballard and Sweeney 2004: 72-73). The location was not precisely proclaimed so as not to be plundered (Ballard and Michael 1985: 704). 1986 Act attempted to make the Agreement among states concerned, to enact national law in accordance with the Agreement. 1986 Act directed the Department of State to enter into negotiations with interested nations to establish an international agreement to designate the wreck as a maritime memorial and protect it from looting and unscientific salvage. UK is a flag state, France is the joint finding state and has Cherbourg port of call on her route, and Canada is the nearest coastal state from the shipwrecked point. USA continuously offered a consultation to other states. Also Russia and Japan are expected to participate in the Agreement to make it more Ⅰ Ⅱ effective (Dromgoole 2003:7). The Russian submersibles Mir and built in 1987 are able to explore efficiently in cooperation with each other, having researched the Titanic 41 times from 1991 to 2003. Japan Marine Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) upgraded the Shinkai 2000 built in 1981 to the Shinkai 6500 built in 1990, which exceeded the 1000th dive in 2007. While 1986 Act was not in support of others, French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER) which knew the location of the shipwreck site undertook an independent exploration. Taking advantage of the circumstance, RMST (since 1987) set up with a view to profiting from artifacts. IFREMER raised more than 800 artifacts since the first 1987 exploration. The USA promptly enacted the Abandoned Shipwreck Act against such actions, which stated, “it would prohibit the import with a view to the proceeds through the recovering from the Titanic and further, such measures would be maintained until the Agreement comes into force”. On the contrary, RMST has continuously carried out the explorations chartering the Nautile and raised some 4,000 artifacts over seven expeditions. Since 1997 the draft of the Agreement has the purpose of controlling non-regulated salvage and other harmful activities over the Titanic. The Fed.Reg. 18905 is essentially almost the same as the annexes attached to both the Agreement and 2001 Convention based mainly on the 1996 Charter on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (for details see Craig 2008:3). The Annex attached to 2001 Convention is established as the international criteria of underwater research (Oppenheimer and Varmer 2006:15). However there is room for flexible interpretation of salvage law, while continuing to observe strict scientific, cultural and historical significance. The Agreement generally does not conceive RMST to be the sole 3 �salvor-in-possession. Implementing the Agreement, the sole salvor-in-possession will be obliged to collaborate with the admiralty court and/or NOAA. USA Admiralty Court The shipwreck is located at high seas, RMST raised a number of artifacts and brought a part of them to the USA admiralty court; maritime affairs belong to the jurisdiction of the federal court. While the court upheld RMST as the legal salvor-in-possession, Ballard was not legally supposed to be the finder of the Titanic (Garabello and Scovazzi 2003:73-75). Even though the court actually awarded RMST the exclusive rights of the Titanic, USA courts can only enforce their law on USA nationals, France has carried artifacts back to its territory since 1987. British Deep Ocean Expeditions (DOE) carried tourists to the Titanic in 1988. RMST notified DOE of its unauthorized underwater cruising. One of the tourists with DOE filed an action suit to USA district court for declaration of access and photograph rights to the site. The court had already issued an injunction barring all visitation to the Titanic including photographing it without permit by RMST in 1998. DOE had planned an expedition to view and photograph the Titanic in the late summer of 1998, and Christopher Haver had planned to be a passenger. Haver filed a declaratory judgment action in the district court to challenge the 1998 judgment. The court held that the right of divers and tourists aiming at visiting and photographing the Titanic belonged solely to RMST (April 28th 1999: 171 F.3d 942-943, 958-959, 970). DOE filed an intervention as co-party with Haver in response to the judgment. During the lawsuit, DOE ignored the order of USA court and continued underwater cruising (Nafziger 1999: 315). The appeal court held that while RMST has the exclusive right of raising artifacts, the exclusive rights do not involve visiting, viewing and photographing the site. In a series of the Titanic litigations, RMST represented its intention to raise funds through artifact exhibitions (selling tickets, replica licenses, and product rental fees, etc.). These actions were a way of recovering costs and keeping the share prices up because the USA courts would only uphold RMST as sole salvor-in-possession as long as they did not sell artifacts. In the following year, the appeal and supreme courts held that RMST had not ever directly owned artifacts only the trustees (Murphy 2002). 1989 Salvage Convention and Four States International Convention on Salvage, 1989 (1989 Convention) was concluded in London on 28th April 1989 and came into force on 14th July 1996. It has 62 State 4 �parties (as of July 2011). USA, France, UK and Canada are all State parties (for details on definition see Browne this volume) to 1989 Convention. It indirectly provides the salvage of historic wreck in the form of reservation provision. Nothing is referred to the relationship between law of salvage and UCH law in 1989 Convention. The provision simply allows a State to reserve the right not to apply 1989 Convention, “when the property involved is maritime cultural property of pre-historic, archaeological or historic interest and is situated on the sea-bed.” (Art. 30.1.d). Since USA and France did not make reservations to this provision, they are able to salvage UCH. Negotiations commenced. In the process of drawing up the 1989 Convention France attempted to exclude UCH. The attempt resulted partially in Article 30.1.d. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and 2001 Convention: Coastal Jurisdiction Apart from two trends in USA mentioned above, the movement of regulating underwater antiquities was in rapid progress in the late 1970’s. UNCLOS (Art. 149 and 303) only provided lex lata (existing law) including maritime law and international agreements regarding the protection of objects of an archaeological and historical nature in parallel outside the Contiguous Zones (24 nautical miles from the shoreline) except in deep sea bed, the Area (outside Continental Shelf, at 350 nautical miles to the maximum from the shoreline, of every country). The European Council drew up the Draft of European Convention on Underwater Cultural Heritage in 1984 based upon Recommendation 848 in 1978 (Roper 1978), the draft did not enter into force. However International Law Association deliberated “the draft of Convention on Underwater Cultural Heritage” in 1994 based on the draft of the European Convention. From 1996, through the governmental experts meeting (1998-2001), 2001 Convention was adopted by UNESCO’s 31st General Assembly on the 2nd November 2001. Be that as it may, the international regulation of actions directed at underwater cultural heritage, at present, is mixed with Law of the Sea, Maritime Law and Cultural Heritage Law. As 2001 Convention coherently emphasizes UCH, “shall not be subject to the law of salvage or law of finds” (Art. 4), and “shall not be commercially exploited" (Art. 2.7). On the other hand 2001 Convention grants the competence to coastal states to make 2001 Convention effective as an aspect of UNCLOS (Art. 9 and 10). USA, France and UK are in favor of the aspect of cultural heritage law, while in disfavor of the aspect of UNCLOS. USA proposed that a certain commercial action is permitted subject to the scientific criteria of 2001 Convention (Nafziger 2000: 88). The universality and effectiveness of 2001 Convention in international society 5 �remains to be clear since, amongst others, the USA, France and UK’s salvage laws do not comply. On the other hand Rules concerning Activities Directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage (Annex) embodies the protection and conservation of UCH in accordance with the regime provided in the 2001 Convention. This shows that the universality of international norms concerning standards of underwater archaeology is shifting to the establishment of Standard Practice. For example, Fed.Reg. 18905 and the annex attached to the Agreement are almost alike. The Adoption of Titanic Agreement and Its Effect Consulting from 1997 to 2000, the Agreement was adopted on 5th January 2000. While the Agreement regulates the shipwrecked site and prefers in situ preservation. The Agreement forbids illegal exploration and selling of recovered artifacts. However the Agreement does not apply to some 6,000 already recovered artifacts. The Agreement regards the shipwrecked site as scientific, cultural and historical memorial. In breach of articles of the Agreement and its annex (Rules), each party is given enforcement jurisdiction including civil and/or criminal sanction. A glance on the Agreement tells us how each provision were drawn up in an effort to be reconciled with 2001 Convention, and how the Agreement carefully paid attention to 2001 Convention. This means how USA, France, UK and Canada consent to the aspect of cultural heritage law (Dromgoole 2003: 8). Article 3 of the Agreement states that each party shall take all reasonable measures to conserve and curate artifacts in recognition of Rules, specifically for them to be kept together and intact as project collections. Article 4 of the Agreement states that each party shall take the necessary measures, to regulate through a system of project authorizations of entry into the hull sections of the Titanic so that they, other artifacts and any human remains are not disturbed. It is noteworthy that the Agreement refers to salvage law. The draft of article 4.3 is the product which USA negotiation team tried to insert the fact that USA admiralty court granted RMST the salvor-in-possession into the Agreement. However the attempt resulted in the provision so as to secure non-intrusive access to the site. It seems counteractive against judgments of USA admiralty court which kept granting salvors the exclusive right. The Agreement does not so much exclude application of salvage law as permits salvage activities in conformity with Rules. In a series of Titanic litigations concerning RMST’s salvage, RMST instituted a lawsuit to the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Commerce and NOAA in September 2000 so as not to adopt the Agreement because it was unconstitutional. The subject matter is that (1) an effort to promote making the Agreement deprives 6 �USA admiralty court of the jurisdiction, (2) Implementing the Agreement, the right of recovery or ownership of RMST will not be compensated by USA. The court rescinded the claim since RMST was able to appeal again when the Agreement enters into force. In the public hearing of district court over the Titanic, it is interesting that the court states the exclusive status of RMST must be appraised even though the Agreement comes into force (2004: 323F. Supp.2d 724, 741). Finally Article 9.2 of the Agreement provides, “If a general multilateral Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage enters into force for all Parties, they shall consult to discuss the relationship between this Agreement and that Convention.” Canada is most likely to join 2001 Convention compared with USA, France and UK. A general multilateral convention probably suggests 2001 Convention. If all four states join it in the future, Canada will be favorably presumed its ownership including the Titanic in the context of relationship between the Agreement and 2001 Convention. The fact that the paradigm shift from salvage law to cultural heritage law in Canada might also induce USA, France and UK to shift the similar paradigm through consultation. Prospect Annex, Rules, Fed.Reg. 18905 and the Alliance will be replaced with salvage law in principle. It seems to me that these instruments are highly appraised as code of conducts taken away provisions of so-called creeping jurisdiction of 2001 Convention, therefore such norms are also acceptable to USA, France, UK and Canada. While the system of 2001Convention has been gradually pervaded to international society, the rigid application of underwater archaeology to UCH in the Agreement, prior to the issue of coastal jurisdiction, will make it possible to prevent loss of artifacts and promote the dissemination of knowledge gained from UCH to people around the world. The approval of USA Congress is expected during the anniversary events of the Titanic around 15th April 2012. The time might be a symbol of shifting from salvage law to cultural heritage law. On reflection, from a series of research of Lake Biwa and so forth, the forerunner of underwater archaeologist in Japan, OE Yoshio had insisted on the necessity of underwater archaeology since 1960’s (OE 1971: 266-269; OE 1982: 236-238). Although the tendency of underwater archaeology actually rose up in the early of 1980’s (OE et al. 1980: 23-87), symbolically as seen in A Special Issue written by the leading person including OE at that time, the systematic mapping method of UCH subsidized by Nippon Foundation (from 1st April 2009 to 31st March 2012) has just started by Non Profit Organization, Asian Research Institute of Underwater 7 �Archaeology (ARIUA) established in 12th August 2005, the former Kyushu-Okinawa Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology established in 1991. Every product of research divided into four coastal regions will be gradually opened on the web (http://www.ariua.org/database/). Nevertheless Agency for Cultural Affairs is not necessarily positive for the strenuous and steady effort of ARIUA in both legal and financial aspects. The report attached to a tentative translation of 2001 Convention in July 2002 by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology reads; “Whereas it seems that the purposes and effects of the Convention is generally valid, our political decision making system will be reconsidered” because the Convention addresses primarily legal systems of extra-territorial waters (Report Technology 2002). The circumstance simply leads to lacuna of underwater cultural heritage related laws in Japan. The basic standard that OE sought is almost the same as provisions in the Rules. OE states; It is deeply hoped that the necessity of archaeological research of sea-bed be understood by underwater archaeologists as well as ordinary people, the research system demands much closer cooperation internationally and mobilize to each site in any case (OE 1977: 337). Utilizing Centenary of the Titanic to great extent as the best chance that the paradigm shift of regulations of UCH is certain to arise in international waters, Japan should promptly establish its own national underwater cultural legal system as the first step of international cooperation. Using the Sinkai 6500 effectively enable Japan to contribute to underwater archaeology even in international waters. Bibliography Ballard, R., and “How We Found Titanic”, in National Geographic, vol. 168, pp. Michael, J.-L., 696-718. 1985 Ballard, R., and Return to Titanic: A New Look at the World’s Most Famous Lost Sweeney, M., Ship, National Geographic Society, Washington. 2004 Bates, Stephen., 2009 “Titanic museum to open in Southampton by 2012”, in The Guardian, Tuesday 31st March, 2009. Accessed 8th 2011 at http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2009/mar/31/titanic-south ampton-exhibition Craig, J., Multilateral Approaches 8 to an International Convention, �2008 conference paper for International Council of Monuments and of Sites (ICOMOS) 16th General Assembly proceedings. Dromgoole, S., 2003 “Treasure Salvage in International Waters: Two Alternative Methods of Control”, in Maritime Law Subject Section, Society of Legal Scholars, Oxford, pp. 1-12. Accessed 8th 2011 at http://www.le.ac.uk/law/staff/skd2.html Garabello, and R., THE PROTECTION OF THE UNDERWATER CULTURAL Scovazzi, HERITAGE: BEFORE AND AFTER THE 2001 UNESCO T., (eds)., 2003 CONVENTION, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden / Boston. Murphy, G., 2002 “RMS Titanic: A Legal Update 1”, in encyclopedia titanic, 15th March 2002, Accessed 8th 2011 at http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/item/1503/ Nafziger, R., 1999 J.A. “The Titanic Revisited”, in Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce, vol. 30, pp. 311-329. Nafziger, R., 2000 J.A. “Historic Salvage Law Revisited”, in Ocean Development and International Law, vol. 31, pp. 81-96. OE, Yoshio., 1971 Marine Archaeology: History and Culture Searched on Sea-bed, Shinjinbutsu Oraisha, Tokyo. OE, Yoshio., 1977 “Underwater Archaeology”, an essay attached in Japanese translation of George F. Bass, 1975, Archaeology beneath the Sea, Walker and Company, New York. OE, Yoshio., 1982 An Introduction to Underwater Archaeology, NHK Books, Tokyo. OE, Yoshio et “A Secial Issue: Challenging Sunken Ships” written by ARAKI, al., Shinsuke (the Kaiyo-Maru), MOZAI, Torao (Mongol Invasion), 1980 YAMADA, Michio (RMS Titanic), TANAKA Ko (the Admiral Nakhimov), TSUMAKI, Eijirou (the Yamato), HASEBE, Gakuji (Shinan offshore at Korea), KUDOU, Masao (SS Andrea Doria), HUJII, Yuto (The Mutsu), KATAOKA, Koukichi (the Yasaka-Maru) and OE Yoshio (Lake Biwa-Ko) , in Le Mer, Vol. 25, pp. 24-87. Oppenheimer, P., and Varmer, O., 2006 “Implementing the International Agreement to Protect RMS Titanic”, International Environmental Law Committee Newsletter, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 14-16. Accessed 8th 2011 at http://apps.americanbar.org/environ/committees/intenviron/newsl etter/dec06/IELC1206.pdf 9 �Report Technology Report of the convention and recommendation adopted at 31st General Assembly of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, BZ-8-28, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, National Diet Library, 2002. Roper, J., 1978 The Underwater Cultural Heritage: Report of the Committee on Culture and Education, Council of Europe, Strasbourg. Doc. 4200. 10 � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e7dfa149dd3792aa39568d017df38d49.jpg 53627ec6558796c99a5ccff5e924cd40 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 472 Height 445 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Centenary Impact Since RMS Titanic Sank upon Universal Regulation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in International Waters, and the Necessity of New Law-Making in Japan Subject The topic of the resource Session 3 History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource 2012 is Centennial since Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic sunk. The Titanic was found in 1985, as early as 1986 United States of America (USA) enacted the RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act. It aimed at the conclusion of international agreement for the conservation of the Titanic by states concerned. The agreement was started drafting in 1997 and adopted in 2000. It was USA, France, England and Canada that adopted Agreement concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic (the Agreement). On the other hand United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) was made through four diplomatic conferences since 1998, and entered into force in 2010. Thanks to 2001 Convention, the term “Underwater Cultural Heritage” (UCH) has been well-known to people around the world. Be that as it may, to be an UCH needs passage of 100 years; the Titanic will be an UCH next year. Although the importance of 2001 Convention has recently attracted considerable attention, its new trend toward universal regulation has just started emerging from international society. It is the Article 9.2 of the Agreement that attention should be paid. It provides, “If a general multilateral Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage enters into force for all Parties, they shall consult to discuss the relationship between this Agreement and that Convention.” Assuming an appropriate coordination of them gives rise to a new trend, it appears more desirable to foresee the near future and timely accede to 2001 Convention after the preparation of domestic laws in Japan referring to 2001 Convention. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nakada, Tatsuya Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/057f2b28fbb1d5bba3d04aa9a82d48f2.pdf c24516f4c28cb0ce0b4718bd32c19a62 PDF Text Text Maritime Archaeology of Gujarat: Northwest coast of India A.S. Gaur and Sundaresh Abstract rd The evidence of maritime activity in India may be traced back to the Bronze Age (early 3 nd millennium BC to mid- 2 millennium BC). The excavation of several Harappan sites including Lothal, Kuntasi, Padri, Nageshwar, Bagasra and many others have conclusively demonstrated an advance maritime culture during the third millennium Before Christ (BC). During the historical period several coastal towns had international trade and commerce including Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Hathab, Vallabhi, and Bharuch. Maritime activity reached it’s zenith in Gujarat during th th the Medieval period (8 to 14 century AD) when Arab traders dominated the Indian Ocean for over a millennia. Underwater investigations have been carried out at various places along the Saurashtra coast and a large number of stone anchors were found. This paper also discusses the effect of tide when using jetties and anchoring points along various parts of the west coast India. The archaeological evidence indicates that two gulfs along the Gujarat coast (Gulf Kachchh and Gulf of Khambhat) witnessed the hectic maritime activities in the past. Both gulfs have very high tidal ranges. The Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal range in India (11 meters). Ancient texts such as Vishnu Puran and Periplus of the Eruthreanean Sea vividly describe the tidal range and its uses in navigation. The discovery of the large number of stone anchors in the inter tidal zone along the gulf region support the above references. Introduction Maritime activities along the Gujarat coast dates back to the Harappan period and extensive excavations at Lothal (Rao 1974:70), Kuntasi (Dhavalikar, et al. 1996:76), Nageshwar (Hegde, et al. 1990:152), Bagasra (Sonawane, et al. 2003:41) and Nagwada (Bhan and Gowda 2003:51-80) have yielded conclusive evidence on maritime practices during the 3rd millennium BC. During the historical period (3rd century BC to 4th century AD) a series of ports existed all along the Gujarat coast and important among them were Nani Rayan (Irani and Dandekar 2003:91-97) Bet Dwarka (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003:57-66), Dwarka (Ansari and Mate 1966), Vallabhi, and Hathab (Pramanik 2004:133-140). Whereas by the Medieval period (8th to 14th century AD) the entire Gujarat coast had series of ports. Gujarat coast is punctuated with several creeks and seasonal rivers that facilitated safe harbours all along the coast. The waters around the Gujarat coast are also rich in marine resources, such as shells which were used as food as well as export products. Conch shell have been a major economy source for many fishermen in Gujarat (Pota and Patel 1991:445-450). The important sites of the maritime archaeological investigations along the Gujarat coast include Dwarka, Bet Dwarka, Miyani, Visawada, Somnath, Kodinar and Ghogha (Figure 1). The brief descriptions of the findings from these sites are provided in the following paragraphs. �Figure 1. Map showing archaeological sites mentioned in the manuscript along Gujarat coast (Prepared by. S.B. Chitari) Dwarka Dwarka was the first site in India where marine archaeological exploration commenced and investigations continued for almost two decades (Rao 1988:4753; Gaur, et al. 2004:1256-60). A number of artifacts were discovered during offshore explorations between 3 and 16 m water depths. Several stone structures were noticed off Dwarka and they are of various shapes and sizes. A few semicircular structures are partially intact and have jointed with hard binding material. The semicircular structures were constructed by using L-shaped blocks with provision for dowels (Gaur, et al. 2008:16). Besides semicircular blocks, a large number of rectangular blocks have been noticed in this area. They are scattered over a vast area and do not follow any regular plan. These blocks are found close to the semicircular structures, which indicate that these might have been parts of a larger structure. The circular and semicircular structures are presumably the bases of pillars and rectangular and square dressed blocks are of a main jetty structure that ran from shore into the water and continued until 300 m offshore. Hasmukh Sankalia (1966:10) has mentioned that “Sayajirao Gaekwad of Baroda had built a dock along the Gomati creek and a landing place on the opposite side, with huge stone pillars to facilitate tying the ship”. It is quite �likely that the remains lying on the shore and offshore regions are remains of the same dock. The presence of stone anchors that are lying along these structures also supports this hypothesis. Along with stone structures a large number of stone anchors of different shape and sizes were noticed between the inter-tidal zone and 16 m water depth, the concentration of them being in 6 to 8 m water depth (Sundaresh, et al. 1999:229-252). Broadly these anchors have been divided into three groups, a) Composite anchors: majority of the anchors have been chiseled out of a thin limestone block triangular in shape but often the narrower portion has a half circle with a circular hole known as rope hole and two rectangular or square holes on the wider side called fluke hole. The biggest anchor of this variety has a length of 1.8 meter and maximum width 86 centimeters (cm) and the estimated weight is 496 kilograms (kg) (Figure 2). The smallest anchor weighs 16 kg. b) Indo-Arabia type of anchors were cut from a hard and long stone block with a tapering on one side and a circular hole and the other side with two rectangular or square holes on either face of the block (Gaur, et al. 2004a:134-51). The biggest anchor has a length of 2.37 m, a width of 40 cm and an estimated weight of 668 kg while the smallest anchor with its shape fully preserved has an estimated weight of 82 kg. c) Ring stone anchors: twenty-four ring stone anchors have been found from Dwarka water and they are of various sizes (Gaur, et al. 2002: 390-404). The biggest has a height of 50 cm and diameter 52 cm and an estimated weight of 245 kg whereas the smallest ring stone weighs 20 kg. Similar types of ring stones have been reported from Oman waters (Vosmer 1999: 301). �Figure 2. Dwarka: Composite type stone anchor (Photo by S.N. Bandodkar in 2001) Bet Dwarka Bet Dwarka is an island situated in Okhamnadal and at the entrance of the Gulf of Kachchh. The area is also referred to as the Gulf of Barake in the Greek sea guide, the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Schoff 1912:38). However, Ptolemy mentioned Barake as an Island in the Gulf of Kanthi, which has been identified as the Gulf of Kachchh (McCrindle 1885:36). In the 17th century BC the late Harappan people had established their settlement on the northwest part of the Island (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003:57-66). They used rich marine resources available around the Island such as the variety of fishes and shells (Gaur, et al. 2005:941-46). A large fishhook (Gaur and Sundaresh 2004:512-14) and shell artifacts are the testimony of the above statement. The scanty habitation deposit suggests that the site was abandoned after a couple of centuries (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003:57-66). The Island was again inhabited during the 8th century BC on the southeastern coast of the Island. Maritime activities reached it’s zenith during the historical and the medieval periods. The Island continued to be an important center of maritime activity until the emergence of the Okha port in the Okhamandal area. The underwater explorations were carried out near the present Bet Dwarka passenger jetty in two seasons (2001 and 2002). A large number of artifacts including sherds of amphorae, lead anchors, lead ingot, a hand-mill of �stone, besides 45 stone anchors, were noticed from this area between water depth of 5 and 8 m. There are 42 stone anchors lying in Bet Dwarka waters close to the present Bet Dwarka jetty, in 6-8 m water depth. They are of two types: A) composite type: majority of them were cut from locally available limestone blocks. The circular hole (rope hole) is often found broken whereas two square/ rectangular holes on other side are preserved. The anchors are very similar to those reported from Dwarka and other places in Saurashtra. B) Indo-Arab type anchor are made of hard rock such as basalt and sometimes sandstone. The stone anchors have been dated between the historical and medieval periods. Pindara The ancient temple site of Pindara is situated close to the Northern Saurashtra coast in the Gulf of Kachchh about 36 km west of Khambhalia and 24 km from Kalyanpur. On the west of Pindara is a vast marshy land known as Okha Rann. Pindara is a well sheltered area, free from open sea waves. It is comprised of mud flats up to a distance of 2 km from the high waterline with a gentle slope. The average tidal range in the region is 1 to 4 m. A huge temple complex (10 X 10 m) is exposed during low tide in Pindara at about 300 m from high water line (Gaur, et al. 2007:733-35). Presently, the floor area is made of dressed lime stone blocks (Figure 3), it is well preserved, while the superstructure has been destroyed and the stone blocks have been washed/ taken away. This temple was dedicated to the Lord Shiva, as a yoni1 is present in the middle of the temple complex. The majority of the stone blocks measure 60 X 45 X 25 cms. The remaining part of the sanctum (Garbha griha) measures 4.75 X 4.5 m. The yoni measures 40 X 40 cms. The architectural feature of the submerged temple corresponds more or less with existing temple on the shore of Pindara. The size of the submerged temple must have been as big as other surviving temples in Pindara’s group of temples dating back to the 7th to 10th century AD. The evidence indicates that the Saurashtra coast shoreline has changed significantly during the last 1000 years. 1 Yoni is symbol of creation and worshipped across the Indian subcontinent since the antiquity. �Figure 3. Pindara: An ancient temple complex exposes during low tide (Photo by A.S. Gaur, 2006) Miyani Miyani is situated about 40 km east of Dwarka. This area is famous for ancient temples dating back to the 10th century AD (Sampura 1968: 87). On the coast of Miyani a temple is dedicated to a Goddess (locally known as Harshadmata). It is situated on a high hill. A vast creek known as Meda Creek runs a few miles into the hinterland, which has been used as a shelter in the harbour for local small craft, particularly fishing vessels. Underwater explorations were undertaken about 1 km offshore of Harshad Mata temple. Archaeological findings comprised of twelve stone anchors of various types. Visawada The small town of Visawada lies about 40 km west of Porbandar and about 20 km east of Miyani. The Hindu pilgrimage center and a temple dedicated to the Lord Krishna, is situated in the middle of the town. Kindari Creek runs a long distance up to Kindar Kheda (a Harappan town) and perhaps the creek’s name is derived from this particular ancient town. The western side of the coast is represented by a high cliff while the eastern coast consists of sandy beaches. Explorations were undertaken off the Kindari Creek as a baseline, it is located about 500 m from the coastline. Features and artefacts were concentrated between 5-6 m water depths. A total of 14 stone anchors were �found and types. represent three varieties: composite, Indo-Arabia and ring stone Somnath The archaeological excavations on land at Prabhasa by the Baroda University and Deccan Collage Pune have yielded evidence of a township dated to 2000 BC (Rao, et al. 1992:13-16). The temple of Somnath nearby is dedicated to Lord Siva and the linga2 is counted among the 12 Jyotirlingas of India mentioned in various Puranas. The explored area in Somnath water is located at a distance of 400 m south-west of the Somnath temple. Somnath waters contained the largest occurrence of ring stones anchors (Figure 4). Out of the 43 total anchors discovered, 80% are ring stone. The water depth varies from 7 m to 15 m. The ring stones observed shallower than 8m water depth had seaweed growth, however ring stones of deeper depths have a layer of greyish marine growth. Figure 4. Somnath: Ring-stone anchor (S.N. Bandodkar in 2001) Kodinar (Mul Dwarka) A small coastal village known as Mul Dwarka near Kodinar in the district of Junagad is one of the claimants of the original Dwarka of Mahabharata. The proximity with Junagadh hills on the north and the sea on the south situate the town as being associated with Dwarka (Sankalia 1966:7). An ancient temple is situated on raised land close to the sea. The temple is dilapidated and not under worship. The shrine is dated to the post 10th century AD (Sampura 1968:113). A circular structure situated close to the ancient temple is about 4 m in height and 2 Linga is a phallus symbol worshipped across the Indian subcontinent since the antiquity. �constructed with a similar type of dressed limestone blocks as that of the temple. Locally this structure is called as Diva Dandi which means a lighthouse (Gaur, et al. 2010:418-422). If this structure served as a lighthouse then this may be the oldest lighthouse remains on the Saurashtra coast. An ancient well was noticed near the jetty which is still used as a drinking water source. The exploration in the inter tidal zone yielded a composite stone anchor. The anchor is exposed during low tide. It is made of sedimentary rock. The anchor is similar to those reported from Dwarka (Gaur, et al. 2008:23-57) and Bet Dwarka (Gaur, et al. 2005:113-129) and dated between the historical and the medieval periods. The underwater investigations in and around Mul Dwarka (Kodinar) have been of significance in respect to understanding the archaeology of this region. Now the data of underwater explorations from all the three Dwarka on the Saurashtra coast are available and the most common aspects of them is the presence of similar types of stone anchors, therefore, the tradition of Dwarka at these places might have been existed contemporaneously (around 7th - 8th century AD). Another common aspect of these sites is the presence of Harappan (mid 3rd millennium BC) and late Harappan (early 2nd millennium BC) settlement within close proximity to each other. For example, Nageshwar and Bet Dwarka near Okhamandal Dwarka, Kindar Kheda near Mul Dwarka (Visawada) and Kanjetar and Kaj near Mul Dwarka (Kodinar). All the three Dwarka have ancient temples dated to the 10th -12th century AD. Nonetheless, these sites were busy ancient ports and perhaps temples were served as coastal marker points for navigators, as well as for worship before embarking on long voyages. Mithi Virdi The small village Mithi Virdi is situated about 30 km south east of Talaja, a taluka headquarter. The village is lying on a raised plateau close to the seashore. A small seasonal river merges with the sea on the western side of the village. The archaeological site is located about one km west of the village in an agriculture field. Five stone anchors are lying on agricultural land (ground nuts are the important crop of this field) about 1 km north of the seashore. Three anchors are lying together at a distance of 10 m and oriented in the east-west direction (Gaur, et al. 2005:110-14) The fourth anchor is laying partially buried north of the other three and oriented in the east west direction. All the anchors are similar to each other in shape and size. The anchors have rectangular cross-sections and trapezoidal longitudinal sections. These have sharp edges and chisel marks on them are clearly noticed. They have been cut from conglomeratic sedimentary grit rock, which is dark brown in colour and small gravel can be noticed. The anchors have two lower rectangular holes and an upper circular hole is absent in all the anchors. Ghogha The town of Gogha is located on the mid western coast of the Gulf of Khambhat in Bhavnagar district of Gujarat. A famous Gujarati proverb, “Lankani lari ane �Ghoghono var” (Bride of Lanka and groom of Ghogha) indicates direct overseas relation between Gogha and Sri Lanka in the past (Chaukasi 1989: 634). The presence of ancient Jaina temples at Gogha dating back to the 10th – 11th centuries suggest that this was a religious center also. The earliest Arabic inscription from Gogha dates to 1170 AD (Oza 1885: 2). During the British period ships up to 1500 tons were laden here (Habib 1982: 23). The exploration at Gogha was undertaken during low tide and findings were recorded with still photography and drawing. A large number of stone anchors were recorded between 100 and 200 m distance from the high water line (Gaur 2010:146-155). The majority of the anchors belong to the Indo-Arab type and nearly about 40% anchors are fragmented. Interestingly, the fresh surface of broken parts suggests that fragmentation of the anchors took place during the manufacturing stage and not during the anchoring processes. A composite anchor made of lime stone was found at the site. A few unfinished anchors were found from Gogha and Hathab. However, these anchors were submerged in 5 to 7 m water depth during high tide. Thus, it indicates that big boats were anchoring at this point during high tide. The author of the Periplus of the Erythrenean also refers to such activities detailing that during low tide boats rest on the seabed. The exploration in the inter tidal zone has also yielded several sherds of the glazed ware in the vicinity of stone anchors. These include a jar with internally and upper half externally glazed; and the rest of the sherds are glazed internally only. There are three main types of glazed ware (i.e. green, blue and brown). These are very similar to the Islamic glazed ware found from various parts of the country (Mohammad 1985:105). The medieval period glazed ware at Hastinapur (Lal 1954-55:5-151) was found in association with coins of Balban (1206-87 AD). The sherds recovered from the inter-tidal zone of Ghogha are very similar to those reported from another medieval period site at Lashkarshah in Khambhat which have been dated to 14th-16th century (Bhan 2006: 90-95). Thus the glazed sherds Ghogha may also be dated to the late medieval period. Hathab Hathab an early historical site is referred to as Astacampra in the Periplus of Erythrenean Sea (Schoff 1912: 40). On shore excavation yielded rich antiquities of the historical period and maritime contact with the west. It is located about one km into the hinterland. The exploration in the inter tidal zone of Hathab yielded two anchors similar to those of the Indo-Arab type and one anchor with a wide groove wrapped around the middle of the anchor. This is very similar to those reported from Japan and Chinese waters (Yang 1990:113-121). The remains of a jetty were noticed at the mouth of the river Shetrunji near the village Sultanpur. This was primarily a wooden jetty now abandoned due to emergence of other ports in the vicinity. Conclusions Coastal and maritime archaeological investigations along the Gujarat coast have conclusively proven that it holds the earliest evidence of the maritime activity in �the Indian subcontinent. Archaeological set up of the Kachchh region provide enough indication that the Rann of Kachchh was a navigable body during the third millennium BC. During the historical period Gujarat witnessed hectic maritime activities and boats from various regions including the Mediterranean Sea. The maritime activity reached its zenith during the Indo-Arabia trading network of the medieval period and a large number of evidence indicates that Gujarat played an important role in the Indian Ocean trade system during this period. Marine archaeological investigations during the last two and half decades have brought out a number of potential sites along the Indian coast which include ancient ports, jetties, and shipwrecks. The extensive explorations of the Saurashtra coast revealed several ancient ports and jetties. Interestingly, archaeological discoveries suggest that natural phenomena like tidal variations have been very effectively used in the Gulf of Kachchh and the Gulf of Khambhat in the past. Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to Mr. K.H. Vora for providing various comments and suggestions in the manuscript. Thanks also due to other colleagues in marine archaeology centre for various help during the field work. Mr. S.B. Chitari prepared line drawing for the manuscript. Bibliography Ansari, Z.D. and Mate, M.S., 1966 Bhan, K.K. and Gowda, D., 2003 Bhan, K.K., 2006 Chaukasi, U.M., 1989 Dhavalikar, M.K., Raval, M.R., Chitalwala, Y.M., 1996 Gaur, A.S., Sundaresh, Sila Triapti, Bandodkar, S.N., 2002 Gaur, A.S. and Sundaresh, 2003 Gaur, A.S. and Sundaresh, Excavations at Dwarka, Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Pune. "Shell working at Nagwada (North Gujarat) with special reference to Shell Industries of the Harappan Tradition in Gujarat", in Man and Environment, XXVIII, 2, pp.51-80. "Towards an Understanding of Medieval Glazed Pottery Manufacture from Lakshkarshah, Khambhat, Gujarat", in Man and Environment, XXXI, 2, pp.90-95. Gazetteer of Bhavnagar District (in Gujarati), Government of Gujarat, Ahmedabad. 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Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Archaeology of Gujarat: Northwest coast of India Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource The evidence of maritime activity in India may be traced back to the Bronze Age (early 3rd millennium BC to mid- 2nd millennium BC). The excavation of several Harappan sites including Lothal, Kuntasi, Padri, Nageshwar, Bagasra and many others have conclusively demonstrated an advance maritime culture during the third millennium Before Christ (BC). During the historical period several coastal towns had international trade and commerce including Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Hathab, Vallabhi, and Bharuch. Maritime activity reached it’s zenith in Gujarat during the Medieval period (8th to 14th century AD) when Arab traders dominated the Indian Ocean for over a millennia. Underwater investigations have been carried out at various places along the Saurashtra coast and a large number of stone anchors were found. This paper also discusses the effect of tide when using jetties and anchoring points along various parts of the west coast India. The archaeological evidence indicates that two gulfs along the Gujarat coast (Gulf Kachchh and Gulf of Khambhat) witnessed the hectic maritime activities in the past. Both gulfs have very high tidal ranges. The Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal range in India (11 meters). Ancient texts such as Vishnu Puran and Periplus of the Eruthreanean Sea vividly describe the tidal range and its uses in navigation. The discovery of the large number of stone anchors in the inter tidal zone along the gulf region support the above references. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A.S. Gaur Sundaresh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5eece88313a500de96a49d86977577df.pdf 42433eb8d8c8f54ebedd2fbb5f8879a0 PDF Text Text Rock art of Phrayanaga (Viking) Cave, southern Thailand: the illustration of ancient vessels Atthasit Sukkham1, Paul S.C. Taçon2, and Noel Hidalgo Tan3 Abstract Tham Phrayanaga is one of Southeast Asia’s most well-preserved but little understood rock art sites. This cave site in southern Thailand has at least 76 depictions of watercraft. Many of the images are accurate portrayals of vessels used by a number of different cultural groups. The nature of the imagery is described and the ways in which the site informs us about the region’s recent cross-cultural contact history is explored. Based on relative dating and comparative study, this rock art site has been given the approximately date of from about the late 1500s to the early 1900s. This study will highlight our results that have indicated that some figures are ancient vessels including Thai, Chinese, European, Indonesian, and Arabian. Moreover, it related to the Maritime Silk Route and the spice trade in Southeast Asia and the Andaman Sea, which is a part of the Indian Ocean. Keywords: Rock art, ships, Viking Cave, southern Thailand Introduction Tham Phrayanaga (or "Big Snake Cave" because of a large snake-like stalactite4) is one of 23 rock art sites found in southern Thailand (Sukkham 2010). It is located in the northeast corner of Phi Phi Le Island in the Andaman Sea, Krabi Province, southwestern Thailand, near the popular tourist destinations of Maya Beach and Phi Phi Don Island (Figure 1). This limestone cave is a large, oval-shaped dome with a high ceiling. The 90 metre wide entrance faces due east. The floor varies from 3-6 metres above sea level while the cave measures 132 metres wide, 95 metres deep and has a maximum ceiling height of more than 20 metres. The cave is home to hundreds of barn swallows that nest on the cave walls, including overtop of the rock art. Nests are harvested year-round and sold as a local delicacy. The site is now managed by a private commercial enterprise so entry is no longer allowed for tourists for risk of disturbing the swallows. Despite long being known by locals, the earliest mention of the site was in 1972, during a visit by the reigning King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama XI) of the Chakri Dynasty (1946-present). In 1988, the Fine Arts Department (FAD) of Thailand embarked on a systematic recording of the cave’s rock art (Chaimongkon and Pigpien 1990). In October 2009 this data was updated as part of a Master of Arts thesis field work 1 Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum, Bangkok University, Rangsit Campus, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand (E-mail: uzzyarch061@gmail.com). 2 PERAHU, School of Humanities, Gold Coast campus, Griffith University, Queensland 4222, Australia (E-mail: p.tacon@griffith.edu.au). 3 Department of Archaeology and Natural History, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia (E-mail: seaarch@gmail.com). 4 Stalactite: a type of speleothem (secondary mineral) that hangs from the ceiling of limestone caves. It is a type of dripstone. 1 �(Sukkham 2010), with follow-up research conducted on site in May 2010 by Griffith University’s Picturing Change research program. Tham Phrayanaga rock art The surviving rock art of Tham Phrayanaga consists mostly of monochrome paintings in black, red-brown and brownish-black. There also are bichromes5 in brown-black and yellow-brown, some red-brown paintings highlighted or partially repainted with black, a small number of charcoal drawings and a few engravings. Few paintings overlap but those that do suggest most red-brown paintings are early in the sequence, followed by the brown-black/yellow-brown bichromes, brown-black and black paintings, charcoal drawings and engravings. During the 1988 study 73 figures were recorded in three panels – on the east wall, south wall and a small chamber in the southwestern corner of the cave (Chaimongkon and Pigpien 1990). During the 2010 field-survey we recorded 80 figures, 76 of which are depictions of watercraft, even though three of the paintings in the small chamber have been lost to erosion and algal growth. Some of the additional figures we recorded appear to have been made since 1988, possibly by tourists or bird nest harvesters, as they do not appear in the FAD report. Most of the art is concentrated in the main panel, to the left of the entrance if one is looking out to sea. There is a small amount of engraved graffiti and an undecipherable older design in black suggestive of Arabic script. Panel A (Figure 2) contains most of the art, possibly both because it has a long flat surface amenable to painting and because it is located near the cave entrance, which commands an excellent view of the sea. It stretches across the east wall of the cave, the paintings facing west and southwest. The panel is 39.5 metres long. Most of the rock art is located along this length between 0.2-2.0 metres above the floor, with the highest painting about 3 meters above ground level. There are 63 paintings, six drawings and three engravings of ships and boats, as well as three drawn human figures and a horse. Some paintings have recently added engraved features or highlights. The depictions of watercraft show various styles of bowsprit, head, hull, rail, mast, sail, stern, cabin and rudder; a few also have oars and there is one depiction with a paddle wheel. Forty ships can be classified into at least seven types – square-rigged, square and triangle-rigged, triangle-rigged, rigged and rowed, rowed, paddle-wheeled, rectangular sail on tripod mast – with the rest unclassifiable. There are four depictions of large square-rigged ships, two monochrome6 and two bichrome (Figure 3), in linear outline7 or as partial silhouettes8. The bichrome square-rigged ships appear to have been purposely made this way and did not result from re-painting later. All four have clearly illustrated and decorated bows, hulls and railings. Three masts for mainsails are usually depicted, supported with braces and sheets. Three (Figures 3) are shaped like Thai junks, with their distinctive curved bows and sterns and layered rectangular sail structures. Thai junks would have been 5 Bichromes: having two colors. Monochrome: single color. 7 Linear outline: a single line forms the figure by way of an outline. 8 Silhouette: solid infill shape. 6 2 �considered exotic in this part of the world a few hundred years ago as they would have had a sea journey of at least 1600 km behind them. The fourth is single-rigged but superimposed with many mainsail yards, has a cabin and rudder. Square-rigged ships like this, and decorated with an eye-like design on the head of the hull, are characteristic of Chinese junks from the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) Dynasties, known to have traded around what is now Thailand (Blomfield and Tam 2005:6-7). Chinese visitors came to Thailand to establish direct diplomatic relations and to set up trade agreements, with a Chinese trade in ceramics extending through various dynasties and periods since the Song Dynasty (960-1279) (Blomfield and Tam 2005; Breazeale 1999; Garnier 2004; Virapol 2005). Five ships with square and triangle-rigged sails are depicted in monochrome as linear outline or silhouette figures. The front part and hull of these types of ship differ from the first type because they are undecorated but usually show a bowsprit transfixed with one or two triangle-foresails. These ships typically have two or three masts that are rarely connected at the top and are supported by many braces and sheets for mainsails. The back of some ships also show a cabin and rudder. They are similar to European tall ships but do not appear identical to any particular vessel. European ships of the 16th to 19th centuries typically were square and triangle-rigged. They had a bowsprit transfixed with one or two triangle foresails and usually had a cabin and rudder in the stern. There are at least two similar ships depicted in Panel A but it is not possible to identify country of origin. European contact with Thailand began with the Portuguese in the early 1500s, followed soon after by the Dutch (Garnier 2004). The arrival of the French expanded and assisted the construction of a new palace at Lopburi for King Narai (1656-1688) of the Prasat Thong Dynasty in the Ayutthaya Period (Garnier 2004). The English were the last to establish relations across the region, especially with Ayutthaya (Wongthes 2003; Garnier 2004). There are 24 monochrome triangle-rigged ships, in either linear outline or as silhouettes, and three shown as bichrome silhouettes. One of the latter has a human figure standing on the rear of the deck. All three of the bichrome ships appear to have been originally red-brown with black added later, and two subsequently were highlighted with engraved lines. The front part of triangle-rigged ships has a bowsprit that uses only one triangle-foresail which, in some figures, is connected with braces. Along the sides of some of these ships are depictions of square holes that look like rails or shutter windows; depictions of cabins and rudders are rare. Some resemble Arabian dhows but most are more likely depictions of large wooden multi-sailed Malay/Indonesian perahus that have gaff rigging used since the 17th century for fishing and transport (e.g. see Gibson-Hill 1949 for many different examples). These include 17th to early 20th century Indonesian perahu pinisiq (a specific type of wooden sailing ship partly modeled on European wooden ships; Figure 4) and an Indonesian kapal layer mesin (motor sailer). Two ships in black with a single rectangular sail and tripod mast are typical of Bugi/Macassan perahus sailed throughout the larger region from what is now Sulawesi, Indonesia (e.g. see Taçon, et al. 2010). Three rigged oared ships and one oared watercraft were depicted in monochrome with linear outline. Braces support the masts but not every mast displayed has a sail and the bow of the ship does not contain a bowsprit. Further differentiating them from the types described above are oars. One oared ship has three human figures 3 �standing on the deck with outstretched arms bent at the elbows together with a rectangular flag at the stern. Another has human figures shown both on deck and in the hull, along with other aspects of the ship’s interior. The oared watercraft is simple, with no masts, bowsprits and sails but oars clearly shown. The bow contains a depiction of a straight line, probably a handrail, and the stern appears to contain a cabin. The rigged and oared boats are similar to that used by the Chaole or local sea people and miniature models called Plajak (pia/cak), used in ritual offerings to the sea (Sarikabutara 1987; Wongbusarakum 2007). There is only one depiction of a paddle-wheeled ship, monochrome and shown as a silhouette. The paddle wheel consists of a circle and cross-line design in the middle of the ship and there is a similar wheel on the upper deck. Handrails are found towards the bow of this ship while the stern contains a silhouette square shape. In the 19th century American-style paddle-steamers similar to one depicted at Tham Phrayanaga were introduced to southern Thailand, as royal photography from the reign of King Rama V (1868-1910) documents (FAD 1979; Lim 2009). Unidentified ships are plain, irregular, or damaged, making classification difficult. All are monochrome, in outline or silhouette, and many are small, without sails or oars. Some are simple boats and small vessels typical of various Thai, Malay and Indonesian peoples. The surviving non-marine images, located on the ceiling next to the cave entrance, consist of drawings, three black human-like stick figures and an outline of a horse with a silhouetted head. Two of the human figures appear to be interacting and each has a hand on one of its hips. One figure carries a long weapon-like object directed toward the other. The third figure was depicted facing, and as if running toward, the horse. It holds something resembling a loop of rope while the horse is shown as if galloping away. Panel B a second small panel, containing two paintings of ships that face north, is located on the south wall of the cave. The first ship is a monochrome light red-brown silhouette, 95 centimeters (cm) wide by 58 cm high. It has two masts, two square-rigged mainsails and a bowsprit with one triangle-rigged foresail. The stern includes a square silhouette that probably depicts the cabin. The second ship is smaller, measuring 55 cm wide by 42 cm high, and is without sails. It looks similar to the first as it has the two masts, bowsprit and cabin. Both are likely depictions of some type of large perahu. Panel C a third panel containing three ships and two elephants, one with a mahout9 seated on its neck, in the southern part of the cave was recorded in 1988. Unfortunately, the elephants and one of the ships have since been destroyed by algal growth, which also obscures the two remaining ships, a triangle rigged watercraft and one that lacks rigging. 9 Mahout: a person who drives an elephant. 4 �Conclusions Most of the rock paintings of Tham Phrayanaga represent various types of watercraft that traveled through the Andaman Sea in the past few hundred years, a period of accelerated maritime contact and trade between various parts of Thailand, Asia and Europe, fuelled by the lucrative spice trade, diplomacy, evangelism and conquest. By comparing the rock paintings of Tham Phrayanaga with depictions and descriptions of ships in historic documents it can be concluded that most of the art was probably made between the late 1500s and the early 1900s, a period of increased trade and contact between various European peoples, Thais, Malays, Chinese and indigenous peoples of the region. This is also the period in which the Chaole occupied the islands around Tham Phrayanaga. It is this group that most likely made much of the rock art. Two of the oared ships, typical of the Chaole, at Tham Phrayanaga were painted right next to the two main polychrome paintings of Thai junks. Their placement appears purposeful, perhaps to illustrate important stories of close contact. One can also imagine the Chaole using Tham Phrayanaga as a guide for instructing how to identify common watercraft of the region or as a way of recording changing shipping during a period of increased traffic of culturally diverse watercraft. A second site, Wong Lung Cave, contains a panel about 11 metres long with the remains of at least 14 red-brown paintings of ships, most of which are perahu pinisiq, and a mahout riding an elephant that has a bundle on its back (see Valli and Summers 1990:116-117). Some are almost identical to those at Tham Phrayanaga, suggesting they were made by the same artists. At both Tham Phrayanaga and Wong Lung Cave there are no Viking ships or other watercraft older than the 15th century depicted, despite suggestions from tourist companies, and most are not European contra Niti Sangwan (1987:126). Tham Phrayanaga is an outstanding example of a site with contact-inspired imagery, containing more depictions of watercraft in terms of sheer number and diversity than any other rock art site world-wide. This site gives us a window into both past pictures and past perceptions of maritime watercraft unavailable from other aspects of the archaeological record. A larger regional and perhaps global study of rock art depictions of watercraft would be worthwhile not only to situate Tham Phrayanaga in larger contexts but also to better inform us of past seafaring generally. But as with rockart sites everywhere, the images are under threat from both natural and human forces, with nesting birds and the people who harvest them having a big impact at Tham Phrayanaga. In this regard, it is vital to better document rock art sites like Tham Phrayanaga before the valuable visual information they contain is lost forever. Acknowledgements Research took place as part of a collaborative Greater Mekong Sub-region and Malay Peninsula Research Project, led by Colonel Assist. Prof. Surat Lertlum of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy and Assoc. Prof. Stephen Chia from Universiti Sains Malaysia, as well as Griffith University’s Picturing Change research program led by Prof. Paul S.C. Taçon (ARC Discovery Grant DP0877463). The Thailand Research Fund, the Universiti Sains Malaysia Short Term Grant, the Fine Arts Department of Thailand and Silpakorn University also supported field-survey. Pariwat Thammapreechakorn, Surat Lertlum, Pongdhan Sampaongern, Surapol Natapintu, Rasmi Shoocongdej and Pacharee Sarikabutara are thanked for information and feedback. 5 �Bibliography Bloomfield, B. and Tam, K.-L., 2005 Breazeale, K. (ed), 1999 Chaimongkon, S., and Pigpien, K., 1990 Fine Arts Department, 1979 Garnier, D., 2004 Gibson-Hill, C.A., 1949. Lim, P., 2009 Sangwan, N., 1987 Sarikabutara, P., 1987 Sukkham, A., 2010 Taçon, P.S.C., May, S.K., Fallon, S.J., Travers, M., Wesley, D., and Lamilami, R., 2010 Valli, E. and D. Summers., 1990 Virapol, S., 2005 Wongbusarakum, S., 2007 Dynasties and destinations. Hong Kong Maritime Museum, Hong Kong. From Japan to Arabia: Ayutthaya’s Maritime Relations with Asia, The Foundation for the Promotion of Social Science and Humanities Textbooks Project, Bangkok. Pharayanaga Cave Art, Krabi, Fine Arts Department, Bangkok, in Thai language. Siam Society in the King Rama V Period, The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, Bangkok, in Thai language. Ayutthaya: Venice of the East, River Books, Bangkok. "Cargo boats of the east coast of Malaya", in Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 22,1, pp.106-125. Through the eyes of the King: the travels of King Chulalongkorn to Malaya, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. "Some rock painting sites in the Phangnga and Krabi Bay area", in SPAFA Final Report: Seminar in prehistory of Southeast Asia (TW11), SPAFA, Bangkok, pp. 119-141, "Bird, fish and boat: mysterious beliefs in the rock painting particularly of Tham Phi Hua To, Krabi Province, Southern Thailand", in SPAFA Final Report: Seminar in prehistory of Southeast Asia (TW11), SPAFA, Bangkok, pp. 143-160. The dating of ancient rock arts in Southern Thailand, M.A. thesis, Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, in Thai language. "A minimum age for early depictions of Macassan praus in the rock art of Arnhem Land, Northern Territory", in Australian Archaeology, 71, pp. 1-10. Nest gatherers of Tiger Cave, National Geographic 177(1), pp 106133. Tribute and Profit: Sino-Siamese Trade 1652 – 1853, Dream Cather Graphic Co.,Ltd, Bangkok, in Thai language. Urak Lawoi’ of the Adang Archipelago, Themma Group, Bangkok. 6 �Wongthes, S., 2003. Ayutthaya : social and culture history, Matichon, Bangkok, in Thai languag. Figures Figure 1: Map of southern Thailand with Tham Phrayananga indicated. (Atthasit Sukkham) Figure 2: The most dramatic part of Panel A with numerous paintings of watercraft. (Atthasit Sukkham) 7 �Figure 3: One of two bichrome Thai junks at Tham Phrayananga (Paul S.C. Taçon). Figure 4: A painting of an early 20th century perahu pinisiq (Paul S.C. Taçon). 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Rock art of Phrayanaga (Viking) Cave, southern Thailand: the illustration of ancient vessels Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource Tham Phrayanaga is one of Southeast Asia’s most well-preserved but little understood rock art sites. This cave site in southern Thailand has at least 76 depictions of watercraft. Many of the images are accurate portrayals of vessels used by a number of different cultural groups. The nature of the imagery is described and the ways in which the site informs us about the region’s recent cross-cultural contact history is explored. Based on relative dating and comparative study, this rock art site has been given the approximately date of from about the late 1500s to the early 1900s. This study will highlight our results that have indicated that some figures are ancient vessels including Thai, Chinese, European, Indonesian, and Arabian. Moreover, it related to the Maritime Silk Route and the spice trade in Southeast Asia and the Andaman Sea, which is a part of the Indian Ocean. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atthasit Sukkham Paul S.C. Taçon Noel Hidalgo Tan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11