23 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/bd39efe15d9c6b8eaa935deaeabcc53b.pdf af2e90eaf07e486b624549db95a1b185 PDF Text Text History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia Nady Phann Abstract Since early times, waterways have been important elements for communication and the most reliable form of transportation providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. The first glimpses into the maritime past of Cambodia begin from the legend of the founding of the Khmer Kingdom of which there are various versions. Archaeological evidence of Cambodia’s maritime past can be seen submerged in its waterways. For example, a shipwreck loaded with artifacts was recently discovered in territory of the Cambodian sea. Many other wrecks have been reported along the various inland waterways of the country, and have yet to be examined. It is only now, however, that Cambodia is beginning to progress and build its capacity in maritime archaeology, after the country became the first, and only, Southeast Asian Country to ratify the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. This paper seeks to present a description of important recent works carried out in the whole country, particularly the survey, as well as define gaps relating to the preservation and management of maritime archaeological resources. Geographical Context Cambodia has a long history as a country with an important maritime background. It is situated in Southeast Asia, forms part of the south portion of the Indochinese peninsula. It is bounded on the north by Laos, on the east and southeast by Vietnam, and on the west and northwest by Thailand. In the southwest, Cambodia is bordered by the Gulf of Thailand with a coastline of 435 kilometres (km), which is occupied by four provinces namely Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, Kampot and Kep. To the southeast of the country lies the delta of the Mekong River. The capital and largest city of Cambodia is Phnom Penh, located at Chaktomuk, which means 'four faces' that relates to the geographical confluence of four rivers - the Upper and Lower Mekong, the Tonle Sap and the Bassac. The city traditionally has been a commercial centre for the Mekong Valley with facilities for transportation by air, rail, river, and highway. It is a major river port, with an outlet to the South China Sea through the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. Cambodia’s most important river and waterway is the Mekong, the longest river in Southeast Asia and the tenth largest in the world. The Mekong runs southward through Cambodia for 486 km that passes through Phnom Penh, where it divides into the geographical confluence of four rivers. Both the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River remain the hub of Cambodia's economy, transportation, and supports fisheries, agricultural irrigation (particularly important for rice production), in addition to cultural activities. There are several other important river networks in Cambodia including the Battambang rivers (centre of the Sangke River), the Stung Treng group (the Sesan, Sekong and Srepok Rivers), and the Sen River (Kompong Thom). Historical Review of Waterways in Cambodia In the past, waterways have been important elements for communication and the most reliable form of transportation, providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. Maritime relations were established early between India, China, and the Arabs and then firmed between various parts of the coast of the Indochinese peninsula, the Malay Peninsula and Sunda Islands in Indonesia (Molyvann 2003:6). 1 �However, well before the arrival of foreign navigators, the local populations living along the rivers had established their own fleet of ships and had built cross-community relationships, thanks to continual exchanges along the coasts. The river networks provided the grid along which settlements were established and the Mekong remains the most important natural resource in Cambodia. The first glimpses into the maritime and waterways of Cambodia begin from the legend of the founding of the Khmer Kingdom. There are various versions of this tale which are beyond the scope of this paper. The ancient city of Angkor Borei, located in the south of Cambodia, was one of the major population centres of Funan (Pelliot 1903:295). As a result of recent archaeological excavations at Angkor Borei, we now know that a significant population had already settled here prior to the 1st century Common Era (CE)1 and that the deepest layers excavated dates back to the Bronze Age and thus well before the Age of Funan2. Further to the southeast, another city contemporary to Angkor Borei was built on the coast, previously known as the Gulf of Siam. This city called Oc-Eo (in present day Vietnam) was also a Funan site, and also an important port where foreign merchants came to settle since sea routes from India and the Malay Peninsula probably ended here. The exterior wall of the Oc-Eo site consisted of four embankments with five moats. The principal axis of the site was probably a canal, and the site lay at the heart of a regional network of waterways. Aerial photographs reveal a large network of manmade waterways, which served as drainage channels and irrigation canals. This network of canals, interconnected with each other and to other rivers, was also used for water traffic between population centres found along the Bassac and Mekong Rivers. In areas close to the sea, this system of waterways helped to regulate the degree of salinization from the sea. Waterways in the Oc-Eo region seem to have run from north-northeast to south-southwest, following the general gentle slope of the terrain (Molyvann 2003:8-9). The system of water management established in Funan became characteristic of Khmer settlements and still persists in many rural areas up to the present. During the 6th and 7th centuries CE, maritime traffic between China, Southeast Asia and India began to shift from existing routes skirting the coasts to more direct routes across the South China Sea from Indonesia to North Vietnam and China. Since Funan depended heavily on maritime trade, its fortunes began to wane and power shifted to a new entity called 'Chenla' in Chinese accounts (Molyvann 2003:42). The territory of Chenla probably extended far to the east and included the Mekong and Tonle Sap River valleys. When Funan was still a prosperous maritime power, the rulers of Chenla probably were still integrated with the ruling class of Funan. However, they were not completely dependent on maritime commerce and increasingly their sources of power stemmed from the inland control of territory and people3. During the Angkor period from the 9th to the 14th centuries, Khmer kings left the Mekong River and migrated inland (Molyvann 2003:13).However, the glory and prosperity of the Angkor civilization was, no doubt, based on its complex hydrography and also on trade that assisted the development of the country into a great riverine power. Numerous images on Khmer temple bas-reliefs illustrate a life settled along 1 A Georgian Calendar designation that starts at the year 1 from the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with additional years since added one by one. 2 see Stark, M. “Some Preliminary Results of the 1999-2000 Archaeological Field Investigation at Angkor Borei, Takeo Province” in Udaya: Journal of Khmer Studies, (2); 2001 3 - Funan was so called by the Chinese envoys early in the third century that may be a transcription of a local name bhnam (phnom), which means "mountain" or "Kingdom of the Mountain".Chenla (Land and Water) are often referred to by these Chinese derived names. With the development of early Khmer civilization these terms can be replaced by the more accurate classification of Pre-Angkorian period 2 �navigable water-courses, fishing activities and a lifestyle attesting to a long tradition of skilled boat construction and watercraft technology. The three major river systems flowing across the Angkor region today are known as the Puok, the Siem Reap, and the Roluos. The Puok River, which is the furthest west, has a contemporary catchment area measuring 670 square kilometers. The main river is joined in its northernmost sector by a number of tributaries, and flows southwest into the marshes of the Tonle Sap. It is probable that the Puok River supplied water to one of the earliest known historical cities of the region (Choulean, ,et al. 1996:6). Early in the Angkor period the river was partially diverted just below the northern tributaries into an artificial canal known as Royal (Water) fill, to join what is now the Siem Reap river north of the Angkorian urban complex in a village known today. Recent evidence suggests the Siem Reap River was in fact a canal flowing through the urban complex with its water feeding temple moats and smaller canal systems within the city, as well as artificial reservoirs (Choulean, Prenowitz, and Thompson 1996: 8). This waterway was the principal water course of the capital. Today, as in ancient times, the river continues south of the Angkorian urban complex to flow through the modern town of Siem Reap before discharging into the Tonle Sap near Phnom Krom. The easternmost of the three main rivers on the plain is the Roluos. This river was exploited to supply an early urban complex known during the Angkorian period (see below) as Hariharalaya, and located just north of the modern town of Roluos. The Roluos River also feeds into the marshes of the Tonle Sap. Many other streams in the area have been modified and channeled to control the flow of water for irrigating sloping agricultural land to the south (Choulean, Prenowitz, and Thompson 1996: 8). The Tonle Sap flows south from the Kulen mountain range and north from its junction with the Mekong at Cambodia's modern-day capital Phnom Penh. The river flow naturally changes direction twice a year, alternately filling and draining the lake, this is extremely rare if not unique in the world. The same can be said of the complex social practices and technologies that have developed around the Tonle Sap with a particular form of agricultural land use and 'floating' settlement having evolved along the lake in response to this unique hydrology (Choulean, et al. 1996:10). Historical Background The Mekong and Tonle Sap River are not only important sources for Cambodia's economy such as transportation, fishing, agricultural irrigation system, but are also essential waterways that play an important role like a door toward the world. This essentially means that these waterways are related to cultural activities. Archaeological evidence of Cambodia’s past can also be seen submerged in its waterways. The southern coastal riverine and maritime port of Kampot (including the town of Kep) was an important staging point for goods and visitors to Cambodia from the early through middle period to the French colonial era that immediately preceded the establishment of a new maritime centre at Sihanoukville in the 1950s (Molyvann 2003:193). Cities were developed primarily on the plain of Siem Reap-Angkor, which lies in the basin of the Tonle Sap Great Lake. The Angkorian dynasties began in 802 CE, when the first King of Angkor, Jayavarman II was invested with power on Phnom Kulen. After Angkor was definitively abandoned as the royal capital in the 15th century CE, the area today known as Cambodia became a battlefield as a result of numerous foreign invasions. The political capital shifted frequently and the population remained primarily rural and scattered throughout areas of the Mekong River valley. 3 �Phnom Penh was founded in 1431 CE, immediately after the Khmer kings abandoned Angkor (Coedès 1989:22-24). The site adopted for the new capital stretched along the Tonle Sap River. By the end of the 16th century, Phnom Penh was a flourishing mercantile centre populated by Khmer, Chinese, Japanese, Arabs, Spanish, Indonesians and Portuguese. In the 17th century, it had a small river port which received ocean-faring ships owned by Malay and Batavian trade companies (Blancot and Hetreau-Pottier 1997:29). In the Middle Period (16th -18th century CE), the royal palace was located at Oudong the capital during the 17th century with a river port at Kompong Luong or 'royal port' - the term 'kompong' adopted from the Malay word meaning 'landing-place'. The French Protectorate (1863-1953 CE) was established by a treaty signed with France in 1863. This treaty allowed Cambodia to re-establish commerce in the China Sea via the Mekong River and use the port of Saigon (formerly, the ancient Khmer city of Prei Nokor, present-day Ho Chi Minh City) in Vietnam. Under the French Protectorate, the royal palace moved to Phnom Penh that had become a transit point for goods imported from Thailand and Cochinchine attracting Chinese merchants and gradually developing into an urban centre combining business with the centre of royal power (Blancot and Hetreau-Pottier 1997:30). The port of Sihanoukville (also known as Kompong Som) is located about 225 kilometres south of the capital Phnom Penh on the extreme south of the bay of Kompong Som where it opens onto the Gulf of Thailand. Sihanoukville continues to fulfil an essential role in the integration of Cambodia into the world economy. At present this teeming sea-port hosts vessels of all types in the harbour, including colourful local fishing boats (Molyvann 2003:192-193). The main road from Sihanoukville to Phnom Penh has become the economic lifeline of Cambodia, as it carries seafood, salt and a variety of imported goods to the capital city and beyond. The Situation of Underwater Cultural Heritage The beginning of underwater archaeology in Cambodia In 2006, fishermen discovered a shipwreck at a depth of 20 meters in Koh Kong province, some 210 km southwest of the capital Phnom Penh. Looting of shipwreck artifacts occurred before the news got out. The ship, approximately 30 meters long and 8 meters wide, has not been closely examined in terms of boat-building technology. However, Chinese characters were found on some of recovered 900 pieces of pottery that were initially dated to the 15th or 16th century CE (Cambodia Daily, February 10th 2006). This event led Cambodia to begin efforts in underwater archaeology. The Cambodian government has asked foreign partners to help salvage and bring up the centuries-old vessel (Cambodia Daily, February 10th 2006). In 2007, the 2001 Convention was ratified by the Cambodian government. Over the next two years two Cambodian staff were sent to attend an intensive program on Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Australia organized by Flinders University. Four others participated in three successive workshops: Foundation Courses on Underwater Cultural Heritage organized by UNESCO Bangkok and the Thai Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD). In 2010, the Cambodian Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit was created under the General Department of Heritage. After the unit establishment, survey started at the coastline and along the rivers. This program was supported by UNESCO Phnom Penh. Some data collected from the coastline survey is still doubtful because the exact location of the shipwrecks were not located. The verification of all data will be 4 �conducted in the next program when we will have a larger budget and can entail more technical experts. Other Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites We have underwater sites which are not shipwrecks but possess artifacts or sculptures, such as Voeun Kong and Koh Bay Samnom in Stoeng Treng province and Thma Krae in Kratie province. These sites are submerged, near the bottom of the Mekong Rivers. The sites are visible only one month a year during the dry season. Voeun Kong is a relief of sculpture on rock which consists of two crocodiles, one turtle, sun disk and full moon. In a nearby area, there is an ancient brick mound at the bank of the rivers. Koh Bay Samnom is a small island containing some bricks and a stone inscription. At Thma Krae there is also a stone inscription. Training and Survey General training on underwater archaeology research methodology is held at the office of Cultural Heritage. The preliminary training focused on the definition of underwater cultural heritage (UCH), its importance, the kinds of UCH, the research and survey methodology4.The activity work plan and bibliography references were listed and distributed to all members to conduct research on documentation and a questionnaire was formulated for the survey in related provinces. Moreover, administrative letters have been sent to all Departments of Culture and Fine Arts in provinces to cooperate and collect data concerning this subject. Data collection is gathered in three ways, research documentation, collection from provinces and the actual survey. The preliminary survey was directed at the coast in Koh Kong province where a shipwreck was discovered by fishermen. The mission’s objective was to train research team members on data collection methodology. Interviews with fishermen at different places were held. A fishermen community was assembled at a Bak Khlang commune for information dissemination purposes that resulted in data collection. Table 1. List of underwater sites Site Site Name UTM UTM Province District Location Number (s) Easting Northing 1 Shipwreck Preah Mithapheap Near Koh Russei (GPS Boat Sihanuk 230.70 - 26.27) 2 Boat Preah Stoeng Hav Around 4.5 km West of Preah Sihanuk Sihanuk city and 1 km in front of La Toek Trei of Koh Rung. 3 Craft Prah Stoeng Have 5 km West from Praek Traeng ( Sihanuk Praek Traeng is 9 km North East of Preah Sihanuk City). 4 Boat Preah Between Koh Rung and Thma Sa. Sihanuk 1 hour by boat from the coast. 5 Shipwreck Koh Kong Kirisakor 20 km from Koh Sdach Coast. 6 Ship Koh Kong 2 km from the coast of Pak Khlong. Koh Kong Monduol Seima Srae Ambil 7 Ship 8 Shipwreck Kratie Kratie in Mekong River, 2 km North of Kratie Town. 4 This project is supported by Unesco Phnom Penh and the training is taken place at Ministry of culture and Fine Arts in Phnom Penh, in June 2010. 5 �Site Site Name UTM UTM Province District Number (s) Easting Northing 9 Ship Kampot Kampot 10 Wreck 12 Wreck Phnom Penh Preah Sihanuk Koh Kong 13 boat Koh Kong 14 Kor (T.) Kampong Cham Bateay 15 Ship Kampong Cham Kampong Siem 11 Ship Russei Keo Location 3 or 4 km from the coast. In front of Vat Pothi Proek Near Koh Tang. Ship left from Bangkok to Signapor Botum Sakor Between Poy Lam Thean and Island. Botum Sakor 200m from the path of Ta ok. Near Road national 6, located at flood plain of Mekong main stream. Legislative Framework and Institution Cambodia has no specific laws for the protection of UCH. The law on cultural heritage protection, which was adopted by the National Assembly in 1996, focused on general cultural heritage that states a cultural property is, “considered to be any work produced by human agency and any natural phenomenon of a scientific, historic or religious nature which bear witness to a certain stage in the development of a civilization or of the natural world and whose protection is in the public interest” (Article 4). In 2002, a Sub Decree on enforcement of Cultural Heritage Protection, focused specially on cultural property including underwater artefacts. The decree states that cultural property is all kinds of movable and immovable Cultural Property came from terrestrial and underwater excavation, legal or clandestine and archaeological discoveries (Article 4 (a)). The General Department of Heritage has existed since 2008 and is responsible for all tangible evidence of human activity. One of the four Departments, the Department of Archaeology, under the General Department is responsible for archaeological activities on land and at sea. Prior to 2008 underwater activities were unknown. The Heritage Police was recently created under the Ministry of Interior in close cooperation with the Ministry of Culture. They are in charge to, “investigate criminal actions, arrest, hold in custody and search those involved with the destruction, theft, harboring, armed robbery, buying, selling and transport of cultural and historical heritage. Prepare reports and send the arrested party, along with supporting evidence, to the tribunal”. However, these forces work only on terrestrial archaeological sites. The data gathered from the surveys related to underwater archaeology along the coastal villages and islands help us gather information about site locations and sea travel. Much of the information collected have not been verified thus far. We do not know exactly either the kinds of sites Cambodia entails nor their condition? The collected data in this paper is only preliminary5. We need the technical expertise and equipment to verify these submerged cultural data. 5 Report is in progress of publishing 6 �Abbreviations APSARA EFEO BEFEO Autorité pour la Protection du Site et l’Aménagement de la région d’Angkor Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient Bulletin de l’Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient Bibliography Choulean, A., Prenowitz, E., and Thompson, A., 1996 Blancot, C., and Hetreau-Pottier, A., 1997 Cœdès, G., 1989 Dagens, B., 1995 Delaporte, L., 1880 Pélliot, P., 1903 Stark, M., 2001 Molyvann, V., 1999 Molyvann, V., .2003 Da, y., 1995 Angkor: A manual for the Past, Present, and Future, APSARA, Royal Government of Cambodia, Phnom Penh. "1863-1953, une ville neuve dans un site d’occupation ancienne" in Phnom Penh, developpement urbain et patrimonie, Ministère de la Culture, Département des Affaires Internationales, Paris. pp. 29-43 Articles sur le Pays Khmer, EFEO, Paris. Angkor: Heart of an Asian Empire, Thames and Hudson and Harry N. Abrahams, London & New York, Voyage au Cambodge, Delagrave, Paris, "Le Fou-nan", BEFEO, tome III, Paris, "Some Preliminary Results of the 1999-2000 Archaeological Field Investigations at Angkor Borei, Takeo Province", Udaya: Journal of Khmer Studies, n 2, Phnom Penh Les cités khmères anciennes, Toyota Foundation, Phnom Penh, Modern Khmer Cities, Reyum, Phnom Penh, Khmer Boat-racing, Diploma in Archaeology, Faculty of Archaeology, Royal University of Fine Arts, Phnom Penh, 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 Some Challenges and Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Since early times, waterways have been important elements for communication and the most reliable form of transportation providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. The first glimpses into the maritime past of Cambodia begin from the legend of the founding of the Khmer Kingdom of which there are various versions. Archaeological evidence of Cambodia’s maritime past can be seen submerged in its waterways. For example, a shipwreck loaded with artifacts was recently discovered in territory of the Cambodian sea. Many other wrecks have been reported along the various inland waterways of the country, and have yet to be examined. It is only now, however, that Cambodia is beginning to progress and build its capacity in maritime archaeology, after the country became the first, and only, Southeast Asian Country to ratify the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. This paper seeks to present a description of important recent works carried out in the whole country, particularly the survey, as well as define gaps relating to the preservation and management of maritime archaeological resources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nady Phann Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5ec743a26b512955507db520aa795a08.pdf 8bd5b598be6070a7c474619dc6bf37c1 PDF Text Text Understanding the Bach Dang Battlefield from recent research results Dr Lê Thị Liên , Ms Nguyễn Thị Mai Hương , Ms Charlotte Pham, Dr Mark Staniforth, Dr Jim Delgado, Mr Jun Kimura and Mr Randall Sasaki1 Abstract The Mongols created the world‟s most powerful empire in the thirteenth century, conquering China and establishing the Yuan dynasty. Their military power was in doubt, however, after failed naval invasions in Japan and Vietnam. According to historical records, the Vietnamese tactics used against the Mongolian Armada were designed to prevent them from reaching the mouth of Bach Dang River by using hidden stakes that were driven into the riverbed in secrecy. Using the large difference in tides, the Vietnamese successfully lured the enemy fleet into the trap, destroying or capturing perhaps as many as 400 vessels. Since the 1950s, approximately 700 years after this watershed event, Vietnamese archaeologists have discovered a number of large wooden stakes in the midst of reclaimed paddy fields along the Bach Dang River. Excavations and research were conducted which led to the identification of several stake-yard sites believed to be dated to the battle that took place in 1281 C.E., however, no remains of ships have been identified to date. In 2009, a group of scholars from the Institute of Archaeology at Hanoi, the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University, and the Maritime Archaeology Program at Flinders University joined the archaeological investigations of these stake-yard sites with a focus on studying the battle strategy used by the Vietnamese and identifying ship remains from the battle. This joint paper will present an intermediate result of this international cooperative project in maritime archaeology in Vietnam at the naval battle site related to the thirteenth century Mongolian invasion of the country. The team has identified several new areas of concentrated stakes and the distribution pattern may lead to better understanding of the battle and the possible location of shipwreck sites. Introduction Since 2008 the international research team the Bach Dang Battlefield Research Group, comprises of scholars from the Institute of Archaeology in Hanoi (Vietnam), the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University (United States of America), the Maritime Archaeology Program at Flinders University (Australia) and others. Over the last three years, it has conducted archaeological survey and excavations at Bach Dang in Vietnam. This investigation of the maritime cultural landscape encompasses the topography, archaeological evidence and later memorials, temples and shrines associated with a historically significant naval battle that took place there in 1288 AD2. A key part of this research is to develop a better understanding of the battlefield with a focus on 1 The Bach Dang Battlefield Research Group Anno Domini - are designations used to label or number years used with the Julian and Gregorian calendars. This calendar era is based on the year of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years after the start of this epoch. 2 1 �studying the strategy used by the Vietnamese Dai Viet people. This research involves the archaeological investigation of wooden stakes that survive from the battle and remote sensing surveys, as well as conducting interviews with local fishermen and farmers, in order to locate areas with possible ship remains and related finds. The work has been designed as a comprehensive project that is expected to grow to encompass more research issues and include other researchers. Context In 1271 AD Kublai Khan, the fifth emperor of the Mongol Empire (1260-1294), became the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China (Gascoigne 2007:137-150; Ebrey 1996:172-3). On several occasions, from 1274 AD onwards, Kublai Khan dispatched armies aboard fleets of ships in attempts to expand the empire‟s hegemony and extend his rule into East Asia (Japan) and Southeast Asia (Vietnam). Two highly significant locations associated with these attempted Mongol invasions have been identified – along coast of Takashima Island and in Bach Dang River. These are places where historically important naval battles are known to have taken place, in each case resulting in the defeat of the Mongolian fleets by the local people (Delgado 2009; Ngo 1993:Vol.II, 61). In addition, archaeological and material culture remains associated with the fleets and battles have been found at both locations (Sasaki 2008; Tong, et al. 1988; Le and Ha 2005; Le, et al. 2009a; Le, et al. 2011; Sasaki 2009). One area is located off the shores of Takashima Island in the northwestern Kyushu Islands of Japan where Mongol invasion fleets are believed to have been sunk by a large typhoon during the invasion in 1281 AD (Delgado 2009; Kimura 2006; Sasaki 2008; Sasaki this volume). The other area is located on the Bach Dang River in northern Vietnam (under the control of the Dai Viet from 1054 to 1804) where a river/estuary naval battle took place in 1288 AD. History of the naval battle at Bach Dang Vietnamese historical records including Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Ngo 1993) and An Nam chi luoc (Le 1961), as well as Chinese dynasty chronicles such as Yuan Shi (Song 1976) mention the 1288 AD naval battle at Bach Dang. Later historians, poets, and others have also written accounts of the battle (Trần 1963; Hà and Phạm 1968; Nguyễn 1988; Phuong 2009:25; Lê, et al. 2010). Although many accounts mention the battle, the real story is often shrouded behind myths and legends. Detailed knowledge about the battle is limited due to the scarcity of primary historical records. Therefore, since the 1950s and 1960s, it was realized that a general study of the geology, geomorphology, inscriptions, legends and archaeology was needed to more fully reconstruct the story of this event (Đại and Diệp 1970:65). In general terms, the history of the battle entailed the story that having successfully taken the capital Thang Long (now Hanoi), the Mongol invaders found themselves trapped in an empty city without supplies. They soon decided 2 �to abandon the capital and retreat, but the Dai Viet had decided to fight a decisive naval battle with the invaders. The Vietnamese forces, under the command of Tran Hung Dao and his generals, lay in wait for the invasion fleet knowing that they would have to return to China through an estuary at the mouth of the Bach Dang River. Tran Hung Dao was victorious and many of the Mongol ships (perhaps numbering in the hundreds) were burned or lost during the battle. The majority of historical sources agree that the principal tactic used by the Vietnamese forces was to prevent the fleet from reaching the open sea and trap them by using hundreds of secretly planted large wooden stakes that had been sharpened to a point and driven into the riverbed at low tide (referred to as stake yards). These stakes were probably covered at high tide and became uncovered as the tide fell. This particular technique had also been used in the area on two previous occasions in 938, when Ngo Quyen defeated the Southern Han army, and in 981, when Le Hoan ordered stakes to be placed to block the Song army. The 1288 AD battle at Bach Dang River is widely considered to be a milestone in the history of Vietnam as an independent nation and has shaped the current culture of Vietnam. Tran Hung Dao is highly revered as the most able general in the history of Vietnam. Since the battle, a number of shrines and temples that worship Tran Hung Dao have been established, including in the Yen Giang commune on Ha Nam Island. Some of these locations are related to myths and legends associated with him. Some of these worship centers, such as the Vua Ba Temple and the Trung Coc shrine, are large or well known (Phuong 2009) while others are much smaller and less well known. The religious aspects of this research are important and the creation of the cult of Tran Hung Dao, his many shrines, and his cultural impact and importance to Vietnam provide a compelling contemporary aspect to the project. Research up to 2005 Following the discovery of a large number of wooden stakes by local people in the fields of Yen Giang commune (Quang Yen town), a group of researchers from the Department of Conservation and Museums (now Department of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism) went to Bach Dang in 1958. They conducted a brief survey and opened three excavation trenches at the Yen Giang site. Six stakes were found and it was believed that these were from the 1288 AD battle (Tống, et al. 1988). In 1969 extensive survey and excavation was conducted by the Department of History at Hanoi General University (now University of Social Sciences and Humanities) in cooperation with local cultural officers (Đào 1969). They excavated seven trenches covering an area of 520 meters squared (m2) at the Yen Giang site and discovered another 32 stakes. Researchers studied the soil profile, made a detailed examination of stratigraphy and concluded that the area was an ancient riverbed (Đại and Diệp 1970:71-72). Then in 1976, a third excavation was conducted at the Yen Giang site by staff from the Museum of Vietnamese History. In addition to relocating the same cultural layer, several 3 �segments of wood were unearthed which were interpreted to be hammering tools (Trần and Trịnh 1977). In 1984, during construction of a dike along the Chanh River, more stakes were unearthed, which were preserved in situ for future onsite exhibition by the provincial authorities. In 1987 an extensive survey and excavation was conducted by archaeologists from the Institute of Archaeology (IA) based in Hanoi, in cooperation with experts from the Institute of Earth Sciences from the Department of Conservation and Museums and local cultural officers. During this fieldwork a survey of waterways and underwater rocks was conducted by canoe along the Bach Dang, Chanh and Rut Rivers, and up to the Song Khoai area, which was an ancient waterway and is now being used for aquaculture. The researchers also made a general survey of the standing monuments, conducted literature reviews and gathered oral histories of legends related to the Bach Dang battlefield, and inscriptions and local knowledge about the tide to improve understanding of the battlefield. Ten trenches were excavated in the Yen Giang stake yard site and the stratigraphy was studied in detail in order to understand the techniques used for inserting the stakes (Lê 1988; Nguyễn Công Thái 1988; Tống, et al. 1988) In 1995, during the digging of a fishpond, local people discovered several stakes at Dong Van Muoi (DVM) site, which was already known to Vietnamese researchers. The cultural officer of Yen Hung District took this chance to conduct a test excavation (No any report so far, except the information of Mr. Lê Đồng Sơn, Chief, Cultural sector, People‟s Committee of Yen Hung District, Quang Ninh province). Finally in 2005, the Institute of Archaeology (IA) in cooperation with the Department of Culture of Quang Ninh province conducted a survey and excavation at the DVM site to identify the distribution and character of the site for planning site conservation and protection (Lê and Hà 2005). The current research In May 2008 an international team of researchers from the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University and the Maritime Archaeology Program at Flinders University visited Vietnam to undertake an investigation of two wooden anchors that had been found in the Red River near Hanoi (Sasaki and Kimura 2008). While in Vietnam the team also conducted a preliminary site inspection of stake yards in the Bach Dang area, visited museums where stakes from the battle(s) are held and met with Vietnamese researchers, including Dr. Vũ Thế Long and Dr. Lê Thị Liên (IA). Also in 2008, a well-preserved new stake-yard was discovered at Dong Ma Ngua (DMN) in Hung Hoc village, when a local resident found large clusters of stakes while digging a fishpond. In 2009, the Bach Dang Battlefield Research Group (the team) conducted an extensive survey in Quang Yen town and on Ha Nam Island. They were also asked by local cultural officials to map the stakes at DMN as well as to excavate a small area to examine the soil profile (Figure 1). 4 �Figure 1. Dong Ma Ngua 2009, Jun Kimura in the mud of the fishpond indicating the location of a stake for total station survey purposes (Photo by George Belcher courtesy of the Bach Dang Research project). The fishpond measured approximately 20 x 15 meters (m) and the team recorded the location of 22 visible stakes. The distribution pattern of these stakes appeared random at the time of the preliminary survey. In addition, a small trench (1m x 2m) was excavated down to a depth of approximately 3m from the surface of the fishpond. The majority of the stakes showed a remarkable state of preservation and their surfaces appeared almost new. The profile of the trench exhibited several layers indicating that a series of depositional events took place in the past. The soil profile was characterized with a deep deposit of clay overlaying a deposit of sand, which indicates a typical estuary or a shallow river gradually filling in. Considering the well-preserved nature of the wood, recent depositional events may have occurred at a relatively fast pace (Lê et al. 2009; Sasaki 2009). One of the principal research questions for this project has been to establish accurate dates for the stake yards, which involves a program of radiocarbon dating of samples from the stakes. Five wood samples from isolated stakes were collected for Carbon 14 (C14) analysis and species identification. The results of C14 analysis provided a date range around 700 years Before Present (BP) that was in accordance with our expectations. In 2010, fieldwork continued at the DMN site with four new trenches opened that were later integrated into one large trench (Figure 2). Two additional test trenches were opened in the rice fields around the DMN site to compare the sediments in the surrounding area and to further develop our understanding of the topographical features. As a result of the excavation, 55 stakes (plus one oar, other wood fragments, potsherds and ceramics) were identified in the fishpond. The position of these stakes and some important topographical features around 5 �the site were recorded and photo mosaics of the site were also produced (Kimura and Pham 2010; Lê 2010). Figure 2. Dong Ma Ngua 2010, overview of trench H1 (right) and trench H4 (left) where 25 stakes were identified, photographed, analyzed and from which wood samples were extracted. The stakes diagonally driven are facing each other. (Photo by Nguyen Mai Huong courtesy of the Bach Dang Battlefield Research project). The 2010 fieldwork season focused on recording the stake distribution pattern. The stakes were aligned in columns, orientated in various directions. It appears that two sets of columns were driven to face each other at the upper ends of the stakes. Some of these stakes were also driven densely to form a wall-like feature. Similar diagonally driven stakes had also been seen in the previous excavated stake yards (Le and Ha 2005). Although the original dimensions of each stake are difficult to ascertain due to their deteriorated condition, the diameters may fit to some regular range of approximately 6 centimeters (cm), 12cm, or 20cm. The bottoms of the stakes were observed and some of them had a recess or a notch. Although this feature could not be confirmed on all stakes, it appears that they might have been associated with the method used to set the stakes in place. Yet, the way the large stakes were set into the riverbed is still under debate. Wood samples from ten stakes were sent to Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute in Japan and the University of Forestry of Vietnam for species 6 �identification. They were identified as Meliaceae sp. (họ Xoan) or Rutaceae sp. (họ Cam/Chanh), and another was Leguminosae sp. (họ Đậu) The remaining samples were Shorea-Shorea (Dipterocarpaceae sp 3 samples) (họ Sao dầu),Peltophorum dasyrachis (lim xẹt or hoàng linh in Vietnamese), Parashorea chinensis (chò chỉ), Lithocarpus ducampii (dẻ đỏ), Dipterocarpus tonkinensis (chò nâu), and Engelhardtia roxburghiana sp (chẹo tía). Legend suggests that ironwood was used for these stakes and the term ironwood can be interpreted as any hard, dense wood, which seems to correspond well with the results of the species identification. Through the analysis of soil profiles, it seems that the local topography at the time exhibited a significant change in elevation with stakes driven into the slopes of channel banks. At DMN the riverbank appears to have sloped from east to west, which was deduced from the 1m difference of elevation that exists between the stakes found in east and west trenches within the same sediment layer. The sediment includes a number of thin layers, which resulted from river deposition processes. The sediment changes from top to bottom, from clay, clay with sand, sand, and finally sandy silt. Some layers were subdivided by subcontexts, such as tiny clamshells, large oyster shells, and degraded plant remains. According to Doan Dinh Lam (pers. comm.), a Vietnamese geologist, these are typical river sedimentations observed in the area; the clay in the upper layer confirms that it results from a lesser tidal influence and from slow sedimentation. In the lower layers, however, some of the sand layer and sandsilt layer exhibit much thicker deposit. The thick layers are identified as original riverbed into which the stakes were driven. A large number of artifacts were excavated, including the stakes and wooden fragments, pottery (ceramic and stoneware), bricks and tiles. A broken oar most probably associated with a small boat has been unearthed (Figure 3). Several small wooden artifacts have been interpreted as wooden tie rods. Some fragments have processing marks, such as rope holes for transportation or probably mortised holes. The flatness of some fragments suggests that they could be manufactured woodwork rather than stakes. Thus, it is possible that fragments of boats or ships have been found in this area. A large amount of degraded wood fragments and charcoal and a thick layer of blackish silt were observed in the excavated area, which indicates the use of firing. Figure 3. Fragment of oar (Photo by Hà Mạnh Thắng). 7 �The pottery fragments represent a wide range of dates (13th to 18th centuries), and includes both (earthenware?) ceramic (28 fragments) and stoneware (79 fragments). Ceramics analysis is currently ongoing but some of the ceramics are dated to the Tran Dynasty (1225-1400), including the whitish glazed and cracked brown glazed ceramics of the 13th-14th centuries and the blue-and-white ceramics of the 15th-17th centuries. Some of the ceramics were found in the same sediment layer as the stakes, and some were found in the layers above. Although their location might have been disturbed due to the flowing waterway, it was noticed that fragments of ceramics and stoneware datable to 13-14th century and 15th-16th century have been found mainly from the sandy clay layer (layer 3) and clayish sand layer (layer 4). A fragment of Chinese Song celadon was also unearthed from layer 4. Layers 3 and 4 are proposed to have been the riverbed during the 1288 AD Bach Dang battle (Le and Nguyen. 2011). Vietnamese researchers previously calculated the tide-fluctuation levels they occurred on 8th March 1288 (Nguyễn Ngọc Thụy 1964:36; Nguyễn Duy Hinh 1988). The stratigraphy at the DMN site suggests that the riverbed in this area was at a depth of about 5.2-5.5m during the highest tidal level and 3-3.2 m at the lowest one, according to modern tidal levels)3. If stakes more than 3m long were driven into the riverbed, the Mongolian ships, which have about 2.5 m of waterline4 would not have been able to cross this area. Conclusion Each of the monuments, stake yards, and the ancient topography that lies hidden beneath the modern landscape of the Bach Dang Battlefield in Yen Hung district, Quang Ninh province reveals a part of the Vietnamese strategy to defeat the Mongols. There are 3 major stake yards where the distribution, nature and dimensions of the stakes have been identified and recorded: the Yen Giang, the Dong Van Muoi (DVM) and the Dong Ma Ngua (DMN) sites. It first appeared that the stakes might have been placed between the ancient islands and navigational hazards in order to create an effective „wall‟ preventing the vessels from travel through the channels and into the open sea. This was deduced from the positions of the stake yards sandwiched between natural hazards (Figure 4). The excavations at the DVM and DMN sites, however, seem to suggest that it was not a simple wall that the Vietnamese created. When constructing such a wall around the waterways and islands, one must also consider how to prevent the 3 Nguyen Duy Hinh (1988) used the 1971 data of Do Nghi Gauging station to suggest that in the th 8 March 1288 of the Lunar calendar, the highest tidal level was 1.52m and the lowest one was 1.43m. From the datum point set up by the Bach Dang research team in DMN site, the riverbed from excavated pit H3 is about - 3.2m deep. According to Mr. Le Dong Son (Chief of Culture Bureau, Yen Hung district), without the dike system, during the height tidal level, tidal flow may be more than 2m above the datum point. 4 According to Nguyen Viet, the waterline of the Mongolian ships were about 2.5m (after Tong Trung Tin, et al. 1988) 8 �enemy from landing and taking control of the land. As a result, a more complex arrangement of stakes may be expected. Figure 4. Distribution of discovered stake yards in Ha Nam Island (Lê Thị Liên 2011:37, H.9 Drawing courtesy of Bach Dang Research Team) There was an ancient waterway in the excavated area at DMN that had a higher bank in the eastern side and was gradually silted up, as indicated by layers of sandy silt and alluvium. The land changed from an estuarine salt-marsh to brackish swampy area as indicated by the presence of several types of teredo (worm) of various species and sizes. The result of pollen analysis for the DMN site provides evidence of flora in this area, including arboreal, shrub and nonarboreal plants, fern spores and especially a diversity of mangrove plants. Generally, although this area was always affected by sea tides, the influence was not the same throughout history of its sediment formation, as indicated by the presence of an abundance of mangrove pollen. Based on the ecological characteristics of various types of mollusks, we can also see the change from directly affected by the sea - to tidal mangrove estuary environment (Nguyễn, et al. 2011). Further survey work is planned for late November 2011. A remote sensing survey, core sampling and limited test excavations will be conducted to find more stake yards as well as possible shipwrecks. Stake yards are expected to be buried below several meters of silt and to be in excellent condition, preserving the original configuration of the stakes. 9 �Acknowledgements Funding for this project has been provided by the RPM Nautical Foundation, the National Geographic Society, the Institute for Nautical Archaeology (INA), the Australian Academy of the Humanities, Flinders University and the Management Board of Major Cultural sites, Quang Ninh province. Bibliography Delgado, J.P., 2009 Doan 2010 Dinh Lam Đào, Duy Anh., Đào 1969 Ebrey, P. B., 1996 Hà, Văn Tấn and Hà Phạm, C., Thị Tâm., 1968 Kimura, J., 2006 Khubilai Khan's Lost Fleet: In Search of a Legendary Armada, University of California Press, Vancouver/Toronto Personal comment on the sedimentation of the Bach Dang river as observed from the stratigraphy of the Dong Ma Ngua site. Những cọc lim đào được với sự đổi dòng của sông Bạch Đằng [Unearthed stakes and the change of Bach Dang river flow], Nghiên cứu Lịch sử, Hà Nội, số 129, tháng 12, Library of Anthropology Museum, Hanoi National University of Social Sciences, Hanoi. Cambridge Illustrated History: China, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Cuộc kháng chiến chống xâm lược Nguyên Mông (Thế kỉ XIII) [The Resistance against the Mongolian invasion (13th century)], Nxb KHXH, tr., pp. 292-298. “Recent survey and excavation on the Mongolian fleet sunk off Japan: the Takashima underwater site” in The Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 30, pp. 7-13. In Internal Report: Bach Dang Project Season-April fieldwork, May 2010 Kimura, J., and Pham, C., 2010 Lê, Thị Liên, andLê Báo cáo kết quả khảo sát, thám sát Bãi cọc Đồng Vạn Muối (xã Nam Hòa, huyện Yên Hưng, Quảng Ninh) tháng Hà, M. T., 9 và tháng 11 năm 2005 [Report on the survey and test 2005 excavation at Dong Van Muoi site (Nam Hoa commune, Yen Hung district, Quang Ninh province), in September and Novemver 2005], Document of the Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi. Lê Góp phần tìm hiểu trận địa Bạch đằng (1288) ở Yên Hưng Lê, Thị Liên, (Quảng Ninh) [Contribution for the understanding of the 1988 Bach Dang battle field (1288) in Yen Hung (Quang Ninh province], paper presented at the Conference “Anniversary of 700 years of historical Bach Dang Victory (1288-1988)”, Hạ Long, Vietnam. Lê Báo các tóm tắt kết quả khảo sát khu di tích Bạch Đằng Lê, Thị Liên, Nguyễn, Thị Mai tháng 2-3 năm 2009 [Brief report on the survey in Bach 10 �Hương and the Dang site, February-March 2009], Document of the international Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi. researchers, 2009a Lê, Thị Liên, The Bach Dang Battle Field in 1288 C.E. – Previous Pham, C., and Excavations and Research, paper presented at the Pollack, J.C., Society for Historical Archaeology (SHA) Conference in 2009b Austin, Texas, USA. Lê, Thị Liên., Lê Chiến trường Bạch Đằng – Những hiểu biết mới từ Đồng Vạn Muối và Đồng Má Ngựa (Xã Nam Hòa, Huyện Yên 2010 Hưng, Quảng Ninh) [The Bach Dang battle field – New understanding from Dong Van Muoi and Dong Ma Ngua sites (Nam Hoa commune, Yen Hung district, Quang Ninh province), Document of the Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi. Báo cáo tư vấn khảo sát xác định quy mô các bãi cọc – Lê, Thị Liên., Đề án Quy hoạch tổng thể bảo tồn và phát huy giá trị khu 2011 di tích lịch sử chiến trường Bạch Đằng, tỉnh Quảng Ninh [Consultative report on the survey of the stake-yards‟ scales - The Planning Project for the conservation and promotion of the historic Bach Dang battle site, Quang Ninh province], Document of the Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi. Lê, Thị Liên Báo cáo khai quật di tích Đồng Má Ngựa (huyện Yên Nguyễn, Thị Mai Hưng, tỉnh Quảng Ninh) năm 2010 [Excavation Report of Hương the Dong Ma Ngua site (Yên Hưng district, Quảng Ninh 2011 province) in 2010], Document of the Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi An Nam chi luoc (Abbreviated Records of An Nam), Le, Tac., 1961 University of Hue, Hue (originally published 1335). Đai Việt sử ký toàn thư [Chronicle of the Great Viet], Ngô, Sĩ Liên., 1993 1993 printing, tập II, Nxb KHXH, tr. 61(Translation from the original 1697 wood block printing). Cổ Nguyễn, Công Hệ thống di tích chiến thắng Bạch Đằng 1288 trên địa bàn huyện Yên Hưng, Quảng Ninh [The sites related to Thái., 1988 the Bach Dang victory in 1288 in the area of Yen Hung district, Quang Ninh province], paper presented at the Conference “Anniversary of 700 years of historical Bach Dang Victory (1288-1988)”, Hạ Long, Vietnam. Cổ Nghệ thuật thuỷ chiến cổ đại - chiến thắng lịch sử Bạch Nguyễn, Duy Đằng [Art of ancient naval battle – the historical Bach Hinh., Dang victory], paper presented at the Conference 1988 “Anniversary of 700 years of historical Bach Dang Victory (1288-1988)” Hạ Long, Vietnam. Nguyễn, Ngọc Cổ Cổ địa mạo chiến trường Bạch Đằng năm 1288 [Ancient geomophology of Bach Dang battle field in 1288], paper Mên., 11 �presented at the Conference “Anniversary of 700 years of historical Bach Dang Victory (1288-1988)” Hạ Long, Vietnam. Cổ Về con nước triều trong trận Bạch Đằng 128 [On the tidal Nguyễn Ngọc in the Bạch Đằng battle 1288], Nghiên cứu Lịch sử, Hà Thụy., 1964 Nội, số 63, 6-1964, pp. 36&53, Library of Anthropology Museum, Hanoi National University of Social Sciences, Hanoi. Cổ Phân tích bào tử phấn hoa và nghiên cứu môi trường di Nguyễn Thị Mai Hương, Phạm Văn tích Đồng Má Ngựa, Quảng Ninh [Pollen and spores Hải & Bạch Đằng annalysis and environment study of the Dong Ma Ngua Research Team site, Quang Ninh province], paper present in the annual 2011 conference “New Discoveries in Archaeology in 2011”, Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi, September. Hero and Diety: Tran Hung Dao and the resurgence of Phuong, P.Q., popular religion in Vietnam, Mekong Press, Chiang Mai. 2009 Phan, Đại Doãn Trận địa cọc trong chiến thắng Bạch Đằng năm 1288 and Diệp, Đình [The stake yards in the victory of Bach Dang battle in Hoa., 1288], Khảo cổ học, Số 5-6 tháng 6, pp. 64-80, Library 1970 of Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi. Sasaki, R., and Northern Vietnam anchor documentation and assessment, Institute of Nautical Archaeology Annual, Kimura , J., 2008 pp.31-36. The Origin of the Lost Fleet of The Mongol Empire, MA Sasaki, R. J., 2008 Thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station. The Mongol Invasion of Vietnam: Revealing the Secret of Sasaki, R. J., the Battle of Bach Dang, Post-Survey Report for Project 2009 W45-09. Yuan Shi (History of Yuan), Zhonghua shuju Press, Song, Lian., 1976 Nanjing, (originally published 1370). Lưu, Trần Tiêu Cọc Bạch Đằng trong đợt khai quật năm 1976 [The and Trịnh, Căn., stakes found from Bach Dang site in the excavation season of 1976], Nghiên cứu lịch sử, số 1 năm 1977, 1977 Library of Anthropology Museum, Hanoi National University of Social Sciences, Hanoi. Trần, Hà., Xun Xung quanh trận Bạch Đằng năm 1288 [discussion on the Bach Dang battle in 1288], Nghiên cứu lịch sử, số 46, 11963 1963, tr., pp. 60-66, Library of Anthropology Museum, Hanoi National University of Social Sciences, Hanoi. Xun Nghiên cứu bãi cọc Yên Giang (Quảng Ninh) lần thứ 5 Tống, Trung Tín, Phạm Như Hổ, [the 5th research season in the Yen Giang stake yard Phan Tiến Ba and (Quang Ninh province)], paper presented at the Lê Thị Liên., Conference “Anniversary of 700 years of historical Bach 1988 Dang Victory (1288-1988)”, Hạ Long, Vietnam. 1988 12 � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/bafeffacfac686a7bfe8d969b403585e.jpg 04952788e3bc70ff809b9d08d30ddbf8 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Understanding the Bach Dang Battlefield from recent research results Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource The Mongols created the world’s most powerful empire in the thirteenth century, conquering China and establishing the Yuan dynasty. Their military power was in doubt, however, after failed naval invasions in Japan and Vietnam. According to historical records, the Vietnamese tactics used against the Mongolian Armada were designed to prevent them from reaching the mouth of Bach Dang River by using hidden stakes that were driven into the riverbed in secrecy. Using the large difference in tides, the Vietnamese successfully lured the enemy fleet into the trap, destroying or capturing perhaps as many as 400 vessels. Since the 1950s, approximately 700 years after this watershed event, Vietnamese archaeologists have discovered a number of large wooden stakes in the midst of reclaimed paddy fields along the Bach Dang River. Excavations and research were conducted which led to the identification of several stake-yard sites believed to be dated to the battle that took place in 1281 C.E., however, no remains of ships have been identified to date. In 2009, a group of scholars from the Institute of Archaeology at Hanoi, the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University, and the Maritime Archaeology Program at Flinders University joined the archaeological investigations of these stake-yard sites with a focus on studying the battle strategy used by the Vietnamese and identifying ship remains from the battle. This joint paper will present an intermediate result of this international cooperative project in maritime archaeology in Vietnam at the naval battle site related to the thirteenth century Mongolian invasion of the country. The team has identified several new areas of concentrated stakes and the distribution pattern may lead to better understanding of the battle and the possible location of shipwreck sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lê Thị Liên Nguyá»…n Thị Mai HÆ°Æ¡ng Charlotte Pham Mark Staniforth Jim Delgado Jun Kimura Randall Sasaki Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 1 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c5d470789d28b33fc54aa175645ceb83.pdf 01a564f7853c204b58c9aff5d7a1741a PDF Text Text Keeping artefacts in situ and preserving them once out of the water: Daily questions for a conservator-restorer in marine excavations Olivier Berger1 Abstract Working on a shipwreck means analyzing its cargo, taking samples and when access is possible, studying the naval architecture. After publication, in many cases, closing and securing the site is possible. Excavating a settlement or an underwater city calls first to understand the site with a nonintrusive survey. State of the art investigation equipment such as multi-beam sonar systems, sediment sounder, magnetometer with nuclear resonance allows us to start drawing the map of the establishment. Diving is necessary to check details, to make stratigraphic sections, or to understand structures. This brings up often thousands of artefacts. Keeping most of the artefacts at the bottom of the sea and storing them in a special underwater storage place with an inventory number is a good solution, but it is also necessary to bring some objects in an atmospheric environment for study, as a reference or because they are too fragile, precious or unique to be left underwater. They will be then on display in a museum or will tour the world. We are therefore regularly confronted with a sudden flow of artefacts literally inundating a laboratory but also drying out its budget. Our experience through sunken cities excavations in Egypt has taught us ways to anticipate these waves of artefacts in needs of treatment and to adapt our policy of excavation and the techniques for underwater conservation-restoration. Introduction Working on a shipwreck means analyzing its cargo, taking some samples and when access is possible, studying the naval architecture. After publication of the site, it is often possible to close it still protected and monitored. Once the work is finished, in order to protect and preserve the site in situ, we cover the site with geotextiles. We proceed then to rebury the ship under sediment with the water dredge. To control the stability of the site, it is possible to measure the amount of oxygen. To control the stability of metal artefacts it is important to measure the oxydation-reduction potential. The procedure and the evaluation of some techniques concerning in situ preservation are described in details in Ms Vicki Richards’ paper presented in this conference. Site and cargo could be in situ protected. from scuba looters, by means of an iron cage, creating a giant underwater safe, has been made in Croatia, The heavyduty cage is equipped with a large door that is always locked with occasional access only granted to divers under strict supervision. But if it is relatively easy to preserve small sites in situ, it is more complicated to preserve a large settlement, not to mention an underwater city. Our main goal is to use the least intrusive approach to study the site. Our non-intrusive survey methods use the latest investigation equipment such as multi-beam sonar systems, sediment sounder, and a nuclear resonance magnetometer that allows us to undertake the mapping of the establishment. Diving is also necessary for checking details, maping stratigraphic sections, understanding the structures and bringing up artefacts that can often include an amount up to a few thousand. The archaeological community agrees nowadays that it is important to preserve as much as possible in situ of our underwater cultural heritage. In our 1 Basel, Switzerland �excavations we try to find a way in order to study the site while keeping most of the artefacts at the bottom of the sea, and then store and rebury them in a special underwater storage place. Despite these measures it is impossible to avoid having to deal with a large amount of artefacts coming up to the surface. Thanks to our experience with the excavation of three sunken cities in Egypt we were able to anticipate these flows of artefacts in need of treatment and adapt our excavation policy accordingly. Field practice and experience The European Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Institut européen d’archéologie sous-marine, IEASM) lead by Franck Goddio (2008), has been excavating in Egypt for more than ten years. We are working in the Nile delta and more precisely in Alexandria and the Bay of Aboukir where we found, under the sea, the ancient sunken cities of Canopus and Heracleion. The excavations cover a very large surface. Our working area on the eastern harbour of Alexandria covers 3.5 km by 1.5 km or over 500 hectares. Despite working in dirty water, which is polluted by the city sewage, we try as much as we can to preserve the material we discover in situ. Up to now, more than 15,000 artefacts have been found. We were able to keep most of them in situ, in the underwater site. Stonework was the main part of the abundant material. We also found objects made of organic materials, ceramics, glass and various kinds of metal. These sites are unusual because they have been abandoned following several natural cataclysms and have not been reoccupied. The corpus of artefacts includes mainly objects dating from the Ptolemaic Period till the end of the Byzantine Period. The archaeological excavations benefit from a conservation and restoration laboratory aboard a ship, thus enabling objects to be treated as soon as they emerge from water. The first stages of conservation are thus carried out on the ship, and the complementary treatments, which require heavier equipment, are carried out on land, at a laboratory in Alexandria. The majority of the stones discovered on the three sites are linked to a structural environment like walls from buildings or docks, floor or pavement, noria the Egyptian machine used for lifting water-, columns, and other elements of construction. These architectural stones have been preserved in situ. In some cases a reburial under sediment was necessary to avoid physical, chemical degradation and biological alteration. All these structures were studied, drawn, photographed, and precisely repositioned and left at the original place where they were found. In the eastern harbour of Alexandria, where the royal quarters were, we found pavements and broken columns in situ. This is where our way to protect the site, and to keep artefacts underwater with a project of an underwater museum can be seen. The underwater museum is still a project with numerous technical questions such as stabilising a polluted marine environment, and minimising the deterioration of artefacts. It will be a technological prowess and the architect Jacques Rougerie will turn our dreams into a museum under the sea. We discovered more than one hundred stone anchors not linked to any shipwreck. We decided to keep them in situ. We asked an Egyptian student to study them and create a typology of the anchors, and then publish the results. These anchors are of many types and sizes. Most of them are made of limestone. The anchors represent a typical artefact, which is easy to study scientifically in situ. In situ preservation is the best policy to adopt for these kind of objects. Anchors, cannons and even amphorae can quickly overfill a storage room. Too many �museums are crowded with the display of these kind of objects, which are heavy and bulky. It could be now time to move away from the usual methods of excavation and recovery towards a new way of preserving and presenting this type of underwater cultural heritage. Some other voluminous stone objects such as milestones, sarcophagus, worked on architectural blocs, naos are also kept in situ in their original position. For smaller objects we have a different approach. In one area of the ancient city of Canopus we found a large number of black basalt fragments of sphinxes. The pieces did not fit together. It became quickly clear that they belonged to a workshop for cutting and reusing stone. For this kind of smaller stone objects or fragments a special technique is used. Each piece is precisely mapped on the bottom of the sea with a Global Positioning System (GPS). It receives a number and is lifted out of the water. It receives then a basic cleaning, is identified, described, measured, photographed and sometimes drawn. Once all the data are registered, the pieces are brought back to the site in a storage area. Usually the storage places, also call “parking”, are deeper area where it will be easy to bury the artefacts under sediment without creating an underwater hill. When the area is full, it is covered with sediment. Another place with a new number and with its precise localisation is then chosen as the following “parking”. Not only stones are stored in these “parkings”, but also ceramics and metal artefacts. Storage areas are frequently reopened to allow the archaeologists to verify, check or pick up some objects. In doing so, a large quantity of sand has to be removed but the objects can be easily found since they are precisely documented. All the objects keep their number underwater with a system of plastic tags; they are packaged in a plastic net, and secured inside plastic boxes covered with sand. The precise situation of each artefact is noted in the database. In order to find a way to study the inscribed artefacts and let them remain in situ, we developed an interesting method of underwater stamping. Our discoveries brought up some stone objects bearing inscriptions or decorations. Some of the inscriptions are in Greek but the majority of them are in hieroglyphics. Most of these artefacts are on very big blocks. This fact raises the question of how to study these inscriptions when the specialists are not all divers and live in different parts of the world? As a rule, this kind of large inscribed blocs of stone stay in situ. To allow the study of inscriptions we started using a new method enabling us to take a print underwater. Developed by Georges Brocot from France's Direction des recherches archéologiques subaquatiques et sous-marines (DRASSM) this technique makes it possible to have the exact stamping of the inscription. The first step is to clean thoroughly the stone from any incrustation. A cloth coated with a pasty silicone is then laid on the surface of the stone to act as a stamp. The fabric is afterwards covered with a sheet of lead which is hammered in such a way that the silicone is in contact with every detail of the inscription. The polymerisation of this special silicone occurs in at least twenty hours. It is then possible to remove the fabric. The inscription appears printed in negative. This method allows also the stamping of other details such as tool traces or technological details. This silicone membrane, the faithful reproduction of the original, can be studied directly by the specialist epigraphist. Pictures in raking light reveal all the details, as the original would have done. Conserving waterlogged organic material in situ is almost as difficult a challenge as to preserve it in an atmospheric environment. When we discover a small waterlogged organic artefact like basketry, rope, textile or a wooden object, it is very problematic to preserve it in situ because the stable state in which it was kept in the sediment is interrupted. Physical deterioration such as stream flow, sand �abrasion, biological alteration like Teredo navalis, bacterial and chemical destruction process of the cellulose will prevent keeping a small organic object after its discovery. Even so, we do not have the equipment to stabilise waterlogged wood, we have no budget to treat it and no place to store or exhibit the huge pieces of wood. In most cases we mainly have to keep the wood in situ, like a shipwreck or parts of building construction. The scientific interest to have the artefacts out of the water is low because the study can be done under water. The main problem is to keep them under water without deterioration or minimise it. When possible, we leave the organic element partially covered with the original sediment and we avoid letting it float and move with the current. We simply rebury the wooden artefacts under a large quantity of sediment without any protection between the wood and the sediment. When it is possible, we put bags of gravel or sand to serve as weight on top of the sediment. General lines and rules for underwater conservation-restoration Any project involving direct actions on cultural heritage requires a conservator (Ref. definition of the profession, ICOM-CC 1984). We still lack some methods and technology to treat a few specific types of artefacts. It is therefore greatly safer to keep them in situ. Current technique does not allow without risk the treatment of several artefacts such as graphitised cast iron, wrought iron loosing his original surface, peeling or sugaring silver objects, mineralised lead, some composite artefacts, organic material like basketry and even wood, peeling like an onion potassium glass, cracking frit or faience, disappearing colours on faience, etc. In some cases we are not equipped to treat a certain type of material. Or the time spent working on one object would be scandalously high and indefensible in a budget. Thus, instead of trying to stabilise an object out of seawater, it is sometimes better to keep it in the environment of its discovery and to monitor its conservation in situ. It is necessary to think carefully before lifting an object out of water. Is it possible to stabilise it? Will there be an adequate budget? What will happen to the object after it has been treated? And is there a definite purpose to take it out of water? Beside a scientific purpose or from an aesthetic point of view, conservation reasons can lead to the decision to take away an object from salty water. It is sometimes impossible to keep artefacts in situ underwater because the artefact itself or the information carried by the object would otherwise be lost. A rope, a basket or a textile will not resist for a long time when the excavations are in the Nile delta with a fast moving stream and strong erosion. One area will be covered with a huge sand dune while a few months later the archaeological floor level will be visible. Fishermen with their nets are frequently moving big blocs weighing several tons over hundreds of meters. Their anchors could also simply plough an archaeological layer or destroy a wall. Regularly, our working area with its iron tubes, meters, positioning lines and its system of water dredge is destroyed for the same reasons. The pollution can be extreme. We are working in the Bay of Aboukir in front of a chemical fertiliser factory and in the eastern harbour of Alexandria the sewage system of a city of more than 3 million inhabitants is pouring directly over us. Our air tanks are corroding so quickly in this aggressive environment that we can expect the same phenomenon to attack the nearby archaeological metal items. �Objects found under the sea are generally covered by concretions of sediment associated with marine organisms. In Alexandria, the water is so murky that marine organisms are covering everything in just a few days. In a few months the thickness of the concrete deposited makes the objects unrecognizable, no detail, not even the form of the objects can be distinguished, just a smooth relief. Even on artefacts usually known to be biocide such as lead and copper alloy concretion can grow very fast. Even if the general policy is to protect and preserve sites in situ, when work starts, archaeological material appears. Various reasons make it necessary to bring some objects in an atmospheric environment: study, need of reference or samples, extreme fragility, preciousness or uniqueness. It is important that these objects do not stay underwater. They will be then on display in a museum or will tour the world on exhibitions. Sudden flows of artefacts thus happen regularly, flooding the laboratory with water buckets, crowding a storage room which is not big enough and absorbing a budget too small to cover the cost of restoration and long term conservation. It is a utopia to think of being able to study a site without having artefacts on the surface. A conservation program is therefore absolutely necessary before starting to work on a site. Patrice Pomey (1981:26) said, “no underwater excavation should be undertaken without the certainty that the objects it exhumes can be treated, lest they deteriorate and disappear.” Colin Pearson (1984:81) said, “Today, underwater excavation without conservation, it’s purely vandalism.” This fundamental idea is not yet a trend, and unfortunately nowadays we can still observe too many underwater excavations without a real appropriated program of conservation. The times when the divers were in charge of the artefacts, taking care themselves to clean the objects with their diving knife and putting them in fresh water for a long time is not so faraway. Unfortunately, it still exists in many excavations. The role of the professional conservator is essential to the smooth running of an underwater excavation. The conservator should be part of the team because the benefits resulting from the collaboration are invaluable. It is no longer a luxury - if it ever was - to have a conservation specialist at the site but rather a necessity. Conservation and restoration of underwater heritage must start as soon as a site is discovered. Conservation is not the mere application of techniques and treatment processes but is a vital stage within the excavation. In an archaeological excavation, it is incumbent upon the conservator to register all the information that the objects convey. This documentation, sometimes supported by analyses, is not the ultimate goal concerning the objects. They must also be stabilized to ensure their survival, and sometimes, aesthetically improved for museum purposes. The conservator specialist of underwater heritage plays an important role, although the least visible, but the most important task is the long-term stabilization of the objects. An essential motto is: do not settle for make-up on items, but take the time to perform lengthy in-depth stabilizing treatment and especially for long-term preservation of underwater heritage. Conclusion The objects coming from the port of Alexandria and the bay of Aboukir represent in the conservation laboratory only a tiny fraction of what we really discovered. We slowly changed our traditional way of excavating for a new way that emphasizes the in situ study of the artefacts and the site itself. We manage to preserve as much as we can the objects in situ and the integrity of the site. But it is a utopia to think it is possible to study a site without having artefact coming onto the surface. Therefore, a �program of conservation is an absolute necessity before to start the work itself on a site. The professional conservator specialized in conservation and restoration of underwater heritage is not only working in a laboratory, but also has to be involved on the site, even before the archaeological work starts. This is an entire member of the scientific team. This successful collaboration is clearly visible in the results the IEASM obtained in Egypt. Respect and protection of the integrity of the objects are parts of the ethics of our profession. Our goal is to succeed in making the objects visible to the general public, accessible to researchers, and stabilized to be passed on to future generations. Bibliography Goddio, F., 2008 ICOM-CC 1984 Pearson, C., 1984 Pomey, P., Gianfrotta, P.A., 1981 Egypt’s sunken treasures, Prestel. Code of Ethics of the International Council of Museums, Copenhagen. “La conservation du patrimoine subaquatique“, in La sauvegarde du patrimoine subaquatique, UNESCO, Cahier Technique , 4, pp. 80-110. and L'archéologie sous la mer, Fernand Nathan, Paris � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Keeping artefacts in situ and preserving them once out of the water: Daily questions for a conservator-restorer in marine excavations Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource Working on a shipwreck means analyzing its cargo, taking samples and when access is possible, studying the naval architecture. After publication, in many cases, closing and securing the site is possible. Excavating a settlement or an underwater city calls first to understand the site with a non-intrusive survey. State of the art investigation equipment such as multi-beam sonar systems, sediment sounder, magnetometer with nuclear resonance allows us to start drawing the map of the establishment. Diving is necessary to check details, to make stratigraphic sections, or to understand structures. This brings up often thousands of artefacts. Keeping most of the artefacts at the bottom of the sea and storing them in a special underwater storage place with an inventory number is a good solution, but it is also necessary to bring some objects in an atmospheric environment for study, as a reference or because they are too fragile, precious or unique to be left underwater. They will be then on display in a museum or will tour the world. We are therefore regularly confronted with a sudden flow of artefacts literally inundating a laboratory but also drying out its budget. Our experience through sunken cities excavations in Egypt has taught us ways to anticipate these waves of artefacts in needs of treatment and to adapt our policy of excavation and the techniques for underwater conservation-restoration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Olivier Berger Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ace802d35273cc8b79f875336d87b8c9.pdf 1704c02740f1fd90915e5f1ca971d820 PDF Text Text Investigation of Abandoned WW II Wrecks in Palau Tomo Ishimura1 Abstract Over forty Japanese vessels were sunken in the water of Palau during WWII. Some wrecks sunk in the shallow water at a depth of 20 meters or less and were salvaged. Other wrecks at 30 meters depth or more still remain and are legally protected by the authority of Palau Government but are seriously threatened by illegal treasure hunters. Initial efforts to identify human remains of Japanese soldiers were made in 2005. As part of an archaeology advisory team for the Japanese Government I carried out underwater surveys of sunken WWII vessels in Palau. In 2010 and 2011, I conducted investigations of the WWII vessels again, together with on-shore research on sites and features associated with the Japanese occupation period, funded by the Takanashi Foundation for Arts and Archaeology (Japan). The research revealed that the most of the vessels sunken in Palau were not genuine military vessels of Japanese Imperial Navy or Army but converted vessels originally built for non-combat purposes. These vessels were slow in speed and not well-equipped for combat th activity. Most of them were destroyed by American aerial bombing on March 30 1944. The th evening before (March 29 ) the main force of the Japanese Combined Fleet, including its flagship Musashi, retreated from Palau. It is clear that the vessels left in Palau were abandoned as a “third wheel” of the Combined Fleet. These abandoned-converted vessels include cargo carriers, tankers, whaling boats and fishing boats. This implies that Japanese troops were experiencing a difficult and desperate campaign at that time. Introduction Over forty WWII Japanese vessels have been identified in the waters of the Republic of Palau (see Figures 1, Figure 2, Table 1). Most of them were destroyed on March 30th – 31st 1944 by the United States of America’s (USA) attack - Operation Desecrate One. This battle was a historical turning point for Japanese occupation in Micronesia because the Combined Fleet of the Japanese Imperial Navy lost their bases in the region, which further impacted on defeats in the Battle of the Mariana Islands on June 19th – 20th 1944 and the 1 Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Japan �Battle of Layte on October 23rd – 25th 1944. Therefore the shipwrecks of Palau offer important evidence for understanding the historical significance of the battle in Palau. The main aim of my research is to uncover the real situation of the battle in Palau and document the extent of this underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Palau for their future protection and management. Figure 1. Map around Palau (created by author). Figure 2. Map of Palau and distribution of Japanese WW II wrecks, insert is map of shipwrecks in Palau harbour (created by author). �Table 1. Details of numbered vessels on Figure 2 (made by author based upon the data from Bailey 1991, Tanaka 2007, and author's research) Historical background of the wrecks in Palau Since 1920 the Palau Islands had been a part of Japanese Mandated Territory, along with the Mariana Islands and the Western Caroline Islands. In the wake of the defeat over German occupation, the former colonial power over Palau, in the First World War. The Palau headquarters of Nanyocho are the administrative agency of the Nanyo Gunto (Micronesian islands of Japanese Mandated Territory). Located on Koror Island, it played the role of the administrative center for the Territory. In the wake of the Japanese walkout from the League of Nations in 1933, Palau was also regarded as a military site in the Territory and a number of military facilities were built on each island. The home base of the Combined Fleet, the main force of the Japanese Imperial Navy, was placed on the Truk Islands initially during WWII. However, after the defeat of the Battle of Midway on June 5 th 1942 the Japanese naval �power in the Pacific region declined. The 58th Task Force of the USA conducted the Operation Hailstone which included air strikes on the Truk Islands on February 17th – 18th 1944, and the Japanese forces lost two light cruisers (Agano and Naka) and many other vessels. A week earlier the flagship Musashi, and other major vessels of the Combined Fleet, had already retreated to Palau on the 10th of February in anticipation of the attack by the USA forces. The Combined Fleet regrouped their fleet in Palau. On February 29th a scout plane of the Japanese Navy sighted a USA task force approaching to the Caroline Islands. Shigeru Fukudome, the Chief of Staff of the Combine Fleet, considered that the U.S. forces would initiate a landing operation to Palau so he decided to withdraw major-force vessels of the Combined Fleet to the Philippines to set them apart for later use (Yoshimura 1976). In the late afternoon on February 29th the flagship Musashi, the light cruiser Taiyo, the destroyers Urakaze and Isokaze, and the other main vessels of the Combined Fleet set off from Palau Harbor. The rest of the vessels, such as the repair ship Akashi, the oil tankers Iro and Sata, and a number of cargo ships, were left behind. A two-day USA air strike named Operation Desecrate One initiated On February 30th. The remaining vessels were completely destroyed and sunk in the waters of Palau. Most of the wrecks of Palau are derived as a result of this one battle. Investigations of shipwrecks I carried out underwater archaeological survey at six selected sites in 2010 and 2011 (Ishimura 2010a; Ishimura 2010b). Short summaries of the results are shown as follows: Iro Location: West Urukthapel Anchorage Depth: The ship is resting upright at 40 meters. The deck is at 28 meters and the top of the forward tower is at 8 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): Southwest General Information: Type: Shiretoko Class Combined Fleet Tanker Length: 143.25 meters �Beam: 17.68 meters Tonnage: 14,050 tons Speed: 12 knots Built: 1922 by Osaka Tekkosho Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Iro was a fleet oiler and supply ship. On March 22 nd 1944 on her way from the Philippines to Palau a torpedo launched from the submarine USS Tunny hitting her bow forward of the bulkheads. On March 30th 1944 she came under fire and was bombed during the Operation Desecrate One. Heavy structural and fire damage to the ship’s engine room, boat deck, and stack appears to have resulted from the bomb(s). A survivor of the Iro attack witnessed a direct hit to the stroke engine room where approximately 30 engineers were killed (interviewed by author). An anchor chain extends from the hawsehole on the starboard side to the floor of the lagoon below. Following the anchor chain down along the side of the ship one can see the damage caused to the bow by torpedo. On top of the bow is a large gun mounted on a circular platform. The gun barrel diameter is 7 inches (17.8 centimeters) and the length is 4.26 meters. A gun identical to the one on the bow is mounted on a platform on the stern with its barrel pointing about 20 degrees towards the starboard. The survivor of Iro related that only one of the guns was able to fire against the aerial attack, due to lack of ammunition (interviewed by author). In reaction to the information provided by the survivor in 2005 the team of the Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare carried out an investigation in search of the human remains of Japanese soldiers at the Iro, especially in and around the engine room, however, they were not able to find any (Ishimura 2005). Akashi Location: North Urukthapel Anchorage Depth: Only debris are scattered at a depth of 12 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): North General Information: Type: Combined Fleet Repair Ship �Length: 158.5 meters Beam: 20.2 meters Tonnage: 9,000 tons Speed: 19.5 knots Built: 1937-39 by Sasebo Kaigun Kosho Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Akashi was the first Japanese Imperial Navy vessel to be designed as a repair ship. The ship was equipped with three large cranes and 144 German machine tools. She was stationed at Truk, where she had been engaged in making repairs on numerous vessels, anchored in the lagoon that had been damaged by USA submarines or air attacks at various island bases. After being damaged by carrier-based aircraft during the two-day Operation Hailstone air strikes on Truk on February 17th and 18th 1944, the Akashi managed to make her escape and limp to Palau. The Akashi could only manage about 12 knots with the damage she had sustained. When the USA planes initiated their attacks on the 30th March 1944 the Akashi was anchored offshore of the northern part of Urukthapel Island in Palau Harbor. The captain decided early to move the ship closer to shore into shallow water for more protection against the bombs and torpedoes of the attacking aircrafts (Bailey 1991:123). Even after the war, much of her upper foreship superstructure and masts were above water. It is said that the Akashi was scuttled to be a “grounding repair ship” in order to continue her duty even though the ship was totally crippled. The Akashi was completely dismantled by a salvage company in 1954 from which a total of 4,500 tons of scrap iron was recovered. At a depth of 12 meters many artifacts can be found lying on the sandy seabed amongst the debris field; some completely exposed and others with just pieces showing above the sand. The debris field spans around 150 meters in a north-south direction and 20 meters in an east-west direction, displaying the shape of the foregone vessel. A bomb crater can be seen alongside the debris field. Artifacts that have been found and identified include compressed gas cylinders, fire bricks, shoe soles, tires, beer bottles, ceramics and canteens. �Amatsu Maru Location: West Malakal Anchorage Depth: The ship is resting upright at 40 meters. The deck is at 30 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): Northeast General Information: Type: Tanker (converted) Length: 153 meters Beam: 20 meters Tonnage: 10,567 tons Speed: 15 knots Built: 1943 by Mitsubishi Owned by Nihon Kaiun Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Amatsu Maru was originally built for the private company Nihon Kaiun in 1943 as a part of the War Standard Construction Program. She was one of 15 vessels of her class that were built as Standard Type 1 TL 10,000-ton steam tanker. She was assigned to the Combined Fleet in January 1944. She is the largest shipwreck in Micronesia and the deepest Japanese wreck in Palau. She was hit directly by several 1000 pound (lb.) bombs. USA Navy archives of aerial photos taken during the attack clearly show heavy smoke rising from the engine compartment (Bailey 1991:79), but the remains exhibit little hull damage. The bridge was constructed of three decks. The upper-most was the navigational deck and some instruments can still be found there. The wooden walls and floor structures were destroyed by fire or have deteriorated over time. At the stern the twisted remains of a circular gun platform can be seen. The gun was a 12 cm Armstrong-type rapid firing gun but nothing remains of it. The Amatsu Maru was salvaged partially after the war. The Fujita Salvage Company originally sought to raise the ship but later decided to dismantle it instead. During an attempt to cut through the plates, it is believed the flame of a torch hit trapped gases and set off an explosion that killed two men. Then they abandoned the salvage attempt, believing the accident to be an omen of foreboding (Tanaka 2007:51). �Chuyo Maru Location: West Malakal Anchorage Depth: The ship is resting upright at 40 meters. The deck is at 30 meters and top of the forward tower is at 12 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): Southeast General Information: Type: Cargo ship (converted) Length: 89 meters Beam: 12.4 meters Tonnage: 1,941 tons Speed: 10 knots Built: 1943 by Namura Zosenjo Owned by Toyo Kisen Kaisha Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Chuyo Maru was built as a coastal freighter of the Amakasu No. 1 or Goei Maru class. The ship was completed for the private company Toyo Kisen Kaisha in 1943 and converted into an Army cargo ship soon after. The ship was reported to be initially attacked shortly after 1300 hour (h) on March 30th by a 500 lb. bomb, and on the following day an air attack hit the ship on the port side amidship with a single 500 lb. bomb. The ship was reported afterwards to have major fires aboard and then sank at 2000h on April 1st. The bridge structures were burned during the bombing and have since disintegrated, however, remains of the brass compass and ship’s telegraph can still be seen. The engine room and boiler room is raised above the main boat deck. Two separate sections of engine room hatches, with a cylindrical steam condenser apparatus between them, can be found above the engine room. A gun stands on a platform on the aft section of the boat deck. The gun is a 1.86-ton, 12 cm dual purpose “Short Gun”. This type of gun was typically placed on ships of under 5,000 tons for anti-submarine and anti-aircraft use. Although the exact location of this wreck was recorded, the wreck was not considered worth salvaging after the war. She was forgotten until April 1989 when wreck hunters Francis Toribiong and Klaus Lindemann rediscovered her. The ship’s identity was possible by the discovery of associated ceramics found �aboard the wreck bearing the logo of the ship’s commercial owner Toyo Kisen Kaisha (Bailey 1991:131). In May 2006 an English man illegally looted some artifacts from the Chuyo Maru and other shipwrecks in Palau and faced two months in jail and a fine of $ 40,000(USA) (Tanaka 2007:67). Helmet Wreck Location: Malakal Harbor Depth: The ship is resting upright, at the base of a hill, with bow lower than the stern. The bow is in 35 meters and the stern is in 15 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): Southwest General Information: Type: Cargo ship (probably converted to a minelayer) Length: 58 meters Beam: 9.4 meters Tonnage: Unknown (less than 1,000 tons) Speed: Unknown Built: Unknown Owned by Unknown Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Helmet Wreck, formerly known as the Depth Charge Wreck, is a rare example of an intact shipwreck in Palau. Wreck hunter Dan E. Bailey discovered the ship on January 18th 1990. The true name of this ship is unknown and she was not documented in any of the navy archives. Potentially the ship was confiscated in Southeast Asia during the war (Tanaka 2007:89). On the aft starboard side of the ship a massive explosion tore open the hull revealing the ribs of the ship and scattering drum-like depth charges onto the sea floor. The exposed main-cargo-hold reveals stacks of depth charges neatly arranged on the port side and, due to a massive explosion, scattered around on the starboard side. Under the port upper deck stacks of helmets can be found, now cemented together by decades of underwater corrosion. In the starboard side of another cargo hold are stored two “Lewis-type” machine guns. These apparently were the guns that would normally be mounted on the bases positioned on each side of the bridge. These machine guns were not prepared �for use by the ship’s crewmembers. There is a round aft gun platform and the gun barrel is pointing to port amid the mangled steel of the collapsed gun mount (Figure 3). Aboard the wreck was found a ceramic wash-basin bearing the logo of Toyo Toki, a ceramic making company in Japan. This suggests that this ship was renovated to some extent by Japanese. A two-headed winch is mounted just forward on the bow. The anchor chain extends from the port hawsehole pipe, while the starboard anchor is in its stowed position. This suggests that the ship was anchored close to shore in a group of small coral islets in the south of Aurapushekaru Channel, for the protection against the bombs and torpedoes of the attacking aircraft. On an islet near the sinking point many bullet holes can be seen. Figure 3. Round aft gun platform of the Helmet Wreck (T.Ishimura). Buoy # 6 Wreck Location: Malakal Channel Depth: The wreck is resting upright near marker # 6 at 27 meters. Deck is 21 meters deep. The hull is perpendicular to southwest slope and the bow is �pointing to the northeast. Orientation (from stern to bow): Northeast General Information: Type: Bonito fishing boat (probably converted to a submarine chaser) Length: 30 meters Tonnage: Unknown Speed: Unknown Built: Unknown Owned by Unknown Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: This small vessel known as Buoy #6 wreck was a bonito fishing boat converted to a submarine chaser. The original name of this ship is unknown, and she is not documented in any of the navy archives. A pair of outlet conduits can be seen on the portside, which is a feature of bonito fishing boats. A circular gun platform is mounted on the bow but the gun is missing. Two sections of superstructure can be seen amidships. A survivor of Iro related that he was rescued by a group of bonito fishing boats from Yaizu, Shizuoka Prefecture in Japan (Tanaka 2007:87). It is a known fact that, not only, commercial vessels but also many fishing boats were used for military purposes during the War. The ship of Bouy # 6 may have been a member of such a group. Interpretations and discussion The research on the wrecks revealed that most of the vessels sunken in Palau were not main-force vessels of Japanese forces but auxiliary vessels and converted vessels originally built for non-combat purposes. The Iro was not an original military vessel but an oil tanker and was not suited for direct combat. In addition, the ship was old and slow in speed. The Akashi was heavily damaged by the attack in Truk and hardly managed to escape with the other vessels of the fleet. The other vessels were not genuine military vessels but former commercial vessels such as cargo ships and bonito fishing boats. Some of them have not been documented in military records. This implies that the number of military �vessels were so insufficient that commercial vessels were used for military purpose in the later part of the War. These vessels were also “slow boats”. They were too slow to catch up with other members of the fleet such as battleships, cruisers and destroyers. They were left behind as a “third wheel” of the Combined Fleet. Moreover, the vessels were not well-equipped for combat activity. Most of them had only one or two gun turrets to fight against enemy aircrafts. Lack of ammunition forced them to be engaged more difficult battles. Nonetheless, much of the vessels anchored in the harbor and continued intercepting against aircrafts until they sunk. Due to these factors it is considered that this was a suicidal mission, as is the case with the “banzai” and “kamikaze” suicide bombing attacks in battles on Peleliu and other islands in the Pacific region. The evidence provided here demonstrates the difficulties and the desperate campaign of the Japanese forces in the later part of the WWII. Studies on shipwrecks and other war-associated sites will provide further evidence that are thus far not known to exist in documents. Underwater investigations on wrecks also indicate the importance of documentation by underwater archaeological methods and implementation of proper conservation management for the UCH in Palau. The vessels and artifacts have deteriorated due to the combined causes of bombing, aging and salvaging activities, therefore it is necessary to record the current state of conservation of these properties. The Akashi site also needs to be protected, for a number of artifacts are distributed in the debris field even though the vessel itself has been removed. The Palauan government has designated the WWII wrecks as cultural properties and protects them by law (UNESCO 2010:77); however, some of them are still under threat by illegal treasure hunters, like the case of the Chuyo Maru. Such looting activity is impermissible and must cease, since it harms not only the cultural property of Palau but also the dignity of the dead in the wrecks and the sentiments of the bereaved families in Japan. Bibliography Bailey, D. E., WW II Wrecks of Palau, North Valley Diver Publications, 1991 California. Fish ’n Fins, n.d. D-log Palau (CD-ROM). Koror: Fish ’n Fins. �Ishimura, T., 2005 “WW II archaeology and recovery of the remains: a case in Palau”, paper presented at Inter-Congress in 2005, World Archaeology Congress, World Archaeology Congress, Osaka. Ishimura, T., 2010a “Research on the WW II sites and the cultural heritages of the Japanese Mandate Territory period in Palau”, in Bulletin of Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties 2010, pp. 12-13. (in Japanese) Ishimura, T., 2010b “Memories and sites of the war in Palau: archaeology and recovery of Japanese soldier remains”, in Kindai Koko 66, pp. 1-3. (in Japanese) Tanaka, M., Palau: Underwater Spirits of the War Dead, Namiki Shobo, 2007 Tokyo.. (in Japanese) UNESCO, 2010 Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania (edited by Ulrike Guérin, Barbara Egger and Vidha Penalva). Paris: UNESCO. Yoshimura, A., 1976 Navy Otsu Incident. Tokyo: Bungei Shunju. (in Japanese) � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/86bec8c588b397aea0a56a7bade65e9a.jpg 06796f47a61e28670c727d4c2a6a506d Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 762 Height 572 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ba10ead05a3d800009be950888c6e359.jpg a10f27c47b46dd3ca1f50ccc9ea298e3 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 990 Height 601 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f19497c2448369355cac5fd754fc6371.jpg b3888cf1d575c5f532f9c14c5425e1aa Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 736 Height 551 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Investigation of Abandoned WW II Wrecks in Palau Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource Over forty Japanese vessels were sunken in the water of Palau during WWII. Some wrecks sunk in the shallow water at a depth of 20 meters or less and were salvaged. Other wrecks at 30 meters depth or more still remain and are legally protected by the authority of Palau Government but are seriously threatened by illegal treasure hunters. Initial efforts to identify human remains of Japanese soldiers were made in 2005. As part of an archaeology advisory team for the Japanese Government I carried out underwater surveys of sunken WWII vessels in Palau. In 2010 and 2011, I conducted investigations of the WWII vessels again, together with on-shore research on sites and features associated with the Japanese occupation period, funded by the Takanashi Foundation for Arts and Archaeology (Japan). The research revealed that the most of the vessels sunken in Palau were not genuine military vessels of Japanese Imperial Navy or Army but converted vessels originally built for non-combat purposes. These vessels were slow in speed and not well-equipped for combat activity. Most of them were destroyed by American aerial bombing on March 30th 1944. The evening before (March 29th) the main force of the Japanese Combined Fleet, including its flagship Musashi, retreated from Palau. It is clear that the vessels left in Palau were abandoned as a “third wheel” of the Combined Fleet. These abandoned-converted vessels include cargo carriers, tankers, whaling boats and fishing boats. This implies that Japanese troops were experiencing a difficult and desperate campaign at that time. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tomo Ishimura Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e22b97197633a359fdb1e9851f0a5caa.pdf 050d29573439d69629db8be4700a9afc PDF Text Text Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? Reflections on the role of ‘shared’ colonial heritage within capacity building programs in the postcolonial world Dr. Robert Parthesius Abstract The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) has been involved in developing Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programs (MUCH) in Asia and Africa since the 1990s. Although these programs aimed for a general development of capacity and awareness for MUCH in the specific region, often the focal point of the program was international (colonial) heritage sites. Although understandable from the practical implication of funding opportunities and available expertise of the international trainers, our experiences showed that this focus was not ideal for the establishment of a sustainable policy on MUCH management in the post colonial countries. Building on that experience CIE has developed a vision on international cooperation that places MUCH in a broader perspective by including a platform of local and international stakeholders in all stages of the program. Through discussions about the relevance of the MUCH sites for the various stakeholders awareness can be raised for each other’s perspective on this type of heritage. Since the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) explicitly promotes international cooperation and given the reality that many MUCH sites in Asia and Africa are linked with the past of European expansion, it is important to develop a vision on the role of this colonial heritage that is seen by some as ‘shared heritage’ within the national, regional and global context. This paper evaluates the MUCH programs of the CIE in Asia and Africa and hopes with this to open the discussion on best practices in establishing a sustainable MUCH program on a local/regional level but promotes at the same time international cooperation to be inclusive for all types of MUCH. Introduction From the 16th century, Dutch mariners explored the world outside Europe in the wake of other European nations. In the space of only a few decades they built up an international shipping and trade network. The diverse activities that derived from this commercial expansion, military expeditions and the later colonial rule have left many traces behind. For quite some time, the Netherlands has been interested in the legacy of the age of Dutch and European expansion. This is seen as an important period that is associated in the Dutch national memory with mixed feelings of pride and shame. In many countries where the traces of this period have been preserved, this period also forms an important marker in their history and national identity. Netherlands policymakers introduced Mutual Cultural Heritage in the 1990’s to label the heritage of the Dutch expansion and colonial period. This term, which can also be translated and used as Common or Shared Cultural Heritage, has been the subject of some debate because the remnants of a Dutch presence do not automatically lead to mutual appreciation (Fienieg and Parthesius 2008). The overall objective of the Dutch Mutual Cultural Heritage Policy (MCHP 2009-2012) is to, "collaborate on the sustainable maintenance and management of common cultural heritage, on the basis of reciprocal political and substantive involvement". The aims and the associated funds of the MCHP also provided an excellent basis for programs focusing on the management of Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) sites like shipwrecks and maritime installations that the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the West India Company (WIC) left behind worldwide. Since the 1990’s, the author and the Centre for �International Heritage Activities (CIE) have been involved in the development of MUCH capacity building programs in Asia and Africa. Between 1998 and 2007 a program was implemented around the remains of the VOC-ship Avondster wrecked in 1659 in the Bay of Galle, Sri Lanka. In 2007 another MUCH capacity building program was initiated in Southern Africa (Tanzania, Zanzibar and South Africa). Although the funding still came mainly through Dutch funds, the set-up of these programs changed from a focus on colonial heritage to a focus on the development of a local vision on the relevance and importance of MUCH. The Dutch Culture and Development programme turned out to be another valuable framework (and funding source) for the set-up of more general MUCH programs that not only focus on the remains of the European expansion but also on the development of strategies to raise awareness for local perspectives on MUCH. The UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972 and the 2001 Convention formed a framework for the international cooperation. In this paper, the structure, results and development of some of these MUCH programs are discussed. Specifically, the programs in Sri Lanka and South Africa are compared in order to investigate the role that colonial/shared cultural heritage has in the development of a sustainable capacity building program. Is it possible to use a colonial heritage site to stimulate a local perspective on MUCH and to build capacity in the partner country? Sri Lanka: the Avondster project Since the early 1990’s, a team of Sri Lankan and international maritime archaeologists, historians and museum curators has conducted research, on request from the Sri Lankan authorities, in the Bay of Galle and in the extensive archives in Sri Lanka and the Netherlands. Underwater surveys have revealed an impressive number of heritage sites, dating from the 13th century up to modern times (Parthesius 2007). Based on this first inventory of underwater heritage sites in the Bay of Galle, an ambitious capacity building programme was formulated in order to establish suitable infrastructure for the management of MUCH sites. In 2001, a Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) was formed under the Mutual Heritage Centre, managed by the Sri Lankan government agency, the Central Cultural Fund, in cooperation with international partners in the Netherlands, Australia and Mexico, and sponsored by the Netherlands Cultural Fund (derived from MCHP). Their first major project was the excavation of the Avondster, one of five Dutch East-Indiamen wrecked in the World Heritage Site Galle (for details see Wijamunige this volume). During the 1993, 1996 and 1997 expeditions to Galle Harbor, the wreck of the Avondster was discovered and identified (Green, et al. 1998). A survey and testexcavation in 1998 and 1999 revealed a site in an excellent state of preservation; a rich source of material finds and historical knowledge was anticipated. The wreck site is situated about 80 metres off the beach in about 4 metres of water. From a diving safety perspective it was deemed suitable for training, although visibility was often poor. The site was relatively easy to interpret underwater, enabling the archaeologists to understand the construction techniques used on a 17th century East- Indiaman. The Avondster was also historically well documented, which allowed the Sri Lankan archaeologists to be introduced to historical-archaeological research. The Avondster site was also selected because it was under threat. Due to changes on land caused by the building of a sea wall and the channeling from storm- �water drains, the Avondster had become increasingly exposed throughout the 1990s (Parthesius 1998). The Avondster project had a number of aims in addition to the survey, excavation and conservation of the site and the artefacts. One of the primary goals was, through the involvement of the Sri Lankan archaeologists and conservators, to build up local capacity and the associated infrastructure, so that they could continue with a maritime archaeology programme in Sri Lanka into the future. Another important goal was the development of a Maritime Museum, based to some extent on the material recovered from the Avondster but also incorporating Sri Lanka’s broader maritime history, its sites and the people involved. Figure 1. NAS training of the members of the Maritime Archaeological Unit, Sri Lanka, 2001 The opportunity to conduct a professional archaeological excavation using the highest possible standards was seen as an appropriate step to take in protecting the site. It would also demonstrate how important archaeological information could be obtained and disseminated to the community. The Avondster-project involved the pre-disturbance survey of the exposed part of the site, excavation of trenches in the bow, midships and stern areas, and the recovery of about 3,000 artefacts, an iron cannon and a large iron anchor. In addition to the archaeological requirements, the development of a conservation infrastructure, conservation training, and implementation of conservation techniques were also deemed to be of equal �importance (Parthesius, et al. 2005). In cooperation with the Conservation Department of the Western Australian Maritime Museum, the Amsterdam Historical Museum and The Instituto National de Antropologia e Historia in Mexico, a wellequipped conservation laboratory was built. A small team of conservators was trained in many of the techniques required to conserve maritime archaeological objects. Since the inception of the Avondster-project in 1998, the primary aim of the work carried out by the foreign consultants has been to train members of the MAU as conservators and maritime archaeologists so that they would have the skills to function autonomously. This aspect has been emphasized during every field season. As part of this training, many foreign consultants with various skills have worked with the MAU team. The use of different consultants has broadened the MAU team’s exposure to different experiences, thereby giving them the benefit of alternative approaches and many years of accumulated experience and knowledge. To accompany the training provided by specialist consultants to the Sri Lankan team, a detailed system of assessment was designed. A very significant outcome of this project was that the Sri Lankan team collaborated with the foreign consultants who produced a two-volume publication on the work implemented on the Avondster (Parthesius 2007). In addition, through a UNESCO initiative, the Galle MAU served as a regional training centre in maritime archaeology for the Asia/Pacific region with field schools in 2006, 2007 and 2008 (http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=4944). Figure 2. Preparing a barrel for raising from the Avondster-site, Galle, Sri Lanka, 2004 �The Avondster-project is considered a success but there is an important side note to make that refers to the sustainability of MUCH management through wellestablished awareness and a sense of ownership. The program in Sri Lanka was possible because a Dutch VOC vessel was under threat and we could persuade the Netherlands Cultural Fund to invest in a capacity building programme around this colonial shipwreck that has been labeled ‘mutual heritage’. The built capacity turned out to be sustainable because the focus on a colonial shipwreck against the background of the fortified city of Galle is seen as important heritage and connected with the cultural identity of Sri Lanka. Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Programme in Southern Africa On invitation by South Africa and Tanzania, the CIE took the opportunity in 2007 to build on the experience gained in Sri Lanka and formulated a four-phased MUCH capacity building programme that recognized the importance of establishing a local tradition and vision on this specific type of heritage. Key in this set-up is to bring all relevant stakeholders together and encourage full involvement, ranging from political commitment to community engagement. Unlike the project in Sri Lanka, the focus on Mutual Cultural Heritage in South Africa would not be developing a framework for the ‘new MUCH programme’. For South Africa this would start the cooperation on the wrong footing since the colonial heritage has a negative annotation. An ‘open definition process’ started with multiple stakeholders deciding relevant subjects and sites for a MUCH programme. A universal framework for the MUCH programme was found in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972 and the 2001 Convention. Figure 3. Surveying an intertidal shipwreck on Robben Island, South Africa, 2010. �South Africa Since 2007 CIE has assisted the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) in developing a MUCH program in South Africa. The Netherlands involvement came about through their funding contribution to the program through the Netherlands Culture and Development Program. South Africa contains some of the oldest evidence of human occupation in the world and some of this evidence may be found around its coastline and underwater. The ongoing importance, use and exploitation of the sea and inland waterways by communities are evident today from numerous types of sites, traditional cultural practices and customs. Many shipwrecks from the activities of foreign explorers, traders and colonialists can also be found in its waters. South Africa therefore contains a range of tangible and intangible heritage, significant and relevant to contemporary communities and contributing toward the cultural identity of the country. The workshops organized on Robben Island in 2010 and 2011 included a number of participants, particularly those from South African stakeholders other than SAHRA, being educated in parts of the NAS theoretical and practical training program. One of the aims of the practical workshops was to build-up a database of the Robben Island MUCH sites (on land and underwater). Robben Island and its surrounding waters contain in excess of 100 sites (many with poor provenance and lacking documentation) and the outcomes of the practical work will assist the Robben Island Museum in beginning the documentation and management of this component of its cultural landscape. Apart from the direct capacity that has been built amongst various representatives of government agents, students, volunteers and of course the SAHRA staff, the project has a important focus on the development of public awareness and an African vision on MUCH. The discussions with many stakeholders and relevant communities have led to the selection of so-called “Legacy Sites”, representing the vision on MUCH in South Africa. They are not intended to be an exhaustive list, they are simply ‘highlights’ to begin to describe how diverse South Africa’s relationship with water actually is. In this stage of the programme four Legacy Sites have been selected: The shipwreck site of the Barrel Wreck in the Table Bay shows the strong linkages of South Africa with an international shipping network (Sharfman 2012). It was selected as a legacy site because not only is it a good example of a ‘traditional’ underwater archaeological site but it is relatively easy to access and monitor, thus use for training and specialized studies can help answer conservation and management questions regarding similar sites. Robben Island is also linked with the international maritime connections. As a place of isolation, it has a long history of banishment and imprisonment, stretching back to the first settlers who brought their political opponents from the colonies in the Far East (Deacon 1996). The fact that the site is an Island means that almost all the activities that took place there have an inherent connection with the ocean. The fish weirs at Stillbaai and Arniston are an important element in the MUCH sites because they represent the relationship of local communities with the sea. These stonewall fish traps are of undetermined age but were used by local fishermen for at least the past century. The fish weirs could be anything �from 200 to 2000 years old. This poses several interesting questions regarding traditional fishing practices and interactions between settlers and indigenes. Lake Fundudzi has been identified as Legacy Site due to its intangible connection with water. The lake is situated in the northeast of the Limpopo Province and is viewed as the only natural inland lake in Southern Africa. For the Vhavenda people, however, the lake is more than just a natural water body, as it forms a rich heritage of folklore, myths and ceremonial rituals. It is their burial site and is therefore sacred and believed to be the home of ancestral spirit of the Vhatavhatsindi people who claim their ancestors discovered the lake when they moved into South Africa from Zimbabwe (Sharfman, 2012). The living heritage that surrounds the lake, such as the communities’ cultural practices, could be extrapolated to a broader understanding of African ways and means of dealing with its past, for instance broader African religious and spiritual relationships with water. These practices often provide a tangible element to the intangible aspects of spirits and their mediums with water. Broader research needs to be included in the submission as water is a central feature in the living heritage of numerous people. Figure 4. Lake Fundudzi, Limpopo, South Africa, 2010. Considerations and conclusions As emphasized by the Avondster-project, sustainability in a country or region is only possible when a capacity building programme has been put together in collaboration with the relevant stakeholders (political, academic and bureaucratic). To obtain this, it is important that an awareness of the different values of maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) is appreciated between all stakeholders. It is in that context also necessary to create and implement practicable measures to stimulate public �awareness. This can be achieved in part through community engagement programmes, which implement MUCH projects for the benefit of contemporary communities. In addition to reviving or helping to maintain traditional cultural practices and protect and preserve indigenous sites in less developed countries, one of the benefits could be an economic gain through the re-use of UCH and through tourism managed by the local community. Cultural heritage sites from the colonial period, that have been labeled Mutual Cultural Heritage from the Dutch perspective, take a prominent position in both Sri Lanka and South Africa. Through the nature of the European expansion, many of the remains of this period (e.g. port cities, harbor installations, fortifications and shipwrecks) can be considered MUCH sites. The fact that they are located in prominent places and that the Netherlands consider it Mutual Cultural Heritage, doesn’t mean automatically that the partner countries may also consider it important heritage linked with their own cultural identity. Sri Lanka and South Africa are different in that respect. In Sri Lanka the built heritage of the so-called Dutch Period (1640-1796) is considered heritage of ‘Dual Parentship’. The World Heritage Site Galle is considered as the highlight of that heritage. The wreck of the VOC-ship Avondster does not fall under that concept. It was in a sense new heritage because before its discovery in 1993 neither the Netherlands nor Sri Lanka were aware of its existence. Placed in the context of Galle, but not as a product of Sri Lanka-Dutch design, the Avondster-site was considered Mutual Cultural Heritage instead of heritage of Dual Parentship.1 This concept made the Avondster very suitable and reciprocal for research and for the development of capacity and heritage management strategies for this site. However, it kept the perspective on the MUCH sites in the whole of Sri Lanka very narrow. The context for cooperation in South Africa was totally different. Cultural heritage plays an important role in the development of the ‘New South Africa’ after the first democratic elections of 1994. Cultural identity is key in the nation building process after the country was divided and scattered under the Apartheid regime (1948-1994). Although the authorities are acting very responsibly towards the inclusion of the cultural heritage of the former repressors, it is clear that VOC heritage is not generally and popularly linked with the South African cultural identity. Consequently these types of sites could not be a starting point for the set-up of a capacity building program. The cooperation was therefore centered on the technical assistance that international experts could bring to the development of MUCH management in South Africa. Since stimulating the development of a local vision on MUCH is a key activity in the CIE’s capacity building vision, this element was also included in the programme. The sometimes-heated discussions during the workshops on the relevance of MUCH for South Africa led to a vision on the heritage that expressed the relationship of the communities with the sea and water in general. The identification of the four Legacy Sites shows how inclusive this vision is. The work that is in progress on the Legacy Sites has only scratched the surface of the rich and diverse MUCH of South Africa. A great deal of work is still required. This will entail an examination of the challenges of redefining MUCH and the collecting of data to describe and analyze the sites. With diversification of the scope of MUCH comes the question of fitting MUCH into the heritage themes that are currently significant in South Africa. Is the new approach to MUCH relevant, and how are the identified sites relevant to all South Africans? The field has moved beyond 1 Ironically the site can be considered as heritage of Anglo-Dutch dual parentship since the Avondster was a captured and modified ship from the English East India Company. �the confines of “physical sites”, “maritime” or “underwater” cultural heritage towards an integrated and holistic, seamless study of heritage associated with varied bodies of water within which tangible and intangible heritage can be explored. This is a very exciting process of reciprocity in which we could assist with the transfer of technical skills and knowhow, and where together we created a platform of discussion in the region that has led to a unique vision on ‘water heritage’ from an African perspective. Bibliography Deacon, H., 1996 Fienieg, A., Parthesius, R. 2008 Green, J. N., Devendra, S. and Parthesius, R., 1998 Dutch Mutual Cultural Heritage Policy (MCHP) 2009-2012 Parthesius, R., 1998 Parthesius, R., Millar, K., Jeffery, B., 2005 Parthesius, R., 2007 Parthesius, R., 2010 Sharfman, J., Masuku-Van Damme, S.L., Parthesius, R. In print UNESCO fieldschool 2006-2008 The Island, A History of Robben Island, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town. “Heritage trails: International cultural heritage policies in a European perspective”, in (ed) Gert, Oostindie, Migration and cultural heritage in the Dutch colonial world, KITLV Press, Leiden Report for the Sri Lanka Department of Archaeology Galle Harbour project 1996–1997 archaeology, history, conservation and training, Special Publication No. 4, Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology, WA Maritime Museum. Common Cultural Heritage Policy Framework 20092012, AVT09/BZ93771 http://awad.kitlv.nl/home/show_news/71?page_name=news Archives and Wreckes: Australian-Dutch co-operation. in Green, J (ed) The Ancods colloquium. 68-74. “Preliminary Report on the Excavation of the 17th-Century Anglo-Dutch East-Indiaman Avondster in Bay of Galle, Sri Lanka”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 34, 2 pp. 216-237. Excavation report of the VOC-ship Avondster, The AngloDutch East-Indiaman that was wrecked twice in Ceylon, Centre of International Heritage Activities special publication No. 1, Amsterdam. Dutch Ships in Tropical waters. The development of a shipping network in Asia 1595-1660, Amsterdam University Press. New Perspectives on Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage in South Africa. Cape Town 2012 (in print) http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=4944 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? Reflections on the role of 'shared' colonial heritage within capacity building programs in the postcolonial world Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) has been involved in developing Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programs (MUCH) in Asia and Africa since the 1990s. Although these programs aimed for a general development of capacity and awareness for MUCH in the specific region, often the focal point of the program was international (colonial) heritage sites. Although understandable from the practical implication of funding opportunities and available expertise of the international trainers, our experiences showed that this focus was not ideal for the establishment of a sustainable policy on MUCH management in the post colonial countries. Building on that experience CIE has developed a vision on international cooperation that places MUCH in a broader perspective by including a platform of local and international stakeholders in all stages of the program. Through discussions about the relevance of the MUCH sites for the various stakeholders awareness can be raised for each other’s perspective on this type of heritage. Since the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) explicitly promotes international cooperation and given the reality that many MUCH sites in Asia and Africa are linked with the past of European expansion, it is important to develop a vision on the role of this colonial heritage that is seen by some as ‘shared heritage’ within the national, regional and global context. This paper evaluates the MUCH programs of the CIE in Asia and Africa and hopes with this to open the discussion on best practices in establishing a sustainable MUCH program on a local/regional level but promotes at the same time international cooperation to be inclusive for all types of MUCH. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Robert Parthesius Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/15d494d7b18aeee72a24fbc0d2e01176.pdf 51b4d2c4db8bfac50d93cfd0a902df2a PDF Text Text The Belitung Wreck Site After Commercial Salvage In 1998 Agus Sudaryadi Abstract The Belitung Shipwreck Site, located at 17 meters (m) depth in Belitung waters, Indonesia, is a shipwreck site containing Tang Dynasty (AD 618-906) cargo that was lifted by private salvage companies, Limited Corporation/Perusahaan Terbatas (PT). Sulung Segara Jaya and Seabed Exploration Company in 1998. 1 The salvaging process was done without involving Indonesian State archaeologists. The shipwreck is an Arab or Indian vessel that includes 60,000 artifacts from the Tang Dynasty. In 2005, the artifacts sold to Singapore Sentosa Leisure Group. In 2010, the Office for Cultural Heritage Preservation of Jambi conducted the first underwater archaeological survey at Belitung Shipwreck site in order to find out the conditions of the site after the salvaging operation. The result shows that the site is extremely ravaged, with unidentified ceramic fragments spread out in a radius of ± 20 square meters (m²). It seems clear that the ceramic fragments have been removed by the company then thrown back into the sea because considered non-commercial. Meanwhile, the structure of the actual shipwreck was not found. It was only a big hole with 6 m wide and 15 m long, which seems to be where the ship may have settled. The remnants are now just a few small wood fragments and a sizable chunk of wood, this maybe the mast-step. The Belitung Shipwreck is recognized worldwide as an extremely valuable find in Indonesian waters. Preservation efforts are needed to remind future generations that the shipwreck site very important for underwater archaeology in Indonesia. Some preservation efforts that can be done are legal protection, site rehabilitation, and establishing a maritime museum in Belitung Regency. The last of which efforts have initiated two years ago with the aim to preserve artifacts from Belitung shipwreck site and other underwater sites in Bangka Belitung Province. Keywords: Belitung, Tang cargo, Shipwreck site, Preservation Introduction The Fantastic selling price of the cargo of De Geldermalsen salvaged by Michael Hatcher in Riau water has stimulated businessmen in Indonesia who want to try their luck to get treasure. It encouraged the government to form a National Committee, one of its responsibilities is to manage licenses, salvage, and exploitation. One of the salvaged shipwrecks is Belitung Wreck or popularly known as the Tang Cargo. The company which salvaged it was PT. Sulung Segara Jaya and Seabed Exploration, a German company. The company carried out excavation work at the site in September and October 1998, and continued in April 1999 (Flecker 2001:335). The process of salvage was done without involving archaeologists or Indonesian researchers. The Belitung wreck is the first archaeological evidence for direct trade between the western Indian Ocean and China. A remarkable portion of the ship’s hull survived. The hull planks were stitched together, with no sign of wooden dowels or iron fastening. The keel is 15.3 m long, a keelson, stringers, ceiling planks, and thwart beams still in 1 The term salvage is associated to random removal of ship parts or cargo for their reuse or sale; excavation is the term used for scientific methodology in the removal of heritage objects �place. The majority of the surviving cargo consisted of ceramics from the Changsha kilns2 of China. Primarily bowls and ewers, but also a smattering of figurines and jarlets. Other significant finds from the wreck include white-ware from the famous Ding Kilns, and Yue wares3 from Zhejiang Province, several rare pieces of high-fired blue and white, lead ballasts, some pieces of resin which would come from Sumatra, pillowshaped silver ingots, and a number of gold vessels (Flecker 2001:336-345). How is the Belitung Wreck now? Only fragments of tile remain and useless cuts of wood on the site. They are scattered about the seabed in 17 m depth to the west of Belitung Island. The identified cuts of wood are not known from which part of the wreck, if at all, the may have originated. Potentially, a propped-up wood chunk is the maststep. A long sand pit indicates the site of the shipwreck where it was found by the salvagers. What should be done with the ruins? This shipwreck is the only known ship from the 9th century Anno Domini (AD) that has been found. It needs preserving. Belitung Wreck now The location of Belitung Wreck site is in the Western Belitung Island. Its geographical location includes Batu Itam (Black Rock) village area, Sijuk district, Belitung regency, Bangka Belitung Archipelago province. To get to the site, we can start from Batu Itam beach about 3 km (1.8 mile) or from Nusantara port in Tanjung Pandan city, from which the distance is 8.8 km (5.4 mile). The visibility is quite good at around 5-7 m. Figure 1. The Location of The Belitung Wreck (Google Earth) The result of the survey done in November 2010 shows that the salvaging of the Belitung Wreck left broken jar and bowl ceramics. The scattered fragments of jars and 2 3 Changsha kilns located in Hunan Province where the ceramics produced a porcelain that the ancient Chinese likened to snow because of its delicacy �bowls are in about 20 m2 surrounding the wreck site. It seems that the fragments were lifted then thrown away again into the sea because of their broken condition. Figure 2. Fragment of Jars and Bowls in Seabed (Agus Sudaryadi/Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jambi) Meanwhile, the ship itself can not be found again. There are only some small wood chunks left. The sinking of the ship in the seabed left a trace in the form of 6 m wide and 15 m long hole with orientation South West – North East. In the hole, there are many small fragments of tile and a part of the ship which is identified as the mast-step (Manurung 2010:8). Figure 3. a small wood fragment (Agus Sudaryadi/Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jambi) �Figure 4. The wood predicted as the mast-step (Agus Sudaryadi/Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jambi) Preservation Efforts The condition of Belitung Wreck is unknown so far after salvaging in 1998. We have no data about its. As a consequence, there have not been any preservation steps taken. There are many factors that cause this, some of which are unavailable human resources (see Wahjudin this volume) and the preservation of underwater sites has never been done before in Indonesia. Due to that case, in my opinion, the preservation that can be done is legal protection, it becomes the collection of maritime museum and a site rehabilitation is needed. a) Legal Protection UCH protection in Indonesia is very neglected compared with land cultural heritage. The salvaging of De Geldermalsen (The Nanking Cargo) incident in Riau Archipelago waters by Michael Hatcher in 1985-1986 has stirred up government and society (Utomo 2008:20-21). The auction 140,000 tiles and 225 bars of gold was held by Christie’s in Amsterdam totaled US$18 million. The Government reacted by implementing Presidential Decree No. 43 of 1989 on the National Committee for Salving and Exploiting Valuable Objects Retrieved from Shipwreck (henceforth referred to as the National Committee). The National Committee’s duty is to manage the licensing of survey, salvage, and exploitation4. The laws which protected Indonesian culture heritage at that time was Monumenten Ordonnantie (Netherland Law) No. 19 of 1931 (Staatblad 1931 No. 238) then changed into Monumenten Ordonnantie No. 21 of 1934 (Staatblad 1934 No. 515). 4 Until now, The Indonesia Government has issued three Presidential Decree, Presidential Decree No. 43/1989, Presidential Decree No. 107/2000, and Presidential Decree No. 19/2007. Now the National Comitte Chairman is Ministry of Marine and Fisheries. �From the salvaging of Geldermalsen’s cargo, Indonesia got neither financial nor non-financial award. The result of the auction was not done clearly, meanwhile the process of lifting, packing, conservation, and auction did not involve Indonesian archaeologists at all. Thus, there was no data, documentation nor improvement of underwater archaeologists’ knowledge in Indonesia. One of the more horrendous consequences of the event is that an Indonesian archaeologist is considered dead, his body thus far not found, who was active in the investigation of locating the Geldermalsen. He was an alumni of an underwater archaeologist training course held in Thailand in 1985 and 1986 (SEAMEO Project of Archaeology and Fine Arts). That incident left deep pain for Indonesian archaeologists and a gap in the knowledge on Indonesian UCH. To replace the old ineffective law in the Law No. 5/1992 was issued concerning culture heritage objects. The weakness of Indonesian law has been exploited by the looter and the salvaging of UCH. The cargo which is known as Belitung Wreck has been desalinated, conserved, and researched in New Zealand. The cargo taken out of the country against the rule. The auction conducted by Christie’s with a total earnings of US$32 million. The agreement that obliged the salvagers to share half the value was broken with only US$2.5 million delivered in total (Rachel 2009; Sofian 2010:21). In 1999 salvaging by Michael Hatcher occurred again to a shipwreck in Gaspar straits which is known as Teksing Cargo. The major findings were blue and white ceramics about 18th – 19th century AD produced in Dehua Kiln in Fujian Province. Not only ceramics, from the cargo found cannon, objects of brass and copper, watches, china ink container, folding knife, and incense burner (Widiati 2007:35). They were shipped to Australia in 43 containers. All the cargo of the ship was sold by Nagel auction in Stuttgart, Germany in November 2000. It sold 350,000 ceramics at a total 7,2 million deutsch marks (DM). The Indonesian government got only 2 million DM and only 1,000 ceramics (Wahjudin 2003:17). The forming of National Committee did not reduce the illegal salvaging of UCH. During 2005 – 2011 there have been eleven cases. Meanwhile, survey and legal salvaging were only 26. Of all the incidents, there was only one successful archaeological excavation namely the Cirebon Wreck salvaged by PT. Paradigma Putera Sejahtera cooperate with Cosmix, Belgia. The process of salvaging was done systematically under the supervision of government officials. There were 500,000 ceramics, objects of gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, bottle, glass, beads, coin, and precious stones (Utomo 2008:35-60). Law protection toward UCH in Indonesia has changed by the issue of Law No. 11/2010 on Culture Heritage. This new law is more firm in managing the discovery of culture heritage in the water and the repercussions for bringing it abroad. There are heavy punishments for those who break the law. The explanation about that is as follow: Discovery Government is obliged to bring about discovering of objects, building, structure and location predicted as Culture Heritage. The discovery of culture heritage or predicted as culture heritage can be done individually by excavating, diving, and/or lifting in the land and/or in the water. The discovery as meant in Verse (1) and (2) can only be done through research with caring about belonging right and location authority. �Everyone is prohibited to carry out discovery of culture heritage or predicted as culture heritage by excavating, diving, and/or lifting in the land and/or in the water as meant in Verse (2), except with license from government or local government with its authority. (Article 26, Versus 1-4) Carrying Foreigners and/or law institution can not possess and/or dominate culture heritage, except foreigners and/or foreign law institution that live and inhibit in Indonesia territorial; Foreigners and/or foreign law institution as meant in Verse (1) is prohibited to carry Culture Heritage, either all or a part of it, out of Indonesia territory. (Article 14, Verse 1 and 2) Culture Heritage, either all or a part of it, can only be brought out of Indonesia territory for the sake of research, cultural promotion, and/or exhibition; Everyone is forbidden to bring Culture Heritage as meant in Verse (1), except by Minister Permission . (Article 68, Verse 1 and 2) Punishment Everybody without governmental license or local government bring about discovery of Culture Heritage as meant in Article 26 Verse (4) is punished by sending to jail at least 3 (three) months and the longest is 10 (ten) years and/or fined at least Rp. 150,000,000,- (one hundred and fifty million rupiahs) and the most is Rp. 1,000,000,000 (one billion rupiahs). (Article 103) Everybody without ministry licence, bring Cultural Heritage out of Indonesia territory as meant in article 68 Verse (2) is punished by sending to jail at least 6 (six) months and the longest is 10 (ten) years and/or fined at least Rp. 200,000,000,- (two hundred million rupiahs) and the most is Rp. 1,500,000,000,- (one billion and five hundred million rupiahs). (Article 109) How is the law protection of underwater culture heritage in Indonesia? still a lot of shipwreck site is not determined yet. Whereas, in Law No. 5/1992 about Culture Heritage Objects Verse 11 states, “Government determines the finding of Culture Heritage Objects or objects predicted as Culture Heritage Objects as meant in Article 10 Verse 1 about the site with its border”. Government Regulation No. 10 of 1993 about the implementation of Law No. 5/1992 about Culture Heritage Objects Article 24 Verse (1) states, “ in conserving Culture Heritage Objects Government decides the site”. Meanwhile Law No. 11/2010 has changed the determining of Culture Heritage becomes national and local government’s responsibility. According to verse (1): Regent and mayor issue the determining of Culture Heritage status 30 (thirty) days the longest after the recommendation is accepted by experts team which states the object, building. structures, location and/or geographic space unit which is registered as Culture Heritage. Regency and municipality government convey the result of determining to Provincial Government and continued to the central government. (Article 35) Government and local government can bring about the ranking of Culture Heritage based on the importance to be national ranking, province ranking, and regency/municipality ranking based on recommendation from Culture Heritage Expert Team.(Article 41) The determination of Belitung Wreck site as a possible site is due to survey result data (Manurung 2010:8-9). It was done after 12 years since its salvage. Before that, the obstacle of determining the location of the underwater site was lack of survey, so there was no underwater site data available that could aide in its identification. �Legal protection of the Belitung wreck and other underwater sites would need to be followed by marking the protect sites, both on land and at sea. The sign is installed on land are information board. The board provide information about the history of the particular wreck and layout of the site, but will also carry a strong conservation message, stressing the legal protection, and the responsibilities of divers when visiting them. The board installed adjacent to the slipway at a harbor from which divers access to a shipwreck. While at sea, the location of shipwreck with an installed buoy. The buoy is moored with rope/chain which is bound around the cement block in the seabed. On the cement block, there is a bronze plaque of the writing relating its lawful determination. b) Maritime Museum Since two years ago the Indonesian government prepared to build a maritime museum in Belitung Island. At that time, there were 8 hectares of land available for development. The choosing of Belitung Island as the location of maritime museum is quite appropriate due to the amount of shipwrecks around the seawater territory of Bangka and Belitung Island. Noted since 1950-1878 43 ships sank in the Gaspar straits and surroundings, including Gaspar Island, Karang Coope, Karang Beldeveree, Karang Arang Marai (Pramono 2005:85; Tangkilisan 2009:10). Wreck site found by Arqueonautas from 2007-2010 include 27 sites located at a depth of 6 m to 53 m. Condition of the sites has been largely heavily disturbed and looted. Seven sites are European shipwreck from the 19th century AD. Two of them are believed to be the location of Alceste5 and Forbes6 (Mirabal 2008: 28; Mirabal 2011:30) Indonesia has 275 museum with only two categorized as maritime museums. They are the Museum Bahari in Jakarta and Museum Bahari in Ende, Flores. However, the museums do not have underwater heritage collections. Museum Bahari in Jakarta is Culture Preserve building inherited from the Dutch government. The building was used by Dutch government officials as storehouse to keep, choose, and pack Indonesian commodities. Museum Bahari of Jakarta was officially opened on 7th July 1977. The collection exhibited in the museum consist of various kinds of classic Vereenigde OostIndische Compagnie (VOC) boats, Indonesian traditional boat, and models of modern boat. It also includes the equipment of sailing such as navigation tools, anchors, lighthouse models, and many kinds of cannon. It displays sea biota collection (fish in Indonesia’s seawater), technology of traditional boat building, and folklore of Indonesian fishermen customs. The museum exhibits Indonesian Navy dimension, cartography, maritime kingdom heroes and figures, and photos of the voyage of Koninkelijitke Paketvaart Mattscappi KPM) ship. Museum Bahari in Ende collects sea biota in Nusa Tenggara area. The total collection amounts to 22,000 kinds. The Maritime Museum in Belitung must build a new building. Ideally, the architecture of the building reflects Indonesian culture, like the shape of the ship, Indonesian traditional building, history of Indonesian maritime, or Indonesia’s sea potential . However, based on the comparison of maritime museums in Osaka Maritime 5 The English ship was on voyage to China with a famous ambassador on board. The ship was wrecked on this reef which now bears its name, Alceste Cliff (Wells 1995:94) 6 Forbes is a English country trading ship which sank on November during its voyage from China to India (Ibid.) �Museum, Japan, Western Australian Maritime Museum, Fremantle, Australia and Maritime Museum of Chicago, USA, the maritime building in Indonesia needs to consider the concept of developing modern architecture. For the collection, museum needs to add the collection of (1) Indonesian Maritime History, (2) Indonesian Maritime Culture, (3) Sailing technology and safety, (4) Variation of water transportation, (5) Port and shipping (6) Various kinds of weaponry, tools and social material cultures related to territorial defense and security (Supardi 2009:8-13). Problems with the collection that came from the Belitung wreck is most of the objects have belonged to the Singapore Artscience Museum. Indonesian Government has only 39 ceramics which are in the National Museum. For that we need to do a good negotiation so that Indonesia government to get additional artifacts the Belitung wreck. Artifacts from Belitung Wreck will also be the collection the Museum Timah in Belitung but most of the ceramics is broken. Other ceramics are in private collections and their number is unknown. c) Site Rehabilitation As illustrated above the rest of the site is only the scattered fragments of ceramic jars and some unprovenienced wood. I think that site should be preserved in a way rehabilitated. According to Indonesia Big Dictionary, rehabilitation is the recovery to previous condition (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia 1990:737). So in this paper, rehabilitation means the recovery to condition before the salvaging. The consideration factors to do the rehabilitation of Belitung Wreck are : 1. Important underwater site as the proof of sailing in 9th century AD 2. The location is near Belitung island 3. It is located about 17 meters deep 4. It can be developed for under water tourism resorts and complete the maritime museum Site rehabilitation activity is the reordering of scattered objects on the seabed and the returning the land objects to the sea. The land objects are the fragments of ceramics in a villa which used to be a basecamp when the salvaging took place and the seizure of court given to the Museum Timah in Belitung. In addition, it is needed to make the imitation from the pieces of the ship and other objects. Belitung Wreck Site Rehabilitation is expected to support society’s curiosity after visiting the maritime museum. They conduct diving tourism to know the situation under the sea. There are two spots that can be diving tourism destination which are the location of sunken ship and the reef that cause the sunken ship. Conclusion Belitung Wreck is one of underwater site salvaged without involving Indonesian archaeologists. Since it was salvaged not many people has known the condition of the site. It is different from the objects exposed in permanent exhibition or travelling exhibitions. It causes amazement and also controversy as lifting is considered an infringement of the 2001 Convention. Belitung Wreck site can be an example of how salvaging is a loss of objects to National governments. More importantly the information of the site was lost due to there �being no report submitted to the Indonesia government on the salvage operations or any of the conservation or auction follow-ups. There were only pieces of ceramics and planks of wood left on the seabed. It would have been best if the shipwreck site had been approached as a research and preservation activity; with the inclusion of scientific considerations and the preservation/monitoring of in situ objects. In my opinion it is much better to excavate only some objects designated to be exhibited in museums while leaving the rest in situ. Bibliography Departemen Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata, 1990 Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1997 Flecker, M., 2001 Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Tim Penyusun Kamus Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Cetakan Ketiga, Balai Pustaka. Himpunan Peraturan Perundang-undangan Indonesia tentang Benda Cagar Budaya Republik ”A Ninth-century AD Arab or Indian Shipwreck in Indonesia: first evidence for direct trade with China”, in World Archaeology, Vol. 32, February Keputusan Presiden tentang Panitia Pengangkatan dan Pemanfaatan Benda Republik Indonesia Berharga Asal Muatan Kapal Tenggelam No. 34 Tahun, 1989 Keputusan Presiden tentang Panitia Pengangkatan dan Pemanfaatan Benda Republik Indonesia Berharga Asal Muatan Kapal Tenggelam No. 107 Tahun, 2000 Keputusan Presiden tentang Panitia Pengangkatan dan Pemanfaatan Benda Republik Indonesia Berharga Asal Muatan Kapal Tenggelam No. 19 Tahun, 2007 Monumenten Staatblad 1931 No. 238 Ordonnantie No. 19 1931 Monumenten Staatblad 1934 No. 515 Ordonnantie No. 21 1934 Manurung, Y. H.M., Laporan Survei Peninggalan BawahAir di Perairan Belitung, 2010 Provinsi Kepulauan Bangka Belitung, Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jambi, 2010 Archaeological Survey Report of Wreck Sites Located in The Mirabal, A., Areas of Baginda and Belvedere Reefs and Bangka and 2008 Belitung Island During 2007 Season, Arqueonautas Worldwide, Jakarta �Mirabal, A., 2011 Pramono, D., 2005 Rachel 2009 Sofian, H. O., 2010 Supardi, N., 2009 Tangkilisan, Y. B., 2009 UNESCO 2001 Undang-Undang 11 Tahun 2011 Utomo, B. B., 2008 Wahjudin, J., 2003 Wells, T., 1995 Widiati, R., 2007 1992 2010 Expedition report of the ”BUDPAR-Arqueonautas” Project in the Area of Babel During 2009-2010 Seasons (From 13/11/09 to 30/11/09 and 23/05/10 to 22/10/10), Arqueonautas Worldwide, Jakarta. Budaya Bahari, PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta Curating The Oceans: The Future of Singapore’s Past; accessed October 12th 2011: http://idlethink.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/curating-theoceans-the-future-of-singapores-past/ ”Keadaaan Terkini Situs Arkeologi Bawah Air Belitung Wreck, Perairan Batu Hitam, Kabupaten Belitung”, Jurnal Arkeologi Siddhayatra, Volume 15 Nomor 1 November, Balai Arkeologi Palembang, halaman 20-23. ”Konsep Pendirian Museum Maritim”, Seminar Persiapan Pendirian Museum Maritim di Belitung, 23 Juli 2009. ”Belitung Dalam Lintasan Sejarah Maritim Indonesia”, in Seminar Persiapan Pendirian Museum Maritim di Belitung, 23 July. Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage No. tentang Cagar Budaya Kapal Karam Abad Ke-10 Di Laut Jawa Utara Cirebon, PANNAS BMKT, Cetakan Pertama, Jakarta ”Lelang Keramik di Stuttgart, Jerman”, in Buletin Cagar Budaya, No. 3, Januari, Jakarta "Shipwrecks &Treasure in Southeast Asia with over 450 wrecks including the Flor Do Mar", in Times Edition, Singapore. Katalog Peninggalan Bawah Air di Indonesia, Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air, Jakarta Act No. 5 Year 1992 on Cultural Heritage Act No. 11 Year 2010 on Cultural Heritage �� Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Belitung Wreck Site After Commercial Salvage In 1998 Description An account of the resource The Belitung Shipwreck Site, located at 17 meters (m) depth in Belitung waters, Indonesia, is a shipwreck site containing Tang Dynasty (AD 618-906) cargo that was lifted by private salvage companies, Limited Corporation/Perusahaan Terbatas (PT). Sulung Segara Jaya and Seabed Exploration Company in 1998. The salvaging process was done without involving Indonesian State archaeologists. The shipwreck is an Arab or Indian vessel that includes 60,000 artifacts from the Tang Dynasty. In 2005, the artifacts sold to Singapore Sentosa Leisure Group. In 2010, the Office for Cultural Heritage Preservation of Jambi conducted the first underwater archaeological survey at Belitung Shipwreck site in order to find out the conditions of the site after the salvaging operation. The result shows that the site is extremely ravaged, with unidentified ceramic fragments spread out in a radius of ± 20 square meters (m²). It seems clear that the ceramic fragments have been removed by the company then thrown back into the sea because considered non-commercial. Meanwhile, the structure of the actual shipwreck was not found. It was only a big hole with 6 m wide and 15 m long, which seems to be where the ship may have settled. The remnants are now just a few small wood fragments and a sizable chunk of wood, this maybe the mast-step. The Belitung Shipwreck is recognized worldwide as an extremely valuable find in Indonesian waters. Preservation efforts are needed to remind future generations that the shipwreck site very important for underwater archaeology in Indonesia. Some preservation efforts that can be done are legal protection, site rehabilitation, and establishing a maritime museum in Belitung Regency. The last of which efforts have initiated two years ago with the aim to preserve artifacts from Belitung shipwreck site and other underwater sites in Bangka Belitung Province. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Agus Sudaryadi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/59728da96eba5bc125b182b48dd6e43a.pdf 6cfd54f1008a83d369c939149c859f4c PDF Text Text Traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft in Philippine archaeological sites Ligaya S.P. Lacsina1 Abstract The seas of island South East Asia have long been an aid rather than a hindrance to movements within the region and among close neighbours. Many shared cultural traits show evidence of maritime connections within the region. As has been revealed by archaeology, historical accounts and ethnography, a boatbuilding tradition likewise emerged out of island Southeast Asia. At least three examples of such watercraft have been identified in Philippine archaeological sites, all of which predate Spanish colonization. While the remains of these sites were documented and recorded, little comprehensive research has so far been done from these sites to form a cohesive study on the ancient maritime culture in the Philippines and interactions with its Southeast Asian neighbours. This paper seeks to present the known examples of Southeast Asian boats in the archaeological record, ethnographic and regional parallels, and discuss the potential of future inquiries into revealing more of the Philippines’ maritime past. Introduction The seas of island South East Asia have long been an aid rather than a hindrance to movements within the region and among close neighbours. Archaeologists have revealed ample evidence of the active maritime networks in the region that existed from at least 5,000 years ago, at the beginning of the Austronesian migration that spread throughout all of insular Southeast Asia and most of the Pacific (Bellwood 1985; Bellwood 1991; Bellwood 1995; Bellwood and Dizon 2005; Horridge 1995; Reid 1988; Ronquillo 1998; Scott 1994; Solheim 1988; Solheim 2006). As pointed out by linguists, archaeologists, and anthropologists, shared cultural traits such as language, agriculture, animal husbandry, and pottery-making are evidence of the Austronesian maritime connection. Likewise a boatbuilding tradition emerged out of island Southeast Asia but scarcely addressed in archaeology and history subjects. Based on a 17th account by a Spanish priest in the Philippines, Alcisco Alcina (1668 translated by Horridge 1982), boatbuilding at the time was shown to favour the shell-first technique of joining planks edge-to-edge using wooden dowels and lashed lugs. Similar construction techniques are in evidence from regional neighbours, such as southern Taiwan (Hornell 1920; Horridge 1982), Indonesia (Horridge 1982), and Malaysia (Evans 1927; Manguin 1993). In some parts of Indonesia the tradition still persists despite the presence of modern influences (Horridge 1982). In the Philippines at least three sites have been discovered which confirm the historical information and show that this technique was used in the archipelago hundreds of years prior to the European contact in the 16th century Common Era (CE). 1 Museum Researcher I, Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines �This paper seeks to present the known examples of Southeast Asian boats in the regional parallels of the archaeological and ethnographic record, as well as discuss the potential of future inquiries into revealing more of the Philippines’ maritime past. Traditional island Southeast Asian Watercraft Studies have shown that active trading networks within island Southeast Asia began during the Neolithic period at least 5,000 years ago (Bellwood 1985; Bellwood 1991; Bellwood 1995; Bellwood and Dizon 2005; Horridge 1995; Reid 1988; Ronquillo 1998; Scott 1994; Solheim 1988; Solheim 2006). Long distance sailing technology in the region must have appeared much earlier, with the peopling of Australia through Southeast Asia some 40,000 years ago (Green 2006). Early insular Southeast Asian vessels were built shell first (Manguin 1993). Their construction used the lash-lugged technique to fasten ribs to planks. The planks were joined to each other by either sewing or edge pegging with wooden dowels. Pierre-Yves Manguin (1993) has posited that plank sewing was an earlier technology that was eventually replaced by dowel edge pegging. A decade earlier, Adrian Horridge (1982:56-57) argued the need for metal tools to drill the holes needed for edge pegging with dowels while the sewing technique did not. Doweling was thus a later development. We see however, that in several instances plank sewing still persisted at the time the practice of dowelling had been established. Metal was not used for joinery in traditional Southeast Asian boats (Horridge 1982; Manguin 1993; Scott 1981). Historical accounts Very few historical accounts have been found to exist describing the boats in the Southeast Asian region, much less the techniques utilized in their construction. An 8th century Chinese text by a Chinese monk described a large sailing kunlun bo (Southeast Asian ship) more than fifty meters long and carrying more than 1,000 people (Manguin 1993:262). The kunlun bo used several layers of planks and coconut bark fibres to bind its parts together (Manguin 1993:262). A 14th century CE Chinese document written by Wang Ta-yuan observed boats in Madura that used split rattan to fasten the wood together and cotton wadding to plug seams (Scott 1981:6). More detailed accounts were produced with the coming of the Europeans in the 16th and 17th centuries CE. Portuguese 16th century CE accounts described Sumatran trading ships, referred to as jong (or jonque) as being larger than their own and able to carry 1,000 passengers (Manguin 1993). The planks and frames of the jong were fastened exclusively by wooden dowels. The ship’s hulls were sheathed, had multiple masts and used quarter rudders (Manguin 1993). Antonio Pigafetta, who chronicled Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage to Southeast Asia, wrote in 1521 of outrigger boats using wooden dowels (Pigafetta MS 1522 in Blair and Robertson vol 33:225; Scott 1981:6). In 1526, Andres de Urdaneta described rowers positioned over the outriggers that extended over the sides of the vessels (Scott 1981:6, 16-17) . The most comprehensive account of boatbuilding techniques of the time was by Alcina, who in his 1668 writings described the step by step shell-first construction of a large plank boat in the Visayas, Philippines (Alcina 1668 in Horridge 1982:5-29; Scott 1981:11-17). After preparing a keel connected by mortise to the stem and stern posts, �carved planks with protruding lugs were attached edge to edge by wooden dowels. The shape of the garboard strakes determined the size and form of the boat. When several strakes were attached the partial boat was allowed to dry completely for one to two months. After this period, the boat was dismantled and refitted tightly. Flexible ribs were lashed to drilled holes in the lugs and to thwarts which were added to strengthen the boat crosswise. Alcina described plank boats that used bamboo outriggers, at least one tripod mast and quarter rudders. During that period Alcina noted that the use of double outriggers was seen only in the Philippines though single outriggers were used with canoes of the Pacific islands (Horridge 1982:22, 56-57). The Alcina manuscript is a valuable resource for the thorough descriptions of boat construction methods, boat types, tools, and terminologies used in 17th century Philippines. Archaeology The oldest example of a Southeast Asian boat in the archaeological record was discovered in Pontian in the Malay Peninsula and dated to 260-430 CE. The Pontian boat is characterized as being sewn-planked and lash-lugged(Manguin 1993:256). Wooden dowels were also used, presumably to keep the strakes from sliding. Manguin (1993) considers the combined Pontian boatbuilding techniques of sewn planks, dowelling and lashed lugs to be of a transitional boatbuilding tradition between the earlier tradition of sewn planks and lashed lugs and the later tradition of edge pegging and lashed lugs. Other examples of sewn plank boats were found in Indonesia, particularly in Medan, North Sumatra and Sambirejo and Kolam Pinisi in South Sumatra (Manguin 1993:). Recovered from the sites were badly degraded planks. The boat in Medan was dated to the 12th-14th centuries CE based on associated ceramics (Manguin 1993). The Sambirejo timber was radiocarbon dated to 610-775 CE. Wood remains at Kolam Pinisi were radiocarbon dated to 434-631 CE (Manguin 1993). Numerous types of boats have been noted throughout the islands of the Philippines since the historical period (see Orillaneda and Ronquillo this volume). Boat and ship remains found and studied in Philippine archaeological sites however have predominantly been of South China or European origin. Only a few remains have been found to display characteristics of island Southeast Asian design. Butuan boats In the mid-1970s, the so-called Butuan Boats were discovered under flood deposits in Butuan City, southern Philippines (Peralta 1976). According to reports and articles over the years, a total of nine Butuan boats were found accidentally during infrastructure works or by the probing rods of pot hunters in search of wooden coffins containing valuable grave goods (Clark et al. 1993; Green et al. 1995; Ronquillo 1987; Ronquillo 1997; Salcedo 1998; Scott 1981). An additional two boats may have since been found (Cembrano 1998) though this has yet to be confirmed. �Figure 1. The remains of Butuan Boat 1 on display at the Balangay Shirine in Butuan City (photo by author). Only three of the boats have been studied archaeologically and recovered: boat no. 1 (figure 1), currently on display in the Balangay Shrine in Butuan City which is adjacent to where it was recovered; boat no. 2, which has been partially reconstructed and is on exhibit at the National Museum in Manila; and boat no. 5, which is currently undergoing restoration and conservation treatment at the Balangay Shrine. A few timbers and broken planks of boat no. 4, which were recovered by pot hunters, are also stored at the Shrine. Most of boat no.4 however remains in situ. The three archaeologically excavated boats were radiocarbon dated to 320 CE, 1250 CE, and 1215 CE, respectively (Ronquillo 1987). While the 900 year disparity of boat no.1 with �boats no.2 and no.5 has been cause of some uncertainty. The Butuan boats are undoubtedly the oldest water craft in Philippine archaeology (Cuevas, et al. n.d.; Ronquillo 1987; Salcedo 1998). Though the remains of the vessels are incomplete, they are calculated to average fifteen to twenty meters in length, three to five meters in beam, and exhibit several of the building techniques described by Alcina with edge joined planks and lashed lugs (Alcina in Horridge:9-14; Scott:13-14). Planks of the Butuan boats were cut and carved from a single piece of timber and attached by scarfed joints to winged stem or stern pieces (Clark et al. 1993; Cuevas et al. n.d.). Though round or flat bottomed and using a center plank, they are frequently referred to as balangay (or balanghai), which use a true keel or dug-out keel (Scott 1981). Gujangan wreck The heavily looted Gujangan wreck was found in the waters off Gujangan Island, Sulu province, southern Philippines (Cuevas, et al. n.d.). The wreck, dated to the 15th-16th century CE based on its ceramic cargo, was only briefly inspected by archaeologists in 1998 (Cuevas, et al. n.d.). Plank remains show drilled holes along its sides and bored lugs, indicating the edge pegging and lashed-lug construction technique. They are remarkably similar to the Butuan boat planks (figure 2).The Gujangan hull was left in situ, though several pieces of timber were recovered for sampling. Figure 2. Gujangan wreck plank showing a drilled lug and holes for dowels (Photo by author). San Isidro wreck In 1996, in the waters of San Isidro, Zambales province in the northwest Philippines, a vessel approximately 15 metres long carrying Ming Dynasty Chinese ceramics (circa 16th century CE) was discovered. It was postulated that the San Isidro acted as transport service for larger vessels that were unable to moor closer to shore. Though much of the hull was obscured by cargo and concretions, small pins were observed (Cuevas et al n.d.). The San Isidro plank remains (figure 3) indicate that it may have �been clinker built with dowels and sewing (Santiago 1996). This, however, needs to be verified by additional site inspections. Figure 3. Drawing of San Isidro plank remains (Goddio 1996). The San Isidro keel and planks were recovered for documentation, but returned to the site and reburied due to the difficulty of waterlogged wood conservation (F. Goddio pers. comm. 2011; Rey Santiago pers. comm. 2010). Other sites Preliminary studies are underway for the remains of a round bottomed boat recently exposed by erosion in Caoayan, Ilocos Sur in the Northern Philippines (see Faylona et al. this volume). Interviews with the local community indicate that the boat is a biray (or viray), a traditional sewn-plank boat of northern Luzon estimated to be around 100 years old (Pamela Faylona pers. comm.; Germelina Goulart pers. Comm. 2011). At least two other underwater sites in Mindoro and Marinduque in southern Luzon are reported to be balangays (Brian Homan pers comm 2010), but have not been fully examined. Contemporary examples A few island Southeast Asian boat builders have continued practicing traditional techniques long after the introduction of western-boat and shipbuilding practices (Horridge 1982). It has been through the study of contemporary Indonesian boat builders (Horridge 1982: 49-55), for example, that numerous clues were taken to help interpret the fragmented and deteriorated timber found in archaeological sites (Horridge 1982; Manguin 1993; Scott 1981). �In Batanes, the northernmost Philippine province, the tataya is built shell first. Ricardo Galang (1941) described it as carvel built without the use of any iron nails. It is edge pegged and fastened by lugs to frames with rattan lashing. The tataya is remarkable in contemporary Philippine boats because it does not make use of outriggers. Austronesian speakers of southern Taiwan make use of the same boat technology, demonstrating the continuing cultural ties between the two locations (Cuevas et al n.d.; Galang 1941; Horridge 1982). Recently, in a project called Voyage of the Balangay, a group of Filipino adventurers sailed replica balangays modelled partially after the Butuan boat remains and built by traditional Sama-Badjao boat builders of the southern Philippines (Voyage of the Balanghai 2010). The first replica, named the Diwata ng Lahi, was completed in less than two months in mid-2009 using traditional tools with the exception of electric powered drills. The Diwata ng Lahi travelled from Manila to Mindanao sailing along the country’s western coast. Two more balangays were built, and the three vessels, sailing without outriggers, travelled throughout the southern Philippines, before sailing to the rest of Southeast Asia and back. The entire voyage was completed in early 2011. The Diwata ng Lahi is currently on display at the National Museum in Manila. The balangays were built using dowels to fasten planks together. However, unlike the Butuan boats which used one piece of wood for each plank, the balangays used several scarfed timbers to form the strakes. This was due to the scarcity of suitable hardwoods (Rey Santiago pers. comm. 2011). Consequently, dowels or metal fastenings, rather than lashings were needed to directly join the frames to the planks to increase strength. Unlike the Butuan boats, the balangays were built with keels and used stem- and sternposts rather than winged ends. During the voyage, when repairs were needed and wooden dowels were unavailable, iron fastenings were used. Many traditional boat builders of island Southeast Asia have begun to adapt modifications to their building techniques, as illustrated in the Voyage of the Balangay project, either out of necessity or to simplify work. Traditional boatbuilding in the region is thus rapidly declining. In the Philippines, it is interesting to note that where traditional boatbuilding has persisted are in the remote extreme northern and southern parts of the country (Abrera 2009; Cuevas, et al. n.d.). Future research Future research should involve the re-examination of traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft remains in Philippine archaeological sites. Specific goals should include the radiocarbon dating of the unexcavated Butuan boats, precise recording and documentation of the unexcavated Butuan boats and the hulls of the San Isidro and Gujangan wrecks; and to make a thorough comparative study of the remains. Field research would entail, at least, partial excavation of the sites in order to expose portions of the hulls enough for documentation. There is however, the inclination by a number of groups, to recover at least one of the remaining Butuan boats for the purpose of exhibition and raising public awareness on the importance of the boats in the Philippines’ maritime heritage. If this is the case, a tremendous amount of resources for the treatment and conservation of waterlogged wooden remains is required. Discussions with the Butuan branch museum staff suggested that boat no. 4 would be �the best option for excavation and recovery based on observations made when it had been partially exposed by pothunters (Lacsina 2011). The other boats may be test excavated to determine their condition and to assess whether more extensive excavation is merited. As the remaining sites are not monitored and within private land, boats no.7, no.8, and no.9 have likely been greatly damaged by pothunters or during fishpond construction, illustrating the dangers of leaving known boat sites unprotected. A significant amount of knowledge can still be attained with the archaeological study of the remaining Butuan boats. Thorough documentation and recording of the hull remains would entail the excavation of the sites in order to expose portions of the hulls. Wood samples would have to be taken for dating purposes as this could confirm or refute the early 320 CE date of boat no.1. The greatest challenge in archaeological excavation in the Butuan area is the high water table, which is less than 1 meter from the ground surface. In previous excavations, water pumps were utilized almost continuously. There is also the considerable problem of determining the exact locations of the remaining boats. A recent site visit showed that exact and precise locations could not be confirmed as this was attempted by memory (see Stead and Dizon this volume). At least two of the boats, no.6 and no.8, were either inaccessible due to heavy vegetal growth or had been disturbed when fishponds were constructed in the area. The location of boat no. 9 is not marked on site maps and is likewise unknown to the present staff of the branch museum. The site of boat no.7 bore evidence of pot hunting activities, with a number of open excavation pits visible. Probing the ground with the use of metal rods or sonda, as practiced by pothunters when the boats were first found in the 1970s and 1980s can be used to confirm the presence and extent of the sites in preparation for archaeological excavation. Remote sensing technology may also be utilized for more accurate results but at a much greater expense. Neither the Gujangan nor San Isidro sites have been re-examined since the initial investigations more than ten years ago. At this point, their present conditions are unknown. The boat remains off the Mindoro and Marinduque islands must also be located and examined, as with other reported old boat sites. Surveys may be taken throughout the Philippines for finding other instances of traditional watercraft remains. Discussion Philippine maritime archaeology has thus far focused on international trade networks and ceramic studies, having put much emphasis on preserved cargo of which thousands of pieces have been found from single sites. The study of Philippine ship and boat technology from archaeological sites, however, is a topic that can benefit from more thorough studies. In spite of the presence of archaeological resources, very little research has been done with the aim of comprehensively investigating the traditional Southeast Asian boats in the Philippines. The existing research on the Butuan Boats, for example, was meant to be only preliminary in nature, pending more comprehensive studies in the future that have yet to occur. The San Isidro and Gujangan wrecks have likewise not been suitably utilised to enrich knowledge of Philippine maritime culture. �The data that will be generated from the research will add significant understanding to indigenous Philippine and island Southeast Asian boatbuilding techniques. Bibliography Abrera, B., 2009 Alcina, A., 1668 Bellwood, P., 1985 Bellwood, P., 1991 Bellwood, P., 1995 "Keeping a Sama Tradition Alive", in Philippine Daily Inquirer, Manila, June 6, 2009. Historia De Las Islas Eindios De Bisayas, Muñoz transcript. Biblioteca de Palacio, Madrid. “A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins”, in Asian Perspectives XXI. “The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages” in Scientific American Vol. 265 70-75. “Austronesian Prehistory in Southeast Asia: Homeland, Expansion and Transformation” in: Bellwood, P., Fox, J. J., and Tyron, D., (Eds.), The Austronesians. Australian National University, Canberra. and “The Batanes Archaeological Project and the ‘Out of Taiwan’ Hypothesis for Austronesian Dispersal”, in Journal of Austronesian Studies, 1,1, pp.1-32. The Philippine Islands, CD-ROM edition, E.A. Defensor 2000. Bellwood, P., Dizon, E., 2005 Blair, J.A., and Roberson, E.H. 1903 Clark, P., Green, J., Vosmer, T., and Santiago, R. 1993 Cuevas, M. A., Ronquillo, W., and Santiago, R., n.d. Evans, I. H. N., 1927 Galang, R.E., 1941 Goddio, F., 1996 Green, J., 2006 Green, J., Vosmer, T., Clark, P., Santiago, R., and Alvarez, M., 1995 “The Butuan Two Boat Known as a Balangay in the National Museum, Manila, Philippines”, in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 22. Boat Building Traditions in Pre-18th Century Philippines, ASEAN-COCI, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 20. “Notes on the Remains of an Old Boat Found at Pontian” in Journal of the Federated Malay States Museum 12, 93-96. “Types of watercraft in the Philippines” in Philippine Journal of Science, 75,3, pp.287-304. San Isidro ’97: Excavation;s preliminary report and ceramics study “Nautical Archaeology in Australia, the Indian Ocean and Asia” in (eds.) Mark Staniforth and Mike Nash, Maritime Archaeology: Australian Approaches, Springer, pp. 97-109. “Interim Report on the Joint Australian-Philippines Butuan Boat Project, October 1992”, in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 24, pp.177-188. �“The Outrigger Canoes of Indonesia”, in Madras Fisheries Bulletin 12, pp.43-114. The Lashed-Lug Boat of the Eastern Archipelagoes, the Alcina Ms and the Lomblen Whaling Boats, Trustees of the National Maritime Museum. “Austronesian Conquest of the Sea”, in The Austronesians: Horridge, G.A., Historical and Comparative Perspectives, ANU Press, pp.1431995 160. Butuan Boats Site Visit, report, National Museum of the Lacsina, L., Philippines 2011 Manguin, P.Y., “Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding 1993 Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks” in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 36, pp.253-280. Balanghai:Ancient Asian Boats Unearthed, report, National Peralta, J., 1976 Museum of the Philippines, Manila. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680: Volume Reid, A., One: The Lands Below the Winds, Silkworm Books. 1988 Ronquillo, W. P., “The Butuan Archaeological Finds: Profound Implications for Philippines and Southeast Asian Prehistory” in Man and 1987 Culture in Oceania, pp.71-78. “Butuan Boats” in Delgado, J. P., (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Ronquillo, W. P., underwater and maritime archaeology, British Museum Press, 1997 London, pp. 79. “The Austronesian Connection” in Kasaysayan. The Story of Ronquillo, W. P., the Filipino People, Asia Publishing Company Limited, Hong 1998 Kong, pp. 261-274. “The Ingenious Filipino Boat” in Kasaysayan. The Story of the Salcedo, C. G., Filipino People, Asia Publishing Company Limited, Hong 1998 Kong, pp. 207-219. Preliminary Observation (San Isidro Wreck). National Santiago, R. A., 1996 Musuem of the Philippines, Manila. Scott, W. H., “Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society” in Anthropological Papers 9. 1981 Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Scott, W. H., 1994 Ateneo de Manila Press, Quezon City. Solheim, W. G., “The Nusantao Hypothesis: The Origin and Spread of Austronesian Speakers” in Asian Perspectives XXVI, pp.771988 88. Archaeology and Culture in Southeast Asia: Unraveling the Solheim, W. G., Nusantao, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City. 2006 Voyage of the " Voyage of the Balangay", last accessed August 10, 2011 on Balanghai the World Wide Web address: http://www.balangay20 voyage.com/index.php. Hornell, J., 1920 Horridge, G. A., 1982 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft in Philippine archaeological sites Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource The seas of island South East Asia have long been an aid rather than a hindrance to movements within the region and among close neighbours. Many shared cultural traits show evidence of maritime connections within the region. As has been revealed by archaeology, historical accounts and ethnography, a boatbuilding tradition likewise emerged out of island Southeast Asia. At least three examples of such watercraft have been identified in Philippine archaeological sites, all of which predate Spanish colonization. While the remains of these sites were documented and recorded, little comprehensive research has so far been done from these sites to form a cohesive study on the ancient maritime culture in the Philippines and interactions with its Southeast Asian neighbours. This paper seeks to present the known examples of Southeast Asian boats in the archaeological record, ethnographic and regional parallels, and discuss the potential of future inquiries into revealing more of the Philippines’ maritime past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ligaya S.P. Lacsina Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/70fd792b136141ca517c120504da6fea.pdf 3623413390aac2d2ae646036d3b65e6d PDF Text Text Literary & Archaeological Evidence of Early Seafaring & Navigation Technologies in India S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty1 Abstract India is situated at the central point of the ocean that washes on its coast on three sides, seemed destined very early for a maritime future in the region. Both literature and archaeological works of the region are providing ample evidence about the early sea routes and maritime trade activities of the region. Vedic literature, one of the early existed texts, has provided copious references about the early seafaring. There was a time in the past when Indians were the masters of the long distance seaborne trade. They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried overland or via sea. The archaeological excavations of several Indo-Saraswathi, the first civilization in the region, sites and many others have also conclusively demonstrated advance maritime activities right from the third millennium Before Christ2 (BCE). During the early historical period (second BCE to second CE) several coastal towns, both east and west coasts of peninsular India, had international trade and commerce. The subject matter for the present discussion are based on glimpses of the regional seafaring and navigation technologies mentioned in the available early indigenous literature of the Sanskrit language, as well as archaeological records. Key words – Vedic literature, Sanskrit, Rigveda, Matsya yantra India has all required geographical feature suitable for water transportation, which has been utilized by human since the ancient times to the present day. It is situated at the central point of the ocean (see Map). Figure 1. Map of India's geographical location, the red arrow extends from its most western coast to its eastern border (by author). 1 Prof & Geoarchaeologist, SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipuram – 631561., India. Email- sramakrishna.pisipaty@gmail.com 2 A designation of the Gregorian Calendar, from the year -1 and continuing backwards from the year of the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth. Common Era - abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era, traditionally identified with Anno Domini (abbreviated AD), both systems are numerically equivalent. BCE - Before the Common Era, an alternative to BC (Before Christ). �The rivers flow from the Greater Himalayas and other Ghats, further provide the intra-connection within the region to the coast. From the region many advanced traits were evolved for the first time in the history of mankind. Among them is a vast amount of literature developed by the Sindh region around 2000 BCE. This has been a major source in reconstructing the past on various aspects. It may be true that the Sanskrit literature is only existing early literature. Early Indian literature has appeared in two major groups depending on the language – one is in Sanskrit language and other group of literature is in the regional dialects of that period (Mujumdar 1996; Datta 2006). Literature in Sanskrit language is grouped in to two types of texts – one related to Veda origin; and the second category is classical literature (Keith 1993). In the former group of text, of Sanskrit language, according to scholars Rigveda is an early text and complied around 2000 BCE (Kochhar 2000). It may be noted that the vast Indian literature has oceanic depth. For the present study evidence related to the early India seafaring have been restricted to the Rigveda and a few other early text along with archaeological data unearthed from various Indo-Saraswathi sites. According to various scholars the Rigvedic compilation and the late phases of the Indo-Saraswathi civilization (around 2000 BCE) were happened almost in the same period (Kochhar 2000; Talageri 2000). Allusions to Early Maritime Activity in Sanskrit Literature In Sanskrit literature constant reference is made to merchants, traders and men engrossed in commercial pursuits. The oldest evidence on record is supplied by the Rigveda which contains several references to sea voyages undertaken for commercial purposes (Table I). The word "navy", or related word, has its origin from the Sanskrit word Navgatih, potentially the word "navy" derived from the word nou meaning boat. From Sanskrit language Samudra is usually translated as "ocean and/or sea" and the word itself means "gathering of waters". The term Samudra occurs 133 times in the Rigveda, referring to oceans (real, mythical or figurative) or large bodies of water as well as to large Soma vessels (RV 6.69.6). However, the Samudra is never said to flow in the Rigveda, but it receives all rivers (RV 6.36.3; 8.44.25). The Rigveda also describes the Sarasvati River as a river that flows to the ocean (RV 2.41.16-18) and, "is pure in her course from the mountains to the sea" (RV 7.95.2). Rigveda (1.71.7) describes the seven great rivers seeking the Samudra. All rivers flow to the Samudra but are unable to fill it (RV 7.33.8). It also says that the Samudra is the eldest of the waters (Samudra jyestha) and that the goal of the rivers is to reach the Samudra (RV 7.49). One passage (RV. I. 25,7) represents Varuna, the rain God who has full knowledge of all sea routes. In another context (RV. I.56,2) it speaks of merchants, under the influence of greed, going abroad on ships to foreign countries. Another verse (I. 56.2) mentions merchants whose activities know no bounds, who go everywhere in pursuit of gain, and frequent every part of the sea. The seventh mandala (book) (VII. 88. 3 & 4) alludes to a voyage undertaken by Vasishtha and Varuna in a ship skillfully fitted out, and their, "undulating happily in the prosperous swing". A verse in first mandala/book, which is the most interesting passage (RV. I.116. 3), mentions a naval expedition on which the Tugra, a King (mentioned in Rigveda) sent his son Bhujyu against some of his enemies in the distant islands. Bhujyu, however, is shipwrecked by a storm, with all his followers, on the ocean, "where there is no support, no rest for the foot or the hand", from which he is �rescued by his twin brethren, the Asvins (Rigvedic Gods), in their hundred-oared galley. The Panis in the Vedas and later classical literature were the merchant class who pioneered to unknown lands and succeeded in crossing oceans and rivers between many regions and diverse nations. The Phoenicians were no other than the Panis of the Rigveda (RV X.108). They were called Phoeni in Latin which is very similar to the Sanskrit Pani. From the above verses show that the people credit Varuna (rain God in Rigveda) with knowledge of the ocean routes and the versus describe naval expeditions having occurred by the time of the Rigveda compilation (around 2000 BCE). It may also appear that the Vedic culture was a maritime culture, the Vedic people lived by the sea for some time before the hymns of the Rigveda were composed. Rigveda articulation of sea voyages include (I. 97.8), "Do thou convey us in a ship across the sea for our welfare". “As a ship crosses the river (or sea), Agni takes us across to safety” (RV I. 97.8). Besides these examples there are numerous allusions in the Rigveda to sea voyages and to ships with a hundred oars. According to the text, “all the universe rests within your nature, in the ocean, in the heart, in all life” (RV IV. 58. 11). Manu Smriti is the oldest law book in the world. It is written in Sanskrit and lays down laws to govern commercial disputes. Its references, of concern for this paper, are to sea borne traffic as well as inland and overland commerce (MS I-XVIII). The Ramayana refers to the Yavan Dvipa and Suvarna Dvipa (Java and Sumatra respectively) and to the Lohta Sayara or the Red Sea (Buck (ed) 1976 (rp)). In the Kishkindha Kandam (4,40) in Ramayana Sugriva, the Lord of the Monkeys, gives directions to monkey leaders for the quest of Sita (wife of Lord Rama and the main female character in Ramayana), and entails all the possible places including islands where Ravana could have concealed her (RY 4.40.34,37,38 &45). In Ayodhya Kandam there is a passage which hints at preparation for a naval fight, thus indirectly indicating thorough knowledge and universal use of waterways (RY 2.52). Construction of overpass on sea to reach island Srilanka, is another example of early navigation and sea exploration from India to the other regions (RY). The well known story of the "churning of the ocean" (Samudra manthan or Ksheera Sagara Mathanam in Sanskrit language) in the Mahabharata, Vishnu purana and Bhagavata purana is not without significance (Wilson 2006; Mani 1975). According to the story, all kinds of herbs were cast into the ocean and fourteen Ratnas (gems or treasures or most important) were produced from the ocean during churning and were divided between asuras and gods. The list of Ratnas in the scriptures are ranges from 9 to 14. This is further indicating the exploitation and extraction of natural resources from the sea by the people of the region. Moreover, the most interesting passage in the Mahabharata is that which refers to “a large ship with machinery and all kinds of weapons of war that is able to defy storms and waves” (Buck 2004 (rp)). Ancient texts such as Vishnu Puran (around fifth century CE) and the Periplus of the Eruthreanean Sea (a mid-1st century date is now the most commonly accepted) vividly describe the tidal range and its uses in navigation practice. The fabulous literature of India is also replete with stories of sea voyages by Sindh regions. The Jatakas (JS), Buddhist scriptures in Pāli language (other than Sanskrit language) are also providing information about the merchantization and navigation through the sea. Some very definite and convincing allusions to sea voyages and �sea-borne trade are also contained in the vast body of Buddhist literature, which are generally taken to relate themselves to a period of one thousand years beginning from 500 BCE (Viggo Fausbll (ed). 2010). The Baveru Jataka without doubt, points to the existence of commercial intercourse between India and Babylon in preAshokan days (before second century BCE) (BJ 313; Moorkerji 1999). There is another to consider, a Prakrit text on ship-building named Angavijja written in the Kushana period (around second century BCE) and edited in the Gupta period (around fifth century Common Era (CE)). This text enlists about a dozen names of different types of ships, such as Nava, Pota, Kotimba, Salika, Sarghad, Plava, Tappaka, Pindika, Kanda, Katha, Velu, Tumba, Kumba and Dati. Some of these varieties of ships such as Tappaka (Trappaga), Kotimba and Sarghad have also been mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. They are considered to be very large ships capable of sailing along the coast as well as in deep sea (Vincent 1998). Tamil literature of a few centuries before and after the present era, which was composed in the southern part of India, especially Silappadikaram and Manimekhalai also testify to this great overseas trade. Technologies Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja gives a detailed classification of ships. There were two kinds: ordinary (Samanya) ships comprising those used in inland waters; and special (visesa) meant for sea journeys. The largest of these called ‘Manthara’ measured 120 cubits (1 cubit = 45.72 centimeters) in length, 60 in breadth and 60 cubits in height. During the days of the composition of Yuktikalpataru (around ninth century CE), it appears that ship-building was highly advanced. It explains how to build ships (YK 81-82), ship types (YK 89), sizes (YK 90-95) and materials (YK 83-87), including suitability of different types of wood. Bhoja has advised the builders of the sea-faring ships not to join the plants with iron as, in this case, the magnetic iron in sea water could expose the ship to danger (YK 88). To avoid this risk, he suggests that planks of the hull's bottom should be held together with the help of substances other than iron (YK 88). According to the literature ships could carry crews numbering between 100 to 600. Out of regard for passenger convenience and comfort the ships were well furnished and decorated. Gold, silver, copper and compounds of all these substances were generally used for ornamentation and decoration. The magnetic compass was first used in India around 1800 BCE, for navigational purposes at sea, and was known as ‘Matsya yantra’ (which roughly translates to fish machine), because of the placement of a metallic piece shaped into a fish in a cup of oil (Prakash 2008). Yantra Sarvaswa (All about machines) composed by Maharishi Bharadwaj and other sages is another resource book in the Sanskrit language commemorates early Indian technologies. Vaimanika Shastra (YS), the extant text is claimed to be only a small (one-fortieth) part of a larger work, four planes called Shakuna, Sundara, Rukma, and Tripura are described in greater detail. The Tripura Vimana in Vaimanika Shastra (see plate 1) described a hi-tech vessel which could have been use in three natural environments - air, water and land (Josyer 1973). �Plate 1. Hi-tech vessel which could have been use in three natural environments air, water and land (Josyer 1973). Archaeological evidence From the archaeological horizon, the representation of ships on a seal and coin indicate maritime activities, there is enough evidence to show that the people of the Sindhu region carried on trade, not only with other parts of India, but also with Sumer and the centers of culture in Western Asia, Egypt and Crete (Behera 1999). At Lothal a tidal dock, believed to have been built during Indus Valley Civilization (2300 BCE), near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat (west) coast is an example of early Indian seafaring. According to Rao (1979, 1985; 1987; 1991) the dock has been used in two stages: at the first stage it was designed to allow ships 18-20 meters long and 4-6 meters wide, at least two ships could simultaneously pass and enter easily; in the second stage the inlet channel was narrowed to accommodate large ships but only single ships with flat bottoms could enter. The terracotta models of a boat from Lothal and engravings on Indus seals give some idea of ships going to the sea (Rao 1979, 1985). Further, the Indus Valley ports were set up to trade overseas with ancient Mesopotamia (the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers corresponding to the regions of modern Iraq, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey) and Arabia along the Gulf of Cambay. These ports trans-shipped much sought after Indian products from upriver cities along ancient Indus Valley rivers to the world market (Moorkerji 1999). The distance from the mouth of the Sindhu river to Mesopotamia was approximately 2000 kilometers (km), and probably covered by Sindhu merchants from sites such as Dholavira and Mohenjo-daro by sailing along the coast to various ports of the Arabian Gulf and Mesopotamia. From the above information one can note concrete evidence about the seafaring and technology involved in the construction of vessels in ancient India. �Further, there was a time in the past when Indians were the masters of the seaborne trade of Europe, Asia and Africa (Chanda 1977). They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried overland or by sea. Indian traders sailed their ships not only on the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, they also ventured into the Red Sea and even into the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea (Vincent 1998). From the very beginning Indian traders had a very fair knowledge of all the ancient oceans and seas of the populated world (Radha 1912). The Egyptians called India ‘God's land’ because India was, in those days, very culturally developed (Prasad 1990). The priest of ancient Egypt required vast quantities of aromatic plants for burning incense; and frankincense, myrrh and lavender were also used for embalmment. Herodotus (around 425 BCE) has left us a sickening description of the great number of spices and scented ointments of which India was the center (Marincola 2003). Beauty products from India also attracted the women of Egypt and the cosmetic trade was entirely dependent on imports chiefly from India (Prasad 1977). The Pharaohs of the fifth and sixth dynasties made great efforts to develop trade relations with the land of Punt (Prasad 1977). Knemphotep made voyages to Punt eleven times under the captainship of Koui (Mitra 2007), these expeditions were organized and financed by the celebrated Queen Halshepsut. The vast extent of Indian cultural influences, from Central Asia to the north to tropical Indonesia including Philippines in the south and from the borderlands of Persia in the west to China and Japan in the east, has shown that ancient India was a radiating central civilization. Its advanced cultural thoughts, art and literature were destined to leave deep marks on the races wholly diverse and scattered over the greater part of Asia (as defined by the ‘United Nations geoscheme for Asia’). The most valuable of the exports of India was silk, which under the Persian Empire is said to have been exchanged by its weight in gold. It is evident that there was a very large consumption of Indian manufactures in Rome (Warminton 1974). Roman coins in large quantities are found in places in India (Gupta 1965; Singh 1988), whence beryl, pepper, pearls and minerals were exported to Rome (Begley & De Puma 1992). The chief articles of export from India were spices, perfumes, medicinal herbs, pigments, pearls, precious stones (like diamonds, sapphires, turquoise and lapis lazuli), animal skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn, muslin, indigo, ivory, porcelain and tortoise shell (De Silva 1970). The chief imports were cloth, linen, perfume, medicinal herbs, glass vessels, silver, gold, copper, tin, lead, pigment, precious stones and coral (Chanda 1977). Some important verses from Rigveda, quoted in the above text (first in Verses in Romanized Sanskrit Font (transliterate) and original text in Sanskrit) vedā yo vīnāṃ padamantarikṣeṇa patatām | veda nāvaḥ samudriyaḥ || वेदा यो वीनां पदम�त�र�ेण पतताम | वेद नावः समु�ियः || (RV I. 25. 7) Tam gurtayo nemannishah parinash Samudram na sancharane sanishyavah �Patim dakshasya vidathasya nu saho Grim n a vena adhiroha tejasa तं गूतय � ो नेम��नषः पर�णसः समुिं न संचरणे सिनंयवः | पितं द�ःय !वदथःय नू सहो िग�रं न वेना अिध रोह तेजसा || (RV I.56.2) tughro ha bhujyumaśvinodameghe rayiṃ na kaścin mamṛvānavāhāḥ | tamūhathurnaubhirātmanvatībhirantarikṣaprudbhirapodakābhiḥ || तुमो ह भु)युम�*नोदमेघे रियं न क�-न म.वानवाहाः | तमूहथुन/िभरा0म�वतीिभर�त�र�ूु!2रपोदकािभः || (RV I. 116.3) ā yad ruhāva varuṇaśca nāvaṃ pra yat Samudramīrayāvamadhyam | adhi yadapāṃ snubhiścarāva pra preṅkha īṅkhayāvahai śubhe kam || vasiṣṭhaṃ ha varuṇo nāvyādhād ṛṣiṃ cakāra svapā mahobhiḥ | stotāraṃ vipraḥ sudinatve ahnāṃ yān nu dyāvastatanan yāduṣāsaḥ || आ यद 4हाव व4ण- नावं पर यत समुिमीरयावम5यम | अिध यदपां सनुिभ-राव पर परे ङख ईङखयावहै शुभे कम || विस;ं ह व4णो ना<याधाद र!षं चकार सवपा महोिभः | सतोतारं !वूः सु�दन0वे अ=ां यान नु दयावःततनन यादष ु ासः || (RV VII 88. 3 & 4) vedāyovīnāṃpadamantarikṣeṇapatatām| veda nāvaḥ samudriyaḥ || वेदायोवीनांपदम�त�र�ेणपतताम| वेद नावः समु�ियः || (RV I. 25.7) dviṣonoviśvatomukhātināvevapāraya| apa...|| sanaḥsindhumivanāvayātiparṣāsvastaye| apa ... || द!वषोनो!व*तोमुखाितनावेवपारय| अप...|| सनःिस�धुिमवनावयाितपष�सवःतये | अप ... || (RV I. 97. 7 & 8) �Strengthened with sacred offerings, Indra-Visnu, first eaters, seRVed with worship and oblation, Fed with the holy oil, vouchsafe us riches; ye are the lake [Samudra], the vat that holds the Soma. (RV 6.69.6) sūryasyeva vakṣatho jyotireṣāṃ samudrasyeva mahimā ghabhīraḥ | vātasyeva prajavo nānyena stomo vasiṣṭhā anvetave vaḥ || (RV 7.33.8) ekācetat sarasvatī nadīnāṃ śuciryatī ghiribhya ā samudrāt | rāyaścetantī bhuvanasya bhūrerghṛtaṃ payo duduhe nāhuṣāya || (RV 7.95.2) aghniṃ viśvā abhi pṛkṣaḥ sacante samudraṃ na sravataḥ sapta yahvīḥ | na jāmibhiRVi cikite vayo no vidā deveṣu pramatiṃ cikitvān || (RV I.71.7) taṃ sadhrīcīrūtayo vṛṣṇyāni pauṃsyāni niyutaḥ saścurindram | samudraṃ na sindhava ukthaśuṣmā uruvyacasaṃ ghiraā viśanti || (RV 6.36.3) indrāviṣṇū haviṣā vāvṛdhānāghrādvānā namasā rātahavyā | ghṛtāsutī draviṇaṃ dhattamasme samudrah sthaḥ kalaśaḥ somadhānaḥ || (RV 6.69.6) Table 1. Some important words related to Sea & Seafaring from Early Sanskrit Literature Sanskrit words Transliterate in English Translation into Suitable term (Romanized Sanskrit Font) English ÌÌ¥Ì: ÌÌÍ¥ÌFÒ ÌÌ¥™Ì˜Ì Æ ²Ì˜ÌÙ‡Ù: ²Ì˜ÌÙ‡ÙO Ì˜Ì Ì˜ÌÆ ²Ì Ì ²Ì˜ÌÙ‡ÙÌ: ̥̖ ̥̖ N¡VAÅ Ship - N¡VIKA Belonging to a Sailor, pilot - Navigable, accessible by a boat or ship navigation sea - SAMUDRAGAMAN AM Voyaging by sea - SAPTA SAMUDR¡Å 7 oceans Lavana, ikshu, sura, ghrita, dadhi, dugdha, jala - NAVABANDHANA K¢LAÅ A nail to tie up a ship Anchor N¡VYAM SAMUDRAÅ �Ì ŒÌ ÌFÒÕ ¡Ô: ¥ÌÌTÌ¥ÌµÌ ˜ÌÆ ²YÌÜ¡Ô— ²YÌÜ¡Ô— ÌÌOÌ: FÂÒÍ Ì ÌH Õ: FÒSÌÊ: ÌÌ¥ÌTÌ¡Ô˜ ÌÆ ¥Ì UÌ–ÌW Ó—ÌÌOÌ: ÌÌOÌ: Wind cloth Sail Expanded area Hull K®NIPA¶AÅ KAR¸AÅ Curved blade Rudder N¡VATALAM Bottom of a Ship Keel Navigation sextant V¡TAVASTRAM STH£LABH¡GAÅ V¤TTAÀA´GABH¡ GAÅ Abbreviations Jataka Stories(JS) Jataka Stories in Theravada Buddhism. (Ed) Appleton, N. 2010. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. England. Manusmrith (MS) http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/manusmriti.pdf Ramayana(RY) Buck, W. (ed),1976 (rp) University of California press. England. http://www.valmikiramayan.net/ Rigveda(RV) Rigveda http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/Rigveda/ Yukti Kalpataru(YK) Yukti Kalpataru. 1917. Calcutta oriental series no 1. Vimanika Sastra(VS) The Vimanika Shastra: Ancient Manuscript on the Constructionand Use of UFOs. Forgotten Books Bibliography Begley, V., and R.D. Rome and India, the Ancient Sea Trade. New Delhi. De Puma (eds)., 1992. �Behera, K.S. (ed.)., 1999 Buck, W. (ed), 1976 (rp) Buck, W. (ed), 2004 (rp) Maritime Heritage of India. Delhi: Aryan Books International. Chanda, M., 1977 Datta, A., 2006 De Silva., 1970 Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India. New Delhi. Gill, J. S., 1993 Gupta, P.L., 1965 Humphrey, J. W., 2006 Josyer, G.R. , 1973 Keith, A.B., 1993 Kochhar, R., 2000 Leshnik, S.L., 1979 Mani, V., 1975 Marincola, J.M. (ed) 2003 (rp) Mitra, S., 2007 Moorkerji R.K., 1999 Mujumdar, R.C. (ed), 1996 Prakash, A.A., 2008 Prasad, P.C., 1977 Radha, K. M., 1912 Ramayana. University of California press. England. Mahabharata. The Regents of the University of California, First Indian Edition in 2000, New Delhi. The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature. 2 volumes. Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi. “The Spice and Silk Roads”, in Indian Contribution to World thoughts and Culture: Vivekananda Commemoration Volume. Madras :229-231. “Our heritage of traditional boat building”, in Journal of Marine Archaeology 4, pp. 74. A catalogue of Roman Coins in the Andhra Pradesh. Government Museum. Museum series. Government of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad. Ancient technology. Greenwood guides to historic events of the ancient world, Greenwood Press, Westport. Vymaanika Sastra, The University of Michigan. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarasidas Publishers. Delhi. The Vedic People, their History and Geography. Orient Longman Limited. New Delhi. "The Harappan "Ports" at Lothal: another view", (ed.), Gregory L Possehl, Ancient Cities of the Indus , Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Puranic Encyclopedia, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi. The Histories, Herodotus (Author), John M. arincola (Editor, Introduction), Aubery de Selincourt (Translator),Penguin Classics. The Vision of India, Crest Publishing House, New Delhi. Indian Shipping. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. New Delhi. The History and Culture of the Indian People, XI volumes, Frist published in 1951, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai. "A Vision of Maritime India 2020", in (ed.) Prakash Nanda, Rising India: Friends and Foes, Essays in Honour of Prof. M.L.Sondhi, Lancer Publishers, New Delhi. Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India. Abhinav Publications, New Delhi. Indian Shipping - A History of the Sea-Borne Trade and Marine Activity of The Indians From The Earliest Times, Bombay. �Rama, S., and Tripathi, S., 1993 Raman, K.V., 1997 Rao, S.R., 1979, 1985 Rao, S.R., 1987 Rao, S.R. (Ed.)., 1991 Singh, A.K., 1988 Talageri, S. G., 2000 Viggo Fausbll (ed). 2010 (reprint) Vincent, W., 1998 Warminton,E.H., 1974 (second edition) Wilson, H. H., 2006 "Boat building technology of Bengal: an overview of literary evidence", in Journal of Marine Archaeology, Goa, 4, pp. 84. "Roads and river transportation", (ed.) A.K. Bag, History of Technology in India, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp.592-93. Lothal – A Harappan Port Town, 2 vols, Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi Progress and Prospects of Marine Archaeology, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, Recent Advances in Marine Archaeology, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. Indo-Roman Trade. New Delhi. The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi. Ten Jatakas: The Original Pali Text, with a Translation and Notes. BiblioBazaar. Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean, 2 vols, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India. London. The Vishnu Purana: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition. Read Country Books.Cambridge. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Literary & Archaeological Evidence of Early Seafaring & Navigation Technologies in India Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource India is situated at the central point of the ocean that washes on its coast on three sides, seemed destined very early for a maritime future in the region. Both literature and archaeological works of the region are providing ample evidence about the early sea routes and maritime trade activities of the region. Vedic literature, one of the early existed texts, has provided copious references about the early seafaring. There was a time in the past when Indians were the masters of the long distance seaborne trade. They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried overland or via sea. The archaeological excavations of several Indo-Saraswathi, the first civilization in the region, sites and many others have also conclusively demonstrated advance maritime activities right from the third millennium Before Christ (BCE). During the early historical period (second BCE to second CE) several coastal towns, both east and west coasts of peninsular India, had international trade and commerce. The subject matter for the present discussion are based on glimpses of the regional seafaring and navigation technologies mentioned in the available early indigenous literature of the Sanskrit language, as well as archaeological records. Key words – Vedic literature, Sanskrit, Rigveda, Matsya yantra Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9caf86b1de3baef2a8794c805c811579.pdf 301d3e06b27d03b37c8251ff8e8bc979 PDF Text Text An overview of shipwreck explorations in Goa waters Sila Tripati1 Abstract Since the beginning of maritime archaeological research in Indian waters, marine records housed in archives of India and abroad provide details of the shipwrecks and the loss of Indian ships in foreign waters. Information on more than 200 shipwrecks in Indian waters has been gathered from archival records and attempts made to explore in Goa, Lakshadweep and Tamil Nadu waters. These shipwrecks are dated to the post 16th century AD. Shipwrecks were explored off Sunchi Reef, St George’s Reef and Amee Shoals in Goa waters. Sunchi Reef and St George’s Reef were wooden hulled sailing ships whereas Amee Shoals was a steel hulled steam engine shipwreck. Sunchi Reef exploration led to the recovery of guns, barrels of handguns, storage jars, Chinese ceramics, elephant tusks, hippopotamus teeth, iron anchors and other items that are evidence of Indo-Portuguese trade and commerce in the 17th century. Exploration off St George’s Reef uncovered timber and terracotta artefacts such as column capitals, drums, ridge tiles, roof and floor tiles and chimney bricks The bricks and tiles have the distinct inscription of Basel Mission Tile works 1865. Amee shoals exploration revealed the remains of a steel hulled steam engine shipwreck in which boilers, boiler bricks, and engine parts were found. The stamps on the flanges and the name on the firebricks suggest a British origin, dating from the 1880s or later. Keywords: Shipwreck, Sunchi Reef, St George’s Reef, Amee Shoals, Goa, Portuguese, Basel Mission Company Introduction The geographical context of this paper lies centrally in Goa. The city is located on the central part of the west coast of India. It has its western boundary along the Arabian Sea and eastern border along the Western Ghats. Chandrapura (Chandor) on the bank of river Paroda, (a tributary of the Zuari) was the oldest port of Goa. The discovery of Roman coins and amphorae sherds from Pilar near Gopakapatana port indicates that Roman ships were called in ports of Goa during the Satavahana period (Costa 1997:24-30). The Shilaharas and Kadambas were maritime powers and had trade contacts with West Asia and East African countries (Gune 1990:117-136). The depiction of a naval battle in the memorial stones (l2th-13th centuries) exhibited in the Archaeological Museum, Old Goa, reflect the maritime activity of this region (Rajagopalan 1987:35; Sila Tripati 2006:88-96). During the Portuguese regime, Old Goa was the main centre of commercial activities and garrison. The Nau Cinco Chagas, Galeao Bom Jesus, Madre de Deus and Nau S. Joao Baptista ships were built in the Old Goa shipyard (Mathew 1988:304). 1 National Institute of Oceanography, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004 (India), Email: sila@nio.org 1 �Shipwrecks in Goa Waters Evidence on pre-Portuguese shipwrecks in Goa waters is limited. An inscription source mentioned Guhalladeva-I, from 980 to 1005 Anno Domini2 (AD), sailed from Chandrapura to Somnath, Gujarat on the West coast of India (Oriente Portugues 1938:6-18). The mast of the ship broke off and he took shelter at Gopakapatana port. The stranded king was helped by Mohammed, the chief of the Arab traders (Hanjamananagar) in Goa (Gune 1979:95; Moraes 1990:17172). Portuguese records held in the archive India House, Lisbon mention Portuguese shipwrecks. A. B. Souza (1930:54-57) has compiled a list of 806 ships that sailed from Lisbon to India between 1497 and 1612, among them 20 ships ran aground, 66 were shipwrecked, 4 captured by the enemy, 6 burnt, 285 remained in India while 425 returned to Portugal. Archival records emphasise that a majority of Portuguese ships were wrecked in the shallow waters off Goa mainly due to hidden reefs, sandbars, severe storms and lack of proper maintenance. However, these records do not provide exact locations of shipwrecks the Centro Nacional de Arqueologia Nautical e Subaquatica CNANS, Lisbon has listed the Portuguese shipwrecks along the Indian coast based on archival and archaeological sources (Alves, et al. 2007:97-119). The Portuguese ships wrecked in Goa waters were namely the following: S. Cristovam wrecked in a storm on l7th August 1594 while returning to Goa; The nau Santo Andre left Lisbon on l7th February 1607 and reached Goa in May 1608 but wrecked off Goa. The Nossa Sra Dos and Remedios sank off Goa on 28th January 1616 in a storm, people were saved but cargo was lost (Gudigar, et al. 1995-6:45-48). Twelve Portuguese ships, en route to Calcutta (Kolkata) from Goa sank near Aguada Bay due to an unseasonable storm in 1648 (Boxer 1960:35-54); Five Portuguese sailing ships namely Santa Helena (1654-55), Sao Joao Evangelista (1652-53), St. Francisco and St. Thome set sail to Goa from Portugal, but only two ships reached the coast of Goa but were wrecked in a storm on 10th March 1651 (Esparteiro 1974:93). Findings of shipwreck explorations off Sunchi Reef, St George’s Reef and Amee Shoals are recorded here. The nature of the seabed floor, water current patterns, water depth and visibility vary from site to site. Sunchi Reef Sunchi Reef region is shallow, full of laterite boulders and in a high-energy zone. The shipwreck remains were located in 3 to 6 meters (m) water depth and scattered over a large area (Figure 1). The survey identified and recovered cast iron guns, a iron shot, a barrel of a handgun, various types of stoneware sherds (Martaban pottery), Chinese Blue on white sherds, glass bottle bases, elephant 2 Designation used to label or number years used with the Julian and Gregorian calendars. This calendar era is based on the year of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years after the start of this epoch. 2 �tusks and hippopotamus teeth, metal handle and dressed granite stone blocks (Figure 2; Sila Tripati, et al. 2004:1238-1245). Figure 1. Location of shipwreck exploration sites (Sunchi Reef, St George's Reef & Amee Shoals) off Goa waters (Tripati, et al. 2004; Tripati 2004; Tripati, et al. 2003b; Tripati, et al. 2010 respectively)3 3 The findings of Sunchi Reef such as ivory, hippo teeth, pottery, Chinese ceramics, handgun, glass bottle bases; some bricks, tiles and other terracotta artefacts of St Georges Reef; and boiler 3 �Figure 2. Cast iron guns, elephant tusks, hippopotamus teeth, handgun, Chinese and stone ware sherds and granite blocks found from Sunchi Reef shipwreck (Sila Tripati, S. N. Bandodker, and Sheikh Ali Karim (2000-2006). bricks and flanges of steam engine shipwreck of Amee Shoals have been collected and displayed at NIO. 4 �Each cast gun is about 2 m long. Their exteriors are overgrown with barnacles, mussels and heavily concreted. The muzzles of two guns lay horizontally on the seabed whereas the other two were oriented towards the seabed. The guns have swivels on both sides but do not have any lifting rings. The iron shot found west of the guns is 1.218 grams (gm). Its surface has an uneven-flaking nature and its shape is slightly conical at the top, flat at the base. Cracks formed after retrieval was due to dehydration and the interior was fully rusted. Marine water in the shot was subsequently removed in the lab. The brass barrel of a handgun 56 centimeter (cm) long and weight 2.200 kilogram (kg) was half buried below the granite blocks. The barrel has two notches, one is intact and the other is broken, these are meant for fixing screws to the wooden part of the gun. It has a screw thread at the back for attaching the firing mechanism. The gun and other parts attached to the barrel are missing. A two fluked, long iron anchor found on the southern side of the guns had fallen between laterite4 boulders. Similar anchors were discovered off Aguada and also resemble the anchors kept in the Archaeological Museum at Old Goa and Goa State Museum, Panaji (Sila Tripati, et al. 2003a: 97-106). The exploration led to the recovery of eight elephant tusks (65 to 32 cm in length) only partially visible in the seabed. Among them two were inscribed, one has three Roman letters “ICM” and the other has some geometrical designs. Nine hippopotamus teeth of different sizes have turned brownish in color. The elephant tusks and hippopotamus teeth have turned soft, brittle, flaky and degraded because of burial in marine water for more than 300 years. Stoneware sherds consisting of rims with loop handles, bases, lids and fragments buried in the sediment and crevices of laterite boulders were also recovered. The paint and glaze coat has been washed out on some whereas a dark brown glaze coat can be noticed on others. All these sherds belong to storage jars. In addition to the loop handles on rims, the sherds with dark brown glaze also have raised dots around the neck and floral designs. Thermoluminescence dating purports the pottery is 360+40 years old. Chinese ceramic sherds with blue on white designs were also found. A number of dark green square and round glass bottle bases were retrieved on which marine growth is present. In addition a number of dressed granite blocks of varied sizes scattered randomly were noticed at the site. They were possibly used as ballast (Sila Tripati 2004:19-29). St George's Reef St George's Reef is situated on the eastern side of Grande Island (Figure 1) and the shipwreck lies in 15 m water depth. The wreck contains a collection of terracotta building materials such as chimney bricks, roof, ridge and floor tiles, column capital and drum (Sila Tripati, et al. 2003b: 111-120). Bricks and floor tiles are inscribed “Basel Mission Tile Works 1865”. Bricks are made of white clay, moulded, the obverse is inscribed and the reverse is plain (Figure 3). A 4 Clay formed by weathering of rocks in a tropical climate, composed chiefly of iron and aluminium oxides 5 �Corinthian type of hollow capital, closed on one side, was found. All artefacts are well burnt and made of well-levigated clay. The timber remains of the ship found near the reef has groove marks on the upper side whereas the lower side is plain and U-shaped. Carbon14 dating (114.3+1.5%) of the timber suggests that the wreck is 115 years old. Anatomical analysis indicates that the timber belongs to the Lagerstromia microcarpa syn Lagerstromia lanceolata species, whose trade name is benteak (Sila Tripati, et al., 2005:1022-1027). Figure 3. Terracotta artefacts and timber collected from St George's Reef shipwreck (Sila Tripati, S. N. Bandodker, and Sheikh Ali Karim (1999-2000). Amee Shoals Amee Shoals lies on the south of Sunchi Reef, close to the Marmagao bay (Figure 1), and the shoals have extended in a larger area with varied depths (Ambre 1991:113-115). The exploration revealed a steam engine shipwreck and boilers, boiler bricks, water tank, flanges, and copper pipes were noticed at 6 to 9 6 �m water depth. Three boilers made of wrought iron were found close to each other, approximately 4 m in height with single riveted lap joint5. Each boiler has three furnaces and a row of heat exchanger tubes, and stay tubes. Manholes and safety valves of the boilers are undamaged. Among nine furnaces of three boilers only one is intact (Sila Tripati, et al., 2010:182-189), while the other eight have been destroyed by local divers robbing brass and copper objects (Figure 4). Different sizes of bricks are placed in various directions in many layers inside the furnaces then a metal flange is fixed on the opening. Figure 4. Boilers, boiler bricks, water tank and hawser of the steam engine shipwreck noticed off Amee Shoals, Goa (Photographs: Sila Tripati, (2006-2008). 5 The connection of edges of plates by single row of rivets. 7 �The bricks inside the furnace resist heat, provide insulation and prevent cracking due to heat exposure. Bricks are made of clay consisting of silica and alumina. The binding material used to join the bricks is made of equal quantities of fireclay and finely crushed firebrick mixed with water to a make mortar. On the obverse some bricks of Amee Shoals have the stamp mark “FURNA…”, followed by illegible words. Below this marked “B 84”. There are no marks on the reverse. Brick sizes vary in measurement. Numerous bricks are still in the boilers and others are scattered nearby. A circular flange of 52 cm diameter with eight holes probably used on the front side of the furnace boiler was found. The other flange could be of an oil tank found near the boiler. It has two stamp marks namely “SOUNDING” and “No. 3 TANK6”. A water tank measuring 4 x 1.65 m, probably used for recirculation of water from the condenser (Sila Tripati 2008:1-19), lay close to the boilers. The tank has a reinforced steel frame with plates on all four sides. Two horizontal pipes are fitted inside and the tank is highly corroded. Water tanks were a common feature in steam engine ships. The bow section hawser hole of the ship has a large lip edge. The hatch door which would be part of the steam drive system, designed for heavy duty and withstand heat, was noticed near the boilers. Discussion and Conclusion Human errors in navigation, submerged rocks and inclement weather have caused most of the shipwrecks in Goa waters. Strong currents during ebb tide reduce visibility and affects survey work. The shipwreck in Sunchi Reef lies in a high energy zone not conducive to preservation of shipwreck remains. The location evidently represents that the ships struck the submerged rocks and subsequently sank. Except pottery, guns, shot, granite blocks no remains of the ship have been observed. The finding of iron guns, anchor and other artefacts suggest that the Sunchi Reef shipwreck could be a wooden-hulled cargo sailing ship not of Indian origin. The Sunchi Reef shipwreck findings are indicative of trade and commerce between Goa and the Portuguese empire as mentioned in the literature (Ahmed 1991:146-156). Sunchi Reef wreck is the oldest wreck so far surveyed in Indian waters and the first Portuguese shipwreck explored and detailed. The discovery of St George’s Reef wreck has elucidated the history of the Basel Mission Company and its trading activities with India. The findings suggest that the vessel came either from Mangalore or Calicut because the mission had a number of tile factories between Malabar and South Canara however the mission had established the first tile factory at Jeppo, Mangalore in 1865 (Raghaviah 1990:35). The underwater exploration and metal detector survey did not reveal any metallic anomalies at St George’s Reef. It appears that the ship could have been a wooden hulled sailing craft. The thermoluminescence dating of pottery 6 A metal dipping rod with graduations for checking the fluid levels in the tank is often called sounding. These were common till the introduction of gauges. 8 �(360+ 40 years) and radiocarbon dating of ivory shows an age of 740 ± 130 yrs with a calibrated age range of 740 to 560 years Before Present (BP), in view of these dates it is suggested that the Sunchi Reef shipwreck could be dated to the Portuguese period (early 17th century AD), whereas the radiocarbon dating of the timber (114.3 + 1.5%) of St George's Reef shows the wreck is more than a century old. The steam engine shipwreck of Amee Shoals imparts significant information about this ship-style development and technological aspects, because the introduction of steam ships brought to an end the sailing ships. This is the first steam engine shipwreck that has been observed in Goa waters and could have occurred while approaching or disembarking from Marmagao port. One of the possible causes for shipwrecks in shallow waters off Goa could be an inadequate knowledge of bathymetry of the region. The preliminary exploration indicates that Amee Shoals shipwreck could be of a single ended scotch boiler, steel hulled, triple expansion steam vessel. These boilers, manufactured during the 1880s, are the last phase of development of fire tube boilers, later replaced by diesel engines. The shape and size of three scotch boilers suggest the ship could be 100 m in length and the wreck could be dated to 1880 AD or later. Possibly, this could be a steel hull with wooden superstructure. Explorations off Goa waters suggest that this region possesses rich potential for shipwreck archaeology, requiring further in-depth exploration which may bring new evidence on the maritime and shipwreck archaeology of Goa. In the absence of such reports the artefacts described in this paper provides new information on this aspect. Acknowledgements The author is thankful to the Director Satish Shetye and Project Leader K. H. Vora for their encouragement. Thanks also to the my colleagues of the Marine Archaeology Centre for help in field work; S. N. Bandodker and Sheikh Ali Karim for photographs, Ravindra Uchil and S. B. Chitari for preparing the drawings. This is NIO’s contribution No: 5061. Bibliography Ahmed, A., 1991 Alves, J. F., Blot, M., Caleja, P., Carvalho, P., Henriques, R., and Rodrigues, P., 2007 Ambre, N. V., 1991 Indo-Portuguese Trade in Seventeenth Century, Gian Publishing House, New Delhi. “A preliminary analysis of shipwreck data concerning Portugal and India based on written and Archaeological sources”, in India and the Eastern Sea, (ed.) Alok Tripathi, Agam Kala Prakashan, New Delhi, pp. 97119. Topography and surface sediment distribution around Amee shoal, Mormugoa”, in Recent Advances in Marine Archaeology, (ed.) Shikaripur Ranganatha Rao, NIO, Goa, pp. 113 -115. 9 �“The Carreira Da India 1650-1750”, in The Mariner’s Mirror, Vol. 46, No.1, pp. 35-54. “Archaeology: Treasure Trove”, in Goa Today, Vol. May 1997, pp. 24-30. Tres Seculos no Mar., Part-1, Lisbon, p. 93. “Some important shipwrecks on Konkan coast”, in Journal of Marine Archaeology, Vol. 5-6, pp. 45-48. Gazetteer of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, District Gazetteer, Part-1, Panaji. “Goa's coastal and overseas trade”, In Goa Gune, V. T., through the Ages-ll, (ed.) Teotonio. R. de 1990 Souza, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 117-135. History of the Portuguese Navigation in India, Mathew, K. M., 1988 Mittal Publications, New Delhi. The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Moraes, G. M., Mediaeval Karnataka, Asian Educational 1990 Services, New Delhi. O Oriente Portugues, Bastora, n. 22, pp.6-18. 1938 Basel Mission Industries in Malbar and South Raghaviah, J., Canara, Gian Publishing House, New Delhi. 1990 Old Goa, Archaeological Survey of India, New Rajagopalan, S., 1987 Delhi. Tripati, S., Gaur, A. S., and “Anchors from Goa waters, Central West Sundaresh., Coast of India: Remains of Goa’s overseas 2003a trade contacts with Arabian countries and Portugal”, in Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 27, pp. 97-106. Tripati., S., Sundaresh., Gaur, A. “Exploration of Basel Mission Company S., Gudigar, P., and Bandodker, shipwreck remains at St George’s Reef off S. N., Goa, West Coast of India: impact of the Basel 2003b Mission Co. on society and culture”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 32, No.1, pp. 111-120. Tripati, S.,Gaur, A. S., “Shipwreck archaeology of Goa: Evidence of Sundaresh., and Vora, K. H., maritime contacts with other countries”, in Current Science, Vol. 86, No.9, pp. 12382004 1245. Tripati, S., “Exploration of Portuguese shipwreck in Goa 2004 waters of India: With special reference to Sunchi Reef”, In Proceedings of Conference on the Application of Recent Advances in Underwater Detection and Survey Techniques Boxer, C. R., 1960 Costa, J. C., 1997 Esparteiro, A. M., (ed.), 1974 Gudigar, P., Sila Tripati., Gaur, A. S., and Sundaresh., 1995-96 Gune, V. T., (ed.), 1979 10 �Tripati, S., Sujatha, M., Rao, R. V., and Rao, K. S., 2005 Tripati, S., 2006 Tripati, S., 2008 Tripati, S., Gaur, A. S., and Sundaresh., 2010 Souza, A. B., 1930 to Underwater Archaeology, (eds.), Tuncay Akal, Robert D. Ballard and George F. Bass, Ulu Burun Publishing, INA, Bodrum, pp. 1929. “Use of timber in shipbuilding industry: Identification and analysis of timber from shipwrecks off Goa coast, India”, in Current Science, Vol. 89, No.6, pp. 1022-1027. “Ships on Hero Stones from the West Coast of India”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 35, No.1, pp. 88-96. “Exploration and Excavation of Shipwrecks in Goa and adjoining waters 2007-2008”, Technical Report No: NIO/TR1/2008, pp.1-19. “Exploration of a steamship wreck off Amee shoals, Goa, India: A preliminary report”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 39, No. 1, pp. 182-189. Subsidios para a Historia Militar Maritima da India, Lisbon, Vol. 1, pp. 1585-1605. 11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An overview of shipwreck explorations in Goa waters Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource Since the beginning of maritime archaeological research in Indian waters, marine records housed in archives of India and abroad provide details of the shipwrecks and the loss of Indian ships in foreign waters. Information on more than 200 shipwrecks in Indian waters has been gathered from archival records and attempts made to explore in Goa, Lakshadweep and Tamil Nadu waters. These shipwrecks are dated to the post 16th century AD. Shipwrecks were explored off Sunchi Reef, St George’s Reef and Amee Shoals in Goa waters. Sunchi Reef and St George’s Reef were wooden hulled sailing ships whereas Amee Shoals was a steel hulled steam engine shipwreck. Sunchi Reef exploration led to the recovery of guns, barrels of handguns, storage jars, Chinese ceramics, elephant tusks, hippopotamus teeth, iron anchors and other items that are evidence of Indo-Portuguese trade and commerce in the 17th century. Exploration off St George’s Reef uncovered timber and terracotta artefacts such as column capitals, drums, ridge tiles, roof and floor tiles and chimney bricks The bricks and tiles have the distinct inscription of Basel Mission Tile works 1865. Amee shoals exploration revealed the remains of a steel hulled steam engine shipwreck in which boilers, boiler bricks, and engine parts were found. The stamps on the flanges and the name on the firebricks suggest a British origin, dating from the 1880s or later. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sila Tripati Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/18779e381eec30571d73bb09801981a0.pdf 30ef72f990767c5a20aa63c3bd402f7a PDF Text Text Shipwreck Site and Earthenware Vessels in the Philippines: Earthenware vessels of the Pandanan Shipwreck Site Kazuhiko Tanaka and Eusebio Z. Dizon Abstract Eighteen shipwreck sites had been identified and researched in the Philippines by 2003 (Dizon 2003). The main goods of the cargos of these ships were porcelain wares and stoneware jars which had been produced in kiln sites in China and Mainland Southeast Asia such as Vietnam, Thailand and Myanmar (Alba 1993; Crick 1996; Diem 1996; Desroches 1996; Salcedo 1993; Valdes 1993). Many scholars have been interested in these porcelain wares and stoneware jars. Beside these porcelain wares and stoneware jars, earthenware vessels were also found in the shipwreck sites. However, only a few scholars have paid attention to earthenware vessels found in shipwreck sites. One of whom is Amalia de la Torre (1993; 1996), she conducted the study of earthenware vessels found in the San Diego Shipwreck Site. Earthenware vessels found in the shipwreck sites are often not goods for trading or bartering but for daily utensils of the people on a voyage (de la Torre 1993; 1996). The Pandanan Shipwreck Site is one of the rare shipwreck sites dated around the middle of the 15th century, its rarity is presumably because the Chinese imperial court totally banned private trading during this period (Sakuma 1989). Allison Diem (1996) has already conducted the study of glazed ceramics such as porcelain wares and stoneware jars found in the site and identified as wares produced in kiln sites in central Vietnam (Binh Dinh Province). However, she did not conduct the study of the unglazed earthenware vessels. Consequently there is no significant documentation of the earthenware vessels excavated in the Pandanan Shipwreck Site The writer believes that earthenware vessels of the shipwreck sites are also very important artifacts which sometimes indicate daily lives of the people on board and the possible route of the ship and the trade, even though they are easily neglected. In this article, the writer will point out the similarity of the forms of globular pots with a spout excavated in the Pandanan Wreck Site, the Lena Shoal Wreck Site and the Calatagan Sites (the terrestrial sites) in Batangas Province (Tanaka 2005). On the basis of this similarity, the sailing route of the Pandanan ship will be discussed in this article. Introduction A number of scholars have been interested in and studied porcelain and stonewares excavated in shipwreck sites (Alba 1993; Crick 1996; Diem 1996; Desroches 1996; Salcedo 1993; Valdes 1993). This is because porcelain and stonewares are the main surviving artifacts among the cargoes. Meanwhile, earthenware, which has also been excavated in shipwreck sites, has received less attention. In the Philippines, only de la Torre (1993, 1996) conducted the study on such kind of artifacts excavated in shipwreck sites. Earthenwares excavated in a shipwreck site have a different character from porcelain and stonewares. In many cases, earthenwares were employed by crew members and passengers for daily lives use and passengers (de la Torre 1993; de la Torre 1996), whereas the latter are the goods for trades. Furthermore we would like to consider the possible routes of the ship on the basis of earthenwares excavated in the Pandanan Shipwreck Site. �Location of the Pandanan Shipwreck Site (Figure 1) The western part of the Philippines is composed of Palawan Island and adjacent small islands. This island stretches in an orientation from northeast to southwest. The southernmost part of it faces the northernmost part of Borneo, although there are several small islands between these large islands. The strait between these large islands becomes a passage from the South China Sea to the Sulu Sea and vice versa. The Pandanan Island is located near the southern tip of Palawan Island (Figure 1). It is 9.6km long and 4km wide quadrangular small island. The shipwreck site is located about 250 meters off the northeast coast of the island (Dizon 1996:64). Figure 1. Large scale location of Pandanan shipwreck site and related sites. Discovery and Archaeological Research of the Pandanan Shipwreck Site The Ecofarm Resource Inc. runs a pearl farm in the sea around Pandanan Island. Pearls are cultured in a quadrangular basket the inside of which are divided into parts. The baskets are tied to a rope in the sea. One day in 1993, Mr. Gordirilla, who works in the Ecofarm Resource Inc., noticed that one basket was missing (Honasan 1996:14). He looked for it at the bottom of the sea around �the farm. During his search of the pearl basket, he accidentally found the shipwreck site. It is now known as the Pandanan Shipwreck Site (Honasan 1996:14). He informed the manager of the farm, Mr. Efren T. Anies about the shipwreck. Then Mr. Efren T. Anies informed the accidental discovery of the shipwreck site to the National Museum of the Philippines on June 9, 1993. The National Museum conducted the archaeological excavation of the site from Feb 17 to May 31, 1993 (Dizon 1996:64). The Wreck of the Pandanan Site The wreck was found at the bottom of a coral cliff, covered with sand and mud (Dizon 1996:70). The remaining portion of the ship is estimated to be about onefourth of the whole body of the ship. The size of the ship was estimated to be 25 to 30 meters long and about six to eight meters wide. It was pointed out that there were the typical holes in the divisions of the bulkhead for the purpose of letting water pass through it to be eventually pumped out. Two possible reasons were presented why only one-fourth of the body of the ship had remained. One is the infestation of the exposed wood by the tropical sea worms; and the other is the rapid movement of the under-water current (Dizon 1996:70). Eusebio Dizon (1996:70) identified the origin of the ship as possibly from Vietnam or southern China from its cargo as well as from particular details of ship construction. Dizon also pointed out that 70% of the artifacts found from this site were from presentday Vietnam (Dizon 1996:70). Artifacts found in the Pandanan Shipwreck Site There were 4, 722 artifacts found in the Pandanan Wreck Site. These are divided into six categories on the basis of kind of artifacts: earthenwares, porcelain, metals, coins, glass artifacts and stone tools. In this section, the artifacts except earthenwares are summarized. Chinese porcelain and stonewares Chinese Porcelain are composed of blue-and-white wares and white wares produced in Jing-de-zhen kiln and celadon wares produced in Longquan kiln. The stonewares were produced in kilns in Fuchien Province and Guangdong Province in southern China. The blue-and-white wares are composed of saucers, bowls, large bowls and small jarlets. White wares are two pieces of gourdshaped pouring vessels, one of them has dots of an iron pigment. Celadon wares are composed of dishes with a floral flaring rim, bowls with lotus design, saucers and stemmed cups. The stonewares produced in Fuchien and Guangdong Provinces are brown glazed six eared jars with a dragon design. Porcelain of northern Vietnam Porcelain of northern Vietnam are blue-and-white wares produced in Chu Dau kiln in northern Vietnam (Dizon 1996:99). These are composed of bowls, dishes or saucers, pots, jarlets, covered boxes and water droppers. �Porcelain and stonewares of central Vietnam Porcelain and stonewares of central Vietnam were thought to have been produced in the Go Sanh kiln in Binh Dinh Province in Central Vietnam. These are composed of celadon saucers or dishes with an unglazed ring portion at the inside. Porcelain and stonewares of Thailand Porcelain of Thailand is composed of a large bowl with a fish design drawn in iron pigment inside. Stoneware of Thailand is a blackish brown glazed four-eared large jar. The former was produced in the Sukhothai kiln, the latter was produced in the kilns along the Noi River. Metal artifacts Metal artifacts are divided into bronze artifacts and iron tools. Bronze artifacts are composed of two small canons, one lamp, one scale balance, one mirror, one covered box, one disc, one fish hook, one ferrule and five gongs. Iron tools are composed of one sword, one knife and over 60 cauldrons (Dizon 1996:68). Coins Several Chinese coins were found in the wreck site. One of them was identified as a coin which had been made during the rule of Emperor Yung Le (reign:1402~24)(Dizon 1996:66). Glass artifacts Thousands of glass beads were found in a storage jar (Dizon 1996:66; Cayron 2006). Stone tools Stone tools were composed of 21 grinding stones. These stones were either used for honing metal blades or for food processing. The main cargos of porcelain and stonewares are the products in Vietnam. Dizon mentioned that about 70 % of artifacts had been produced in present-day Vietnam (Dizon 1996:66). Date of Sinking of the Pandanan Ship Dizon (1996:72) thinks that the date of sinking of the ship is at the middle of 15 th century, because most of the ceramic cargo belongs to this period, although porcelain found in the site ranges from the Yuan Dynasty (1271~1368) to the Ming Dynasty (1368~1644). Two Japanese scholars also mentioned the date of the ship sinking. Kenichi Morimura (1996) thought that it is from the middle of the 15 th century to the late 15th century on the basis of dates of tombs in China with associated Chinese porcelain similar to the porcelain found in the wreck site. These are a celadon dish with a flaring rim made in Longquan kiln and a small jarlet with a �peony design produced in Jing-de-zhen kiln. The former was found in a tomb with a gravestone with an inscribed date of 1444 (Morimura1996:112). This is the tomb of Wei Yuan and located Yongxiu County in Jingxi Province. The specimen similar to the latter in shape and design was found in a tomb with an inscribed gravestone dated to 1437 (Morimura1966:112). This is the tomb of Zhu Panshi and located in Xinjian County in Jiangxi Province. Ko Mukai (2003:96-98) sequenced the black glazed four-eared jars made in Thailand, and from this, thought that the Pandanan ship was contemporaneous to the wreck of the Royal Nanhai found off the eastern shore of the Malay Peninsula, the wreck found off the Ko Khram Island in the Gulf of Thailand and the Feature no. SK01 at the Kyonouchi area in the Shuri Castle Site in Okinawa, Japan. He thought that all of them belonged to the middle of the 15th century (Mukai 2003:96-98). Earthenwares of the Pandanan Shipwreck Site These are 301 earthenware vessels and fragments found in this site. The earthenwares of the Pandanan Shipwreck Site are divided into five categories by type: pot, lid, jarlet, pouring vessel and stove. Figure 2. Eartenware Jarlet (1), Pot (2), Stove (Type1)(3) of the Pandanan shipwreck site. Pots There are four pieces of whole and restorable pots. One pot has a decoration and the other three pots are plain. The decorated one has a carination at the middle of the body and an out-turned rim. The rim diameter is 15.6 centimeters. The height is 10.8 centimeters. The maximum width of the body is 17.2 centimeters. The decoration was executed �from the neck to the upper part of the body by a pronged tool. Two parallel vertical lines are incised from the neck to the upper part of the body with about 7 to 8 millimeters intervals. The lower ends of these incised parallel vertical lines are bordered by an incised horizontal wavy line. Some parts from the rim to the upper portion of the body were covered with soot, indicating this pot was used for cooking on the ship. One of plain pots has polishing marks on the surface of the bottom. They were executed in only one direction all over the surface of the bottom. The pot has an out-turned rim. The rim diameter is about 13.7 centimeters. The height is 8.2 centimeters. The width of the bottom is 13.2 centimeters. This pot is a relatively small one. The outer surface of it, except the bottom, is covered with soot. The other plain pot with accession no. 3684 is a relative large one. It has an out-turned rim and a rounded bottom. The rim diameter is about 17.1 centimeters. The maximum width of the body is about 17.7 centimeters. The height is around 10.8 centimeters. The outer surface from the rim to the curved potion of the body is covered with soot. Another plain pot with an accession no. 3044 has also out-turned rim and a rounded bottom. The rim diameter is 14.8 centimeters. The maximum width of the body is 19 centimeters. The height is 14.5 centimeters. The outer surface from the rim to the angle-body is partially covered with soot. The bottom is also partially covered with soot. Lids There are three whole lids. All of them have a similar shape. They have a concave top portion and a convex bottom portion. They have a small knob at the center of the concave top. Two of them have a knob with a flattened top of the knob, the other one has a knob with a rounded top. There are two sizes. One is 11.8 centimeters to 11.9 centimeters in diameter. The height is 2.6 to 2.7 centimeter. The other is 14.3 centimeter in diameter. The height is 3.0 centimeters. Three of them have a lot of reddish brown small particles in the paste. These three lids are thought to have been made in Thailand on the basis of the characteristics of the shape. Jarlet There is one piece of jarlet. It has an out-turned short rim, a short neck and an ellipsoidal body. The rim diameter is 6.8 centimeters. The maximum width of the body is 10 centimeters. The height is 6.5 centimeters. The joining trace of a neck part and a body part is evident. There are also horizontal traces of wiping at the rim and the neck. Pouring vessels There are two pieces of pouring vessels. One is almost a complete one. The other lacks the rim and the neck. Only the body, the bottom and a lower portion of a spout remained. �The almost complete one has an out-turned short rim, a short neck and a spherical body. The outer surface of the bottom has a dimple at the center. There is a horizontal applique ridge at the upper portion of the body. The bottom is well polished. This pouring vessel is very similar to one of the pouring vessels (KT Slipped and Polished, Form D-I-C) excavated in the Calatagan Site in Batangas Province in Luzon by Fox (Main and Fox 1982:27). Another pouring vessel has only the body, the bottom and the lower portion of the spout. The shape of the body is ellipsoidal. The upper part of the body is relatively flat. There is a distinctive shoulder. The center portion of the top of the body is a little bit higher than the outside part. Then there is a 3.1 centimeters diameter hole. It is thought that the neck portion was joined at this portion originally. However, that portion is already missing. The outside of the bottom is slightly hollow and has a concave shape. The inside of the bottom has a convex shape. The maximum diameter of the body is about 16 centimeters. The height of the remaining body and bottom is about 9.7 centimeters. The diameter of the broken hole at the center of the upper part of the body is about 3.1 centimeters. The width of the spout is 7.3 centimeters at the joining portion to the body. Figure 3. Earthenware Stove (Type 2) of the Pandanan shipwreck site. Stoves A stove has two sections. One is used to put the pot on top of it and the lighted firewood are placed underneath. The long end of the firewood stretches to the other section where the cook can handle the firewood to keep the fire under control. �The first type (Type 1) (Plate 1:1~3): The shape of the part for putting firewood of the first type has a shape like a fan. The adjacent part for burning firewood is a half-cut cylindrical shape. Three small cleats are put on the top of this cylindrical shaped wall. The ringfoot is attached to the bottom. The total shape of the stove of this type is similar to the stove excavated in Sta Ana Site in Manila (Fox and Legaspi 1977:Figure 8). Figure 4. Earthenware Stoves of the Pandanan shipwreck site. The second type (Type 2)(Plate 1:4~6): The shape of the part for putting firewood of the second type is quadrangular. This part is edged with low walls. The third type (Type 3)(Plate 1:7~9): The shape of the part for putting firewood of the third type is also quadrangular. This part is also edged with low walls. Meanwhile, the part for burning firewood is a cylindrical shape with an quadrangular large cut-out at the front part. Therefore, the top of this part is like a ring. Three small cleats are attached on this ring. �Discussions The following things are already revealed on the observation of earthenwares excavated in the Pandanan Shipwreck Site.  As mentioned before by Dizon (1996:67), there is a pouring vessel (a globular pot) similar to the pouring vessel (the globular pot) excavated in the Calatagan Sites in Batangas Province in Luzon (Main and Fox 1982:Figure 72); at least three kinds of stoves; and pots were used for cooking because all of them have soot on the outer surface.  One type of stove, whose shape of the section for handling the firewood to keep the fire under control is like a fan, is similar to the stove excavated in Sta Ana Site in Manila (Fox and Legaspi 1977:Figure 8).  Two other types of stoves have the quadrangular shapes at the section for handling the firewood to keep the fire under control. Stoves with the section for handling the firewood of quadrangular shape were excavated in the Butuan Sites in northeastern Mindanao (Cembrano 1998:Figure 10).  There is the pot with an incised design whose design elements are similar to the those of the pot excavated in the Calatagan Sites in Batangas Province in Luzon (Main and Fox 1982:Figure 84-(b)).  There is a pot whose polishing marks on the bottom is similar to the pot excavated in the Calatagan Sites in Batangas Province in Luzon (Main and Fox 1982:Figure 5:Type III of Base Polish). Concluding Remarks There are several earthenwares excavated in the Pandanan Shipwreck Site, which are similar to the earthenwares excavated in the Calatagan Sites in Batangas Province, Luzon Island: a pouring vessel, a pot with incised design and a pot with polishing marks at the bottom. In addition, there is a stove whose shape is similar to the stove excavated in Sta Ana Site in Manila. The Calatagan sites in Batangas Province and the Sta Ana Site in Manila revealed the stoves similar to the stove of Type 1 of the Pandanan Shipwreck Site. However, these sites did not revealed the quadrangular stoves like the stove of Type 2, which is similar to the stove found in the Butuan Sites in Northeastern Mindanao. Meanwhile, the Butuan sites did not revealed the stove of Type 1. It seems that the stoves have the local characteristics. In addition, the Calatagan Sites revealed celadon dishes (Fox 1959: Plate 90, 91) made in Binh Dinh Province which were one of main cargoes of the Pandanan Ship. This fact suggests one possibility of the route of the ship. That is the ship had passed near Batangas area before the ship sank off the Pandanan Island, since Dizon’s view via south route (Dizon 1996:70) is still another strong option. Further archaeological excavations of the terrestrial sites in Southern Palawan is awaited. Until then, it is also probable that the Pandanan ship might had been trading too in Calatagan and Sta Ana and even Butuan. Bibliography Alba, L. A., “A Preliminary Survey of the Storage Jars”, in (eds.) Cynthia O. �1993 Aoyagi, Y. and Hasebe, G., (eds.), 2002 Cayron, J.G., 2006 Cembrano, M.R., 1998 Crick, M., 1996 de la A., 1993 Torre, de la A., 1996 Torre, Diem, A. J., 1996 Dizon, E. Z., 1996 Dizon, 2003 E.Z., Desroches, J., 1996 Fox, R. 1959 B., Valdes and Allison Diem, Saga of the San Diego, pp.43-44. Champa Ceramics Production and Trade-Excavation Report of the Go Sanh Kiln Sites in Central Vietnam-, The Study Group of the Go Sanh Klin Sites in Central Vietnam, Japan and Vietnam. Stinging the Past: an archaeological understanding of early Southeast Asian glass bead trade, The University of the Philippine Press, Diliman. Patterns of the Past; The ethnoarchaeology of Butuan. 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Pottery Analysis: A source book, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. “Prohibition of Overseas Trade and its Influence of International Relations in the Early Reign of the Ming Dynasty”, (in Japanese with English summary) in Journal of East-West Maritime Relations, vol. 1, pp.31-46. “The Ceramic Cargo” in (eds.) Cynthia O. Valdes and Allison Diem, Saga of the San Diego, pp.29-30. “Wreck Sites and Their Pottery in the Philippines: Focusing on the Sites from the Middle of the 15th Century to the End of the 16th Century”, (in Japanese with English summary) in The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies No.1, pp.17-53. Chu Dau Ceramics, The Museum of Haiduong Province Kinh Books Ltd, Vietnam. “Jars on Board” in (eds.) Cynthia O. Valdes and Allison Diem, Saga of the San Diego, pp.38-42 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Shipwreck Site and Earthenware Vessels in the Philippines: Earthenware vessels of the Pandanan Shipwreck Site Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource Eighteen shipwreck sites had been identified and researched in the Philippines by 2003 (Dizon 2003). The main goods of the cargos of these ships were porcelain wares and stoneware jars which had been produced in kiln sites in China and Mainland Southeast Asia such as Vietnam, Thailand and Myanmar (Alba 1993; Crick 1996; Diem 1996; Desroches 1996; Salcedo 1993; Valdes 1993). Many scholars have been interested in these porcelain wares and stoneware jars. Beside these porcelain wares and stoneware jars, earthenware vessels were also found in the shipwreck sites. However, only a few scholars have paid attention to earthenware vessels found in shipwreck sites. One of whom is Amalia de la Torre (1993; 1996), she conducted the study of earthenware vessels found in the San Diego Shipwreck Site. Earthenware vessels found in the shipwreck sites are often not goods for trading or bartering but for daily utensils of the people on a voyage (de la Torre 1993; 1996). The Pandanan Shipwreck Site is one of the rare shipwreck sites dated around the middle of the 15th century, its rarity is presumably because the Chinese imperial court totally banned private trading during this period (Sakuma 1989). Allison Diem (1996) has already conducted the study of glazed ceramics such as porcelain wares and stoneware jars found in the site and identified as wares produced in kiln sites in central Vietnam (Binh Dinh Province). However, she did not conduct the study of the unglazed earthenware vessels. Consequently there is no significant documentation of the earthenware vessels excavated in the Pandanan Shipwreck Site The writer believes that earthenware vessels of the shipwreck sites are also very important artifacts which sometimes indicate daily lives of the people on board and the possible route of the ship and the trade, even though they are easily neglected. In this article, the writer will point out the similarity of the forms of globular pots with a spout excavated in the Pandanan Wreck Site, the Lena Shoal Wreck Site and the Calatagan Sites (the terrestrial sites) in Batangas Province (Tanaka 2005). On the basis of this similarity, the sailing route of the Pandanan ship will be discussed in this article. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kazuhiko Tanaka Eusebio Z. Dizon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4