3 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3a56ec375721c034b2f9ad7c1004906e.pdf 8600b4d8264937914de2fe128bdea2ce PDF Text Text Examining Coastal Shipping Processes around Shodo Island during the Tokugawa Period Kotaro Mogi Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, 610-0394 Email: moooosha@gmail.com Hiroomi Tsumura Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, 610-0394 Email: Tsumura_Mobile@htsumura.msoutlookonline.net Abstract Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. The processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians have studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical document exits. In order to throw light upon seaborne stone transportation from Shodo Island to Osaka, therefore, underwater surveys around this island were carried out on seabed As a result, many submerged wall stones, as well as a submerged stone called “Kamome Ishi”, on which an old stone post was stood, succeeded in being found on the bottom of the sea; this mooring post is said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle, and these waters could serve the most important mooring port of Shodo Island for wall stone transportation. To prove this historic event, a tide simulation on the basis of survey data was analyzed and a reconstructed model for mooring and loading wall stones around the mooring post was hypothesized, which was verified by current fieldworks. Although millions of mariners have been working in the Seto inland sea since the ancient times, a new maritime and navigational technique seems to be emerged from Shodo Island and its surroundings early in the 17th century. Key words: Shodo Island, Tokugawa Period, Kamome Ishi, Seto inland sea, Yaana Introduction This paper will examine the shipping processes of stone used to build Osaka Castle's wall in the Tokugawa period. Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. This entrepôt has been recognized coastal areas of the Seto inland including Settu Ashiya or Mikage other than Shodo Island. It is discussed from historical and archaeological viewpoints through analysis of castle history about the actual conditions of "job site" as processing stone and the "daimyos" who managed it. It 1 �may be said that the east Seto Inland sea where Shodo Island is located is a "field of action", having various cultural landscapes since ancient times. Above all, in this field, cultural behavior mainly on "the stone" has been carried out. For instance, the fabrication methods of chipped stone tools called "Setouchi blade" in antiquity, was the stone used for Osaka castle's wall in the medieval period, and contemporary stones used for modern building. It goes without saying that "the stone" used as tools to support local life continue supporting our culture now. "The stone" is the remarkable keyword if we intend to establish a cultural landscape in the eastern Seto inland sea. Based on the above, in this study, "the stone" that is constructing Osaka castle's wall as the target, we want to reevaluate the technical examination. Thus far, the processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians has studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical documents exit. Therefore, the focus of this study is evaluating and examining the shipping process by carrying out an underwater investigation which has not been done in a conventional study. The research area is the Tenguiwaiso job site located at Iwagatani, on east coast in Shodo Island. We attempt a construction of the data from the basis of an environmental view point by cyclopedically analyzing the whole area between the shore and the sea. There are few similar examples of the practice of using of the underwater archaeology in such a manner. Particularly, the direction through such practices can bring up new questions, and it becomes a methodological approach to propose the clarifying facts between the relations of human and technology on maritime culture. The important point in this study is how to take the sea into account. In a conventional stone wall study, it relies mostly on the political description about each daimyos who managed job site and a technical description about how to break stones or to construct the castle, however, it is necessary to interpret this as "how they shipped the stones" to assume that the people who carried and engaged it. Technical invention can overcome this special environment like a sea is a major premise used to know this environment. We estimate the technique ("the knowledge") from investigation of environment and archaeological structure. 2 �Research in Tenguiwaiso Job Site There are Minamidani, Tenguiwa, Tenguiwaiso, Tofu, Kamesaki, and Hachininishi Job sites in Iwagatani on the east coast of Shodo Island, and scattered wall stones on each sites. These sites were designated as national historical sites in 1972. The study was of a number of stones, classified with processing marks called "Yaana" in Japanese, and arranged with the carved seal of the daimyos was researched as that time. The Tenguiwaiso job site is a curved site Fig. 1 Research area division comprising of a whole shoreline of white sand (the seaside). of the project. (K. Mogi). The area is lined with ship setting stones faced with the “Yanna” seal on this beach. The Tenguiwa job site is located in the western mountains from the Tenguiwaiso job site; hence it appears that it is the geographical location where a quarry was established. Stone from the area was removed and taken to the Tenguiwaiso job site. A torrential downpour by typhoon No. 8 in 1974 caused a landslide which flowed down onto the shore. Reports that some stones fell down with this landslide has been documented. Therefore, we must take the geographical change of the site into account both before and after the disaster. Grasping the present state of it is the first priority, and the construction of such a site will be an important model to be analyzed later. Investigation Method The basic purpose of this investigation is to obtain data that is topographical and understanding the stone distribution in the whole range of the shore area (both above and below water). The number of stones and the drawings has been recorded by the administrative report, yet the information of which stones are left and in which position and environment was not documented. In this investigation, we acquired data that considered the position of stones, their location on the site and in which kind of environment they were found. In addition to all the stone distribution, it is necessary to obtain the topographical and environmental information. Acquisition Data of Topographical and Distribution of Stones on the Shore To grasp more objectively the shape and distribution of the stones, we conducted 3 �photography from a high elevation of where the stones appeared by using a 5 m, expandable surveying staff with a camera clamp attached to the upper part of the staff. We contrived a system of linking positional information (coordinates) and the photograph, to determine the scale and a direction of the photograph. Photos were taken mainly of wall stones, big stones, and granite blocks. Given the large area and multitude of objects on the site, the methodology that was used would have a more quantitative sample. By using such a scientific example, the site would be easy to reproduce. In getting a topographical data, a total station (TS) is used at every surveying site today. It calculated the distance and the height to collimation point (prism) from the machine point (TS), by collimating at a change point of topography and other points in a random order. Each position and elevation was then derived from calculated coordinate data, which made a basic contour map from the data. In addition, we acquired data which was used for the position, scale, and directional information for the photographical surveying mentioned above. To understand the geographical feature, it could help verify the distribution of stones under each kind of environment, and allowed us to determine where the natural and artificial topographies lied on the site. Acquisition data of topographical and distribution of stones underwater Based on the results of the investigation in 2012, we determined the rough distribution of stones in all underwater areas by viewing via snorkeling. By this confirmation, we divided the area where stones were distributed conspicuously, Fig. 2 "Kamome Ishi". (K. Mogi) and subsequently investigated these areas (Fig. 1). Between each area was a sandy area where stones had not been observed. There is a submerged rock of approximately 3 m in height named "Kamome Ishi" (Fig. 2), on which an old stone post stood at research area II in the open circle of Fig. 1. In local transition, it may be a mooring post that was said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle. "Kamome Ishi" was examined mainly in 2012. It was hypothesized as a mooring post and modeled as such, however, it was not conclusive, 4 �thus a reevaluation of the area was deemed necessary. Each section was then divided up via measuring tape into 50×50 m blocks. We then checked the distribution of the stones by scanning the bottom of the sea using animation photography (HERO3 of GoPro). A mark was made at every 1m interval, and at each interval, a photo was taken (Fig. 3). A gap in the image when it was composed was the blurring of the camera position, and the bob weight on the camera was taken in the angle of view. It blurred at the time of photography by setting up an angle to deserve gaps of image, and we compensated for this (Fig. 4). The process provided direction, scale and position of the image by yielding a coordinate on the initial point, middle point, and terminal point on each 1 m measurement line. Based on such a procedure, we acquired consistent underwater data sets to collate with the topographical data gathered from the shoreline. The acquisition method of the underwater topographical data was used as well as the surveying method at the shore area stated earlier. We measured the topography at random to the spot about 300 m ahead from the shore. Collimation (prism) attached top of the measurement staff, Fig. 3 Underwater Photographing Method. (K. Mogi) calculated distance and height of the collimation point from the machine point (TS). We stabilized the collimation and the staff by two scuba divers and one snorkeler manning each at bottom of the sea position, middle position, and surface of the water position. The diver at the sea bed selected a change point of the topography at approximately 5-10 m and at random, and the diver at the surface determined the direction of movement. In addition, a research member on the ship acted as contact to the operator on the shore. Each position and elevation of collimation are derived from calculated coordinate data, it matched data of the shore area, and made a basic contour model. The measurements between the ship using sonar or multi-beam is common for an ocean study and the method of making a counter 5 �map at the bottom of the sea, is necessary completion with the land since this area is the full coastal zone in this study. For that reason, we think that bringing a land method into practice underwater brings yields valuable information, since we are able to obtain data with a more detailed approach using such a method. Reduction and Analysis of Acquisition Data Topographical Data in the Shore and the Underwater To coordinate topographical data at the shore and the underwater area using the practice mentioned above and extract latitude and longitude, we made a topographical map (contour) of the whole research area by Kriging method used in Fig. 4 Method of Control and Revision of the geology (Fig. 5). Reproduction of the Camera Position. (K. Mogi) shore and the seafloor topography was compiled to match and supplement both data sets of these environments. In consideration of Fig. 5, the shore topography makes curves like a bow and in perspective we know that it formed a gentle topography to measure points at the off side at approximately 300 m. In addition, the shore area represents a beach with a sandwiched concavity in both the north and the south of the site. The port and the breakwater have shore protection at present. From a narrower perspective, it is confirmed that the large shallow area in the north coastal zone, and the irregular sequences on the contour line which in the center of coastal zone are consistent with the location of "Kamome Ishi". Please note that the two dales in the northeast side (the shore side) from its area. This has been confirmed on site; the erosion traces by the wave could be seen on the lower part it. These two dales formed a geographical placement that suggests relation with the Tenguiwa job site as a quarry located in the mountains place of the northeast side. Additionally, the dale topography is around a 10 m deep on the southeast side. This 6 �may be a part of the site influenced by the disaster in 1974; it could show which area was affected my observing mudflow sediment. Depending upon the size of the disaster, the landslide sediments left traces we can observe. Yet the sediment is not present. It is possible that the landslide sediment disappeared via the erosion of water from the disaster. Undoubtedly, an area along the shore that is predominantly affected by waves, tidal flow, and topography, it is obvious that the natural and physical phenomenon such as the erosion forms chaotic natural molding for the beach topography and the landscape. However, it does not lead to the generalization of the natural phenomenon in the shore area when compared with a study of hydrology or engineering science in the region these days, so it is suggested that a "Critical transition" occurred (Marten Scheffer, 2009) which represents dramatic chaos on the site which change some parameters. To consider such a background, while taking a wave and a flow of the sea into account, it must push forward by discussing this as an interpretation of the shipping process based on the analysis of the data. Distribution of Stones in the Shore and Underwater Area To coordinate the distribution of stones from both on the shore and underwater, we digitized the shape of Fig. 5 Topographical Map in Shore and under Water. each stone via enforced geometry (K. Mogi) correction, stored in a GIS (Geographic Information System). It distinguished the stones from the sand, and other objects (e.g. noise) by checking color tone and image, and subsequently made a distribution map of the stones (Fig. 6). We are analyzing it now, making a distribution map of stones in the whole investigation area. Stones left on the job site without being carried to Osaka castle were labelled as "Unfortunate Stones". Nevertheless, it is strange that many of the stones were recorded underwater. It has our assumption that the stones underwater were stones which fell into the sea, and were left without being recovered. This practice could have propelled the myth of "the fall of the castle" used in local folklore. To understand it better, see Fig. 7 �5, where stones are concentrated, appearing that they have a consistent arrangement. As mentioned before, the sandy area is devoid of stones. The distribution of stones would be scattered everywhere in a more random pattern if they were not picked up because it would mean "the fall of the castle". Therefore, in this study, we doubt the claim of these stones being called" Unfortunate Stones", and put forward the theory that the distribution of stones underwater as "intentional". Suggestion of the Shipping Process First, as the examination of "Kamome Ishi" (Fig. 2) mentioned above, authors have tried modeling the shipping process completely dependent on high and low tides. In particular, because it made a hole in the top surface of "Kamome Ishi" and a stone pillar was embedded in it, it was assumed as a mooring post. The "Moyai" in the Sea of Japan is a similar example, and it could be said that the “Kamome Ishi” has a similar structure to the mooring post. However, including an example of the Sea of Japan, the mooring post for ships docking at old ports was typically made in most of the sea cliffs or the wave cut bench which have an enclosed cape or a cliff facing the sea. In contrast, the "Kamome Ishi" is located in the sea at approximately 2 m depth on the average. It is unique that the post is placed directly ahead of the shore. Authors have measured and investigated the "Kamome Ishi" from 2012, and examined and evaluated its function. Assuming the "Kamome Ishi" serves the function of mooring a ship, it becomes necessary that the post is always higher than the height of the water surface. Tidal analysis was conducted on the region between the years 1619 CE (the year the Osaka castle began construction) to 1630 CE (the year the Osaka castle was completed). The data allowed us to deduce that waves never surpassed more than upper parts on "Kamome Ishi" of approximately 320 cm height. Therefore the stone pillar was always higher than water surface. From this, it could be said to some degree of certainty that the "Kamome Ishi" did indeed function as a mooring post. One interpretation in this is, viz. A ship, such as a flatboat arrived between the land and the "Kamome Ishi" at high tide. It then it moored the ship using its anchor and the stone pillar of "Kamome Ishi". The ship ran aground at low tide and used a board as a gangplank between the land and the ship. After loading the stones it waited until high tide (when the ship refloated), and started sailing. This process is an assumed hypothesis. Since historical documents and records are poor 8 �pertaining to shipping or transporting this material, we can only hypothesize a scenario such as this one. Secondary, the authors paid close attention to the near shore current system in the area. The shore topography forms the curves like a large bow over the area. Generally, the near shore current system forms a circulatory system where the shore is nearer than the sea area as has the relatively same flow as the shore ward currents flowing onto shore, Long shore currents flow along the shore, while Rip currents flow seaward from the shoreline. Rip currents have a particularly strong flow in the near shore current system and forms a regular circulating flow style. Depending on this system, the cusp topography which formed the arch-formed shoreline was affected rhythmically occur and has been confirmed in the Tenguiwaiso job site where the team investigated. It was often chosen as a place ("current") to begin rowing unconsciously, so that a big wave is hard to flow at the place that Rip currents are being produced. Therefore, we can consider that a ship laden with the Osaka castle wall stones starting to sail through the mechanism of the Rip currents. . The conditions that Rip current occur and concentrates are a sandy coast, a shoreline bended into an arc form, a surface wave flow on top of sandy coast, and a near structure such as breakwaters which stuck out from shore. Based on the above information and the checked topography in Tenguiwaiso (Fig. 5), these are very present in this environment. There are two dales on the northeast side of the shore area. These two dales play a big role in the Rip currents' formation. Looking at the topography data, the sandy coast topography formed a fold, not a straight line. On the other hand, while the wave characteristically diffracts to Fig. 6 Distribution Map of Stones. (K. Mogi) the shallow direction, it is concentrated on a pointed part topographically. Hence, we can understand this two dales have topographical characteristics to form Rip current. Where the "Kamome Ishi" is located, it 9 �forms a line at right angles to the shore. An Irregular sequence is observed near this rock and "Kamome Ishi" by topographical data (Fig. 5). In particular, Rip currents are particularly faster near the structure, so it is our opinion that a ship moored at the "Kamome Ishi" can benefit from these extra rapid Rip currents. In light of these Rip currents and topography data, it was suggested that the ships landing here exploit this process when sailing from I and II in Fig. 1 in particular. Conclusion This paper examined coastal shipping process of wall stones by evaluating environment around the area and investigating underwater structure and stones. And we gave a new suggestion against it was inarticulate manner. Although it may not wish that is over a level of "the interpretation", it is necessary more procedural analysis that mainly investigation or field work and method to the interpretation in case of treating such several ways and estimations are accomplished. There are still a lot of challenges for the future; however we think that can give a new suggestion for the wall stones study mainly political and technical. It is necessary to let method of investigation and environmental evaluation more deepen hereafter. Acknowledgements My heartfelt appreciation goes to Prof. Tsumura whose comments and suggestions were of inestimable value for my study. I am also indebt to Prof. Iwabuchi, Prof. Nakada and anonymous reviewers whose comments made contribution to my thesis. References Board of Education in Utsumi town., 1979. Conservation Management of A Historical Site Osaka Castle's Wall Stones Job Site, Kagawa: 4-7, 17-19, (in Japanese). Hiroomi, T., 2013. "Cultural Landscape" of Maritime People Understanding from Investigated Underwater Archaeological Feature in Tenguiwaiso. Symposium of Stones Attraction Creating in Shodo Island, in Ministry of Strategy and Finance Shodo island Kagawa: 61-67, (in Japanese). Kotaro, M., and Yuichi, T., 2013. Tide Simulation and Inquiring of Shipping Process in Coastal Zone, Shodoshima. The 30th Annual Meeting of the Japan Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Abstracts, in Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Hirosaki: 118-119, (in Japanese). 10 �Kyoji, Y., 2002. About Mooring port remaining Moroyose Fishing port. Board of Education in Hamasaka town Press, Hyogo: 5-11, (in Japanese). Marten, S., 2009. Critical Transition in Nature and Society. Princeton University Press, New Jersey: 11-15. Yuichi, T., Tappei, M., Keisuke, F., and Kotaro, M. 2013. Application of Scanning Surveying Technique for Archaeological Features Using Phtogrammetry. The 30th Annual Meeting of the Japan Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Abstracts, in Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Hirosaki: 146-147, (in Japanese). Biography Kotaro Mogi is perusing his Masters in the Graduate School of Culture and Information Science at Doshisha University in Japan. He is interested in Spatiotemporal Informatics, Cultural Anthropology, Maritime Archaeology, and Information Science. Especially, study is that interaction water environment including sea and human in principal objective, and human behavior in the space. It is intended to evaluate the human behavior from the information to be provided the investigation in underwater cultural heritage and analysis environment around it. Main research areas are the Seto inland Sea, Egypt, Motosu Lake, and Maldives. Hioomi Tsumura is the Associate Professor in Faculty of Culture and Information Science, and Director of the Research Center for Knowledge Science in cultural heritage, Doshisha University in Japan. He is specialized in are Spatiotemporal Informatics and Human ecology. His past work includes: The E-way into the four Dimensions of Cultural Heritage (Archeopress, 2004), Site-Catchment Analysis of Prehistoric Settlements by Reconstructing Paleoenvironments with GIS; "GIS-Based Studies in the Humanities and Social Science" (Taylor and Francis, 2005), and "Geography Information Science Dictionary" (Asakura Press, 2004). 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Examining Coastal Shipping Processes around Shodo Island during the Tokugawa Period Description An account of the resource Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. The processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians have studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical document exits. In order to throw light upon seaborne stone transportation from Shodo Island to Osaka, therefore, underwater surveys around this island were carried out on seabed As a result, many submerged wall stones, as well as a submerged stone called “Kamome Ishi”, on which an old stone post was stood, succeeded in being found on the bottom of the sea; this mooring post is said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle, and these waters could serve the most important mooring port of Shodo Island for wall stone transportation. To prove this historic event, a tide simulation on the basis of survey data was analyzed and a reconstructed model for mooring and loading wall stones around the mooring post was hypothesized, which was verified by current fieldworks. Although millions of mariners have been working in the Seto inland sea since the ancient times, a new maritime and navigational technique seems to be emerged from Shodo Island and its surroundings early in the 17th century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotaro Mogi Hiroomi Tsumura, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e18e5e5a8709f4beba2462d73909aa3d.pdf a5f9c138ae3f59f1557c9d848cbb3566 PDF Text Text The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sea Going Sailing Junks: A Manuscript Xu Lu Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society Xiamen, 361003 People’s Republic of China Email: xuluxm2013@yahoo.com Abstract As the most important qualities of ancient Chinese sailing junks, the square bows and sterns with transverse watertight bulkhead and the lugsails with bamboo mat and strip remained the same over thousands of years. Of which, the traditional Fujian style sea going junks is one of the major vessel forms for the ocean and oversea route in ancient China. This paper make an interpretation of Fujian style sea going junks through ship form and structure, principle of design, models, choice of material, sequence of construction, painting and decoration, tools, ship-builders, and ship component remains. This study is combined with the interpretation of Chinese historical documents and drawings, foreign historical drawings, ethnographical field work on main traditional shipbuilding centers along the Fujian coast, reconstruction of traditional shipbuilding, land archaeology evidence, and especially gathers information from a newly discovered illustrated manuscript for shipbuilding. This manuscript at present is the most detailed manuscript found pertaining to the principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, measures and amounts materials used for each ship form. The purpose of this paper is to recover the historical archetypes of ancient Fujian Style Sea going sailing junks, then providing one set of helpful method to explain and identify relevant ship remains excavated in future shipwreck underwater archaeological projects. Keywords: Fujian style Sea going junks, Traditional shipbuilding, Ship remains, Naval architecture, Manuscript Introduction The traditional Fujian style sea going junks is one of the major vessel forms in ancient China. But, what did that ancient junks look like? How were they made? How were they operated and maneuvered? China’s navigation and naval architecture constitute a history of this production technology with its root in the common people. Extant historical data is rather limited and therefore regrettably slight when contrasted with the 1 �art and expertise accumulated over time and the ancient and magnificent culture that it represents. The emergence of sea-faring wooden vessels, their development, transformation and eventual disappearance had a lot to do with the political and economic conditions as well as the available natural resources at any specific time. Without question, changes in available resources as well as in sea routes entailed modifications to form, size, function, names, and even the mode of operation of these vessels. Equally, the technological development and improvement in ship design had its effects on society and the subsequent trajectory of social history. Before, domesticated shipwreck archaeology was founded in the matching and displaying of wrecks, and never went further to carry out experiments on replica and reconstructions according to ancient navigation environment perspectives. Even after researching into the history of naval architecture and ancient writings, searching through relics from different dynasties, focusing mainly on the general conditions of ship-building and the wide variety of methods of manufacturing through every historical period, we are still unable to reconstruct history in its entirety. What could be done was to set up a systematic way of collecting data; then to summarize, understand and subsequently experiment with them. With this data as the foundation, the project became to produce a series of replicas using methods of construction that had been passed down from generation to generation, so that people today can see and experience them; replicas that may allow later generations to reconstruct actual history. Only by doing so can we answer the three questions pertaining to ship-building and sea-faring history listed above, an only then can the value of research be made clear. Ship Form and Structure of Fujian Style Junks Facing Taiwan across the strait, Fujian has 3,324 km of coastline and 1,404 small islands off the coast. The way of life of the ancient Yue people, Fujian’s early inhabitants, was sea orientated with sea travel as their main means of communication. Despite the hilly landscape and mountain ranges in Fujian’s hinterland, these proved no barrier to its economic interaction with other provinces and places overseas (Fig. 1). 2 �The inland, inshore and offshore sea-faring networks linked Fujian with the outside world thereby shipping continuously ensuring and that fishing developed. Fujian’s industries In addition, Fujian was rich in natural resources such as wood, iron, tong oil (Verniciafordii seeds oil), lihui (lime obtained by burning oyster shells), rattan, hemp and lacquer. With such handy materials that could be used to build ships, ship-building prospered across the province. Viewed from a different perspective, Fujian’s coastline was full of Fig. 1 A Color Images of Fujian Style War Junk. (W. creeks and inlets. Facing the Strait of Alexander) Taiwan, it was situated where warm and cold air currents mingled. Not only was the wind strength very inconsistent, it was also where typhoons move inland from the sea during the summer and autumn. Due to this complicated natural environment, certain demands had to be met with regard to form, function and structure of ships, and to the choice of materials and skills employed in their manufacture. It is such circumstances that gave birth to vessels with V-shaped bottoms, raised flat bows, indented sterns, flaring bulwarks, framing, stern-hung, lifting rudders lowering deeply below the keel line, and wide cambered decks that eased the drainage of water. These unique environmental and cultural factors together made the Fujian style junks one of the major vessel forms in ancient China. Building Fujian style junks required standard procedures in the choosing of ship form, design, materials and construction strategy, and involved manufacturing processes such as carpentry, metal work, sewing, painting and smelting. The Southern Song dynasty seagoing ship unearthed in Houzhu in Quanzhou in 1974, the mid-Yuan dynasty Fujian merchant ship discovered in Xin’an of Korea in 1982, and the many ships found in the sea-beds in Lianjiang, Pingtan, Putien and Dongshan in Fujian province are comprised solely of those parts of the ships that were below the waterline. 3 �Therefore, they provide no information on the complete form and design of these vessels. These remains, however, do prove that during the Song and Yuan dynasties the necessary skills developed to build the three-sectioned keel, the water-tight cabins and stern-hung rudders that could be hoisted and lowered. Historical Evidence The earlier records from extant historical writings that contain information on different types of ship from the Fujian style junk series were written around the late 16th to the mid-17th century. A middle 17th century collection of the Berlin Ethnologic Museum was the earliest meticulous color image of Fujian style junks (Anonymous, mid-17th Century). A mass of Drawings of Chinese ship anchored around Matsuura and recorded by local Japanese painters since last decade of 17th century (Oba, 1972) were of great value for study. In 1796, William Alexander’s colour images are the earliest and the best realistic portrayals of Fujian style junks available to us today (Fig. 2). Domestic sources were researched as well. The Navy Abstract, written in the year of the Emperor Kangxi (1654-1722) by the regional commander Chen Liang Shi contained an iconography for Fujian style warship (Chen Liang Shi, 2002). The Taiwan Conversation by Writing, written between the years of the emperor Kangxi to Yongzheng by Huang Shu Jing, recorded parts of materials, quantities and specifications needed to build the Ganzeng types of Fujian warship (Huang Shu Jing, 1957). The Illustrated Manual of Instruction in Shipbuilding for the Navy of Fujian Province, a manuscript between the years of the emperor Yong zheng to Fig. 2 The Coast of Fujian Province and the Qianlong by anonymous writer recorded Location of Sha Po Wei. (Xu Lu) by the order of the Admiralty (Anonymous, 4 �Mid-18th listed Century), the kinds of warships in use during that time. Types like Ganzeng, Shuangpeng, Pingdi, Fazhuo, Bajiang were listed, and their peculiarities and used for different areas and condition. The Regions Formula of Fujian Sea Going Fig. 3 The Old Dockyard in Sha Po Wei inside Xiamen Gang. (Xu Lu) Warships, a woodblock edition was written in 1768 by the order of the emperor Qianlong (Anonymous, 2002). Through putting together mostly-forgotten information that have been scattered all over the world, the appearance and design of junks traceable to the Song and Yuan dynasties are visualized. These sources show wahat ancient Fujian style sea-going junks probably looked like. Ethnographical Field Investigation and Manuscripts From 2004, we began to visit the main traditional shipbuilding centers along the Fujian coast and carried out the field investigation of wooden sailing junks. We found 7 manuscripts recorded and inherited by 4 shipwright families. The Sha Po Wei inside Xiamen Gang (Old Amoy Port) is a famous traditional shipbuilding center up to the first half of the 20th century. It was comprised of more than 15 private dockyards around 3 hectares of shoreline (Fig. 3). The Chen family in one of largest and oldest dockyards in the region, the family migrating from Huian country to Xiamen Gang at least five generations ago. An illustrated manuscript of naval architecture was archived by Mr. Chen Yan Ning of this family. It is 51 pages of paper, 22.5 cm in length and 11cm wide, 6 vertical red lines to a page, badly written in the end of 1910s.The manuscript was drawn by Chen Yan Ning’s uncle, Chen Guo Zai (died in 1949), and then his son gave it to Chen Yan Ning. It contents size and cost of fourteen Fujian sea-going sailing junks, 5 �all the numbers expressed in Suzhou numerals (Table 1). It is the most detailed record so far pertaining to the principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, measures and the amount of materials used for different ship forms. One of those is Da Pa, a junk that each side of hull is printed five gun ports (Fig. 4), it is the only civil junk with gun ports in the period of the Republic of China, alias Hei Bo or Feng Wei Chuan by recorded of G. R. G. Fig. 4 The Manual of Da Pai in the Naval Worcester (Worcester, 1948) (Fig. 5). Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family. (Chen Guo Zai) Design In ancient times, master ship-builders relied on their individual experience and the knowledge passed down from previous generations. They would make patterns on the spot rather than prepare drawings with precise dimensions in advance. Traditional shipbuilding was a conservative, physically demanding profession. Apprentices were people from the lower end of society who could not afford an education. Being mostly illiterate, ship-builders’ experience and knowledge was an oral tradition, passing it down to apprentices as they worked. In those days livelihoods very much depended on such skills, so what they learned they kept to themselves and seldom disclosed. For these reasons, illustrated construction manuals were rare. When designing a new ship, Fujian shipwright would decide on the measurements:  The length of the keel (longgu) and the rise at both ends based on the intended use of the particular ship;  The location of the four main transverses – those at the front and back, behind the mast and that which defines the main cabin;  The width and depth of the ship in proportion to the length of the keel (longgu), for example, the measurement of the transverse behind the mast should be 4/10 the measurement of the keel. 6 � All other measurements such as the bottom-width of the transverse behind the mast, the top and bottom widths and locations of other transverses were then defined based on experience and according to the type, usage and other requirements of the vessel.  The height of the mast depended on the top-measurement of the transverse immediately behind. So was the size of the major sail.  Finally, measurements of width and the size and shape of the rudder post and tiller were determined. The earliest historical document about design of Fujian style junk that has been discovered up to now is a document from the early Qing dynasty. Fig. 5 Feng Wei Chuan. (G. R. G. Worcester) Models The building process started with making a model. Measurements would then be proportionately enlarged for making the ship. This was a method recorded in documents from the Song dynasty onward and continues to be used even in the present. Currently, 7 �scholars take the making of models as the means by which to conserve and record the technology used to make a particular ship, but the ship-building industry knows well that components are difficult to reduce and reproduce to scale. Hence details that scaled down would be too small to show are often omitted. Furthermore, to build a ship requires totally different skills to those required for making a model. When detailed plans and descriptions are lacking, models can at times be misleading. Model offered the possibility of experimenting with various solutions before the replica in full scale was begun. Selection of Material As far as the choice of wood is concerned, a kind of natural fir tree Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb). Hook from Fujian a mountainous area was normally used for the parts of a ship’s shell that have direct contact with the sea, such as the keel (longgu), bottom, shuishe (literally water snake), and zouma (literally running horse), the deck and transverses (gecangban, literally cabin-separating boards), and natural small-leaf camphor for other parts of the body such as cangliangzhuo (base of cabin beams) liangtou (beam-end) and gecangfuqiang (cabin-separating strengtheners). For the rudder and anchor which required harder material, kundian wood, which was grown in Guangdong and Southeast Asia was used. Wood for the mast was the most carefully selected, natural fir trees from Fujian aged 80 or more were generally used. Extant historical documents prove that tight rules governing the selection and quantity of materials to be used for ships built in imperial shipyards existed from the mid Ming. The allowances, however, seem overly lavish. With experienced folk ship-builders, measurements of all the parts would be clear in their minds as they searched for materials. Any piece of wood was to them an assembly of some parts. Ship-building uses a lot of wood, but the availability of wood is subject to specific growth cycles. A shortage of supply occurred in Fujian from the early Ming Dynasty, and with it, the cost of ships went up. Wood was then imported in large quantities from Southeast Asia (Chen Xi Yu, 1991). At the same time, some folk-shipyards moved out of Fujian. Some relocated abroad where a few expanded to substantial size. With them Fujian shipbuilding technology spread overseas. 8 �Launched 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1915 1914 Type Owner Da Shuang Zhang (Jiang) Da Gu Da Gu Da Gu Qiu Xiong Da Pai Da Pai Da Pai 口 Cao (DiaoCao？) 1906 Jin Mu Chuan Chong Wu Changshun hang Chong Wu Cheng Chuan Chong Wu Chang Shun Xiu Chuan Jiu Zhi He Shang Tou Chuan De Bao Shui Chuan Length of keel (chi/meter) 28.4/8.72 Cost (Silver Dollar) 500 22.7/6.81 28/8.4 21/6.3 35/ 10.5 31.5/9.45 21/6.3 30.5/9.15 22/6.6 30.5/9.15 30.5/9.15 27/8.1 31/9.3 20/6 500 230 Table 1. The Contents of Fourteen Fujian Junks from the Naval Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family. (Chen Guo Zai) Sequence of Construction Traditional production starts with establishing the keel (longgu), fixing transverses (longuyiban, literally dragon bone wing-boards), parts of bottom planking, gecangban, biban (bilge Keel), wen (stabilizer), lianggung (upper ribs), then the intermediate ribs between the transverses, and finally, the remaining bottom planking. After these, work on the weather deck begins. First the boards along the bulwarks, followed with shishe on the exterior of the bulwarks, shuixianmen (literally narcissus door) and then the bulwarks. The dragon-eye is usually installed on an auspicious day chosen by the boatman. When the making of the ship’s hull is finished, the filling or Lihui (Caulking) and all sewing work too come to completion. Before the new ship is launched, the exterior of the shell is first covered with a mixture of rice soup and lihui to protect against shipworms. The owner selects a date and time for the launching after which the mast is set up and the sails bent on. This pattern of ship-building is traditional for many 9 �areas along China’s coastline and continues to be used even up to the present. Scholars named it chuankefa, literally the Chinese frame first system. The modern Chinese building techniques for large wooden ships begins with the keel, then erects the frames or ribs and the bottom planking before completing the side planking. This method of ship-building first appeared in Shi Ryukyu Lu (Diplomatic Mission to Ryukyu) written by the Ming dynasty diplomat Xia ZI yang in 1606 (Xia Ziyang, 1970). Painting and Decoration That part of hull below the water-line is usually covered with baikehui (lime from white s hells). The flares (tuolang ban, wave-lifting boards near the bow) are also first covered with lime before painting the figure that characterizes Fujian junks with a solution made of glue, tung oil and natural color pigments. Some Fujian junks even come with a carved head of a lion at the bow. Dragon eyes on the bulwarks near the bow are usually made of camphor. Particular rules govern the size and shape of these eyes: the ratio between the keel length and eye should be 110:4; eyes for fishing boats should look downwards t o signal the search for catches while eyes for merchant ships should look at the route a head. Mulong (wooden dragon), i.e., loach poles (qiuyuji) are painted on the bulwarks n ear the stern, a seabird (muyi) on the yingban (the oval-shaped sern facing), and at the bottom of the yingban is the board which carries the ship’s registration number. Accordi ng to legend, qiuyuji, muyi bird and Matsu (Goddess of the Sea) are the three treasures that watch over the safety of ships. A statue of Matsu or a paper charm as its substitute may be placed in a sanctuary in the after part of the poop. Tools Confucius says, “Good tools are a prerequisite to the successful completion of a job”. For the execution of specific tasks, special tools are required, such as axes, chisels, saws, files, tweezers, awls, knives, rulers and modou (ink markers) used by carpenters, and hammers, large tweezers, sickles, paint-brushes, truncheons for working with lime are used by other workers. Axe: triangular in shape, the axe is the most important tool in ship-building. In traditional ship-building, the qualification of ship-building masters is measured by the number of years he has used an axe. Adze: shaped like a hoe, it is also named guangfu (smooth-out, or faying axe) meaning 10 �that it is used for smoothing out or faying in parts. Saw: for cutting raw materials into boards. Plane: for smoothening out wood surfaces. Lu Ban ruler: also known as “wengong ruler”, which, according to legend, was a system of measurement invented by Lu Ban following Daoist truth and the laws of the Eight Diagrams. With birth, aging, sickness, death and suffering as the basis, the ruler is divided into 8 parts named cai, beng, yi, li, guan, li, hai and ben. When using the ruler, cai is the top and beng the end, and it is important also to avoid the inauspicious and adopt what is auspicious. Modou: that part which serves as a container of ink is called mochi (ink-well) which holds cotton wool soaked in ink. There is a line reel at the end. Cotton thread comes through from the modou and is also soaked with ink. To use the modou, the cotton thread is first fastened to the piece of wood which requires marking at each end, and by gently pulling the thread outwards near the center and then letting it go, a clear and distinct ink line appears on a raw piece of wood or boards measuring several meters. Caulking iron: made of wrought iron and steel for the teeth. An iron loop forms part of the wooden handle and is used for mixing hemp, rattan and lime and inserting the mixture into crevices. Shipbuilders Over the centuries, ship-builders coming from Fuzhou, Quanzhou and Zhangzhou slowly gathered in Fujian. Apprenticeship generally started at the age of 11 or 12. Those who joined the profession were mostly members of ship-builders’ families; their children, cousins or relatives. No less than 3 years of training were necessary. In the beginning, apprentices were not allowed to handle the axe and helped only in menial duties such as mending or minor repair work. Only after a number of years of training, when students had picked up sufficient knowledge and skills from their masters, were they allowed to work on important components such as keels, helms and masts before they became masters. There is a common saying, “Master of a particular shipyard builds ships exclusive to that shipyard”. Each shipyard had its unique ship form. Generation after generation of ship-builders inherited the skills, expertise and 11 �experience passed to them by their predecessors, which over time established a given set of practices and forms. Crossed the Pacific Voyages In Donnelly’s Chinese Junks and Other Native Craft, he listed three most important crossed the Pacific voyages have been taken by type of Fuzhou pole junk and another one was make by Xiamen fishing junk.     “Keying”: length of 48.7 m, Hong Kong to London, 1848. “Whangho”: length of 30 m, Shanghai to San Pedro, 1906. “Ningbo”: length of 42 m, Shanghai to San Pedro, 1912. “Amoy”: length of 21.03 m, Xiamen to Victoria, 1922. Captain Eric de Bisschop sailed a Xiamen built 12 ton gross junk Fou Po II in the southwestern Pacific Ocean and East Indian Ocean. In 1955, a Fuzhou style cargo junk with a length of 23 m, Free China, sailed from Taiwan to San Francisco. In 2008, our experimental replica of Fujian Style warship “Princess Tai Ping” sailed form Xiamen to San Francisco and Hawaii. Conclusions Unlike shipbuilding in other indigenous areas, the Chinese shipbuilding tradition changed a little through all the time, the structure of square bows and sterns with transverse watertight bulkhead and lugsails with bamboo mat and strip showed little change over thousands of years, and the last successors of traditional shipbuilding are alive. Western classifying studies of Chinese sailboats in the early of 20th century just based on the field investigations and the interviews with the successors of traditional naval architecture, such as the great achievements of François-Edmond Paris, Louis Audemard, Barbosa Carmona, Donnelly Ivon, G. R. G. Worcester and Etienne Sigaut, etc. It is last chance to be invested promptly on ethnographical field work investigation for Fujian coast traditional shipbuilding centers. The Naval Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family provided most detailed database so far, yielding valuable information pertaining to principle of design, a modulus system, main unit data, and measures used for typical ship forms of traditional Fujian style sea going sailing junks. ~There are still 3 shipwrights alive in Sha Po Wei, a valuable ethnographic resource, soon to be lost. 12 �Therefore, historical and archaeological projects need to be invested into promptly to recover the historical archetypes of ancient Fujian Style Sea going junks, which will provide helpful methods to explain and identify relevant ship remains excavated in future shipwreck underwater archaeological projects. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to all members of CSJES, the last craftsmen of traditional Fujian naval architecture and seamanship, who provided their invaluable experience and knowledge. I must also express my sincere thanks to Dr. Jia Hao and Miss Jia Xiaofan. Dr. jiahao helped me to search relevant historical materials and Miss Jia xiaofan revised the article format. References Chen Guo Zai., 1919. The Naval Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family, Manuscript (private collection), Xiamen. Anonymous, Mid-17th Century. The Island of Formosa (painted on parchment). Collection of Berlin Ethnological Museum, Berlin. Oba, Osamu., 1972. About Drawings of Chinese Ship Kept in Matsuura Historical Museum, Hirato: The Referential Material of Chinese Merchant Ship in the Era of Edo. Memo 5 of Research Institute of East and West Academicals Studies of Kansai University, Osaka suita: 13-49. Chen Liang Shi., 2002. The Navy Abstract (Shui Shi Ji Yao), Reprinted from the Original in Late 17th Century. Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai: 329-337. Anonymous, Mid-18th Century. The Illustrated Manual of Instruction in Shipbuilding for the Navy of Fujian Province (Min Sheng Shui Shi Ge Biao Zhen Xie Ying Zhan Shao Chuan Zhi Tu Ji), Manuscript. Anonymous, 2002. The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Fu Jian Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), (Reprinted from the Woodblock Edition in 1768). Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Huang Shu Jing., 1957. The Taiwan Conversation by Writing (Chi Kan Bi Tan), Reprinted from the Original in Early 18th Century. Business Bank, Taipei: 35-37. 13 Economic Academe of Taiwan �Worcester, G. R. G., 1948. A Classification of the Principal Chinese Sea-going Junks (south of the Yangtze). Shanghai Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, Shanghai: 66-67. Chen Xi Yu, 1991. Chinese Sailing Junks and Overseas Trade. Xiamen University Press, Xiamen: 114-127. Xia Zi Yang, 1970. Shi Ryukyu Lu (Diplomatic Mission to Ryukyu), (Reprinted from the Original in 1606). Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei: 235. Biography Xu Lu is the initiator and director of Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society (CSJES), an exclusive institute focus on protect and study ancient Chinese naval architecture and nautical navigation. He also is commissioner of China Maritime History Studies Association. As a maritime archaeologist special in the field of junks, he spent over a decade on field work to investigate and ethnographic study the last traditional sailing craft still be built and operating in China, wrote and released numerous academic papers. He led an experimental archaeological ship-reconstructions project in 2007, Princess Taiping, a junk replica sailed across the Pacific. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sea Going Sailing Junks: A Manuscript Description An account of the resource As the most important qualities of ancient Chinese sailing junks, the square bows and sterns with transverse watertight bulkhead and the lugsails with bamboo mat and strip remained the same over thousands of years. Of which, the traditional Fujian style sea going junks is one of the major vessel forms for the ocean and oversea route in ancient China. This paper make an interpretation of Fujian style sea going junks through ship form and structure, principle of design, models, choice of material, sequence of construction, painting and decoration, tools, ship-builders, and ship component remains. This study is combined with the interpretation of Chinese historical documents and drawings, foreign historical drawings, ethnographical field work on main traditional shipbuilding centers along the Fujian coast, reconstruction of traditional shipbuilding, land archaeology evidence, and especially gathers information from a newly discovered illustrated manuscript for shipbuilding. This manuscript at present is the most detailed manuscript found pertaining to the principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, measures and amounts materials used for each ship form. The purpose of this paper is to recover the historical archetypes of ancient Fujian Style Sea going sailing junks, then providing one set of helpful method to explain and identify relevant ship remains excavated in future shipwreck underwater archaeological projects. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/231744352e9eb7e78476d7891b3fa1e9.pdf 4c85726b986801e0aa27851018bd6a3b PDF Text Text Distributional Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage and its Experimental Presentation in the Ryukyu Archipelago Chiaki Katagiri Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Naha, Japan, 900-0006 Email: katgiric@pref.okinawa.lg.jp Yuji Yamamoto Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka, Japan, 812-0041 Email: yamamoto@f-creer.com Yumiko Nakanishi, Osaka Prefectural Government, Osaka, Japan, 559-0034 Email: NakanishiYum@mbox.pref.osaka.lg.jp Abstract The Ryukyu Archipelago is located at the northwestern Pacific, between the islands of Formosa and Kyushu of southern Japan. It consists of 199 islands of all dimensions and the total range of its accurate distribution lengthen is approximately 1,200 km. Since the first human beings settled down on the archipelago during the Pleistocene, they have been living close by the sea there. The local populations have recognized maritime resources as a main and important nutritious food since the prehistoric era, while the Ryukyu kingdom used to be prosperous unprecedentedly in terms of seaborne oversea trade among Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. In the Ryukyu archipelago, the distributional survey of underwater cultural heritage has lately been conducted by the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and Kagoshima University, in order to assess its numbers, typologies, actual conditions, and so on. According to the research, 235 sites of underwater or maritime cultural heritage have already been confirmed: 9 shipwrecks, 33 submerged ports, 15 places where boat cargos are scattered on the seabed, 72 places where old boat cargos and other remains are found along the coasts, 30 stone anchors and cargos on land, 28 quarries, 45 stone tidal weirs, and 3 salt works. In 2011, as a result of the survey, an underwater cultural heritage presentation or guidance tour was carried out in Kume Island. Presumably, this experimental trial will lead the public to having the sense to acknowledge and protect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Key words: Ryukyu Archipelago, Ryukyu Kingdom, Transit trade, Distributional Survey, Open day Introduction The Ryukyu Archipelago consists of 199 islands of various sizes ranging about 1,200 km between Kyushu Island, the southernmost island of the Japanese Archipelago, and 1 �Taiwan in the northwestern coastal Pacific. The first humans reached there in the late Pleistocene and have long been living a life highly connected to the sea since then. Marine resources had been their major food source in prehistory, and the islands have prospered because of overseas exchanges using ships and the sea from the Gusuku Period to the Sanzan Period (from the latter half of 11thcentury to 1429 AD). The tidal zone was actively utilized for production activities until 1879, when the Ryukyu Kingdom became an independent state. Recent research accumulation revealed the numbers and types of underwater cultural heritage in this region by the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Kagoshima University, Tokai University and Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, and so on. It is notable that such researches include a whole series of different kinds of methods, such as collection of oral histories, interviews, archival researches, walking survey of the coastal area and the seabed, and the like. Based on the results of such researches, we have an underwater site open day in Kumejima Island in Okinawa for its experimental presentation on 11th September 2011 and 28th September 2013. On those days, we invited the willing public to visit and see underwater sites under the supervision and Fig. 1 Location of Archipelago. (C. Katagiri) guidance by the experts. The Ohajima Underwater Ryukyu Site was selected for the subject of this experimental presentation as it was the most suitable site on many reasons. We have collected the data regarding the interest of the visitors, trying to justify the validity of the method we have adopted. The research aims to lead to the protection and utilization of underwater cultural heritage. Types and numbers of the sites holding Underwater Cultural Heritage As shown in the Table 1, the area of sea around the Ryukyu Archipelago holds a wide variety of underwater cultural heritage. 9 shipwreck sites, 15 seabed artifact scattering sites (loads only, no hull found), 33 submerged ports, 72 coastal artifact scattering sites, 2 �76 production sites (28 quarries, 45 stone tidal weirs, an 3 salt pans), and 30 sites with findings on land, such as stone and iron anchors are so far found and categorized. type number contents a Shipwreck sites 9 Shipwreck b Sseabed artefact scattering sites 13 Only cargo, Almost ceramics c Ports 33 artefacts of various periods d Coastal artefact scattering sites 71 artefacts of various periods e Quarries 28 Sites to cut out stone f 45 Stationary fishing gear g Soltworks 3 Sites to produced the salt h Related underwater cultural heritage 30 Aimost Anchor of the ship Ⅰ Sites due to the marine accidents Ⅱ　Site formed by the frequent use of the sae and coasal areas Ⅲ　Sites due to production activities Ⅳ　Others Stone tidal weirs 合計 232 Table 1.Aggregation of Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Ryukyu Island. (C. Katagiri) Sites due to the Marine Accidents Shipwreck sites (a): Often only the wreckage and pieces of ships found. They are disturbed by natural phenomena like a typhoon or human disturbance like recovery after having been stranded or sunk. Seabed artifact scattering sites (b): Generally formed by loads thrown away from the ships, but sometimes caused by the wreck. Hard to distinguish either unless wrecked hull pieces are found. Sites formed by the Frequent Use of the Sea and Coastal Areas Ports(c): Proving that the area had been used as a port, with anchors and artifacts of various periods are found. Occasionally formed by the ship anchored there which accidentally sunk? Coastal artifact scattering sites (d): Formed as a result of utilization of the coastal area those who were living in the settlements there, such as cooking and discarding which are distinguished from the ports. Sites due to Production Activities Found in the tidal zone. Quarries (e) are well-recognized and well-preserved while salt pans(g) and stone tidal weirs(f) formed with the small pebbles piled are not preserved in a good state. Such structures are meant to be constantly used and repaired, and will be naturally destroyed once stopped being used. Many sites of this kind had been existed 3 �in the past, but the numbers dramatically decreased and hardly seen now. It is exigency to record those sites. Others Artifacts that used to be on the seabed are often recovered on land and conserved as cultural properties (h). Stone and iron anchors often apply to this case providing the clue to the identification of the ships sailing in the area at that time. Major characteristics of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Region Table 2 shows an overview of typical underwater cultural heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago and Fig. 2, Representative underwater cultural heritage of the Ryukyu archipelago. Underwater Cultural Heritage Related to Overseas Trades during the Gusuku Period (between the 12th and 13th Centuries AD) The Amamioshima-kurazaki underwater site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 2, Ukenson Board of Education, 1999) and the Kumejima- nakanohama underwater site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.13, Miyagi et al., 2004; Tezuka et al., 2005; Katagiri, 2007) are known to be holding underwater cultural heritage formed by the shipwreck or the load discarded from the ship, dated back to the latter half of the 12th century to the 13th century. In both cases, Chinese ceramics are densely found on the seabed, which provide a great deal of information related to the trading in the early Gusuku Period. Fig. 2Representative Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Ryukyu Archipelago. (C. Katagiri) 4 �Underwater Cultural Heritage Related to Overseas Trade from the Sanzan Period (the 14th Century AD) to the Ryukyu Kingdom Period (from 1429 AD to 1879) From the latter half of the 14th century to the beginning of the 15th century, a crucial turning point in the history of the region occurred regarding the transition of political power when the sovereign was centered during the establishment of the Ryukyu Kingdom. Ohajima Underwater site in Kumejima Island is one of the major sites during this period (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.12, Miyagi et al., 2004; Tezuka et al., 2008; Katagiri, 2007). Large amount of celadon of the early Ming Dynasty China is found. Moreover, 2 Chinese stone anchors have been identified in Kumejima Island. Kumejima Island and the surrounding sea area must have played a significant role in oversea trades during the early Gusuku Period and Sanzan Period, proved by the density of underwater sites and stone anchors dated back then.The Ryukyu Kingdom was in its heyday from the 15th century to the mid 16th century. The king resided in Shuri-jo Castle served as the sovereign ruler and the centralized nation was formed then. Nagura-shitadaru site (Underwater site) dated back to the mid to late 15th century is located in Ishigakijima Island and large amount of Chinese celadon discovered from the site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 22, Sakishima Culture Research Institute, 2009). Miyakojima Island holds Kurimajima Underwater site dated back to the first half of the 16th century. Chinese ceramics found from sites has been changing then, from the predominantly celadon before to the gorgeous flowery blue and white porcelain (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.19, Katagiri, 2009).After the invasion of the Satsuma clan in 1609, Tokara-retto Islands became a territory of Satsuma. An underwater sites indicating the maritime accident at that time is identified in Tairajima Island of Tokara-retto Islands. Clusters of Chinese porcelains of the Qing Dynasty dated to the 18th century found in the area, which would have been formed by the ship sunken or the ship loads discarded (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 1, Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economic and Humanities et al., 2010). Sunken Shipwrecks Revealing Ikoku-sen (the Western Ships) during the Last Years of the Ryukyu Kingdom In the last years of Ryukyu Kingdom, many West European ships called Ikoku-sen has constantly been around the sea area of the Ryukyu Archipelago.It is obvious that Asian 5 �intrusion and interference by the great powers of the West Europe came to influence so far as the Ryukyu Kingdom. Many shipwrecks found in the area can provide us the great deal of information on Western ships at that time. An English ship, Providence, sunken in Yaebishi in Miyakojima Island in 1776 was discovered (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.16, Katagiri, 2009). On top of the Providence, another English ship, Indian Oak, owned by East India Company sunken in 1776 was found in Chatan-cho in Chatan Oki (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.9, Nakamura, 1994). In 1853, the same year with when Mathew Calbraith Perry arrived at Uraga Port, an English ship sank off Yoshino Kaigan in Miyakojima (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.20, Katagiri, 2009) and a Dutch Ship, Van Bosse off Takada Kaigan in Taramason Village in 1857 (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.21, Katagiri, 2009). In 1872, when the Ryukyu Kingdom was inclining on verge of collapse, an English ship, Benares sank off Ginama in Kunigamison Village (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.4, Katagiri, 2013), as well as a foreign ship of unknown nationality sank off Minamiukibarujima in Uruma City (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.8, Katagiri, 2010). Wrecks and loads left by those foreign ships still remain on the seabed of those areas. Underwater Cultural Heritage Related to the Domestic Commodity Circulation within the Ryukyu Kingdom. In 1879, the Meiji Government abolished the Ryukyu Kingdom. The Kingdom became extinct on the map and came to be called “Okinawa Prefecture”. The ships called “Maran-sen” were playing significant role of carrying the supplies to many remote islands in Okinawa at that time. Agonoura Underwater site located in Zamamijima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.11, Miyagi et al., 2004), Yaebisi Underwater site Cluster in Miyakoshoto Islands (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.2-3, Katagiri, 2009), Yarabu Underwater Site in Ishigakijima Island (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.23, Katagiri, 2010, Ono et al., 2013), Sekiseishoko Underwater site Cluster in Yaeyamashoto Islands (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.24-26, Katagiri, 2009, Ono et al.,2013) are so far identified underwater sites dated to this period. A wide variety of Tsuboya-yaki pottery produced in Naha City in Okinawajima Island are found in those sites, accompanied with some Chinese Qing Dynasty Porcelain in some cases. Those sites and artifact scatterings were formed due to the accident of the ships which were transporting pottery produced at Tsuboya in Naha City of Okinawajima Island to the smaller islands around Okinawajima Island, 6 �such as Miyako and Yaeyama Shoto Islands, either by the hull being submerged or the loads abandoned on their way. In case of Sekiseishoko Underwater site Cluster, Point No. 3 (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 26), the submerged hull is identified. Moreover, fourarmed anchors that had never seen on land in Okinawa are discovered at Yarabu Underwater site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 23) in Ishigakijima Island, which provides us significant information to reveal the appearance and characteristics of the ships at that time (Katagiri, 2010; Ono et al., 2013). Submerged Port Sites Underwater sites showing evidence of having been the ports with frequent use are Shirasegawakako (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.14, Toma and Sakuda, 1999) and Majako (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.15, Katagiri, 2007; 2010) in Kumejima Island, Agonoura in Zamamijima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 11, Katagiri, 2007), Sesokojima Underwater site in Motobucho of Okinawajima Island (Fig. 2, Table Fig. 3 Landscape of Ohajima Underwater 2, Site No. 7, Katagiri, 2005). Majako Port had Site (A Large Amount of China Ceramics of the Late 14th on the Seabed) and Sea been a famous port known to be used for Area that Held a Tour. (C. Katagiri) tributary trades. There is a warehouse overseer near the site and stone anchors are found from the nearby settlement. A wide variety of artifacts dated back to from the medical to pre-modern and modern period are scattered on the coast and seabed in this area, which support that the area had long been used as a port (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.15). Combined investigations of such a site and previously mentioned Nakanohama underwater site and Ohajima underwater site that show the traces of maritime accidents will provide us with large amount of information to evaluate the site. Agonoura of Zamamijima Island is also known as a port related to the tributary trade.Many kinds of artifacts, such as the 15th century celadon, as well as the pre-modern and modern pottery produced in Okinawa, have been discovered on the seabed of the area (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.11). Sesokojima Sea area had also long been used as port on the trade route, which resulted in many artifacts findings especially on the east coast of Sesokojima Island. A 7 �stone anchor was found at Anchi-hama Beach, probing the existence of the ships anchored there (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.7, Katagiri et al., 2005). This stone anchor is relatively small, but mocking Chinese stone anchor having produced during the time of the Ryukyu Kingdom. The small stone anchors of this kind have recently been found at several places all over Okinawajima Island, which would be significant information source to reveal the structure of Maran-sen ships. Several stone anchors of this kind holding similar form were also found from the seabed off Sanko Port of Tokunoshima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.3, Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economic and Humanities et al., 2010). The area was tactically significant sea area for the port, and geographical as well as historical significance of the area are to be revealed. Production Site Production sites are generally recognized in the tidal zones. Quarries, stone tidal weirs and salt pans are the representative sites of this kind. A huge quarry in Kumejima Island of Kumejimacho (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.28, Katagiri, 2006), stone tidal weir cluster in Kohamajima Island of Taketomicho (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site Fig. 4 Tour scene of the Snorkel in Ohajima No.29, Katagiri, 2009), a salt pan in Underwater Site. (C. Katagiri) Nakijinson Village of Okinawajima Island and the like are so far identified (Fig.2, Table 2, Site No.31). Quarries are often well preserved due to its structural characteristic, while stone tidal weirs and salt pans made with small pebbles pile up are generally in disastrous preservation state. These types of sites have to be constantly used and repaired. The site, once stopped being used, would start to be reverted back to the original natural state and collapse due to the natural force of waves and tide. There had been many salt pans and stone tidal weirs in the past, which are hardly seen now. Recording of those sites is our urgent mission. 8 �No. Underwater Site Location Classification Contents Age 1 Tairashima Tokara, Tairashima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 18th 2 Kurakizaki Amami, Amami Oshima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 12-13th 3 Sankou Amami, Tokunoshima Ⅱc Port. Stone anchor Middle Ages 4 Ginama Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅰa Wreck. UK, Benares 1873 5 Emons Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅰa Wreck. USA, Emons 1945 6 Wajikaigan Okinawa, Iejima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 15th Middle Ages -Modern 7 Sesokojima Okinawa, Sesokojima Ⅱc Port. Okinawa stone anchor, China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery 8 Minamiukibarujima Okinawa, Minamiukibarujima Ⅰa Ｗｒｅｃｋ 1876 9 Indian Oak Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅰa Wreck. UK, Indian Oak 1840 10 Nahakou Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics Middle Ages-modern 11 Agonoura Okinawa, Kerama, Zamamijima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery Middle Ages-modern 12 Oha Okinawa, Kumejima,Ohajima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics Late14th 13 Nakanohama Okinawa, Kumejima, Hatenohama Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 12-13th 14 Sirasegawakakou Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery Middle Ages-modern 15 Majakou Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery Middle Ages-modern 16 Yabiji,No.1 Sakishima, Miyako, Yabiji Ⅰa Wreck. UK, Providence 1776 17 Yabiji,No.2 Sakishima, Miyako, Yabiji Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery Early modern period 18 Yabiji,No.3 Sakishima, Miyako, Yabiji Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery Early modern period 19 Kurimajima Sakishima, Miyakojima, Kurimajima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics Early16th 20 Yoshinokaigan Sakishima, Miyakojima Ⅰa Wreck. UK 1853 21 Takadakaigan Sakishima, Taramajima Ⅰa Wreck. Netherlands, Van Bosse 1857 22 Nagurashitadaru Sakishima, Ishigakijima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 15th Early modern period 23 Yarabu Sakishima, Ishigakijima Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery. Four claw iron anchor 24 Sekiseisyouko,No1 Sakishima, Sekiseisyouko Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery, China Ceramics Early modern period 25 Sekiseisyouko,No2 Sakishima, Sekiseisyouko Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery Early modern period 26 Sekiseisyouko,No3 Sakishima, Sekiseisyouko Ⅰa Wreck. Okinawa pottery Early modern period-modern 27 Yomitanson,quarries Okinawa, OKinawajima Ⅲe Production sites. Quarries Early modern period-modern 28 Kumejima,kitahara,quarries Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅲe Production sites. Quarries Early modern period-modern 29 Kohamajima,stone tidal weirs Sakishima, Kohamajima Ⅲf Production sites. Stone tidal weirs Early modern period-modern 30 Iriomotejima,stone tidal weirs Sakishima, Iriomotejima Ⅲf Production sites. Stone tidal weirs Early modern period-modern 31 Wakugawa,soltworks Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅲg Production sites. Soltworks Early modern period-modern 32 Amami Oshima,stone anchors Amami, Amami Oshima Ⅳh 8China stone anchors Middle Ages 33 Uegusuku,stone anchor Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅳh China stone anchor Middle Ages 34 Yamadagusuku,stone anchor Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅳh China stone anchor Middle Ages 35 Taramajima,stock anchor Sakishima, Taramajima Ⅳh Western Europe Stock anchor Early modern period 36 Yoshino,stone material Sakishima, Miyakojima Ⅳh Stone material Early modern period 37 Ikema,Iron products Sakishima, Miyako, Ikemajima Ⅳh Iron products Early modern period Table 2.Overview of Typical Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago. (C. Katagiri) 9 �Underwater Cultural Heritage Raised on Land There are some artifacts and parts of ship structure, which had been found on the seabed, raised on land, and then preserved and reverted to the cultural properties. Their information and use would be enhanced and its value increased by being connected with underwater cultural heritage in the area that still remains to be underwater. A stone anchor reused for the well of a Yamada Gusuku (Castle) in Onnason Village (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.34, Katagiri, 2007), iron anchors in Taramajima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.35, Katagiri, 2009), stone materials found in Yoshino Settlement in Miyakojima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.36, Katagiri, 2009), iron products of Miyako-Ikemajima Island and the like are so far recognized of this kind (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.37). They provide us the clue to figure out the ships sailing in this sea area. Experimental Site Open Day After the 10 years of distributional survey in sea area of the Ryukyu Archipelago, as a result, we now have a rough idea about the types and quantity of underwater cultural heritage in the area. The next step forward is to search for a method for protection and utilization of such cultural heritage bore in the beautiful sea in this region with high degree of transparency formed by coral leaf. For this purpose, we have experimentally undertaken a public site open day for underwater cultural heritage around Kumejima Island in Kumejimacho (Katagiri et al., 2012). Fig. 3 shows Landscape of Ohajima underwater site and sea area that held a tour.The major attraction of the day was Ohajima Underwater Site with dense distribution of Chinese pottery dated back to between the latter half of the 14th century and beginning of the 15th century. For the better understanding of the nature and characteristics of underwater cultural heritage, we had delivered a preliminary lecture for 30 minutes before the site visit, as well as observation tour of the artifacts already raised on land, such as pottery pieces collected from the seabed at Ohajima and a stone anchor found at UeGusuku (castle) for 30 minutes. Furthermore, we organized a tour visiting related cultural heritage sites on land, such as Tenkogu Site, Kuramoto-ato Site, Majako Port Site, quarries, and the like, for an hour, which aimed at explaining why the underwater site had been formed on seabed of Ohajima. We prepared 2 ways to visit for the actual 10 �visit of Ohajima Underwater site on seabed, both of which last for about an hour. We organized 2 groups of people with 20 people each, one for visiting the site by snorkeling and the other by a glass-bottom boat for those who are not willing to go into the water. Fig. 4 shows the tour scene of snorkel in Ohajima Underwater Site. This attempt was able to establish a model case for the site open day for the public visiting underwater cultural heritage, which could be followed by the other sites in the Ryukyu Archipelago although we still have to scrutinize this case to evaluate how far the case can be applied to the other cases as well as to the wider public. Conclusion History and culture of the Ryukyu Archipelago have long been together with the sea. Due to its few resources and small areas, it is often claimed that island areas provide harsh environment for the life and survival of human-being. Nevertheless, there is a distinctive maritime culture which have overcome and formed till now. The distinctive characteristics and history of such culture has not yet been fully revealed and evaluated even now. It needs further investigations. We believe that study of underwater cultural heritage would be essential field of research for the future of this area around the Ryukyu Archipelago. The researches so far done helped us to identify a wide variety of underwater cultural heritage ranging from the medial to the pre-modern and modern period. It is also found out that most sites tend to be related to the trade, port and production activity. Now, after the distributional survey, further intensive investigation on a particular area needs to be carried out. Even though we are still facing many problems for conservation and utilization of the site, utilization of underwater cultural heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago has a bright future, we believe. Many people from all over the world visit Okinawa to enjoy the observation of the seabed of the area by marine sports and glass-bottom boats. As it has been undertaken in Kumejima Island, the concept of establishing Seabed Site Museums is ideal way of utilization for such environment with beautiful sea in the Ryukyu Archipelago. We further intend to promote this attempt to the other sea area. Acknowledgements We are most grateful to Prof. Akifumi Iwabuchi of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology for giving us such a great opportunity to present this paper at APCONF 11 �as a session organizer, as well as to Dr. Tatsuya Nakata of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology for very useful advice. Also wish to thank Director Kenzo Hayashida of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Mr. Hiroki Miyagi of Nago City Board of Education who worked on the research project at the Ryukyu Archipelago with us, Prof. Yoshiro Watanabe of Kagoshima University, and all other friends who worked together. References Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Ed.), 2012. The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Nansei Islands. The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka (in Japanese). Kagoshima University and Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, 2010. The Report on Underwater Cultural Heritage around the Nansei Islands in Fiscal 2009. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, Vol. 3:5-31 (in Japanese). Kagoshima University and Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, 2011.The Report on Underwater Cultural Heritage around the Nansei Islands in Fiscal 2010. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, Vol. 4: 36-59 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Higa, N., and Sakihara, T., 2005. A Stone anchor found underwater near the Anchi Beach in Sesoko Island, Motobu-cho. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Vol.3: 61-70 (in Japanese）. Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2007. Distribution Survey Report of the Coastal Sites (I) – Volume on Okinawa-honto and Surrounding Islands. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2009. Distribution Survey Report of the Coastal Sites (II) – Volume on Miyako of Yaeyama. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2010. Distribution Survey Report of the Coastal Sites (III) – Site Map Volume. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., 2011. Attempt of Discovering Underwater, In Miyakojima City Board of Education (Ed.) Report on Management Plan of Nationally Designated Place of Scenic Beauty “Higashihennazaki”: 163 -168, (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Miyagi, H., Arakaki, T., Yamamoto, Y., and Watanabe, M., 2013. Research Studies of Ginama Foreign Shipwreck sites in Kunigamison, Okinawa, Japan. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Vol.6: 31-53 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Yamada, H., Sakihara, T., Nakajima, T., Miyagi, H., and Watanabe, Y., 2012.The Report of an Underwater Cultural Heritage tour in Kumejima- The Project of ‘The Museum of Underwater Cultural Heritage’. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Vol.5: 19-36(in Japanese). 12 �Miyagi, H., Katagiri, C., Arakaki, T., and Higa, N., 2004. Preliminary investigation into discovering sunken ships in the Southwest Islands: Underwater artifacts and marine transportation. Bulletin of the Archaeological Study of Okinawa, Vol. 2: 43-60 (in Japanese). Miyagi, H., Katagiri, C., Higa, N., and Sakihara, T., 2005. Preliminary investigation into discovering sunken ships in the Southwest Islands (II): Underwater artifacts and marine transportation. Bulletin of the Archaeological Study of Okinawa, Vol. 2: 81-108 (in Japanese). Nakamura, S., 1994. Stranded site of Indian-Oak. In Chatancho Board of Education (Ed.), Chatancho no Iseki, p. 22 (in Japanese). Ono, R., Katagiri, C., Sakagami, N., Kan, H., Miyagi, H. and Yamamoto, Y., 2013 Present and future of the Underwater Cultural Heritages in the Yaeyama Islands: Perspective from the recent research of Yarabuoki, Proceedings of Yaeyama Museum, Vol. 22: 20-43 (in Japanese). Sakishima Culture Research Institute (Ed.), 2009.Report of the Joint Research Project on Nagura Shitadaru Underwater Site. Sakishima Culture Research Institute, Ishigaki (in Japanese). Tezuka, N., (Ed.), 2005.Structural Analysis of Traded Ceramic Production and Demand in Medieval Japan, Nakano-hama Beach in Kumejima Island, Okinawa, Fiscal 2003. Research Report. Aoyama Gakuin University College of Literature Department of History, Tokyo (in Japanese). Tezuka, N., (Ed.), 2008.Structural Analysis of Traded Ceramic Production and Demand in Medieval Japan, Nakano-hama Beach in Kumejima Island, Okinawa, Fiscal 20062007 Research Report. Aoyama Gakuin University College of Literature Department of History, Tokyo (in Japanese). Toma, S., and Sakuda, I., 1999. The remains Collected at the Mouth of the Shirase River in Kume Islands. Bulletin of Culture Division Education Department Okinawa Prefectural Government, No.15: 25-32(in Japanese). Ukenson Board of Education (Ed.), 1999.KurakizakiKaitei Underwater Site.(in Japanese). Watanabe, M., 2009. Report 1, Research Report on Underwater Heritage in Nansei Islands Vol. 6, document research Fiscal 2009. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, No.3: 28-29 (in Japanese). Biography Chiaki Katagiri is the chief curator of the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum. He was born in Nagano, Japan in 1976, graduated from Okinawa International University in 1999 majoring in archeology. From 2000 to 2011, he worked as a Specialist in Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center and appointed to current post in 2011. He is specializing in anthropology of the islands, carrying out anthropological and archaeological fieldwork throughout Asia. He has been actively 13 �engaged in investigation and research of underwater cultural heritage in Ryukyu Archipelago. His papers include Research Studies of Ginama Foreign Ship Wreck Sites in Kunigamison, Okinawa (2012). Yuji Yamamoto is an underwater photographer participating in several projects by Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, as well as many other underwater heritage projects. Having graduated from Fukuoka University, he was taking pictures of Paris-Dakar Rally and F-1 races. He has participated in the investigation of Takashima Underwater Remains since 1998 and successfully photographed parts of the ship hull, tetsuhau, a helmet, the bundle of arrows of Mongolian Invasion discovered in muddled water. His pictures are published serially in the diver’s monthly magazine “Gekkan Diver” since 2014. Yumiko Nakanishi is an archaeologist working at Osaka Prefectural Government. She obtained M.Phill in Archaeology at Cambridge University in 2001 and is currently a PhD candidate, specializing on heritage management and public archaeology, as well as the final phase of Kofun Period in Kinki region of Japan. She is an Expert Member of ICOMOS Committee for Archaeological Heritage Management (ICAHM). Her publication includes, Theory and praxis of Cultural Heritage Studies in England, Journal of Heritage Studies, Vol. 1: 47-5; The Great East Japan Earthquake and cultural heritage: towards an archaeology of disaster, Antiquity, Vol. 87: 258-269. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Distributional Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage and its Experimental Presentation in the Ryukyu Archipelago Description An account of the resource The Ryukyu Archipelago is located at the northwestern Pacific, between the islands of Formosa and Kyushu of southern Japan. It consists of 199 islands of all dimensions and the total range of its accurate distribution lengthen is approximately 1,200 km. Since the first human beings settled down on the archipelago during the Pleistocene, they have been living close by the sea there. The local populations have recognized maritime resources as a main and important nutritious food since the prehistoric era, while the Ryukyu kingdom used to be prosperous unprecedentedly in terms of seaborne oversea trade among Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. In the Ryukyu archipelago, the distributional survey of underwater cultural heritage has lately been conducted by the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and Kagoshima University, in order to assess its numbers, typologies, actual conditions, and so on. According to the research, 235 sites of underwater or maritime cultural heritage have already been confirmed: 9 shipwrecks, 33 submerged ports, 15 places where boat cargos are scattered on the seabed, 72 places where old boat cargos and other remains are found along the coasts, 30 stone anchors and cargos on land, 28 quarries, 45 stone tidal weirs, and 3 salt works. In 2011, as a result of the survey, an underwater cultural heritage presentation or guidance tour was carried out in Kume Island. Presumably, this experimental trial will lead the public to having the sense to acknowledge and protect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chiaki Katagiri Yuji Yamamoto Yumiko Nakanishi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/eb52ee3672269843aa46edc861a0066a.pdf 011526e0bd94b666e598385a8fcde3d7 PDF Text Text Stone Tidal Weirs, Underwater Cultural Heritage or Not? Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan, 135-8533 Email: iwabuchi@kaiyodai.ac.jp Abstract The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale in semicircular, half-quadrilateral, or almost linear shape. At the flood tide these weirs are submerged beneath the sea, while they emerge into full view at the ebb. Using with nets or tridents, fishermen, inside the weirs at low tides, catch fish that fails to escape because of the stone walls. They could be observed in the Pacific or the Yap Islands, in the Indian Ocean or the east African coast, and in the Atlantic or Oleron and Ré Islands. The UNESCO’s 2001 Convention regards this weir as underwater cultural heritage, because it has been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years; stone tidal weirs have been built in France since the 11th century and a historical record notes that one weir in the Ryukyu Islands was built in the 17th century. In Japan every weir is considered not to be buried cultural property or cultural heritage investigated by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset studied by anthropologists, according to its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties. Even now in many countries stone tidal weirs are continuously built or restored by locals. Owing to the contemporary trait, it is not easy to preserve them under the name of underwater cultural heritage. Sometimes their bases were constructed several hundred years ago while their upper parts were repaired very recently. Key words: stone weir, tide, fish trap, underwater cultural heritage, 2001 Convention Introduction The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks, boulders, or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale (Fig. 1), in semicircular, circular, half-quadrilateral, horseshoe, keyhole, or almost linear shape. At the flow tide it is completely submerged beneath the sea, while at the ebb, in particular during the spring tide, it gives its entire figure on the tidal zone. Then, fishermen step into such weirs in order to catch fish, which fails to escape from them owing to the stone walls, by hand or with small fishing gears such as hand-nets or tridents (Fig. 2). Occasionally, some opening spaces between stone walls or tunnels under each wall are cut through a weir for the purpose of being drained water easily and being gathered preys; outside such spaces or tunnels, fishing nets, gratings, or basket traps are usually 1 �set. The passive fishing gear of stone tidal weir, which operates only on the strength of tidal amplitude, is different from the active fishing gear of fish fence or trapped chamber, which guides the fish into the specially arranged ends or labyrinths where they are trapped (Gabriel et al., 2005). Fig. 1 Stone Tidal Weir in Japan. (A. Iwabuchi) Usually, however, we cannot draw a hard and fast line between those two kinds of gears. Some stone tidal weirs have pectinate fish fences which project from their walls, and some have labyrinths at their outer tips. A Wide Distribution Stone tidal weirs could widely be observed all over the world, viz. in tidal zones of western Japan, southern Korea, Formosa, Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Polynesia, Melanesia, the Indian Ocean, and Europe. In Kyushu Island and its adjacent small islands of western Japan, stone tidal weirs are named ishihibi or sukki. Around Ariake Bay of Kyushu Island, approximately 200 weirs did exist around 1707, and then until recently no less than 100 stone tidal weirs were still on active service. The most famous one was ‘Bora-zukki’ or ‘Mullet Tidal Weir’, which was filled up innumerable mullet in 1881; there is a stone monument in commemoration of this event on the seashore near this stone tidal weir’s ruin. In the Ryukyu or Okinawa Islands, they are named kaki, which used to number about 100 (Iwabuchi, 2012a). In 1972, there were 27 stone tidal weirs around Kohama Island: 7were still on active service, 11 were abandoned, and 9 were left only their traces. Other than the last 9 disappeared weirs, however, it is said that many small stone tidal weirs which has already faded completely out from sight seem to have existed before. In this isle of the Ryukyu Islands some stone tidal weirs have semicircular shape and some have linear one. The length of stone walls varies in stone tidal weirs; the longest wall is approximately 800 m, while the shortest one is 200 m (Yano et al., 2002). Generally in Japan, including this isle, stone tidal weirs are owned not by professional fishers but by local peasants. 2 �In southern Korea, the stone tidal weirs are called dŏksal, sŏkpangryŏm, sŏkchŏn, or wŏn. Although they used to be important at Korean traditional fishery, their number has already decreased to an extreme. Around Jeju Island in the Korea Strait, 4 stone tidal weirs are still being used, in particular, for the sake of catching anchovies. In Formosa around the Penghu Islands, there are still approximately 500 stone tidal weirs named chioh-ho. In terms of their types, they could be divided into three. The first consists of traditional semicircular or horseshoe-shaped stone tidal weirs. The second is composed ofstone tidal weirs, each of which has several pectinate Fig. 2 Japanese Fisher. (A. Iwabuchi) short stone walls extended inward from an original stone wall; these short walls serve for driving fish as well as for dividing a stone tidal weir into several parts with each family’s fishing right. The last type is stone tidal weirs, each of which has at its tip a labyrinth as fish trap. In the Penghu Islands, the golden age of stone tidal weirs, which used to one of the most important fishing methods at coastal villages there, was 100 years ago, but their economic or social value has already been diminished mainly because of modern onshore fishery. Nowadays their touristic and educational purposes are more stressed (Tawa, 2007). In Southeast Asia, stone tidal weirs are reported to be in the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. In the Philippines, the stone tidal weirs named atob around the Visaya Islands already existed at the beginning of the 20th century, and then still in the 1970’s new weirs kept being built or old weirs kept being restored (Tawa, 2007). Eastern Indonesia seems perhaps to be the world-centre of stone tidal weirs: 3 �Stone walls in tidal areas can be used in a similar manner, as is done in Indonesia (western Flores). There, a wall is built in the shallow water parallel to the sea shore. As in some of the Japanese stone walls, there are passages through which the fish can enter with the flood, but they are prevented from escaping on the ebb tide. The outlets are closed and the fish remain in the water-filled channel behind the walls until they are collected (Gabriel et al., 2005). In Indonesia, fish fences set in the form of labyrinths, made of brushwood, are ubiquitous on tidal zones, and stone tidal weirs as primordial type of such fish fences are still widely used; new ones are also continuously built by locals, in particular, when famine strikes maritime settlements. Almost all islands of Micronesia, including the Caroline, Palau, or Gilbert Islands, used to have millions of stone tidal weirs around them. In the Chuuk Islands the stone tidal weirs are named maai and in the Yap Islands aech. In the former, there are three types, i.e. conventional semicircular type, tennis racket-shaped one, and inverted keyhole-shaped one. In the last type, the seaward open side of each weir seems to be closed by fishing nets or trap baskets when the tide is on the ebb. In the Yap Islands, the stone circle of the Chuuk’s second type is transformed into the boomerang-shaped or arrow-shaped stone circle, inside which people catch fish at the ebb. There, however, some do not have ‘racket’ shafts lying perpendicular to the shoreline. In olden times, moreover, there inverted triangular stone weirs seem to have existed; as the outward bottom of each triangle did not possess any stone walls, locals set nets or trap baskets when the tide was outgoing (Tawa, 2007). They say that possibly more than a thousand years or more ago these weirs were built, and from 700 to 800 stone tidal weirs have been documented (Guérin et al., 2010), but with reducing island population after Europeans arrived those stone tidal weirs began falling away into disuse. At the end of the last century, many seemed to have been abandoned and never been repaired again. In the Hawaii Islands, the stone tidal weirs are called loko ‘umeiki. There, there are also many fishponds named lokokuapa, of which shapes are entirely similar to conventional stone tidal weirs. Some fishponds are built across the mouth of a small bay or between two points of land, and some semicircular-shaped ones are built independently on seashores in order to be raised fish such as mullet or milkfish. Contrariwise, each stone tidal weir is surrounded by a low wall that is submerged at the high tide and has opening, 4 �walled on each side like lanes, leading in or out of the weir (Nishimura, 1981). In Rarotonga Island of the Cook Islands every tidal weir is also used as fish trap into which fish is driven toward nets between boulders by locals, although its detail is not clear. There it is named pā (Takeda, 1993), which originally means an eel weir in the Maori language. The Maori of New Zealand uses even today stone walls for their eel fishery; these are not artificial, but built by nature by the strong wave of the sea (Gabriel et al., 2005). Around many islands in Torres Strait as well as around Cape York at Melanesia, numerous stone tidal weirs could be observed, and they represent the most obvious fishing technique utilized in this area. On the eastern aspect of the large fringing reefs of a few of the western islands, but notably in the eastern islands, long low walls of unworked boulders of stone were built, or rather piled up, to a height of three or four feet. These walls enclosed large irregular areas of the reef, graz(W.), sai (E.). During the north-west monsoon, when the sea is calm on the lee-side of the island, large numbers of fish swim over the walls at high tide, they are prevented by the low night tide from escaping and so fall an easy prey (Haddon, 1912). Of the Eastern Islands around Darnley Island there are 34 stone tidal weirs, and in Stephens Island there are 23. Some have at their tips protruding navels without labyrinth where a lot of fish gather at the ebb (Barham, 2000). Similar navels are reported from stone tidal weirs of the Ryukyu Islands or of southern Korea. Around the Indian Ocean, much information upon stone tidal weirs is not available. It is said that the Mascarene Islands (Yabuuchi, 1978) and the Lakshadweep Islands have stone tidal weirs. In the latter, the stone tidal weirs are called padhi; as their open ends face the lagoon while the seaward ends are usually closed, fish that tries to leave the lagoon during receding tide enters and remains in the enclosure. They are family owned properties which are acquired by inheritance (Anand, 1996). Along the East African coast, there seem to be stone tidal weirs. Coast Bushmen and pastoral Hottentots are reported to have constructed and used stone tidal weirs (Nishimura, 1981). Near the towns of Stilbaai and Arniston in South Africa there are stone tidal weirs (Parthesius, 2011), but the relation between these weirs and ones by Bushman and Hottentots is obscure. Along the western coast of Africa, stone tidal weirs are constructed by natives, such as Guineans (Gabriel et al., 2005), but we do not really know much about them. 5 �There are many stone tidal weirs in Scotland (Bowens, 2009) or in western France. Ré, Aix, and Oleron Islands off the western coast of mainland France would be the European centre of stone tidal weirs. In Oleron Island there were about 40 stone tidal weirs at the end of the 19th century (Bithoneau et al., 1993), while in Ré Island there were something over beginning of 30 the weirs at the 15th century, approximately 140 in the latter part of the 19th century, and only 14 at the end of the 20th century. A French stone tidal weir is named l'écluseàpoissons and weirs are les éclusesàpoissons, but all tidal weirs have their own proper names. The largest stone tidal weir at Fig. 3 ‘Mouffet’ in Ré Island. (A. Iwabuchi) Ré Island, whose length is about 1000 m, is named 'Mouffet' or 'Skunk' (Fig. 3), and the smallest one, whose length is about 300 m only, is 'Le Petit-Port' or 'Small Port'. Every weir is collectively owned by local peasants who catch fish at time assigned as separately with a hand-net or a trident inside his weir sometimes in the daytime and sometimes at night. One stone tidal weirs named 'La Belle-Pointe' is equipped a metal basket trap, as replica of an old wooden basket, on the outer side of a drain gap between the stone walls (Fig. 4). Fish caught is only for domestic consumption; it is never on the distribution channel to commercial fish markets (Iwabuchi, 2002). Stone Tidal Weirs and the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention Article 1-1 of the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage provides that ‘underwater cultural heritage’ means all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been 6 �partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years. First of all, all stone tidal weirs are partially or totally under water periodically, and so they do correspond to the first half of the above definition. However, not all stone tidal weirs are more than 100 years old. Indigenous people in Southeast Asia or in the Pacific are still constructing new weirs every day. Owing to ecological conditions, nonetheless, they seem not to build stone tidal weirs on completely virgin tidal zones. They always build them exactly on traces for old weirs or, at least, on tidal zones which used to have millions of old stone tidal weirs. These days, in other words, most locals are, not constructing, but repairing old weirs every day. According to A. C. Haddon, no native within the memory of man ever made a stone tidal weir around Torres strait, and all they can do now is to repair them (Haddon, 1912). Fig. 4 ‘Le Petit-Port’ in Ré Island. (A. Iwabuchi) It is within the bounds of possibility that only the lower parts or stones of a new tidal weir or its basement are more than 100 years old. However, it is extremely difficult to guess 7 �how old even its base is, mainly because no written historical material is recorded for almost all stone tidal weirs. Some anthropologists insist that the stone tidal weir itself is considered a very old fishing method, and some existing today date back to early Neolithic times, and even to the pre-Sapiens phase of human evolution (Nishimura, 1968). It is true that contemporary foragers are also using a kind of stone tidal weir. Canadian Eskimo, for example, uses not only fish traps but also stone tidal weirs named haput’. This horseshoe-shaped weir is built at a river mouth. Its stone wall seems to be extremely low, in comparison with Taiwanese or French walls, but it is completely submerged at the high tide and then at the ebb foragers go into the weir, which has depth 60 cm only, to catch charr. Similarly, northwest coast Indians used to build stone tidal weirs, in particular, at river mouths (Stewart, 1993). It is said that Australian aborigines also use stone tidal weirs. Impounding shallow enclosure of boulder fences were formerly in use among them, although Hornell classifies this technology as fish trap, not as stone tidal weir (Hornell, 1950). Nevertheless, stone tidal weirs among primitive foragers are rather smaller-scaled than modern tidal weirs observed in Japan, Formosa, or France. Very few written records say that the large-scaled stone tidal weirs were all constructed during the feudal age. In Ré Island, stone tidal weirs were started to be constructed at the 11th century or at the Middle Age (Boucard, 1984). In Kyushu Island of western Japan their golden age was around 1707; the local feudal lord imposed corvée to the peasants to construct or restore large-scaled stone tidal weirs. In the Ryukyu Islands, there is one historical document written in 1824 telling us that a female priest who was granted an official court rank by the lord of Ryukyu kingdom mobilized commoners by royal decree to build a stone tidal weir whose length was about 1200 m around the 17th century (Nishimura, 1975; 1981). In Korea and Formosa, there is no evidence that the class of rulers played a large role in constructing stone tidal weirs, but usually all the villagers seem to have turned out in full force for restoring or building them. Without substantial labour power, it would not have succeeded in constructing large-scaled stone weirs. In the Hawaii islands as well, the remarkably well-preserved chain of offshore fishponds is a leftover of local chiefs, and the ponds are raised fish to feed the ruling class (Nishimura, 1981). Indeed, for example, the Torres Strait Islands do not have any feudal systems, but at 8 �least the society is not a band-based foraging one but a horticultural chiefdom. At those coastal hamlets there seem to have been powerful builders or chiefs who had mobilized villagers in order to construct or repair stone tidal weirs (Haddon, 1912). Building stone tidal weirs might have something to with the population growth as well as with the pressure on food production, with which people in power had normally to cope. In the Yap Islands, the peak of stone tidal weirs seems to have been at the beginning of the 19th century, when they had the largest population. These stone tidal weirs at the chiefdom level would not look directly to link up with ones at the band level, although their method and concept could ‘take place sometimes in antiquity’ (Barham, 2000). Judging from instances from the Far East and the South Pacific, it is morally certain that almost all stone tidal weirs, or at least their bases, all over the worldat present might have been constructed more than 100 years ago. Perhaps, however, weirs which we could see these days could date back only to not more than several hundred years ago, not to more than 100 thousand years.In short, most stone tidal weirs may not be objects of prehistoric character, but important human sites, structures, buildings, or artifacts together with their archaeological and natural context. How to Protect Stone Tidal Weirs Although stone tidal weirs are still being constructed or restored in remote regions on the earth, they are quickly disappearing, being destroyed, or being abandoned, in particular, in civilized countries. Nowadays, first of all, stone tidal weirs cannot catch fish as much as in olden times, because of the intensification of modern fishery on their outsides. Owners of stone tidal weirs are normally local peasants, while onshore fishing are conducted by professional fishers who think weirs as fish stealing traps or as shipping obstacles. Secondly, the modern coastal management for tourism or for industrialization is not always happy with stone tidal weirs which occupy the huge area of tidal zones. For many hotels or fishers stone tidal weirs are only eyesores and real pains in the neck; in actual practice tourists’ water motorcycles as well as commercial fishing boats sometimes split on stone tidal weirs. On the contrary, however, the new movements, in which locals make good use of stone tidal weirs for tourism or for activity aimed at enlivening coastal communities, have just begun on grassroots levels, although they are still minor. In France' Association de défense des eclusesà poissons 9 �de l'île de Ré'or in Japan ‘Ishihimi Summit’ has been organized to plan events, for instance, so tourists could experience fishing inside stone tidal weirs, or to restore old weirs jointly. On national levels, on the other hand, the conservation activity or management of stone tidal weirs as underwater cultural heritage has not been started yet. Even in France, which has already ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention, we have never heard that the Département des recherchesarchéologiquessubaquatiqueset sous-marines were doing research upon stone tidal weirs in western France. In Japan, some stone tidal weirs are under the control of the domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, but they are not to be buried cultural property, which is normally studied by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset or cultural landscape, which is always studied by anthropologists or by folklorists. Famous Mongolian shipwrecks of northern Kyushu Island are, of course, designated as buried cultural property. In 2006, owing to the bureaucratic sectionalism, not the Agent for Cultural Affairs, but the Fisheries Agency was designated two stone tidal weirs in Japan as selections of 100 historical and cultural heritage sites and heirlooms related to fisheries and fishing villages which we would like to hand down to future generations. However, both central government offices would not plan to excavate either bases of any stone tidal weirs or traces of their old ruins to identify, for instance, when they were built or how large they used to be, because no Japanese civil servant regards them as study object of archaeology, i.e. underwater cultural heritage. Conclusion In Japan a research group from Waseda University, Tokyo, which was directed by an anthropologist, started its academic investigation upon stone tidal weirs in 1956, which might be the world-first comprehensive field survey on them. However, no introductory book to underwater archaeology does not mention this important research. On the other hand, all books give the detailed description of the Swedish Vasa project which began in the same year. Even in Japan, no underwater archeological booklet treats this historical research activity, while all do the salvage of the wreck of Kaiyo-maru at northern Japan which began in 1974. Besides as for stone tidal weirs themselves, only two introductory books to underwater archaeology have referred to them unusually: one 10 �is in English (Bowens, 2009), and the other is in Japanese (Iwabuchi, 2012b). Indeed, underwater archeologists have not much been interested in stone tidal weirs, partly because they have been or are concerned about conventional shipwrecks, and partly because stone tidal weirs have mainly been studied, not by archaeologists, but by anthropologists, by folklorists, or by geographers. As mentioned before, nevertheless, the stone tidal weir does be true underwater cultural heritage according to the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention. Stone tidal weirs are as important as shipwrecks such as the Uluburun or the Sinan ship. References Anand, P. E. V., 1996. Fishing Methods in Lakshadweep. Infofish International, Vol. 3: 57-65. Barham, A. J., 2000. Late Holocene Maritime Societies in the Torres Strait Islands, Northern Australia. In S. O’Connor and P. Veth (Eds.), East of Wallace’s Line, Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam: 223-314. Bithoneau, R., and Morisset, C., 1993. Les éclusesàpoissons de l'îled'Oleron. Les Cahiers d'Oleron, (2nd edition), Vol. 10: 5-9 Boucard, J., 1984. Les éclusesàpoisonsdansl'île de Ré. Rupella, La Rochelle. Bowens, A., (Ed.), 2009. Underwater Archaeology. Blackwell, Oxford, (2nd edition). Gabriel, O., Lange, K., Dahm, E.,and Wendt, T., (Eds.), 2005. Fish Catching Methods of the World, Blackwell, Oxford, (4th edition). Guérin, U., Egger, B., and Penalva, V., (Eds), 2010. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania. UNESCO, Paris. Haddon, A. C., 1912. Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, Vol. 4 (Arts and Crafts), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hornell, J., 1950. Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Iwabuchi, A., 2002. Stone Tidal Weirs at Ré Island of Western France. Proceedings of the Lecture Meeting at Tokyo University of Mercantile Marine, Vol. 50: 45-48 (in Japanese). Iwabuchi, A., 2012a. Stone Tidal Weirs. In Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Ed.), The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: the Nansei Islands, the Asian Research Institute of 11 �Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka: 97-99 (in Japanese). Iwabuchi, A., 2012b. The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage. Kagaku-dojin, Kyoto (in Japanese). Nishimura, A., 1968. Primitive Fishing Methods. In A. Smith (Ed.), Ryukyuan Culture and Society, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: 67-77. Nishimura, A., 1975. Cultural and Social Change in the Modes of Ownership of Stone Tidal Weirs. In R. W. Casteel and G. I. Quimby (Eds.), Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific, Mouton Publishers, The Hague: 77-88. Nishimura, A., 1981. Maritime Counterpart to Megalithic Culture on Land. Journal de la Société des Océanistes, Vol. 37: 255-266. Parthesius, R., 2011. Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? In M. Staniforth, J. Craig, S. C. Jago-on, B. Orillaneda and L. Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 Nov. 2011, Manila: 641-651. Stewart, H., 1993. A Tidal Stone Weir in the Arctic. The Historical Review, Vol. 128: 6479 (in Japanese). Takeda, J., 1993. Offerings from the Sea. Shiosai, Vol. 9: 48-51 (in Japanese). Tawa, M., 2007. Stone Tidal Weirs. Hosei University Press, Tokyo (in Japanese). Yabuuchi, Y., 1978. A Basic Written Material of Fishing Anthropology and its Complementary Study. Kazama-shobo, Tokyo (in Japanese). Yano, T., Nakamura, T.and Yamazaki, M., 2002.The Stone Tidal Weirs in Kohama Island, Ryukyu. Waseda Studies in Human Sciences, Vol. 15 (1): 47-83 (in Japanese). Biography Akifumi Iwabuchi is professor of Marine Culturology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, being also a director of the Japan Society for Nautical Research and ARIUA, ICOMOS-ICUCH delegate for Japan, and INA research associate. He received his PhD from the University of Oxford in 1990. His publications include The People of the Alas Valley (Clarendon Press, 1994) and The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage (Kagaku-dojin, 2012). His university, UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unit win Network member, is the only one academic institution, teaching and studying nautical archaeology, inside Japan; to PhD candidates from foreign countries the governmental scholarship schemes are available. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Stone Tidal Weirs, Underwater Cultural Heritage or Not? Description An account of the resource The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale in semicircular, half-quadrilateral, or almost linear shape. At the flood tide these weirs are submerged beneath the sea, while they emerge into full view at the ebb. Using with nets or tridents, fishermen, inside the weirs at low tides, catch fish that fails to escape because of the stone walls. They could be observed in the Pacific or the Yap Islands, in the Indian Ocean or the east African coast, and in the Atlantic or Oleron and Ré Islands. The UNESCO’s 2001 Convention regards this weir as underwater cultural heritage, because it has been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years; stone tidal weirs have been built in France since the 11th century and a historical record notes that one weir in the Ryukyu Islands was built in the 17th century. In Japan every weir is considered not to be buried cultural property or cultural heritage investigated by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset studied by anthropologists, according to its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties. Even now in many countries stone tidal weirs are continuously built or restored by locals. Owing to the contemporary trait, it is not easy to preserve them under the name of underwater cultural heritage. Sometimes their bases were constructed several hundred years ago while their upper parts were repaired very recently. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f214cea47e96ed0cb72662b36c3994e2.pdf 65789552181ea20c5bcadfc3f2a19a80 PDF Text Text A Chinese Perspective on the International legal scheme for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage Liu Lina School of Law Xi’an Jiaotong University China Email: liulina223@gmail.com Abstract With 18,000 km of coastline and plentiful streams and rivers, China has an extensive underwater cultural heritage (UCH), which preserves Chinese history and maritime civilization under the ocean as a kind of “time capsule”. After 20-years of development of underwater archaeology and the protection of UCH, China has set up a brand-new national protection system. This contribution first discusses the new development of the Chinese UCH legal system in the 21th century in three aspects: legal subject, legal object and legal content. Further it discussed the tremendous challenges faced by the Chinese legal system. Meanwhile, since its entry into force in 2009, the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001 Convention) has been gradually approved by more and more influential States who hold various and abundant UCH items. Part two explains the UNESCO 2001 Convention as the International Cooperation Scheme for Protection of UCH. Part three examines, from the Chinese perspective, the advantages and obstacles for a State that ratifies the UNESCO 2001 Convention. There is a final conclusion that argues that through the UNESCO 2001 Convention diverse national legal protection systems of the UCH have converged into an international cooperation legal instrument. Key words: Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH); the Chinese UCH legal system; UNESCO 2001 Convention; International legal scheme; “Coordinating State” Introduction New developments and the challenges for the protection of UCH in China In 1986 an astonishing auction named “the Nanking cargo (Geldermalsen shipwrecks)” was held in the Netherlands. The auction contained more than 100 gold ingots and thousands of Chinese export porcelain from the "Geldermalsen" that had sunk in about 1752 in the South China Sea, and salvaged by Michael Hatcher. The auction raised more than £10 million (Jörg, 1986). The Chinese authorities were shocked to notice that there were no provisions in the Chinese legislation that addressed the salvage of UCH 1 �or to claim ownership of the UCH. In the same year, the Chinese Government decided to develop the capacity for underwater archaeology and it established the Underwater Archaeology Research Institute under the Chinese History Museum (now the Chinese National Museum). In 1989, the State Council passed legislation entitled the Regulations of the P. R. China on Protection and Administration of Underwater Cultural Relics (1989 Chinese UCH regulation). After more than 20 years of development Chinese authorities established a wholly new UCH administrative protection mechanism, aimed at providing professional protection for the entire UCH in China. The State Administration of Cultural Heritage (SACH) is responsible for managing and protecting all kinds of national cultural relics, including UCH. After that the National Conservation Center for Underwater Cultural Heritage (NCCUCH) got full confirmation from the SACH in order to fulfill its functions, especially in developing the national UCH excavations, conservation, research and cooperation with local governments and local underwater archeology institutes. There are mainly four regional UCH protective administration offices: the Ningbo Office in the Zhejiang province, the Fujian Office in the Fujian province, the Wuhan office in the Hubei province, and the Qingdao office in the Shandong province. The development of Chinese UCH legal system The appearance of local legislative subjects It is the local government that refines related local UCH regulations and formulates feasible operational guidelines after 2008. The Fujian province and the Guangdong Province contain most various UCH items in China, such as Nanhai I shipwreck, Nan’ao I shipwreck and Banyangjiao (Reef) I shipwreck. In 2009, the Fujian Provincial People's Congress revised the Fujian Province Protection and Administration of Cultural Relics Regulations by adding a new chapter on the protection of UCH, which was the first local regulation relative to UCH in China. In the same year, the Guangdong province enacted the Guangdong Provincial measure for the implementation of the P. R. China on Protection of Cultural Relic, which set up a new “underwater cultural relics reserves” in Art. 26 in order to protect scattered UCH objects along its continuous coastline. 2 �The particularity of the legal object In addition to wrecks, sites, artifacts and human remains, the “Chinese Maritime Silk Road Sites” and “Ming and Qing Dynasty Coast Defense Sites” are unique kinds of UCH in China. “The Chinese Maritime Silk Road” once provided unprecedented access by ancient China to the most distant destinations reached by maritime trade. And it can be seen as a promotion of friendly relations linking East and West. The "Maritime Silk Road" in China embraces four aspects: the ancient ports, oceanic routes, cargos, and wrecks, each of which has specific and abundant contents. These four aspects interrelate systemically in order to form the Chinese traces of marine exploitation ---- the said “Chinese Maritime Silk Road”. The “Ming and Qing Dynasties Coast Defense Sites” are the defense constructions and facilities erected by Chinese authorities in order to prevent invasion m of the Chinese territorial sea and coastal areas in Ming and Qing Dynasties (from 1368 to 1800AD). These coast defense sites are situated throughout 13 provinces, including Macao, Hong Kong and Taiwan, and are being actively considered by China for nomination as World Heritage sites. The extending of legal content in protection UCH The UCH protection began with the national UCH survey, which now extends from the coastline to internal waters, the territorial sea and the contiguous zone. The UCH survey from 2007-2011 covered the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, the East China Sea (including the Taiwan Strait), the South China Sea (including the Chinese jurisdiction area in the Paracel Islands and the Spratly Islands). They are all situated adjacent to China, and in the internal waters of China. It was a comprehensive and scientific national survey of UCH, named as the third national cultural relics investigation project. There are 108 supposed UCH sites. SACH and NCCUCH established the South China Sea UCH office and the Paracel Islands archaeological workstation in 2012. Excavation, preservation, protection and management are the main tasks of protection of UCH. With 20 years’ experience of UCH protection, the Chinese authorities are gradually forming different but more appropriate protecting approaches for each UCH site in China. Take Baiheliang UCH site for example, which is the world’s oldest hydrological inscription in the Yangtse River. After considering the Baiheliang UCH conditions, Chinese authorities decided to build a submerged museum for 3 �preservation of its UCH in situ, which is now the symbol of a submerged museum in the world (UNESCO Museums and Tourism, 2013). Another example of protection of UCH in China is the Shanhujiao (Reef) I shipwreck, located in the Paracel Islands. Chinese authorities had to scientifically excavate (from 2006 to 2008) and conserve these cultural relics on land for preserving its scientific and archeological value in a good condition. After the excavation of the Shanhujiao (Reef) I shipwreck, the NCCUCH and CACH started the preliminary experimental study on the conservation of ceramics, metal and wooden relics from Shanhujiao (Reef) I shipwreck. The Chinese National Museum and the CCUCH organized more than 10 training courses on diving skills, methodology of underwater archaeology, and the UCH conservation since the 1980s. Now, the CCUCH and archaeological team in the coastal cities in China have been able to fill the gaps left open over decades. Challenges in China’s UCH legal protection Firstly, from the 1980s, looting and illicit trafficking were rampant in the South China Sea. China’s underwater relics attract a growing number of Chinese fishermen who dived for these riches (Yanhong, 2011). With the development of underwater technology and human understanding of the deep ocean, different marine exploration companies from all over the world came to the South China Sea for salvaging and exporting relics along the Maritime Silk Road. “The Nanking Cargo” auction in Christie's in the Netherland’s was the main cause leading to the 1989 legislation. In April 2011 the Chinese authorities investigated UCH in the Paracel Islands and reported that 26 UCH sites (more than 50% of the UCH sites in the Paracel Islands) had been illegally destroyed and excavated. What is worse, there is a reasonable suspicion that some neighboring countries deliberately damaged Chinese UCH in the South China Sea. For instance, a Ming-dynasty shipwreck located near Huangyan (Scarborough Shoal) was commercially excavated and destroyed by two 2000 ton foreign vessels (Yanhong, 2011). Secondly, a huge number of Chinese UCH outside the Chinese territory was not preserved under the national legal UCH protection system. A frequent type of UCH were merchant ships of the British East India Company that once frequently carried Chinese goods, shipping out of South China Sea bypassing the Cape of Good Hope to Europe and even to Africa. In the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic oceans a variety of 4 �shipwrecks prove this fact, such as the Mauritius shipwreck in the Cape Lopez of the Gulf of Guinea, the Manila galleon casa in the Gulf of California of the USA, the Goteborg shipwreck in the Swedish bay, and the Prince de Conty (France) in Loscat, Mediterranean (Chumming, 2003). In addition to shipwrecks that contained Chinese goods, Chinese experts discovered more and more Chinese shipwrecks outside China’s territory, such as nine Chinese shipwrecks in Lamu Islands, Kenya (Underwater Archaeology Research Centre, 2012). Thirdly, the Chinese UCH items are traded, sold, bought or bartered as commercial goods in eminent auctions. The most famous auction was the said “Nanking Cargo” in Christie's, Amsterdam in 1986. Then there was “The Vung Tau Cargo” auction in Christie's (Amsterdam) in 1992, “The Diana Cargo” auction in Christie's in Amsterdam in 1995, the “Tek Sing” (the China’s Titanic) auction in Stuttgart, Germany in 2000, and the “Made in Imperial China” auction in Sotheby's (Amsterdam) in 2007(Christie's Auction Catalog , Amsterdam). China has carried out the conservation of UCH for over 20 years and accumulated certain experience in practice and in theoretical research. The content, object, subject and the methods of protection of the UCH in China has changed a lot, but the national legislation is not effective in preventing illegal salvage or illicit export of the UCH outside the Chinese territorial sea. This is the proper time to explore the view on UCH outside of China, and to research an international legal approach to the protection of the UCH. The UNESCO 2001 Convention: the International Cooperation Scheme for Protection of UCH The UNESCO 2001 Convention, at the present time the most complete legal instrument for the protection of UCH, is far from being a powerful and popular international Convention. However, as the offshoot of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS), it indeed provides an effective international cooperation scheme for protecting UCH in different maritime areas, which does not change the limits of maritime areas or of the maritime power and jurisdiction of coastal states. Although the two principles of the UNESCO 2001 Convention, the principle of in situ preservation as the first option and the principle of non-commercial exploitation are based on the recognition of significance of the interplay between the UCH, its history and its context, 5 �this article aim to focus on the cooperation scheme which established the valuable and effective international legal instrument for Member States. UCH International Database Each State Party to the UNESCO 2001 Convention has the obligation to share UCH information with other States Parties concerning UCH. According to Art.19, that includes: discovery of heritage, its location, UCH excavation or UCH recovery contrary to this Convention. Therefore, the Secretariat of the UNESCO 2001 Convention suggests that States Parties submit to it national authority information to establish a worldwide UCH database. States parties are also able to disseminate UCH information to other appropriate regional, international databases, such as MACHU (to make information about our common UCH accessible to researchers, policymakers and the general public, originated by the European Union’s Culture 2000 program,), NAVIS I, NAVIS II (an open database of ancient ship supported by the European Commission Directorate General X), Shipwreck Asia Database (a regional shipwreck database, classified by the geographical regions, supported by the Toyota Foundation). The UCH Reporting and Notification System States Parties have a different reporting and notifying obligation in different maritime areas. But in the territorial sea or the archipelagic waters, the coastal States have only a soft obligation (“should”) to inform the flag State or other States with an effective link with UCH, with a view to protecting State vessels and aircrafts (Art. 7). In the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), on the Continental Shelf (CS) or in the Area, each State Party have a definite obligation to report the UCH discoveries and activities to that other State Party accordingly, or to all other States Parties (in Art. 9 and Art. 11). UCH Coordination States scheme The UCH Coordination States scheme is regulated by Articles 9 to 12 of the UNESCO 2001 Convention. In the EEZ or on the CS, the “coordinating State” is the State Party in whose EEZ or on whose CS UCH is located “unless the State Party expressly declares that it does not wish to do so”. In that case the “coordinating State” is that which is based on a cultural, historical or archaeological link to the concerned UCH. By the same rule is to be decided a “Coordinating State” in the Area to issue all necessary 6 �authorizations for agreed measures on behalf of all interested States Parties. The right of a “Coordinating State” is to implement measures of protecting UCH, cooperation and consultation among States Parties and conduct their decisions. Assessment of the desirability and feasibility of UNESCO 2001 Convention in China Benefits for China to protect Chinese UCH The UNESCO 2001 Convention sets up reciprocal obligations between Member States and it designs at the same time UCH protective rights for its States Parties. Without this legal instrument States would be entitled only to a limited jurisdiction and sovereignty in their EEZ and on the CS according to international law. And in the Area, the doctrine of international law on freedom of the high seas provides that activities related to UCH found in the Area are to be governed by the flag State. First, UNESCO 2001 Convention entitles coastal States in Art.8 to protect UCH within their contiguous zone. In case that China becomes a State Party to this Convention, it would acquire a positive right in its favour to initiate activities on UCH in its contiguous zone, more than defensive activities to prevent removing UCH from contiguous zone in UNCLOS Art 303 (2). Secondly, the UNESCO 2001 Convention entitles States Parties to take all practicable measures to prevent immediate danger to UCH in the EEZ and on the CS. According to the UNCLOS, the coastal State and other States share different rights and jurisdiction, as governed by its Parts 5 and 6, while the UNESCO 2001 Convention can be seen to expand the traditional rights of coastal States. As a State Party to UNCLOS, China regulated the marine sovereign rights in the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf (China EEZ and CS Law) mainly “for exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing natural resources” and “for conserving and managing the trans-boundary population, highly migrating fishes, marine mammals (in Art. 3 and Art. 6) in its EEZ. And the 1989 Chinese UCH regulation does not provide for the UCH protective provisions based on different marine zones. However UCH cannot be defined as a natural resource or a fishery activity. Hence, the Chinese authorities are now not entitled to take measures for prevention of immediate danger of UCH according to current Chinese national laws or regulations. If China becomes a State Party to the UNESCO 2001 Convention, it will be able to take any 7 �practicable and necessary measures or request other States Parties to handle looting or trafficking activities that happen in the Chinese EEZ in South China Sea. What is more important, the Operational Guidelines (draft) also provides possibility of cooperation of States Parties with other intergovernmental organizations, for example with Interpol, in order to prevent UCH excavations or recovery contrary to this Convention. Last but not least, the UNESCO 2001 Convention provides the effective international cooperation mechanism for all States Parties in protection of UCH. China should take advantage of the information-sharing forum (Art. 19), such as MACHU, to collect information with other State Parties about any Chinese shipwrecks discovered outside Chinese territory. Otherwise, underwater archaeology and UCH management are still recent sciences, especially for training of underwater archaeologists. China should ask the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body for developing of Chinese UCH excavation, management and protection methods, even for academic training on underwater archaeology, such as the Unit win network. Conformity with the existing Chinese UCH laws and regulations After consideration of the domestic relevant legislation and regulations, it can be concluded that there will be no conflicting clauses in the context of the currently ratified international cultural heritage agreements upon China’s ratification of the UNESCO 2001 Convention (including the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, ratified in 1989, the 1972 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ratified in 1985, the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects ratified in in 1996, the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage ratified in 2004 and the 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions ratified in 2007. Only the purpose of the International Convention on Salvage (1989) is contrary to UNESCO 2001 Convention. But recognizing the nature of UCH, China made a reservation on its Art. 30(1)(d) upon its ratification in 1993: China reserves the right not to apply the provisions of this Convention, “when the property involved is maritime cultural property of prehistoric, archaeological or historic interest and is situated on the sea-bed”. 8 �China only needs to review the principle of non-commercial exploitation in its national regulations in the light of the UNESCO 2001 Convention. The main problem is in the 1989 Chinese UCH regulation. It sets up the rule of exploitation and excavation activities of UCH in Art.7 in the way that: “archaeological exploration and excavation activities with respect to underwater cultural relics shall have, as their objective, the protection of cultural relics and scientific research … with approval by SACH”. It seems a prefect provision for regulating the excavation of the UCH for protection of cultural relics and scientific research. But according to it the objective of exploitation should be for instance scientific research under commercial excavation, such as the early excavation of RMS Titanic (Zekala, 2012). Therefore, the 1989 Chinese UCH regulation should confirm and clarify that any activities directed at UCH shall not consist of commercial exploitation or excavation. Conclusion The UCH protection is a recent scientific as well as legal issue for every nation. After analyzing the new developments in China, it becomes obvious that isolated national UCH legal systems still face problems in the effective protection of UCH. Every State should realize the significance of the exchange of the UCH legal and technical information for national underwater cultural resources. The 2001UNESCO Convention provides for its States Parties an effective international cooperation scheme. Therefore, individual inadequate national legal protection systems for UCH are destined to result into a cooperating international legal protection system. After evaluating the desirability and feasibility of the UNESCO 2001 Convention in China, it is beneficial for a State, like China, to protect national UCH under the legal instrument of the UNESCO 2001 Convention. Acknowledgements The author first likes to express her appreciation to “The China National Social Science Fund” which supported her “Research on Jurisdiction and Ownership of Chinese UCH (Project No. 13CFX094)”. The author also gratefully acknowledges valuable comments from Prof. Vladimir Đuro Degan on a previous version. 9 �References Christie's Auction Catalog , Amsterdam, http://www.sunkentreasurebooks.com/catalogs.htm, accessed 30, Dec.,2013 Chunming, W., 2003. Shipwrecks around China marine zone----Ancient sailing boat, ship technology and cargo. Jiangxi University Press, China.Jörg, C. J. A., 1986. The Geldermalsen History and Porcelain. Kemper Publisher, Groningen. Matthew, E. Zekala.,2012. Liability and Salvage: Titanic Jurisprudence in United States Federal Court, p1103, http://law.lclark.edu/live/files/11855-lcb163art8zekala.pdf, accessed 20 Dec 2013. Regulations of the P. R. China on Protection and Administration of Underwater Cultural Relics promulgated by Decree No. 42 of the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Oct 20, 1989. UNESCO, ‘Museums and tourism’, <http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/museumsand-tourism/>, accessed on 20 Dec. 2013. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/researchand-training/unitwin-programme/#c492115, accessed 20 Dec. 2013. Underwater Archaeology Research Centre (China) et al., 2012. Major Discoveries of Sino-Kenyan Cooperative Underwater Archaeological Survey in Coastal Areas of Kenya in 2010. Journal of National Museum of China, Vol. 8: 88-99. Yanhong, Cai., 2011. Grouping and well-organizing is the new trend of illicitly excavating UCH in China, Legal Daily, Beijing, (15 Dec, 2011). Chunming,Wu., 2003. Shipwrecks around China marine zone----Ancient sailing boat, ship technology and cargo, Jiangxi University Press, China. Biography Liu Lina graduated with Master of Law from Aberdeen University, UK, and PhD in law and Governance from Xi’an Jiaotong University, China. Liu is a lecturer at Xi’an Jiaotong University. Liu is currently engaged in a national research project entitled “Research on Jurisdiction and Ownership of Chinese UCH” supported by The National Social Science Fund of China. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 15: Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 15 chair Dr. Craig Forrest. Description An account of the resource The legal framework for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage has gained momentum throughout the Asia-Pacific with a number of States turning their attention to this issue. For some this is due to concerns raised though specific incidents that have damaged or destroyed the underwater cultural heritage or the information that could be gleaned from its excavation, whilst for others, it follows from consideration being given to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This session considers the Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in a number of Asia-Pacific states. The objectives of session are to explore the various national approaches and to seek aspects of commonality and uniformity that provide frameworks for other state that have not yet addressed the issue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Craig Forrest Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Chinese Perspective on the International Legal Scheme for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource With 18,000 km of coastline and plentiful streams and rivers, China has an extensive underwater cultural heritage (UCH), which preserves Chinese history and maritime civilization under the ocean as a kind of “time capsule”. After 20-years of development of underwater archaeology and the protection of UCH, China has set up a brand-new national protection system. This contribution first discusses the new development of the Chinese UCH legal system in the 21th century in three aspects: legal subject, legal object and legal content. Further it discussed the tremendous challenges faced by the Chinese legal system. Meanwhile, since its entry into force in 2009, the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001 Convention) has been gradually approved by more and more influential States who hold various and abundant UCH items. Part two explains the UNESCO 2001 Convention as the International Cooperation Scheme for Protection of UCH. Part three examines, from the Chinese perspective, the advantages and obstacles for a State that ratifies the UNESCO 2001 Convention. There is a final conclusion that argues that through the UNESCO 2001 Convention diverse national legal protection systems of the UCH have converged into an international cooperation legal instrument. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Liu Lina, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 15 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c4bcabafb2f4ee3f1aa223491fdcbb62.pdf dd1dc60b5c7f2643fac45787522dcd88 PDF Text Text New approach to protect the underwater cultural heritage in Sri Lanka Sanath Karunarathna Department of Archaeology (Regional Office - Southern Province) Galle, Sri Lanka Email: sanathgalle@yahoo.com Abstract In 2001 the Minister of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development passed a bill in the Parliament of Sri Lanka entitled the “Long–Term Management of Maritime Wrecks and Underwater Cultural Heritage of Sri Lanka”.. A committee, known as the Inter Ministerial Committee chaired by the Secretary of the Ministry of Fisheries, was formed to give effect to the bill. Four general meetings have been held and many important decisions have been taken, including stopping salvage and destroying wrecks. This is a very important step towards protecting of the UCH in Sri Lanka. Apart from this, the draft amendment for the Antiquity Ordinance no 9, 1940; brought into effect in 2012, provides that any vessels that had run aground more than one hundred years ago, or built more than one hundred years ago, shall be considered underwater cultural heritage. An amendment brought in 1998 for the same ordinance had extended the meaning by adding “found in the Sri Lankan waters”, bringing greater protection for UCH in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan Navy is assisting by giving coverage for protection as a whole and it was strengthened with the request of the Director General of Archaeology for stopping any attempt to destroy UCH in our waters. A newly formed department for protecting coastal zones is well educated for the prevention of any harmful activity on UCH. There are several other rules and regulations related to the protection of UCH in Sri Lanka, which will be covered in this paper. Key words: Sri Lanka, Underwater Archaeology, Heritage, Management, Trincomalee, Mannai, Godawaya Introduction Sri Lanka, which has been known around the world as a beautiful island in the Indian Ocean, was also famous for its naval activities since the beginning of the 1st century AD and its recently discovered, 2,000 year old archaeological evidence. It is interesting to note here that carbon dating technique has confirmed that the sunken ship which was recovered from the Godawaya area is more than 2000 years old. The maritime archaeological heritage of Sri Lanka is enriched as the famous maritime silk route between Europe and Asia went past this island. As mentioned above there were several 1 �important harbors along the coastal belt. Some of these well-known ports are Mannai (Mannar) Trincomalee, Galle and Godawaya. According to the established archeological evidence, the maritime activities of this island were intensified after the colonization of the country. Most shipwrecks that have been found along the coast belonged to the Dutch and English period. The maritime exploration of Sri Lanka was started by the well-known scientist and author, Sir Arthur C Clarke and some of his colleagues in the 1960s. As such, the No. 9 ordinance of the Maritime archaeology of 1940 did not mention maritime archaeology. Moreover, the extent of the maritime zone was also officially decided and declared in 1976 by the Maritime zone law No. 22 which was ratified by the State Council. Until then, there was not any decision taken of ownership of the maritime resources in this area (The Act No. 73 of the cultural property in 1988). By taking all these things into consideration, the government introduced a new ordinance in 1976 called the Cultural Property Bill no. 73. It bans the exportation of any cultural property from Sri Lanka. Also it requires approval from the commission of archaeology for exporting any registered cultural property out of the country. Even today this law is valid and it functions under the Ministry of Cultural and Arts. So according to the law, any archaeological property situated on land as well as in the sea is regarded as a cultural property of Sri Lanka and so it is prohibited to export them. Also according to clause 2(1) in the first chapter of the Archaeological Ordinance of no. 9 in 1940, even where archaeological property in situated on private land, it nevertheless belongs to the State. If the person wants to keep it as his property he must prove ownership of that property. So, according to this clause it is a punishable crime to keep for oneself archaeological property which was from the territorial sea or removed from a ship. As there were some shortcomings in the main ordinance, it was revised again in 1998 by introducing the revised bill of the 194 ordinance. Basically, the sub-clause of the second clause of the 194 ordinance was revised. In the main ordinance, the territorial sea had not been regarded as part of the territory of Sri Lanka. It only mentioned the word “vilaka” (in a lake). Now it has been revised by using the word “deshayesamurdayathula” (inside the territorial sea of the country). So according to the Maritime zone law of No. 22 in 1976, the “deshayesamurdhayathula” means the 2 �territorial sea area belongs to Sri Lanka. As such, the archaeological ordinance provides the power and authority to protect and look after all the monuments and other archaeological artifacts in the country. Another revision was made to this bill. The phrase “the constructions made before 1850” was changed in order to cover constructions made more than one hundred years ago. So the relevant Minister could declare those constructions as the monuments from a Gazette notification, with the recommendation of the Director of Archaeology. According to the clause of this Act, a shipwreck in the sea could be declared a monument, including ships which were sunk, or built, more than one hundred years ago, and are regarded as archaeological monuments because a shipwreck is an immovable object. When a ship is sunk it is regarded as stuck at that place forever and can therefore be regarded as a monument. The artifacts found from the sea, however could be moved to another place. Also it doesn’t do any harm to its content by doing so. So, if we could make sure the relevant artifact is made before 1815 AD, it surely could be regarded as an artifact under the define terms. In 1998, the AIA law (Archaeological Impact Assessment) was introduced. According to this law, the relevant authorities who are going to start a new project should get an archaeological impact assessment done with the help of the Department of Archaeology before starting any project. The expenses for this assessment should be paid by the project itself, allocating about 1% from the total cost of the project. The Department would give its approval to carry on the project after assessing the result of it. They could apply conditions also if necessary. The revision of clauses of 43A and 43B has greatly helped to protect the cultural heritage on the land and at sea. For instance, many archaeological assessments have been done in the recent years, before starting several big projects such as the harbor airports and highways. In 2012, measures were taken to revise the Archaeological Ordinance again. The necessary drafts has been done and presented to the parliament for its approval. Because of this revision, the authority which was vested on the Minister to declare a construction as a monument which was built more than one hundred years ago has been removed and included that authority into the ordinance directly. It would help further to protect the artifacts in the land and also in the sea. Moreover, another very 3 �important rule has been introduced. The fine that could be charged for an offence relating to destroying the artifacts have been increased from 50,000 to one million rupees and a two year prison sentence has been made mandatory. So, it must be emphasized and reiterated here that the Sri Lankan government is very serious about protecting the archaeological heritage and has already taken very important and strict measures to affect this policy. On top of all these ordinances and laws, a new law has been introduced by the president and cabinet in 2011. According to this new law, it is prohibited to dissemble the parts of a shipwreck. The Minister of Fisheries and the Aquatic Resources presented a cabinet paper called, “Long term management of maritime works and underwater cultural heritage of Sri Lanka”. According to its directions, a new committee, called the inter-ministerial committee, was established. Approval must be sought from this committee if anyone wants to remove any sunken ship. Whilst the authority may give directions, it has to be done with the consent and recommendation of the archeological department, navy, ministry of fisheries and NARA (National Aquatic Resources Research & Development Agency) The following institutions are represented on the committee: 1. Ministry of defense 2. Ministry of National heritage 3. Ministry of cultural and arts 4. Ministry of fisheries 5. Ministry of Ports and highways 6. Ministry of economic development 7. Ministry of environment 8. Ministry of social services 9. National Aquatic Recourses Agency 10. Sri Lanka Navy 11. Department of Coastal Guard 12. Sri Lanka Police If anyone wants to remove a shipwreck they must make a written request to the committee. Committee decisions are final and absolute. Only one of these organizations has to object to a proposal to remove a shipwreck, for that proposal to be denied. So, it 4 �is clear the decision would be taken by deeply considering national interest. Sri Lanka has clearly understood the importance of working collectively to protect the underwater cultural heritage. Also, all the governmental institutions have the authority to control the removal of the relevant ship wrecks which is under their field of activity. Even according to the rules of the Navy, the Ministry of Fisheries, and the Coast Guard, it is illegal and prohibited to remove anything from the seabed and bring them to the shore without their permission. When we consider of all these measures it is very clear that Sri Lanka has already taken strict measures and implemented tough laws to protect the UCH. The relevant ordinance and acts have been revised several times whenever it is necessary and the penalties for the offenders also have been increased. It is important to note here that all the governmental institutions which are relevant to this field have come together to work as a group to achieve common goals. Because these laws and committees have placed such a high standard on our maritime culture, maritime technology is taught as a prominent subject in most universities in Sri Lanka. It will help to broaden the knowledge, understanding and the attitude of the younger generation about this field. Several high level official discussions also have been done to ratify the UNESCO convention. All these things related to this subject are coordinated by the division of the underwater archaeology of the Department of Archaeology, Ministry of National Heritage and the Maritime Archaeology Unit of the central cultural fund which is under the authority of the Ministry of Cultural and Arts. They are all doing a wonderful job to share the knowledge and their practical know how with academics. References Antiquities act, No.o9 of 1940. Antiquities (Amendment) act, No: 24 of 1998. Antiquities act Amendment –draft 2012. Cultural Property act, No: 73-of 1988. Nara act, No: 54 of 1981. Fisheries act, No 2 of 1996. Merchant Shipping act, 1972. Sri Lanka Port Authority Act, No 51 of 1979. 5 �UNESCO Convention. National principles of Archaeology in Sri Lanka. Coast Conservation act, No 57 - of, 1981. Maritime Zones Law, No: 22 of 1976. Cabinet Paper on. Long term management of underwater cultural heritage in Sri Lanka, No: 11/0127/532/004 of 2011. Convention on the Protection of the Under Water Culture Heritage, 2001. Biography Sanath Karunarathna is a Maritime Archaeologist in Sri Lankan, working as a Regional Exploration Officer in the Department of Archaeology of Sri Lanka. He is a visiting lecturer at the University of Ruhuna. He began Maritime Archaeological work in 2004 with the Avondster Project. Sanath participated in the UNESCO Maritime Archaeology field Schools held in 2006 and 2007. He is currently based in Galle working with the Archaeological Diving team of the Maritime Archaeology Unit. He has done NAS Part 1 and participated in the first foundation course in Thailand 2011. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 15: Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 15 chair Dr. Craig Forrest. Description An account of the resource The legal framework for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage has gained momentum throughout the Asia-Pacific with a number of States turning their attention to this issue. For some this is due to concerns raised though specific incidents that have damaged or destroyed the underwater cultural heritage or the information that could be gleaned from its excavation, whilst for others, it follows from consideration being given to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This session considers the Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in a number of Asia-Pacific states. The objectives of session are to explore the various national approaches and to seek aspects of commonality and uniformity that provide frameworks for other state that have not yet addressed the issue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Craig Forrest Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource New approach to protect the underwater cultural heritage in Sri Lanka Description An account of the resource In 2001 the Minister of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development passed a bill in the Parliament of Sri Lanka entitled the “Long–Term Management of Maritime Wrecks and Underwater Cultural Heritage of Sri Lanka”.. A committee, known as the Inter Ministerial Committee chaired by the Secretary of the Ministry of Fisheries, was formed to give effect to the bill. Four general meetings have been held and many important decisions have been taken, including stopping salvage and destroying wrecks. This is a very important step towards protecting of the UCH in Sri Lanka. Apart from this, the draft amendment for the Antiquity Ordinance no 9, 1940; brought into effect in 2012, provides that any vessels that had run aground more than one hundred years ago, or built more than one hundred years ago, shall be considered underwater cultural heritage. An amendment brought in 1998 for the same ordinance had extended the meaning by adding “found in the Sri Lankan waters”, bringing greater protection for UCH in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan Navy is assisting by giving coverage for protection as a whole and it was strengthened with the request of the Director General of Archaeology for stopping any attempt to destroy UCH in our waters. A newly formed department for protecting coastal zones is well educated for the prevention of any harmful activity on UCH. There are several other rules and regulations related to the protection of UCH in Sri Lanka, which will be covered in this paper. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sanath Karunarathna, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 15 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b90b4d72322545aa886b4402544d37f6.pdf 60402e662dbd39fbae88a644ddab0e09 PDF Text Text Protecting the Underwater Cultural Heritage in the waters surrounding Hong Kong Steven Gallagher Associate Professor of Practice in Law Professional Consultant The Chinese University of Hong Kong Email: stevegallagher@cuhk.edu.hk Abstract Since its colonial founding in 1841 Hong Kong has been a vibrant centre for international trade and commerce. Its strategic location at the head of the Pearl River made it a perfect location for maritime trade. Before this the waters surrounding Hong Kong’s 200 plus islands were the notorious hideouts of pirates seeking to plunder the rich merchant vessels trading between China and its South East Asian neighbours. The waters around Hong Kong are only now being fully explored for their cultural heritage. Professionals and amateurs are seeking the resting places of infamous pirate wrecks and the wrecks of their victims. Harbor developments and sea fortifications are being examined. However, the continued expansion of Hong Kong as a trading centre and the shortage of land for development places many underwater areas that may have significant heritage information at risk. Developments and land reclamation in the world famous Victoria Harbor have raised concerns locally and internationally. The building and expansion of the Chek Lap Kok Airport and the building of the Hong Kong-MacauZhuhai Bridge have given archaeologists opportunity to discover evidence of Hong Kong’s underwater cultural heritage but have also raised concerns regarding its damage and destruction. This paper considers the protection Hong Kong’s laws provide for the underwater cultural heritage in the face of threats from building projects, reclamation, increased traffic in established sea routes and the establishment of new commercial sea routes. Keywords: Hong Kong, underwater cultural heritage, law, Guangdong, legal framework Introduction Archaeologists have discovered evidence of human occupation of Hong Kong dating back 6,000 years to the Neolithic period (The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013). Discoveries suggest that Hong Kong has always been a sea trading area with the concentration of its population on its coastline e.g. Lantau, Sai Kung, Tuen Mun and the Kowloon Peninsula. Hong Kong’s position at the mouth of the Pearl River, close to the trading port of Guanzhou (previously Canton), made it useful for the trade in tea, silk, 1 �porcelain and eventually opium. The many islands and the rich trade passing through these waters have also made the area a haven and rich plundering waters for pirates. The Portuguese, the first Europeans to pass regularly through these waters, referred to the islands of Hong Kong as ‘the islands of thieves’. The problem of piracy in the area led to the Great Clearance Order of 1661–69, when the inhabitants of coastal Guandong were ordered to move inland to prevent them from having any contact with pirates and perhaps providing aid to them. The area of Hong Kong was virtually deserted and only a small proportion of the original residents are said to have returned when the Emperor rescinded the order (Hayes, 1974). However, the coastal settlements around Hong Kong gradually re-established and benefitted from the opening up of Canton for the tea and opium trade (HSU, 2000); the islands of Hong Kong became watering, victualing and smuggling points. Piracy also continued with notorious local pirate chiefs controlling vast fleets in these waters, for example Cheung Po Tsai (17961820). After the First Opium War (1839-1842) the British took Hong Kong Island as a Crown Colony and it became the base for European trade in the area. Archaeological and historical study of the underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong The importance of the sea to the history and development of Hong Kong and the cultural heritage of the people oft is reflected in their beliefs and custom; for example the prevalence of Tin Hau temples and the dragon boat festivals which occur throughout the region. The recognition of the importance of Hong Kong’s maritime history is reflected in two dedicated museums (Maritime Museum and the Museum of Coastal Defence) and legislation such as the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance (Cap. 531), which recognises that ‘the harbour is a special public asset and a natural heritage of the Hong Kong people’ (Society for the Protection of the Harbour Ltd v. Town Planning Board [2004] 1 HKLRD 396). Discoveries of evidence of Hong Kong’s maritime cultural heritage have been made during the development of the infrastructure of Hong Kong including a Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD) shipwreck that is now located within the High Island Reservoir. Archaeological investigation during the building of the new airport at Chep Lak Kok, 2 �Lantau Island, has resulted in evidence of coastal settlement in the region. Although no thorough archaeological exploration of the waters of Hong Kong has yet been carried out, in 2009 the Lord Wilson Heritage Trust, provided financial support for the Hong Kong Underwater Heritage Group to analyse and consolidate data for 300 Hong Kong sites in a wrecks database (Jeffery et al., 2013). Concern for underwater cultural heritage is driven by the problems related to the shortage of land in Hong Kong. Hong Kong consists of approximately 1,104 km2 (426 square miles) of land including over 200 islands. Its hilly terrain results in only some 25% of its landmass being developed for habitation with concentration mostly along the coastline. Official population figures of seven million people make it one of the most densely populated areas in the world (Census 2011). The constant reclamation of land from the sea, infrastructure projects in, under or over the sea, and the huge amount of sea traffic in the area endanger the underwater cultural heritage. The legal framework for the protection of underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and operates under the ‘One Country, Two Systems’ political system, which permits the region to use the common law until 2047. Hong Kong claims territorial waters to a distance of 3 nautical miles (5.6 km). Although there are many statutes which may indirectly affect the protection of underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong, there are two statutes which form the basis of protection for underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong: the Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance (AMO) (Cap. 53), which provides the basis for all statutory protection of cultural heritage wherever situated in Hong Kong; and the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance (Cap. 499). The Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance was gazetted in 1971 and came into effect in 1972. AMO therefore predates the common usage of the term “cultural heritage” and so refers to “relics”, “antiquities” and “monuments”. AMO provides “for the preservation of objects of historical, archaeological and palaeontological interest and for matters ancillary thereto or connected therewith”, to be effected by way of designating ownership in relics and declaration of “any place, building, site or structure” as a proposed monument or monument. Although AMO expressly refers to discovery as including finding in Hong 3 �Kong ‘in, on or under land or sea’ (s. 2), Amo was drafted when the limitations of underwater archaeology and the appreciation of underwater cultural heritage meant that the protection of the underwater cultural heritage was only cursorily considered, which is apparent as subsequent sections only refer to land: e.g. ss 2, 2A, 2B, 3, 5 and 8. The Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance was gazetted in 1998 and has from its implementation been interpreted as necessitating consideration of the impact of proposed development of the seabed on cultural heritage. This interpretation was strengthened in 2007 after the Chief Executive’s Policy Address identified the protection of heritage and the requirement of Heritage Impact Assessments (HIA) as policy initiatives. The protection afforded the underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong will be considered under two headings: protecting underwater cultural heritage from unauthorised excavation and removal, and protecting underwater cultural heritage before and during development. Protecting underwater cultural heritage from unauthorised excavation and removal AMO places restrictions upon the searching for and excavating of sites, antiquities and relics, and specifies what must be done when an antiquity is discovered either accidentally or after deliberate search. Whenever an antiquity is discovered, the discoverer or any person who knows of the discovery must report the discovery to the Authority, presently the Secretary for Development (s.2), or to a designated person, identify the antiquity or supposed antiquity if requested to, and take all reasonable measures to protect the antiquity (s.11(1)-(3). A designated person includes, ‘(a) the officer in charge of a police station; (b) a police officer of or above the rank of inspector; and (c) any person specified by the Authority by notice in the Gazette’. The person making the report of the discovery of an antiquity may be paid a reward by the Authority, with the prior approval of the Chief Executive (s. 11(4)). AMO further provides that no person may ‘excavate or search for antiquities’ unless they have a licence to do so (s.12a). Licences are granted by the Antiquities and Monuments Office under the direction of the Authority. 4 �AMO (s.2) defines an antiquity as: a. a relic; anda place, building, site or structure erected, formed or built by human agency before the year 1800 and the ruins or remains of any such b. place, building, site or structure, whether or not the same has been modified, added to or restored after the year 1799. Although this definition was arrived at with terrestrial discovery in mind the provisions also apply to underwater cultural heritage predating 1800 as discovery may be ‘in, on or under land or sea’ (s. 2). Once an antiquity has been discovered and reported to the Authority, the Authority may designate it a proposed monument and or declared monument. The protection AMO provides is not restricted to places, buildings, sites or structures predating 1800, however, as AMO provides that the Authority may declare any place, building, site or structure a proposed monument (s.2A).Declaration lasts for 12 months with the possibility of extension for a further 12 months (s.2B). Furthermore, the Authority may declare any place, building, site or structure “to be a monument, historical building or archaeological or palaeontological site or structure if the Authority considers it ‘to be of public interest by reason of its historical, archaeological or palaeontological significance” (s.3). The “place, building, site or structure” may be ‘in, on or under land or sea’ and is usually referred to as a “declared monument”. The status of “proposed monument” or “declared monument” provides protection for the site and anything contained within it. AMO empowers the Authority, with the prior approval of the Chief Executive, to authorise the fencing, repair, maintenance, preservation or restoration of any proposed monument or monument, and the excavate or search for relics in any proposed monument or monument and the removal of any relics thereby discovered (s. 5 (1)).These powers are limited when interfering with the property rights of owners or occupiers of the proposed monument or monument (s.5(3)). Compensation may be paid to the owner or occupier of monuments or proposed monuments if the Authority exercises these powers (s. 8). The Ordinance provides a restriction on excavation and interference with any proposed monument or declared monument by way of a permit scheme (s. 6). The scheme prohibits, amongst other acts, the excavation, carrying on of building or other works, depositing earth or refuse on or in 5 �a proposed monument or monument, and the demolishing, removing, obstructing, defacing or interfering with a proposed monument or monument, except in accordance with a permit granted by the Authority. Anyone refused a permit to carry out these acts may appeal to the Chief Executive within 14 days of notice of the refusal by the Authority. The Chief executive may confirm, vary or reverse the refusal. The Chief executive’s decision is final. Once a site is designated a proposed monument or declared monument no person may use a metal detector there to excavate and search for antiquities unless they have a licence from the Authority for these purposes (s.12aa).Furthermore no person may remove any relic ‘hitherto undiscovered from a proposed monument or monument, or collect or remove any object which he supposes to be a relic from the site of its discovery’ unless they have a licence which permits them to do so for the protection of the relic or supposed relic (s.12b). Section 2 defines "relic" as: a. a movable object made, shaped, painted, carved, inscribed or otherwise created, manufactured, produced or modified by human agency before the year 1800, whether or not it has been modified, added to or restored after the year 1799; and b. fossil remains or impressions… Every relic discovered in Hong Kong after the commencement of the AMO belongs to the Government of Hong Kong, although the Authority may disclaim ownership of the relic on behalf of the Government when common law principles would then apply (s.10). The licensing scheme (s.13 (2) provides that a licence may only be issued if the Authority is satisfied that the licensee ‘has had sufficient scientific training or experience to enable him to carry out the excavation and search satisfactorily; (b) has at his disposal sufficient staff and financial or other resources to enable him to carry out the excavation and search satisfactorily; and (c) is able to conduct, or arrange for, a proper scientific study of any antiquities discovered as a result of the excavation and search.’ A licence may be granted for a renewable period of 12 months (s.13 (3)), to enter land for the purposes of excavation and searching (s.14), it is accepted practice for such licences to be issued for marine exploration. A license may be cancelled but the 6 �licensee must have the opportunity of making representation as to why it should not be cancelled (s. 15). An applicant or licensee may also appeal by way of petition to the Chief Executive within 14 days of a decision to refuse or cancel a licence: (s. 16). It may include such conditions as the Authority considers appropriate, e.g. the conduct of any excavation and search, the reporting, mapping and documenting thereof, the use of a metal detector, the preservation of materials discovered, their removal, examination and return, and the making and delivery of casts, rubbings, squeezes and other reproductions’ (s. 13(6)). AMO provides penalties for those who: knowingly make ‘a false statement to the Authority or to a designated person as to the situation or circumstances of the discovery of an antiquity’; do not report the discovery of an antiquity; excavate or search for antiquities without a licence (including the use of metal detectors (as proscribed in s. 12aa)); do not identify an antiquity they have reported if so requested; wilfully obstructs the Authority, or any designated person authorized by him (s. 19(1)). On conviction the offences carry maximum penalties of HK$5,000 and imprisonment for 6 months. There is a presumption in criminal and civil proceedings that any relic or alleged relic proved to be in Hong Kong after the date of commencement of the Ordinance was discovered in Hong Kong after the date of commencement of the Ordinance (s. 20(1)).The possessor of the relic or presumed relic must prove that the relic or presumed relic was in their possession or the possession from someone from whom they obtained possession for six years before the commencement of the proceedings or was imported into Hong Kong (s. 21(1)). AMO also provides more serious offences of excavating, carrying on building or other works, or depositing earth or refuse on or in a proposed monument or monument; or demolishing, removing, obstructing, defacing or interfering with a proposed monument or monument. These offences are punishable on conviction with a maximum fine of HK$100,000 and imprisonment for 1 year. The definition of antiquity limits the protection of undiscovered sites and artefacts to those predating 1800. However, the designation of a site as a proposed monument or declared monument will protect the site from any excavation or the removal of any object. Any wreck postdating this period and not subject to statutory designation may be subject to the law of salvage. The Merchant Shipping (Collision Damage Liability and 7 �Salvage) Ordinance (Cap. 508) incorporated the International Convention on Salvage 1989, but Hong Kong has adopted the Reservation permitted in article 30(1) of the Convention, as specified in the Ordinance s 9 and Sch 1, Pt2, para 2(1)(a), that the provisions of the Convention do not apply ‘when the property involved is a maritime cultural property of prehistoric archaeological or historic interest and is situated on the sea-bed.’ Such property will be subject to the pre-existing Hong Kong common law of salvage. The Hong Kong Government is entitled to all unclaimed wreck within Hong Kong’s territorial waters, except where the right has been granted to some other person (Pierce v Bemis, The Lusitania [1986] QB 384). Protecting underwater cultural heritage before and during development The most worrying prospect for those concerned with the underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong’s waters has been the continued expansion of Hong Kong into the sea and the major capital projects which have been undertaken in the seas. Contractors with the best intentions may never realise they have damaged underwater cultural heritage or may only realise there is an artefact or site which should be reported when major damage has already been inflicted on the integrity of a site. This concern has been reflected in Government policy to protect underwater cultural heritage. This policy has been described as “An excellent example of proactive management of underwater cultural heritage with relation to seabed development…” (Coroneos, 2006). The protection afforded underwater cultural heritage that may be damaged by building and development projects in Hong Kong is afforded by the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance (EIAO). Implemented in 1998, the EIAO specifies in its Technical Memorandum that Heritage Impact Assessments (HIA) should be carried out at the early planning stage of any required development. The EIAO specifies in Schedule 1 Interpretation that ‘environmental impact’ for a designated project includes an on-site or off-site change that the project may cause in the environment on cultural heritage or a structure, site or other thing that is of historical or archaeological significance’. Schedule 1 also defines a "site of cultural heritage" as “an antiquity or monument, whether being a place, building, site or structure or a relic, as defined in the Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance… and any place, building, site, or structure or a 8 �relic identified by the Antiquities and Monuments Office to be of archaeological, historical or palaeontological significance”. The EIAO Schedule 2 designates projects requiring HIA, which include: reclamation works (including associated dredging works) more than 1 ha in size with a boundary which is less than 500 m from the nearest boundary of an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; dredging operation which is less than 500 m from the nearest boundary of an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; sewage treatment works with an installed capacity of more than 5000 m3 per day and a boundary which is less than 200 m from the nearest boundary of an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; a sewage pumping station with an installed capacity of more than 2000 m3 per day and a boundary which is less than 150 m from an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; a drainage channel or river training and diversion works which discharges or discharge into an area which is less than 300 m from the nearest boundary of an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; All projects including new access roads, railways, sewers, sewage treatment facilities, earthworks, dredging works and other building works partly or wholly in a site of cultural heritage. Schedule 4 provides that any environmental permit granted may specify timing phasing or mitigation measures to mitigate the impact of a designated project. Mitigation measures include “processes, systems, practices, procedures or technologies for the conservation, preservation or protection of …sites of… cultural heritage importance”. The requirement for HIA was extended by the Chief Executive’s Policy Address of 2007 to cover any public works. Those undertaking HIA are required to engage “a qualified marine archaeologist” to “…identify whether there is any possible existence of sites or objects of cultural heritage, for example shipwreck, within any seabed areas that would be affected by the marine works of the Project” (Coroneos, 2006). The Technical Memorandum, Annex 19, provides ‘Guidelines for assessment of impact on sites of cultural heritage and other impacts’. These Guidelines explain that methodologies for assessing impact may vary depending on the site, and that there is ‘no quantitative standard in deciding the relative importance of these sites, but in general, sites of unique archaeological, historical or architectural value will be considered as highly significant. ’The Guidelines provide what must be done when undertaking the HIA: 9 �1. Baseline Study: to compile a comprehensive inventory of places, buildings, sites and structures of architectural, archaeological and historical value within the proposed project area; and to identify possible threats of destruction in whole or in part of sites of cultural heritage arising from the proposed project. 2. Methodology: information should be assembled to assess the sites to provide detailed geographical, historical, archaeological, ethnographical and other cultural data. Sources for the assessment should include public records, published papers, ‘records, archival and historical documents as well as oral legends. ’If these sources prove inadequate then field surveys and site investigations shall be conducted to assemble the necessary data. 3. Impact Assessment: the presumption is for ‘preservation in totality’. However, if site constraints and other factors permit only partial preservation then ‘this must be fully justified with alternative proposals or layout designs which confirm the impracticability of total preservation.’ Total destruction is the ‘very last resort’ and ‘shall only be recommended with a meticulous and careful analysis balancing the interest of preserving the archaeological, historical, architectural and other cultural values as against that of the community as a whole.’ 4. Mitigation Measures: mitigation measures shall not be used to avoid total or partial preservation. These general requirements for undertaking HIA have been further refined for underwater purposes by the Antiquities and Monuments Office’s Guidelines for Marine Archaeological Investigation specifying the tasks necessary for a successful HIA, colloquially referred to, as Coroneos notes, as “the Four Commandments”: Task 1 Baseline Review; Task 2 Geophysical Survey; Task 3 Establishing Archaeological Potential; Task 4 Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV)/Visual Diver Survey/Watching Brief. The Baseline Review is the equivalent of the Baseline Study. The Geophysical Survey is usually conducted by marine geophysical contractors. These two tasks then feed into Task 3, Establishing Archaeological Potential, which identifies, or isolates, anomalies or 10 �areas of archaeological potential. If no anomalies or areas of archaeological interest are found then Task 4 is not required. Otherwise Task 4 requires the use of ROV and/or visual divers, depending of the nature of the anomaly or area of archaeological potential, to investigate. If archaeological material is discovered then the Antiquities and Monuments Office must be notified to seek guidance on its significance and the preparation of appropriate mitigation measures. Conclusion Hong Kong’s framework for the protection of underwater cultural heritage is relatively simple and seemingly effective. The development of Hong Kong’s coast and seabed is undertaken with a requirement for heritage impact assessments specifying high levels of investigation and protection by professional archaeologists. Generally, no one is allowed to search for antiquities in Hong Kong’s waters without a permit from the Secretary or Development. Any chance discovery of an antiquity must be reported to the Secretary for Development. Any relic discovered belongs to the Hong Kong Government. Once a site is identified then it may be protected by designation as a proposed monument or declared monument. Of course there is room for improvement in the legal framework protecting the underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong. For example AMO could be updated in language and provisions to specify the importance of underwater cultural heritage. Further measures may be implemented to protect underwater cultural heritage in line with policy statements from Beijing that China will bring its domestic laws into line with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (FU, 2003). References Census, 2001. Retrieved 20 Janary http://www.census2011.gov.hk/pdf/summary-results.pdf 2014. From The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. China Unearthed, Soaring Phoenix Rising Dragon, Celebratory Exhibition for the 50th Anniversary of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, Hong Kong. Coroneos, C., 2006. The Four Commandments: The Response of Hong Kong SAR to the Impact of Seabed Development on Underwater Cultural Heritage. In R. Grenier, D. Nutley, and I., Cochran (Eds.), Heritage at Risk Special Edition, Underwater Cultural 11 �Heritage at Risk, International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), Paris: 4648. Retrieved 20 January 2014. From http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/2006/fulldocan.pdf FU, Kuen-Chen, 2003. A Chinese Perspective on the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law: 109-126. Hayes, J., 1974. The Hong Kong Region: Its Place in Traditional Chinese Historiography and Principal Events Since the Establishment of Hsin-an County in 1573. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch, Vol. 14: 108–135. HSU, Immanuel C. Y., 2000. The Rise of Modern China. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Jeffery, B., Li, M. L. H., Wong, P. P-K., Ho, L. W-C., Chan, T. S-M., Chow, G. S-M., Chan, R. K-Y., 2013. Recording and Documenting the Underwater Cultural Heritage of Hong Kong, Stage 1: a community maritime archaeology project. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 42 (2): 412- 419, retrieved 20 January 2014. From http://www.hkuhgroup.com/cms/ The Maritime Museum and the Museum of Coastal Defence, retrieved 20 January 2014. http://www.hkmaritimemuseum.org/ 1.php ; http://hk.coastaldefence.museum/en/section1- Biography Steven Gallagher is an Associate Professor and a Professional Consultant, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. He was called to the Bar of England and Wales in 2006 by Gray’s Inn after many years as an antiques dealer. Steven has taught Equity and Trusts for undergraduate level and masters’ students in England and Hong Kong, and on the Juris Doctor program in Hong Kong. In 2014 Steven began the first Cultural Heritage Law course in Hong Kong. Steven’s cultural heritage research interests include issues involving human remains, and the traffic in cultural heritage such as ‘wreck’ porcelain. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 15: Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 15 chair Dr. Craig Forrest. Description An account of the resource The legal framework for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage has gained momentum throughout the Asia-Pacific with a number of States turning their attention to this issue. For some this is due to concerns raised though specific incidents that have damaged or destroyed the underwater cultural heritage or the information that could be gleaned from its excavation, whilst for others, it follows from consideration being given to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This session considers the Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in a number of Asia-Pacific states. The objectives of session are to explore the various national approaches and to seek aspects of commonality and uniformity that provide frameworks for other state that have not yet addressed the issue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Craig Forrest Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Protecting the Underwater Cultural Heritage in the waters surrounding Hong Kong Description An account of the resource Since its colonial founding in 1841 Hong Kong has been a vibrant centre for international trade and commerce. Its strategic location at the head of the Pearl River made it a perfect location for maritime trade. Before this the waters surrounding Hong Kong’s 200 plus islands were the notorious hideouts of pirates seeking to plunder the rich merchant vessels trading between China and its South East Asian neighbours. The waters around Hong Kong are only now being fully explored for their cultural heritage. Professionals and amateurs are seeking the resting places of infamous pirate wrecks and the wrecks of their victims. Harbor developments and sea fortifications are being examined. However, the continued expansion of Hong Kong as a trading centre and the shortage of land for development places many underwater areas that may have significant heritage information at risk. Developments and land reclamation in the world famous Victoria Harbor have raised concerns locally and internationally. The building and expansion of the Chek Lap Kok Airport and the building of the Hong Kong-Macau-Zhuhai Bridge have given archaeologists opportunity to discover evidence of Hong Kong’s underwater cultural heritage but have also raised concerns regarding its damage and destruction. This paper considers the protection Hong Kong’s laws provide for the underwater cultural heritage in the face of threats from building projects, reclamation, increased traffic in established sea routes and the establishment of new commercial sea routes. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Steven Gallagher, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 15 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/590e307c15d1d6877b22c95c5da8b1b1.pdf 91c01c2dd35f0d663626052d3c3f67ed PDF Text Text A Model Law to Implement the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and its Possible Application in Plural Legal Regimes in Pacific Small Islands States: A Case study of Solomon Islands Craig Forrest1 and Jennifer Corrin2 Centre for Public International and Comparative Law TC Beirne School of Law University of Queensland Brisbane Australia 4072 Email: c.forrest@law.uq.edu.au1 Email: j.corrin@law.uq.edu.au2 Abstract A strategy for promoting the adoption of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, is the adoption of a Model Law; one that also promotes uniformity, consistency and ease of use. This, however, is a challenge in the Pacific. Solomon Islands, for example, like most Pacific island nations, has a plural legal regime. That is, customary law operates in conjunction with the common law, a legacy of Solomon Islands’ colonial past. Legal pluralism raises significant difficulties for the protection and management of cultural heritage, and is especially challenging when the maritime areas beyond the low water mark are involved. This paper considers the barriers to protection of underwater cultural heritage raised by legal pluralism and the further difficulties encountered when considering Solomon Island’s possible ratification on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. It considers whether a Model Law might be a useful tool in this endeavour. Keywords: Underwater cultural heritage, Convention, 2001, Law, Legal, Framework, Pacific, Solomon Islands, The underwater cultural heritage of Solomon Islands The very nature of Pacific Island peoples means that Solomon Islands has a rich maritime heritage. Unfortunately, few underwater remains of pre-colonial vessels have survived, though terrestrial examples exist (van Tilburg, 2011). Indeed, the largest water craft in the British Museum is a war canoe from New Georgia (Hess et al., 2009). Nevertheless, other heritage, such as underwater caves and sacrificial sites used for shark or crocodile worship, are numerous, especially in the coastal waters of certain 1 �islands, such as Malaita (Lidimani, 2011). There are also submerged islands and villages, inundated by the changing sea levels as well as in the construction of artificial islands such as Langa Langa Lagoon and Lau Lagoon in Malaita Province and Roviana Lagoon in the Western Province (Guérin et al., 2010). Perhaps the most famous historic shipwreck in Solomon Islands is that of the Boussole, commanded by Jean-François de Galaup, Comte de La Pérouse, lost in 1788 off the island of Vanikoro. The best known wrecks in Solomon Islands, however, are those of the Second World War. So numerous are they that the waters between Guadalcanal and Savo and Florida Islands are known as Iron Bottom Sound. The Protection of Wrecks and War Relics Act 1980 restrict access to (including diving) and interference with these vessels (and aircraft) and associated objects, subject to obtaining a licence from the relevant Ministry (Corrin and Forrest, 2013). Such a license is only to be granted to a person who can satisfy the Minister that they are competent and properly equipped to carry out excavation or salvage operations in a manner appropriate to the historical importance of the wreck. Further, limited protection is provided by the Protected Areas Act 2010. This Act defines areas which may be declared as protected to include an area which possesses significant ‘cultural resources’ or ‘merits protection under the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage’ [s 10(1)]. No other national legislation protects the remaining body of underwater cultural heritage in Solomon Islands, and beyond its territorial sea, a problem the 2001 Underwater Cultural Heritage Convention is designed to address. The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage came into force in 2009, almost eight years after its adoption, and currently only has 45 States parties. Moreover, of these 45 States, few have significant underwater cultural heritage (UCH) within their waters, and even fewer are significant maritime powers that have lost vessels in the oceans of the world. The reasons for the slow take up of the Convention have been dealt with elsewhere (Dromgoole, 2013) but include debate concerning the consistency between the Convention and the 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention (Cogliati-Bantz and Forrest, 2013); the lack of immunity offered to wrecked sovereign vessels; and the non-application of salvage law. That said, recent ‘ratifications’ do 2 �include maritime States such as France and those with significant wrecks in their waters, such as Belgium, who together with States such as Spain, have an important impact on the manner in which the Convention will ultimately be implemented and applied. It is hoped that more States will follow the lead of these recent ratifications, but for the Convention to be effective, it requires much broader participation by States, particularly in geographical regions such as the Asia-Pacific. The Convention provides an agreed minimum standard for recovery of UCH and sets out the jurisdictional structures and core principles upon which the regime is built, such as noncommercialisation of this heritage, supremacy of in situ preservation, and the encouragement of non-intrusive and non-destructive public access. But above all, the Convention is based on the principle of State co-operation. Without such co-operation, protection beyond the territorial sea is difficult, if not impossible. Accordingly, the Convention can only work if all the States with an interest in a particular wreck, for example, are party to the Convention. This problem is exacerbated in the Asia-Pacific region given the close proximity of many different island nations, and the ability to avoid one jurisdiction and use another as a safe-haven when directing activities at UCH. The Convention is somewhat unusual in its structure with an Annex as an integral part of the Convention. Whereas the Annex addresses archaeological standards in some detail, the Convention itself is designed to set out principles, rights and duties that require implementation, and detail, from each ratifying State. The Convention is not a self-executing convention in the sense that is does not provide rights and duties that can easily be incorporated into a State’s national legal system without some form of implementing legislation that provides a detailed protective regime. The Convention, in seeking to harmonise principles, merely provides the skeleton or framework and each State is required to add body to that structure. There is therefore a tension inherent in the implementation of this Convention: the need for harmonisation across jurisdictions given that the Convention is structured on the basis of State co-operation, whilst at the same time giving States the freedom to implement the Convention in ways that make is workable in that particular State. The great difficulty then is to identify the best mechanism through which these international norms, binding on each State, may be translated and transformed into a national protective regime that is effective as the basis 3 �for State co-operation. One possible mechanism is the use of a model law that can play a transformative role, particularly within a particular geographical region. The transformative function of a Model Law A model law is a legislative text that is recommended to States for enactment as part of their national law (Faria, not dated). Model laws are used to harmonise and unify law, and have been used by a range of international organisations, including UNESCO, UN Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) and the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) (Siehr, 2012). Essentially the model law sits somewhere on the spectrum between the generality of the norms of international conventions and the specificity of the national legislation. It plays a mediating role in the transformation process from international norms to national law. The extent of that process is dependent on where in that spectrum the model law is to sit. And that is dependent on a range of factors, including the States involved in the drafting of the model law, the specificity of the international norms themselves and the differences in the legal structures of various implementing States (particularly in the same geographical area where this is important to the international context, as it is in this case). The use of model laws in this transformative role has been championed for a number of reasons. By having a more detailed agreed upon instrument, the implementation of the intentional norms is more likely to be applied, interpreted and enforced consistently between jurisdictions (Pistor, 2002). Moreover, the resulting national legislation is also more likely to achieve quality measures of legislation such as its enforceability, consistency, comprehensibility, transparency and accessibility (Poloko, 2012; Muylle, 2003). It also saves time in that the national drafting process is shortened through the collective drafting of the model law. It also allows for the pooling of expertise, particularly where the subject matter of the international norms may be of a technical nature; as is the case with the Annex of the Convention. This is perhaps particularly pertinent in the Pacific, given the limited number of technical experts as well as the limited number of experienced legislative drafters. This has led to a general failure to introduce legislation in many Pacific Islands State to meet their obligations under regional and international conventions. This shortage prompted the member States of the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, of which Solomon Islands is one, to 4 �establish a legal drafting unit within the Forum Secretariat in 2006. Its core mandates include provision of legislative drafting assistance to Forum countries in relation to national legislative agendas and in response to the Pacific Plan and any other relevant initiatives. There is already a precedent for the drafting of model laws by the Unit, as in 2008 it completed a Regional Model Law on Customs. Prior to the establishment of the Unit, the Forum Secretariat was a partner in the drafting of the Model Law for the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Expressions of Culture in 2002. Solomon Islands has not yet developed national law based on this model (Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat; not dated). The use of model laws in drafting national legislation does, however, have shortcomings. Model laws that lie close to national legislation in terms of specificity may lack a certain amount of democratic legitimacy. It is “a legislative process which may be far removed from those which it affects and in a sense negates trends towards bringing government closer to the people by way of regionalisation and devolution” (Poloko, 2012). The risk lies in implementing a model laws that achieves international uniformity but lacks efficacy in the national legal system. As such, in drafting a model law, consideration needs to be given to the difficulties that might arise in giving national (or even local) effect to the resulting national legislation. Whilst a model law is not, in itself, a legislative instrument, and therefore need not be duplicated in its entirety in the implementing legislation, any divergence will undermine the very purpose of the model law: uniformity and harmonization. Nevertheless, it has the advantage of flexibility and the ability to accommodate national variation in its implementation (Faria, not dated). The drafting of a Model law The quality of the national legislation that implements the model law is naturally dependant on the quality of the model law itself. In drafting the model law, consideration must be given to the criteria used to ascertain the legislative quality: being its enforceability, consistency, comprehensibility, transparency, plainness, accessibility and clarity (Poloko, 2012; Muylle, 2003). This then will also impact on the generality or specificity of the model law. These criteria would have to be applied in the drafting of a model law implementing the Convention in the Pacific. 5 �1. Enforceability: the model law would need to take into account the practical consideration needed to give effect to the Conventions’ articles. 2. Consistency and Comprehensibility: the model law would need to be drafted using concepts, language and structures that give effect to the international morns but which are also consistent with national legal structure and legislation and can be understood in that national context. In geographical area such as the pacific, this might necessitate a more abstract generalised model law that take into account the differences in national legal structures. 3. Transparency and Accessibility: requires the involvement, or at least consultation, between the drafters of the model law and those responsible for the national drafting and administration of the implementing legislation. These cautionary points are particularly pertinent in the Pacific, and particularly in relation to States such as Solomon Islands. As a case study, Solomon Islands provide a cautionary seascape within which to consider the use and application of a model law to implement the UCH Convention. Implementation in legally pluralistic States: Solomon Islands Solomon Islands, like most other Pacific Island nations, has a plural legal regime. State law co-exists with customary laws, which are largely unwritten. Customary laws have been given formal recognition in the Constitution, but do not depend on the State for their validity. For many Solomon Islanders they are the only laws they will ever encounter. There is a stark distinction between State law and customary laws. In the customary sphere, the distinctive features of the ‘legal’ and ‘social’ orders are inextricably intertwined. The State system, on the other hand, is based on the common law, which is a foreign model. Its laws and legal institutions are largely legal transplants. There is a longstanding debate in transplant theory as to whether it is only rules that are transplanted or whether it is law and its surrounding culture. It has been argued that the success of a transplanted law depends on the type of law involved, with culturally specific laws being the least likely to succeed (Kahn-Freund, 1974, 5-6). In the context of Solomon Islands, the objection to transplants is well stated by Gatu: A Solomon Islander is a unique Melanesian, and whatever laws or regulations are passed should be made to suit the Melanesian lifestyle. ... Too often both 6 �expatriates and Melanesians (especially politicians) make the same mistakes over and over again by trying to implant or impose foreign laws and concepts on Melanesians and expect them to adhere to such changes with a wave of the magic wand (1977: 98) Model laws are subject to many of the same objections as legal transplants, in that they are not drafted specifically for a country. However, unlike transplants, a model law is not intended to be applied blindly, without modification or supplementation to accommodate local circumstances. However, like transplants, model laws are particularly problematic in plural legal regimes. It is not only the cultural setting of the law that may differ, but also the legal setting. Each of the two legal systems may prescribe a different rule for the same situation. Each may also differ in its approach to process and proof, the appropriate relief and the penalties which may be imposed. Enforceability may also be an issue, particularly given the logistics of Solomon Islands. In practice, particularly in remote areas, traditional leaders may be the only effective authority. Where legal systems overlap, care must be taken not to introduce laws which will exacerbate tensions between the different systems. This is particularly the case where State and customary norms are radically different, which may well be the case in relation to cultural heritage. The complexities arising from legal pluralism in this area are well illustrated by the disagreement of State and traditional authorities over ownership of the land (or sea) on which tangible cultural heritage is situated or through which it may be accessed. The State law is contained in the Land and Titles Act (Cap 133) and the common law, constituted by decisions of Solomon Islands courts. The Act acknowledges the supremacy of customary laws in relation to customary land (which constitutes 87% of the total land area). It states that, ‘The manner of holding, occupying, using, enjoying and disposing of customary land shall be in accordance with the current customary usage applicable thereto, and all questions relating thereto shall be determined accordingly’ [s 239(1)]. However the legislation does not expressly state whether ‘customary land’ includes reefs or foreshore, and recourse must therefore be had to the common law on this point. 7 �Unfortunately, the cases are conflicting. At one time, the High Court regarded the issue as governed by the common law, and accordingly, areas below high watermark were regarded as belonging to the Crown (Allardyce v Laore 1990). However, according to the latest High Court decision (Combined Fera Group v Attorney General 1997) reefs and foreshore may be under customary management if it can be proved that this was the case prior to 1 January 1969. This means that if customary owners have undisputed evidence that they owned an area on which cultural heritage is situated or accessed before that date they may be able to establish a legal right to ownership. Customary laws differ significantly from place to place in Solomon Islands, so it is not possible to state categorically what these laws say about reef and foreshore. One fundamental point of difference is that ‘ownership’ is not an adequate term to describe the rights and obligations of members of customary society regarding their land, which are intimately bound up in an intricate web of relationships. The customary concept of land-holding recognises multi-layered rights of ownership and use. It may be more accurate to refer to ‘rights to use’ than to ownership, but even this does not give the full picture (Corrin, 2008). What can be said is that customary land tenure includes tenure of the land below high water mark. Such tenure carries with it the right to control the use of the marine area and resources, including heritage resources. Solomon Islands Law Reform Commission has considered this matter in some detail. The Commission’s 2012 report recommends amending the definition of customary land in the Land and Titles Act to include land below the low watermark up to the limit of Provincial boundaries ([1.26]). It also recommends abolishing the need to prove ownership prior to 1 January 1969 and relying on proof of current customary usage ([1.26]). To date, these recommendations have not been implemented. If implemented they will have significant consequences for the national government in attempting to implement the Convention in its territorial waters below the high watermark. Another important aspect of legal (and cultural) pluralism to be taken into account is the authority of traditional chiefs, who play a rule not only in making, but also in administering and enforcing customary laws. The Constitution of Solomon Islands puts an onus on Parliament to legislate for the inclusion of traditional chiefs in provincial governance (s 114). 8 �Provincial governments It is also important to bear in mind that legislative reform in Solomon Islands may be in the form of national or provincial legislation. Provincial governments may make laws in the form of ordinances on matters devolved to provinces or ‘incidental to or consequential on’ such matters (s 31(1)). Devolved areas include ‘Historical remains’ (Provincial Government Act 1997, Sch 3, para 2). In the original Act, passed in 1981, the Protection of Wrecks and War Relics Act 1980 was excluded from the devolved powers. The extent of this exclusion is unclear, but this is now academic as it does not appear in the 1997 Act. Provincial Ordinances only have effect within the province, and provincial governments are specifically precluded from making laws affecting Solomon Islands’ international obligations (s 31(4)). Nevertheless, given the political and practical importance of provincial governments, it is important to bear their role in mind when drafting model laws. It is also necessary to take into account the existing provincial initiatives. Guadalcanal and Western Province both have policy frameworks on culture, although these are fairly rudimentary (Guadalcanal Policy Statement on Culture 1987; Western Province Policy on Culture 1989). However, five provinces have Ordinances providing some degree of protection for cultural heritage. These are the Guadalcanal Province Protection of Historic Places Ordinance 1985; the Malaita Province Preservation of Culture Ordinance 1995; the Makira-Ulawa Council (Prevention of the Sale of Traditional Artifacts) Bylaws 1977; the Temotu Province Preservation of Culture Ordinance 1993; and the Western Province Preservation of Culture Ordinance 1989. The Moli Ward Chiefs Council Ordinance 2010 provides a more recent and locally specific example of a piece of sui generis legislation, drafted within Guadalcanal Province to regulate the use of ‘traditional practices or heritage’. This is defined to include, ‘song, chant, dance costume or clothing, ritual, ceremonial object or practice, folklore, painting, carving, art, weapon, architecture, traditional knowledge and any other authentic activity or object attributed to the customs and traditions of Moli Ward.’ Conclusion While sui generis legal solutions are always the preferred option, the drafting of a Model Law for the implementation of the Convention in the Pacific has much to offer. It is both 9 �resource and time efficient and its inherent flexibility in its transformative role is capable of addressing individual State’s particular circumstances. That’s said, the drafting a Model Law with sufficient flexibility to address the distinctive features of a State such as Solomon Islands is not without significant challenges. Solomon Islands’ rich cultural heritage, illustrated by its linguistic and tribal diversity (there are, for example, 65 different languages in Solomon Islands), and the peculiar nature of its legal and social systems, requires input from Solomon Islanders as well as from technical experts on maritime archaeology and the functioning of the Convention. References Allardyce v Laore [1990] SILR 174 Combined Fera Group v Attorney General (Unreported, High Court, Solomon Islands, Palmer J, 19 November 1997) Cogliati-Bantz, B., and Forrest, C., 2013. Consistent: The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Cambridge International and Comparative law Journal, Vol. 2 (3): 1-26. Corrin, J., 2008. Customary Land and the Language of the Common Law. Common Law World Review, Vol. 37: 305 - 333. Dromgoole, S., 2013. Reflections on the Position of the Major Maritime Powers with Respect to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Marine Policy, Vol. 38: 116-123. Faria, J. A. E., Legal Harmonization through model laws: The experience of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), retrieved 28 December 2013, from http://www.justice.gov.za/alraesa/conferences/2005sa/papers/s5_faria2.pdf. Forrest, C., and Corrin, J., 2013. Legal Pluralism in the Pacific: Solomon Island’s World War II Heritage. International Journal of Cultural Property, Vol. 20: 1-21. Gatu, B., 1977. Dispute settlement in the Solomon Islands. In G. Powles, R. Crocombe, and M. Pulea, (Ed.), Pacific Courts and Justice, Institute of Pacific Studies, Fiji: 98-100. Guérin, U., Egger, B., and Penalva, V., 2010. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania. UNESCO, Paris. Hess, M., Robson, S., Miller, F. S., Were, G., Hviding, E., and Berg, A. C., 2009. Niabara - The Western Solomon Islands war canoe at the British Museum - 3D documentation, virtual reconstruction and digital repatriation. Berg, Arne Cato 2009 15th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia: proceedings: VSMM 2009 Vienna Austria, retrieved 15 December 2013, from http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1305320/1/1305320.pdf. 10 �Kahn-Freund, O., 1974. Uses and Misuses of Comparative Law. Modern Law Review, Vol. 37 MLR: 1 - 27. Lidimani, D. B., 2011. Cultural Mapping Report: Solomon lslands. Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Fiji. Muylle, K. J., 2002. Improving the Effectiveness of Parliamentary legislative procedures. Statute Law Review, Vol. 24 (3): 169-186. Poloko, L., 2012. Drafting of legislation in compliance with model laws. LLM Thesis, Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, University of London. Siehr, K., 2012. Model Laws for Implementing International Conventions - The Implementation of the 1970 UNESCO Convention on Cultural Property. Max Planck Private Law Research Paper No. 12/25. Solomon Islands Law Reform Commission., 2012. Review of the Law that Applies to Land below High Water Mark and Low Water Mark (Solomon Islands Law Reform Commission, 2012). Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat. Legislative Drafting, retrieved 8 January 2014, from http://www.forumsec.org/pages.cfm/political-governance-security/legislative-drafting/. Van Tilburg, H., 2011. Historic Period Ships in the Pacific Ocean. In A. Catsambis, B. Ford and D. L. Hamilton (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, Oxford University Press, Oxford Watson, A., 1976. Legal Transplants and Law Reform. Law Quarterly Review,Vol.79- 84 Biography Craig Forrest is a reader in law and Director of the Marine and Shipping Law Unitat the University of Queensland. He was a member of the South African UNESCO delegation that drafted and adopted the 2001 Convention and has participated in a number of UNESCO workshops on the implementation of the Convention. In 2013 he assisted in drafting a Model Law for the implementation of the Convention in the Caribbean. He is a member of the International Law Association's Cultural Heritage Law Committee and is editor of the Australian and New Zealand Maritime Law Journal. Jennifer Corrin is Director of the Centre for Public, International and Comparative Law, University of Queensland, and currently an Australian Research Council Future Fellow undertaking research on law reform and development in plural legal regimes. Jennifer has published in the areas of South Pacific law, customary law, human rights, court systems, evidence, land law, constitutional law and contract. Current projects include the status of French law in former colonies; carbon rights in Melanesia; and legal pluralism and theories of law. Jennifer is on the Editorial Boards of the Journal of Legal Pluralism, and the Journal of South Pacific Law. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 15: Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 15 chair Dr. Craig Forrest. Description An account of the resource The legal framework for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage has gained momentum throughout the Asia-Pacific with a number of States turning their attention to this issue. For some this is due to concerns raised though specific incidents that have damaged or destroyed the underwater cultural heritage or the information that could be gleaned from its excavation, whilst for others, it follows from consideration being given to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This session considers the Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in a number of Asia-Pacific states. The objectives of session are to explore the various national approaches and to seek aspects of commonality and uniformity that provide frameworks for other state that have not yet addressed the issue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Craig Forrest Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Model Law to Implement the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and its Possible Application in Plural Legal Regimes in Pacific Small Islands States: A Case study of Solomon Islands Description An account of the resource A strategy for promoting the adoption of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, is the adoption of a Model Law; one that also promotes uniformity, consistency and ease of use. This, however, is a challenge in the Pacific. Solomon Islands, for example, like most Pacific island nations, has a plural legal regime. That is, customary law operates in conjunction with the common law, a legacy of Solomon Islands’ colonial past. Legal pluralism raises significant difficulties for the protection and management of cultural heritage, and is especially challenging when the maritime areas beyond the low water mark are involved. This paper considers the barriers to protection of underwater cultural heritage raised by legal pluralism and the further difficulties encountered when considering Solomon Island’s possible ratification on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. It considers whether a Model Law might be a useful tool in this endeavour. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Craig Forrest Jennifer Corrin, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 15 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/fa21249eaf64046c482b341435d91ebc.pdf 38dea40a1754e30e9bc862574755cae2 PDF Text Text Lacustrine battles carried out by the Mexica people: Use of war canoes in Tenochtitlan Mariana FavilavVázquez UNAM México D.F. 04340 México Email: mariana.favila@gmail.com Abstract There have been multiple studies in relation to the political, military and ritualistic confrontations between ancient societies, which have been carried out to address the problem of war in pre-Hispanic times. In particular, we are interested here in approaching the problem of the existence of an armed navy which participated in the confrontations that took place in the lake that surrounded the Mexica capital, before and during the process of conquest, in order to propose some guidelines which may help us to understand the complexity that hardly looms, in relation to these lake battles. By turning our attention to the spatio-temporal context that interests us, the Mexica in the Late Post Classic period on the island of Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco, we have found evidence regarding the fact that the canoes, in this sense, seem to have worked as a specialized mechanism within this context, providing huge advantages to its users for defense and offense during the fighting tactics involving both land and water confrontations. Keywords: Mexica, canoe, navigation, war, lake, Mexico, Spain, nautical, archaeology Introduction It is possible to identify in the case of Mesoamerica, some examples of scenes where we can recognize boats driven by what could be described as armed commandos; such is the case of sheets 75 and 80 of the Nutall Codex, where Lord 8 Deer, with his half older brother, Lord 12 Movement, join the Lord 4 Jaguar in his expedition to conquer the Gulf Coast, by navigating in what appears to be war canoes (Jansen, 1997).There are many interesting scenes represented in Maya vases photographed by Justin Kerre where we can observe diverse deities fighting against marine monsters in their canoes (Grofe, 2007). Another example is the mural paintings found in several Chichén Itzá buildings; in the interior walls at the Warriors Temple were discovered two murals which were reconstructed by Earl Morris in 1930: Attack on a town and captive holding and Coastal town (Staines, 2004). Many of the Mexica examples will be described in the 1 �next lines. As we can see, the use of canoes in different kind of water battles in Mesoamerica is unquestionable, nevertheless, in the case of the Mexica, there has been a constant discussion regarding the existence or inexistence of what could be described as an armed navy (Bravo, 2005; Hassig, 1992). Starting from this point and with the evidence presented in the next lines, we propose that there was no such thing as a specific Mexica navy, but one armed body capable of using both land and water with the purpose of fighting. And yet so, those canoes used in war activities, were also part of the complex military system in which they functioned as attack and defense mechanisms, and not only functioned as a mean of transportation. Such seems to have been the relevance of the boats in the pre-Hispanic context that in the 04v sheet of the Mendocino Codex there is a scene where some Mexica warriors were murdered by Chalco people, who also took the trouble to destroy their canoes. From the matter exposed above, we make the next questions to the available information: which was the logistic in the Mexica fleet? How were their boats? Is it possible to characterize a naval Mexica tradition that confronted the Spanish maritime tradition? We will try to develop some answers to this and also formulate some others that we can’t answer yet. What has been said about the Mexica lake battles? Let us now consider the space and time context, which interest us: the Mexica society during the Late Post classic period in the Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco Island. We have already mentioned that any attack to the population within the lake probably demanded a considerable military effort, war material and specialized resources both by them and by their enemies (Goñi, 2008). The written sources made by the witnesses soldiers of the battles, or by some of the chroniclers such as Fray Diego Durán or Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, give us a vast amount of information about the functioning of what has been described as the Mexica fleet. Fray Juan de Torquemada, for example, tells us about this the following: […] the Mexica ns, not only did they exercised in making boats, to run along the lagoon, leading far ahead in the fisheries and hunts within it, contracting with all the people, filling with supply their city, but also they garnished their boats and canoes, exercising themselves in the things of war, by water, understanding that from now on it would be necessary to be right and provided in the military art, 2 �since they always needed to free their city, by the force of weapons (Torquemada, 1975-1983: 151). The chronicles written by Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Hernán Cortés, have been studied before by historian Isabel Bravo Bueno, who took their stories as primary sources so she could describe the war activities in which canoes were the protagonists (Bravo, 2005). In relation to this subject, author Ross Hassig has established that tactical use of the boats could have resolved logistics problems, by minimizing transport costs and time, this for the towns in the lakeshore and also for the people living in the island, which were also rapidly reachable (Hassig, 1990). In our case, in order to approach the subject, we will expose other examples of lacustrine battles which are described in colonial sources; this will allow advancing some initial guidelines in our conclusions. Battles carried out by Mexica before and with the arrival of the Spaniards: recognizing some tactics in the lacustrine warfare The first fight against Culhuacan Regarding the confrontation that Mexica had with the Culhuacan people before Tenochtitlan was established, when the leader of the second ones, Achitometl, recognized his daughter flayed in a ritual organized by the Mexica , Fernando de Alvarado Tezozómoc described in his Mexica n Chronicle, a specific moment when these found themselves cornered in the lake (Tezozómoc, 1980). In order to save themselves it was necessary that they ran away navigating in some cane rafts built in that precise moment. This passage has been drawn in the Aubin Codex; where there are four characters sailing in the above mentioned rafts. What is interesting about these is that in the Mexica yotl Chronicle, Tezozomoc tells another version of the same facts, where the Mexica s crossed the lake by sailing in their own shields: Culhuacans then pursued the Mexica ns, by throwing them to water, and when they were thrown here they conquered a place called Acatzintitlan, when Culhuacans got angry, then perhaps they hid in the water. Then when they were pursued by the Culhuacans, they crossed in here sitting on their shields (Tezozómoc, 1998: 58). 3 �There is a painting in the 11 sheet of the Azcatitlan Codex where this scene is represented, and where we can observe the Mexica sailing their chimallis1.Both versions present different perspectives about the matter of our concern due to the fact that the ability to construct rafts in the first version lets us know that this people already carried with them some kind of knowledge about the use they could give to canoes and how to appropriate the lake. On the other hand, Pablo Escalante Gonzalbo has developed the possibility that the second version involving the shields may be related with some European stories that may have arrive to the hands of both the authors of the written and the painted versions. We must remember that indigenous identity in the XVI century was not isolated from the European Renaissance humanist culture. In the version where the escape is carried out with the use of the defensive weapons (the chimallis or shields), seems to be related to a crucial episode in the history of Rome in which the people had to defend themselves from the Etruscans. Escalante refers to author Andrea Alciato and his oeuvre Emblemata, a popular text from the time of Renaissance humanism that was studied in rhetoric classes at universities in the colonial Mexico (Escalante, 2008).Here we will emphasize the following: based on the story told by Tezozómocin respect to the fighting between Mexica and Culhuacan before the foundation of Tenochtitlan, and those images in the codices referred to above, we may at least say that in the memory of the mestizo author and those tlacuilos (painters) who created the pictorial documents it is possible to infer the need to transmit an episode in the early colonial discourse, where before the establishment of the Mexica capital a basic handling of some form of water transport is recognized at a time of military confrontation. The Tenochcas fight against Cuitlahuac It is important to also mention the military campaign which Mexica ruler, Itzcóatl, made against the people of Cuitlahuac, an island between Xochimilco and Chalco. Fray Diego Durán actually describes how by the times of Itzcoatl, the Mexica already had many enemies since they were so tenacious thanks to their control of the lake (Durán, 1967).The reason why the Mexica confronted Cuitlahuac is that Xochitl Olinqui, Cuitlahuac’s tlahtoani (governor), felt offended after the Mexica invited Cuitlahuac’s women to dance in honor to Huitzilopochtli. And so a war started, and Mexica soldiers 4 �had to fight in the lake and won the battle. There were other successful conquers by Itzcóatl in Tenayuca, Tepanohuayan, Toltilan, Cuauhtitlan and Xaltocan, and Isabel Bravo Bueno has attributed this success to the use of the canoes which benefited the logistics and tactics of the war (Bravo, 2005). The clues to identify who were those that fought in the canoes One of the arguments that makes it harder to recognize the organization of an armed group exclusively created to fight in the lakes, is the fact that there are some historical passages that describes how the abilities of the average people were used during lacustrine battles. It seems that in some cases, the warriors who fought in land were transported in the canoes by skilled rowers during the fight, and also that the same fishermen and bird hunters took part when it was necessary, maybe to make up for the lack of a group specifically trained to combat in the lake. During Axayacatl’s rule in Tenochtitlan, a bloody battle occurred between Tenochcas and Tlatelolcas, when these last ones found one of their dikes completely destroyed, preventing the transit of canoes. Tlatelolco’s ruler, Moquihuixtli, tried to convince the Huejotzingas and Tlaxcaltecas that all together should fight the Tenochcas, though the first ones denied participating in such wile, the ruler decided to continue with the affront. Before the fight, the king Moquihuixtli summoned more than a thousand young fisherman and bird hunters from Tlatelolco, in order to create an effective army against the Tenochcas. Previous to the battle, the governor tested them by faking a great bird hunt in the lake. This seems to surprisingly reveal some kind of training in the operation of the canoes and the practice of attacks (Durán, 1967:254-255). This story was written by Fray Diego Durán, and in it we could glimpse the possibility that in effect, young fishermen were trained or at least selected by how they managed their weapons and canoes. By following this reasoning we dare to question: Perhaps this story alludes to the eternal condition of the Mexica as hunters and lake fishermen? We must remember they were such even before arriving to the Mexico Lake, according to their own history. We need to consider that relation between men and lacustrine environment had already been developed before Mexica people arrived to the Basin of Mexico. It seems to be, that trough all their history, the need to be constantly identified with a society that could dominate the water bodies (since that group that started its 5 �journey from the mythical city of Aztlan was formed by skilled fishermen) would justify their settlement choice in the Tenochtitlan Island. Their way of life was clearly impregnated by a lacustrine identity, and so they created for themselves a history according to that essentially aquatic universe (Espinosa, 1996). The last battle in the lake: Mexica people against Spaniards and their indigenes allies The main information about the lacustrine battles that took place around the Island of Tenochtitlan is available directly in the Spanish Chronicles. Nevertheless we must remember that not all of them were eye witnesses of the events, and those who were had a tendency to exaggerate some of their data in order to fulfill a specific purpose. One thing is sure, and this is that the Spanish soldiers rapidly realized they were in major trouble since the most effective mean of movement in the lake were the canoes (Goñi, 2008). Among the first mentions regarding this way of transport, we found one where Hernán Cortés lets us know that they were used to immediately escape from Tenochtitlan the minute the Spaniards arrived. […] certain Spaniards got into some high rooftop, where they could subjugate the entire city, and saw how all natural disarmed her and ones, with their properties, they entered the lake with their canoes, they call acales and others went up to the mountains (Cortés, 2002: 137). From this passage we also obtained the information related to the canoe name in Nahuatl, according to the Vocabulary of Fray Alonso de Molina they were named acalli (Molina, 2008). About those canoes utilized in the battles, there seems to have existed at least two types. One of them with no difference between the flat fore and aft as it is possible to observe in the 45 sheet of the Lienzo de Tlaxcala. The other type is a reinforced canoe, with wood boards integrated in such a way they worked as shields to protect the soldiers from fire and attacks as Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Isabel Bravo Bueno lets us know (Bravo, 2005): […] and since the musketeers and the crossbowmen shoot those who went in canoes, they had them well armed with wood boards, and behind these boards, they were kept well (Díaz del Castillo, 2007: 299-300). 6 �And so, they were two ways of protection used by the warriors: their own shields integrated into the canoes as it is observed in the sheet 45 previously named, or well, the wood boards as observed in the 154 sheet of Florentine Codex. Regarding the attack tactics, the same kind of tricks developed in land were used in the lakes. Sometimes sunken traps were used to plunge enemy boats and other times by faking runaways and then returning to attack (Bravo, 2005). There is also an interesting description by Sahagún where an attack tactic consists in the coordinated action of two pairs of warriors, each one with an eagle warrior and a jaguar warrior. Together in a canoe they travel fast against the enemy; then the other couple does the same, not without first hiding the insignias which are described to be carved in the boats. This may lead us to think that the warrior’s boats had an easily recognizable distinctive: When the Mexica n warriors saw what they were doing and plotting, then they started to think what they would have to do. And after they thought it, right away there comes a boat; very slightly they went rowing and put it on the wayside. There was not any badge to be seen, since they were well covered. Right away comes another canoe. Also with careful and excuses they were rowing. And then again two boats come: and thus they were four (Sahagún, 1975: 785). The only pictorial example related to the passage above mentioned is in the 41 sheet of the Lienzo de Tlaxcala, where it can be observed a scene where Hernán Cortés arrives to Texcoco. On the upper left sector of the image there is a canoe with the bow carved in the shape of the head of what could be an eagle. It is important to reinforce the idea that the battles that took place around the Island implied that land and lacustrine attacks became a unity. From the combination of both armed bodies it has been deduced that army included with no doubt, naval war. Even author Ross Hassig uses the term in Nahuatl, chimalacalli in order to refer to this armed body, even though the Molina’s Vocabulary does not register it. Actually, this word appears constantly in the twelfth book of Sahagun’s oeuvre, referring to the ships that had an integrated defense dispositive, those war canoes previously described. In that case it would make sense that Hassig used this word to describe a “naval militia” inside the Mexica army, although this one may not have really existed. 7 �In order to conclude We must indicate that we agree with historian Isabel Bravo Bueno about the fact that for now it is possible to say that those who lived in the lake surroundings, this means, fishermen, bird hunters, rowers and those who had the abilities to navigate the canoes, were also capable to form part of this “Mexica n navy” that troubled so much the Spaniards in their attempt to conquer Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco (Bravo, 2005; Favila; 2011). And so, we have tried to delineate some of the ways and tactics that took place during the lacustrine battles. Regarding the existence or not, of a military body specifically created to attack by water, with the historical sources analysis and the pictographic evidences, it is not possible to reach a conclusive answer yet. But we do believe that some clearance is reached if we take into account that the naval militia that Ross Hassig referred to, may actually indicate the existence of those war canoes, or maybe, the author was using the term chimalacalli2in its plural condition (sometimes a word in Nahuatl does not need a grammatical mark for plural) and for this reason he assumed the existence of the armed navy. We must not forget also, that according to written sources, those who navigated the war canoes were actually rowers dedicated to this (Sahagún, 1975), and not properly the warriors. Finally, we believe there is still much to say about the canoes with badges, since there is still much to rescue from the many references to lacustrine battles in the old texts. In general, it seems to be that canoes may have played a role as one of the symbols of the Mexica control around the lake region, since they carried the capacity to dominate and rule the lacustrine basin, giving shape to a particular way of life which allowed the success of a society that managed to appropriate the lake. Acknowledgement I would like to thank Carlos Ausejo and Alexandra Biar for the invitation to be part of the Pre-Hispanic Navigation session, and also to the APCONF 2014 planning committee for accepting my proposal to be part of the program. Endnotes 1 Accordingly with the Vocabulario… of Fray Alonso de Molina, chimalli refers to some kind of shield (Molina, 2008). 8 �2 Perhaps this word is also related to those versions mentioned above where the Mexica s fought the Culhuacans, and because of that they had to navigate in their shields. References Bravo, I., 2005. La guerra naval entre los aztecas. Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl, Vol. 36: 199-223. Cortés, H.,2002. Cartas de Relación. Editorial Porrúa, México. Díaz del Castillo, B.,2007.Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Editorial Porrúa, México. Durán, D., 1967. Historia de las Indias de Nueva España e Islas de la Tierra Firme. Editorial Porrúa, México. Escalante, P., 2008. Humanismo y arte cristiano-indígena. La cultura emblemática entre colegiales, artistas y otros miembros de las elites nahuas del siglo XVI. In Pablo Escalante Gonzalbo (Coord.), El arte cristiano-indígena del siglo XVI novohispano y sus modelos europeos,Centro de Investigación y Docencia en Humanidades del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos: 9-27 Espinosa, G.,1996. El embrujo del lago. El sistema lacustre de la Cuenca de México en la cosmovisión Mexica . Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas,México. Favila, M., 2011. La navegación en la cuenca de México durante el Postclásico Tardío. La canoa en el entramado social Mexica . Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia,México. Goñi, G., 2008.Las conquistas de México y Yucatán. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. Grofe, M. J., 2007. The recipe for rebirth: cacao as fish in the mythology and symbolism of the ancient Maya.Independent works from the Foundation Research Department, Inc. Hassig, R., 1992. War and society in ancient Mesoamerica. University of California Press, Los Angeles. 1990. Comercio, tributo y transportes: La economía política del Valle de México en el siglo XVI. Editorial Alianza, México. 9 �Jansen, M., 1997.La Princesa 6 Mono y el Héroe 8 Venado: una epopeya mixteca. Historia del Arte de Oaxaca, Gobierno del Estado de Oaxaca, México: 211- 237. Molina, A.,2008. Vocabulario en lengua castellana y Mexica na y Mexica na y castellana. Editorial Porrúa,México. Sahagún, B.,1975. Historia general de las cosas de la Nueva España.Editorial Porrúa,México. Staines, L., 2004. Pintura mural maya. Revista Digital Universitaria, Vol. 5 (7): 1-14. URL: http://www.revista.unam.mx/vol.5/num7/art40/ago_art40.pdf Tezozómoc, F., 1998. Crónica Mexica yotl. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, México. Tezozómoc, F., 1980. Crónica Mexica na. Editorial Porrúa, México. Torquemada, J.,1975-1983. Monarquía Indiana. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, México. Biography Mariana Favila Vázquez is an archaeologist who graduated from the National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH), and is currently studying her master’s degree in Mesoamerican Studies at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), with specialization in Mesoamerican Archaeology. She has developed some studies regarding the Pre-Hispanic navigation in Mesoamerica and coordinated some seminaries concerning this subject in order to expand the interest between degree students. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 14: Pre-Hispanic Navigation Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 14 Chair Carlos Ausejo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Navigation was not unknown in the Americas, at the Spaniards arrival different kind of vessel were in use both in the Pacific and the Atlantic shores, as well as in lakes or rivers. Canoe, reed rafts, balsa log raft and others skin based watercraft have been described mainly on historical records and gave us an idea of this technologies. Although it is clear that long and short distance maritime trade routes were in use and watercraft were also involve in war activities and other maritime activities, archaeological evidence related with actual boats has been elusive to find. Still some of these traditions have survived time and in use with some changes and others were incorporated to European navigation traditions. During the last decades an increasing interest among researchers in addition to new and different approaches from a broad spectrum of perspectives, including archaeology, history, ethnohistory and ethnography, has brought new and better understanding about these technologies. In spite of this, venues of dialogue to present and discuss about these traditions has been practically inexistent. The aim of this session is to show research advances on this topic mainly in the Pacific shores and inland waters through different perspectives up to the Spanish arrival. It will focus primarily in the Andean and Mesoamerican region, however other regions would be accepted. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lacustrine battles carried out by the Mexica people: Use of war canoes in Tenochtitlan Description An account of the resource There have been multiple studies in relation to the political, military and ritualistic confrontations between ancient societies, which have been carried out to address the problem of war in pre-Hispanic times. In particular, we are interested here in approaching the problem of the existence of an armed navy which participated in the confrontations that took place in the lake that surrounded the Mexica capital, before and during the process of conquest, in order to propose some guidelines which may help us to understand the complexity that hardly looms, in relation to these lake battles. By turning our attention to the spatio-temporal context that interests us, the Mexica in the Late Post Classic period on the island of Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco, we have found evidence regarding the fact that the canoes, in this sense, seem to have worked as a specialized mechanism within this context, providing huge advantages to its users for defense and offense during the fighting tactics involving both land and water confrontations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mariana FavilavVázquez, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 14 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3ceb07a24f543cc8b5b46ce8dd13002b.pdf 2d99555f3dc1582d9d23aceaa929545d PDF Text Text Hollowing out the canoe: a reflection of the society Luz Elena G. Cervantes Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH) Distrito Federal, Mexico, 04360 Mexico E-mail: luz_elena_c@hotmail.com Abstract The dugout canoe is an important element in a lot of maritime societies all over the world. It’s not only a small boat made by hollowing a tree with particular characteristics, but it is the reflection of the society in which the canoe was made. A canoe represents the interaction of ideology, tradition, economics and purpose, as well as environment and material resources. Mexico is no exception; the canoe was the best aquatic transport in pre-Hispanic communities, both for coastal and inland waters. So, the canoe can bring us a lot of archaeological information about pre-Hispanic cultures, its traditions and its environment. It is impossible to access the social explanation of the canoe if we are not able to describe it formally. So, a registration strategy will give us the possibility to store data for a social explanation of the boat. In addition, using this strategy, it is possible to accumulate general and specific data from which it can be proposed a typology of dugout vessels. This research is a step forward of a typology proposal for dugout canoes in Mexico, which aims to grow as more canoes are found, both in archaeological contexts and inside public and private institutions, museums and private collections. Key words: Americas, dugout, ethnography, methodology, Mexico, nautical 1 �Introduction The presence of water bodies as part of the ancestors life, made them to develop ways to take advantage of these resources. They needed a transport that allowed them to travel through the water. In most of the maritime communities, the canoe was the aquatic transport by excellence, for both, coastal and inland waters. This is the case in many of the pre-Hispanic communities in Mexico. Usage of the dugout canoe, the one made by hollowing out a single wooden trunk, has great importance in pre-Hispanic societies, as it is reflected on written and pictorial sources of information, as well as the preservation of several specimens found in actual communities. Therefore, the canoe could provide us with much archaeological information about pre-Hispanic cultures, as well as of their traditions and environments. How can the canoe be the reflection of the society in which it was built? The dugout canoe is an important element for maritime societies all over the world. It’s not only a small boat made by hollowing a tree with particular characteristics, but it is the reflection of the society in which the canoe was made. For this, Adams (2001) mentioned that the manufacturing process observed in each canoe, reflects the complex social activity around this. The boats can be seen as a manifestation of the maritime needs and aspirations of society, this is achieved by considering the characteristics that represents the interaction of ideology, tradition, economics, purpose, environment and material resources, which are reflected in the shape, structure, appearance and use of each vessel.  In terms of ideology and tradition, Adams notes that on the boat you can see a set of ideas about what ships mean for society, the importance they have and how they should be designed and constructed. That's why they have their own characteristics in terms of the design parameters and the ways in which they carry out various aspects of construction. In this work, despite failing to fully understand the tradition of a canoe, due to the scarce archaeological information about dugout canoes in Mexico, it can be observed similarities and differences in the physical properties of these vessels, which helps us to infer periods and 2 �geographic regions in which the canoes were built. It is like this how we can identify "types" of boats and with these, building traditions.  The economy, understood in terms of manpower and wealth can be reflected in the construction of vessels, both in size and materials used, and specific characteristics of the boat. These features have a close relationship with the material resources and with the purpose.  The purpose, understood as the function of the boat, is also observable in the physical characteristics of the vessel. The canoe has multiple functions in the indigenous life: transportation (of people, goods, materials, and ideas), resource exploitation (hunting and fishing), ceremonies, rituals and military confrontations.  Regarding the environment for which the boat is manufactured, it is reflected in the dimensional characteristics of the vessel, as if a boat is built for lakes or protected coasts, you will not need the same properties of stability and robustness that you need for a boat built for open water. Similarly, the canoe has architectural features which are defined by the place for navigation.  Finally, material resources, both natural and manufactured. This means that the available resources in part determine the size of the vessels, and also provide properties relating to the buoyancy and shipload capacity. That is how the material resources maintain their close relationship with the purpose of the boat. Similarly, manufactured material resources (such as tools) define some specific manufacturing features of the canoe; it is another feature that can provide us with information about timing and place of construction. It is impossible to access the social explanation of the canoe if we are not able to describe it formally. So, a registration strategy will give us the possibility to store data for social explanation of the boat. In addition, registration under this strategy, it is possible the accumulation of general and specific data, from which it can be proposed a typology of dugout vessels. How to approach the canoe? There are some specific problems in Mexica n archaeology which has resulted in an underdeveloped study of the canoes. A common problem has been to consider the canoe as a perishable material, and other important issue has been the inability to 3 �recognize the different objects frequently found in archaeological contexts. Because of this, it is very difficult to study the dugout canoe from an archaeological approach. While the lack of specific studies can be explained from the apparent absence of materials in archaeological contexts, there are different strategies with which to have a closer knowledge about the manufacture of canoes of indigenous tradition and with this, try to give a social explanation around the canoe. In addition to the ethnography and the study of written sources, you can use the direct study of dugout canoes located in museums, institutions and private collections, from which to obtain information about their manufacturing. Also, with this strategy, a classification can be developed based on the specific construction elements of each canoe, generating increasingly complex types. This is why apart of this strategy, a recording methodology which allows us to formally describe the canoe and recognize both their manufacturing characteristics, including structural elements, and the way it was manufactured, is proposed. This methodology is divided into four stages: A) The first is to fill a description and identification form of each canoe. These forms were made in the context of the methodology proposal described here. The information recorded in the files is as follows:  Identification canoe information.  Type of vessel.  Traditional Name.  Information on who performs the registration  Registered date.  Identification of photographs and drawings.  Location (institution or individual custody, responsible and place of origin)  General measures (Length, Width and Depth)  Building materials.  General method of construction.  Number of stems. 4 � Nailing.  Diameter of the wick stick (sail propulsion)  Evidence of manufacture.  Evidence of construction elements.  Evidence of propulsion.  Decoration.  Repairs. Fig. 1 Axes for the Topographic survey, based on the  State of preservation. Anderson’s lines. Author: Luz Cervantes  General Sketch. B) The second step is to make a record as detailed as topographical surveys. That is, sampling point is done from calculated measurements from three axes (X, Y and Z), which, together, make a three-dimensional model of the canoe. The distribution of these axes is based on survey lines of Anderson (1988): Water lines, which are horizontally distributed along the canoe, parallel to the water or flotation line; Buttock lines, which are distributed vertically along the canoe, parallel to the major axis, and Sections which intersect the canoe perpendicular to the major axis or length. (Fig. 1) This data is stored in registration forms to have a good control and management. C) The third step is to perform a specific photographic record, with which the previous information will be complemented. For the photographic record the following strategy is proposed. It is important to place a scale, the orientation of the canoe relative to the bow or the stern and an identification chalkboard. Obviously, if the boat is into an excavation context, in addition to the guidance on the bow and stern, it must be indicate the orientation from north. The scale is needed to show the size of the canoe. The orientation fits to better locate the features described in relation to the archived images. And the board is the best resource for material identification; here it is included information of where the canoe is located, the date on which it was registered, the person who registered, and identification number of the piece. 5 �The strategy for the photographic record consists in how to take the photos. This has been done in two phases. The first consists in photographs of general views, which is to archive the shape and size of the boat. The second includes specific detail views to note building elements, decorations, manufacturing marks and repairs, if they exist. For the first phase of the photographic record, the following photographs are proposed (Fig. 2): Fig.2 General views for photographic record. Author: Luz Cervantes  A photograph taken in front of the bow and stern, respectively, from which the entire rim line is observed, it is taken at the height of a standing person. If the canoe is larger, and the rim cannot be observed, shall be taken from above, with the help of a ladder or bank.  A totally front photograph, where observe only the bow or stern and bands perspective. This will be taken at the height of a person kneeling or squatting. If the canoe is larger, shall be taken with the person standing. 6 � A side view photograph of port and starboard, where canoe maximum length can be observed. This photo is usually taken kneeling or squatting, to appreciate the canoe in full.  A photograph taken in an isometric perspective, usually from the bow, loaded into one of the bands. The purpose of this view is to perceive the construction details of bow and stern height relative to the length and width of the canoe. The second phase consists of photographs of details (Fig. 3), it is important to portray all possible elements of construction, use and repairs. These photographs must be taken with a scale and in a macro mode, so can be appreciated the most possible characteristics. D) The fourth step methodology is to registration survey of the make a on a technical drawing. The purpose is to provide sufficient information to facilitate analysis, help design possible future and develop reconstruction and maintenance of the vessel. Fig. 3 Photographs of details. Author: Luz Cervantes The drawing must contain a representation in plan, profile and the body of the boat. The drawing should be clearly indicated by its size dimensions, the scale must be indicated, it should contain a record field (identification, date and name of the artist) and the three projections are needed to provide more information about the canoe (Fig. 4). For drawings of boats is proposed the scale 1:10, because at this it can be possible to appreciate the details of the vessel, and a very large format and unwieldy paper is not required. 7 �With these drawings, in addition to fact charts and specific pictures, it is possible to make a comparison between canoes belonging to the recorded simple and propose different types of boats. Fig. 4 Example of drawing. Author: Luz Cervantes A preview of the type proposed for the dugout boats in Mexico, which aims to grow as found more evidence is found, both in archaeological excavations, and public and private institutions, museums and private collections is presented in Fig. 5. This typology is completely open to be improved or modified, as pre-Hispanic navigation studies within archaeology, will increase. What is happening with the canoes in Mexico? After this analysis of dugout canoes of indigenous tradition, it is necessary to talk about this "apparent" absence of canoes as archaeological material in Mexico. For this, two dilemmas arise: the first of them leads us to ask if there really is an absence of any archaeological material belonging to canoes in Mexico. If this were the case, why is there a record of canoes with the same characteristics in other parts of the world? And why are there archaeological features of the same material of the canoes (wood) in many regions of the country? The second, focusing in the term archaeological material, are there no canoes as archaeological material in Mexico? If this were the case, all the canoes no longer used that have been abandoned in the mangroves, in shipyards, in museums, in public institutions and in many more places should be taken into account. Michael Schiffer considers that every element at the end of its life, assuming that is not reused, becomes waste so it changes from its systemic context (use) to an 8 �archaeological context (non-use). So, I believe that these “unused” canoes have not been studied from an archaeological perspective because they have not being "found" in archaeological underground contexts, and they have been discarded and not included as archaeological material. Conclusions As mentioned at the beginning of this work, archaeology in Mexico has been focused on investigations of other aspects, such as the monumental sites, and has been ignored small aspects, but these are of great importance to past societies. One of these aspects that archaeology has left aside is the water transport in and out of the country's land. The canoe in Mexico is considered as the "transport by excellence" because the water in its various forms, was distributed throughout the country and in the case of rivers, connects together large regions. Thus, here is reflected the importance of vessels in prehispanic Mexico, therefore the registration of these at an archaeological Fig. 5 Typology. Author: Luz Cervantes level, requires the necessary specialization to understand this importance. That´s how, this work it aims to raise awareness among Hispanic culture researchers in Mexico to the relevance of studying indigenous tradition on canoe construction and use. At the same time, it tries to demonstrate that there are methodological tools which help 9 �us to get closer to objects and materials that unfortunately in Mexico have been understudied due to their scarce presence in archaeological excavations. References Adams, J, 2001. Ships and Boats as Archaeological Source Material. World Archaeology, Vol. 32 (3): 292-310. Anderson, R., 1988.Guidelines for recording of historical ships,National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Béat, A., 1995.Pirogues monoxylesd'Europecentrale 
construction, typologie, évolution, us e cantonal d arch ologie (Archéologieneuchateloise), Francia. Biar, A., 2011. La navigation Mexica Dans la lagune de Mexico : navigation et prise du pouvoir.Thèse de Master, Université Paris1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Paris, Francia. Greenhill, B., 1976.Archaeology of the boat. A new introductory study, Adam and Charles Black, London. Lira, N., s/a. Canoas monóxilas en el centro-sur de Chile. Navegando sobre los árboles. Memoria para optar al título profesional de arqueólogo, Departamento de Antropología, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Chile. Schiffer, M., 1990.ContextoArqueológico y ContextoSistémico, Boletín de Antropología Americana, Num. 22: 81-93. Torres, L., 1964. Tratamiento empleado para la conservación de una canoa prehispánica, Boletín de Antropología, INAH, Num18: 10-13, México. Wendt, C., 2007. Los olmecas, los primeros petroleros. Arqueología Mexica naNum 87: 56-59 , México. Biography Luz Elena G. Cervantes is an archaeologist who graduated from the Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia in Mexico and she`s member of the Nautical Archaeology Society. She has taken some courses in maritime archaeology and she has dedicated her studies to pre-Hispanic navigation, specifically of water transport. She is making a dugout canoes compilation, in order to form a complete typology of canoes in Mexico. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 14: Pre-Hispanic Navigation Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 14 Chair Carlos Ausejo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Navigation was not unknown in the Americas, at the Spaniards arrival different kind of vessel were in use both in the Pacific and the Atlantic shores, as well as in lakes or rivers. Canoe, reed rafts, balsa log raft and others skin based watercraft have been described mainly on historical records and gave us an idea of this technologies. Although it is clear that long and short distance maritime trade routes were in use and watercraft were also involve in war activities and other maritime activities, archaeological evidence related with actual boats has been elusive to find. Still some of these traditions have survived time and in use with some changes and others were incorporated to European navigation traditions. During the last decades an increasing interest among researchers in addition to new and different approaches from a broad spectrum of perspectives, including archaeology, history, ethnohistory and ethnography, has brought new and better understanding about these technologies. In spite of this, venues of dialogue to present and discuss about these traditions has been practically inexistent. The aim of this session is to show research advances on this topic mainly in the Pacific shores and inland waters through different perspectives up to the Spanish arrival. It will focus primarily in the Andean and Mesoamerican region, however other regions would be accepted. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hollowing out the canoe: a reflection of the society Description An account of the resource The dugout canoe is an important element in a lot of maritime societies all over the world. It’s not only a small boat made by hollowing a tree with particular characteristics, but it is the reflection of the society in which the canoe was made. A canoe represents the interaction of ideology, tradition, economics and purpose, as well as environment and material resources. Mexico is no exception; the canoe was the best aquatic transport in pre-Hispanic communities, both for coastal and inland waters. So, the canoe can bring us a lot of archaeological information about pre-Hispanic cultures, its traditions and its environment. It is impossible to access the social explanation of the canoe if we are not able to describe it formally. So, a registration strategy will give us the possibility to store data for a social explanation of the boat. In addition, using this strategy, it is possible to accumulate general and specific data from which it can be proposed a typology of dugout vessels. This research is a step forward of a typology proposal for dugout canoes in Mexico, which aims to grow as more canoes are found, both in archaeological contexts and inside public and private institutions, museums and private collections. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Luz Elena G. Cervantes, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 14 2014