21 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d0457b75cc3f08656b7f52a01ee73741.mp4 b31f29a255cc41f395884e81911c6b8c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dr. Bill Jeffery Subject The topic of the resource Conference Organizing Committee Chair introduction Description An account of the resource Dr. Bill Jeffery introduces the conference and the online proceedings. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/28/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Asia-Pac Chair 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/928756930b83aa685b1ab226a6c5d002.mp4 a02b321fedaf924c178da546e2b79483 Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dr. Le Thi Lien Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Speaker Description An account of the resource Dr. Le Thi Lien is senior researcher at the Institute of Archaeology (VASS). Her studies focused on Oc Eo culture in southern Vietnam, early cultural exchanges and interaction with Southeast Asia, India and China, and archaeology of the naval battle fields. Results of her research have been presented in several international conferences of the IPPA, the EurAsia, the SPAFA, and UNESCO … Her publications include a book on “Nghệ thuật Phật giáp và Hindu giáo ở Đồng bằng sông Cá»­u long trÆ°á»›c thế kỉ 10 [Buddhist and Hindu art in the Cuu Long River Delta prior to 10th century AD]” (2006), Editing book: “Di sản Lịch sá»­ và những hÆ°á»›ng tiếp cận má»›i [Historical Heritages and New Perspective]” (2011); and more than 80 chapters and papers in Vietnamese and English. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/29/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Asia-Pac Keynote 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a5abc9ca81b4ad21cb6e9d761268bd5b.pdf 14e82aadf2c299c3d4c2e718fa36c821 PDF Text Text Trade in Ceramics on Guam in the Wake of the Manila Galleon Lon E. Bulgrin Archaeologist/Cultural Resources Manager Navy Base Guam Abstract Various colonial factors led to the Mariana Islands being one of the most economically isolated areas of the Pacific from the late 17th century until the late 18th century. This isolation is reflected in the dearth of artifacts of European and Asian origin in the archaeological record. Starting in the late 18th century rules on public trade were relaxed and outside goods became more readily available in the Marianas, if still uncommon. This paper considers the ceramic collection from the Rosario House located in Hagatna, Guam. The Rosario House has the largest data set of imported Euro-American and Asian historical artifacts that has been discovered in the Mariana Islands to date. The collection is dominated by Provincial Chinese porcelains and stonewares but also includes a sample of refined European earthenwares. Key words: Guam, Pacific Islands, Manila Galleon, Ceramics Introduction The Mariana Islands are some of the most geographically isolated islands in the Western Pacific. They lie on the western periphery of Oceania, located approximately 1200 miles southeast of Japan and 1500 miles east of the Philippines (Fig. 1). Spanish colonial policies of the late 17th century further isolated the Chamorro people of the Marianas from other indigenous polities in the Pacific. This solitude and segregation from the rest of Oceania would last through the late 19th century. This isolation extended to economic exchange even as they acted as a key nexus in the Manila Galleon trade. This paper will examine Guam’s place in world trade �at the end of the Manila Galleon trade through archaeologically recovered ceramics. Fig. 1: Map of the Mariana Islands. (Mike Carson) Historic Background Guam was the first landfall in the Pacific of an occupied island by Magellan and his exhausted scurvy-ridden crew in his quest to reach the Spice Islands. When Magellan and his crew made anchor on Guam on that first long trek across the Pacific they felt both saved and threatened in the initial lifesaving exchanges of food and water that were made with indigenous Chamorro inhabitants. The day after contact Magellan’s men launched an assault on a Chamorro village and burnt most of it down in the course of recovering a ships boat needed to sound future anchorages. Yet, at the same time that these Europeans were conducting a raid against one Chamorro village they were busy trading for fresh food and water with others. This ambiguity involving violence continued through the early Manila Galleon trade (Rogers 1995; Giraldez 2015). �For the next 150 years or so, the Mariana Islands were common stopping places on the southern leg of the Manila Galleon route to take on water, fruit, and fresh food. Trade was done at a distance with laughing Chamorros making sea-borne trades of rice and other victuals that often turned out to mostly consist of baskets of rocks and sand or coconut oil heavily diluted with seawater (Pigafetta 1521 and Legaspi 1564 in Barratt 2003: 56 and 61-62). The Chamorros had to maintain a safe distance from the Spanish ships or they might them find themselves impressed as involuntary translators for future voyages or worse yet working the pumps all the way to Manila in the stinking, over heated bilges of leaking galleons (Giraldez 2015:49). The Spanish mission and the colonization that rapidly followed in the Marianas were directly related to the glimpses of the islands from the passing galleons that inflamed the imaginations of various churchmen who saw them as fertile fields for the harvest of souls (Driver 1989). The Spanish crown showed initially little interest in acquiring a string of tiny islands without spice, textile, or mineral resources. Zealous religious first jumped ship to convert the Chamorro. After a campaign conducted by the politically connected Father San Vittores a Jesuit mission was established (McDonough 2004; Coomans 1997). The Marianas mission rapidly found itself embroiled in cultural and political conflict with local power structures and called for protection from the Crown (Lesveque 1995; Levesque 1996). However, the military companies sent for their protection were “like a rich armor worn in heat of day that scalds with safety” (Shakespeare Henry IV PtII.). The churchmen spent much of the next century or so complaining about the character and behavior of the troops and their captains. Still without the military presence the Catholic Church would have been unable to further their mission of conversion. The Spanish �controlled islands became safe harbors for galleons battered by typhoons or just poorly captained or incompetently crewed in the Acapulco crossing. These islands were also a welcome stop to take on fresh fruit and vegetables during the Manila crossing. Prior to European Contact the Chamorro people had maintained limited trading contact and social ties with the Caroline Island groups of Chuuk and Yap to the south and with the Philippines to the west (Farrell 2011:211; Quimby 2011). The punctuated natures of these trade ties are reflected in the sparse evidence of long distance trade in the archaeological record. Linguistic and historic accounts have been interpreted to represent a limited trade in iron with the Philippines (Quimby 2011) and perhaps iron fragments discovered at the Obyan latte site (Spoehr 1957) on Saipan may reflect a Pre-Contact trade in iron. Ethnohistoric evidence and historical accounts of the Carolinian contacts with the Marianas, however, are clear on the trade and interaction. The descendents of migrants from the outer islands of Yap and Chuuk make up a small but significant population of the Northern Mariana Islands and their relatives still visit Saipan using the traditional navigation chants to guide their way. At some time in the late 17th century the navigation routes disseminated and controlled by chants between the islands to the south to Guam were magically closed by the master navigators of the Carolines in response to stories of Spanish cruelty related by Guam Chamorros (Smith 2003:79; Farrell 2011:211). The Marianas were now isolated from their traditional Pacific trade partners. By the early 19th century Spanish policies of isolation, the Catholic mission, and the relentless hammering taken by the Chamorro people from introduced European and Asian diseases had eliminated the limited ties that once had bound them with their neighbors in the Pacific (Farrell �2011). The Spanish mission in the Marianas concentrated not only on the introduction of the Catholic faith but also inculcation and enforcement of European social and gender roles (Russell 1998). A primary goal was to eliminate the animistic beliefs and ancestor worship of the Chamorro. To this end, indigenous songs, dances, and oral histories were actively discouraged by the Jesuit Fathers. Indigenous knowledge systems that did not explicitly find favor with the Church rapidly eroded. Proprietary knowledge of all kinds was made vulnerable by the need to limit transmission to chosen heirs, the association with non-Catholic ancestors, and the unpredictable appearances of diseases that swept away the living repositories. Seafaring and navigational knowledge and expertise were heavily impacted by this social revolution. A people capable of making rapid voyages up and down the Marianas chain and of delivering passengers from Guam to Manila in 4 to 6 days as late as 1704 were barely capable of sailing beyond the northern tip of Guam by 1819 (Freycinet 2003, Originally 1827). The Spanish were interested in maintaining this isolation for geo-political as well as religious reasons, primarily to deny access to rival European powers. The Marianas were an important stop off point for the Manila galleons making their voyages between Manila and Acapulco, carrying New World silver in exchange for the spices, silks, and gold of Asia. The Pacific route of the galleons was composed of extremely empty distances with very few points where fresh water and food could be brought on board. The galleon routes could be approached by pirates from only a few points and the Spanish wanted to limit this. Denying access to the Marianas was a way to keep English and Dutch at bay. Accordingly the Spanish crown did not allow trade with foreign nationals in the Marianas. They maintained their own garrison and mission on Guam with an annual �situado or subsidy (Farrell 2011:192) that arrived on a very irregular basis. A series of venal governors usually managed to reacquire the majority or entirety of this subsidy before they were recalled, actively cheating their troops as well as the local subjects. The economies on the inhabited islands of Guam, Rota, and Saipan were subsistence based with limited internal trade and no outside trade to speak of. Local people saw little to no benefit from the galleon trade or the government (Rogers 1995). After the political unrest and revolutions in South and Central America starting in 1808, the Spanish money making machine, trading silver mined by encomienda labor in the New World for Asian gold and goods in the Philippines totally broke down (Giraldez 2015). The structural position of the Mariana Islands changed for the Spanish crown. No longer were the islands an essential supply stop and defensive shield for the Manila galleons located within a “Spanish lake”. Now they were at the ends of the earth, just beyond the Philippines, and a fiscal drain. Accordingly, the yearly situado, of New World silver, that provided payment for the Mission and the garrison was radically reduced (Rodgers 1995:93). Economically, changes had already been made in the trade policy in the Marianas before the revolutions. Governor Cerain, 1776-1786, had issued a proclamation allowing both internal trade as well as trade with passing ships. This was due to a deteriorating economy and the increase of foreign whaling vessels in the Pacific. The 19th century saw a slow opening and reintegration of the Marianas with the rest of the world. The Pacific whaling fleet composed primarily of U.S. and British vessels consistently wintered a few ships at Guam and Saipan. Sailors came ashore looking for leisure, fresh food, liquor and companionship, not necessarily in that order. The 19th century also saw a reappearance of Carolinians in the Marianas. The chief and master- �navigator Aghurubw reopened the navigational ways to the Marianas and led a fleet of canoes of Carolinean families north (Driver and Brunal-Perry 1996; Smith 2003). settle on Saipan. The governor of Guam gave them permission to More canoes would come north in the continuing decades and would help to spur interisland trade. The Marianas remained underdeveloped with land ownership becoming more concentrated in the hands of the Church and elite families (Rogers 1995:75). Many of the smaller landholding families slipped into debt peonage (Rogers 1995). During the stay over on Saipan and Guam, many whalers lodged with local families and presumably paid primarily in goods for room and board. The annual supply ship from the Philippines usually also wintered in the Marianas until the trade winds were steady. Some wealthy families also contracted with visiting ships to provide provisions. Providing fresh foods and salt meats would have required large land holdings so presumably only those families with significant crown grants would have been major players in the trade (Madrid 2006:14). Regardless of the participants this trade would have decreased, as the whaling fleets declined, through the mid to late 19th century (Rogers 1995:105). The lives of average Chamorro families were not much affected by these economic changes. They continued in their yearly rounds of religious festivals. They conducted small scale agriculture, fished and hunted, collected wild foods, and practiced limited animal husbandry. Most Chamorros retained two residences under the Spanish. During the week they lived on small farms called lancho and returned to their formal residence on the weekend to attend religious services (Madrid 2006:8; Rogers 1995). In 1898 the United States seized Guam during the Spanish American War. Following its defeat Spain sold the remainder of the archipelago, the �Northern Mariana Islands, to Germany. Japan seized the Northern Marianas from Germany in 1914 during World War I and Guam from the U.S, in 1941during World War II. The United States took Saipan, Tinian, and Guam in amphibious assaults in 1944 and retained the entire archipelago after WWII (Rogers 1995). Historical Archaeology and Rosario House Historical archaeological investigations into the Spanish Period in the Marianas have been limited. Almost all investigations have focused on the island of Guam where the vast majority of the population, the Catholic Mission, and colonial government were located. There are two principle challenges in conducting historical archaeology in the Mariana Islands. The first is the paucity of identifiable historic artifacts and the second is the direct involvement of the island chain in the ground combat of World War II. The paucity of identifiable historic artifacts is rooted in two separate factors. The primary factor is the economic isolation of the archipelago previously discussed. The second is the hostile preservation conditions. High heat and humidity, acidic soils and high levels of salt combined with termites, mildew, and periodic typhoons, rapidly decay most materials including metal. The effects of WWII can not be overemphasized in the historic archaeology of the Marianas. The majority of Saipan and Tinian and a significant portion of Guam were subjected to naval and aerial �bombardment and combat ground operations. More importantly, post battle cleanup and the WWII logistical buildup subjected huge portions of the islands to the not so tender mercy of the Seabees, who never did anything with hand tools when it could be done mechanically. Their “Can Do” spirit was a war winning attitude but it wreaked havoc on the archaeological sites of the Marianas. This damage was particularly acute because of the aforementioned lancho residence system. The three largest towns and commercial centers on Guam; Hagatna, Sumay, and Agat were destroyed and built over, as was Garapan, the largest town on Saipan. In the case of Hagatna significant portions were bulldozed into the sea to create additional land. Garapan also suffered extreme earthmoving. These actions eliminated most of the formal residences in the Marianas where imported materials were present for archaeologists to study. Asian and European artifacts have been discovered at former lancho sites but they are not common finds and they are present in low densities. The Rosario House (Fig. 2) is one of the few surviving Pre-WWII buildings and intact archaeological sites remaining in Hagatna on Guam. The site was investigated by archaeologists from Micronesian Archaeological Research Services in 1988 (Moore et.al. 1993). The largest historic ceramic collection discovered in the Marianas was recovered from these excavations. In 2009 the Guam Preservation Trust funded the cataloging of this important collection (Bulgrin 2010). �Fig. 2: The Rosario House. (Guam Preservation Trust) Stratigraphical interpretation of the excavations at the Rosario House indicates historical processes that caused disturbance and soil mixing in the areas tested. A leaching field and potential excavation for garbage disposal appear to have mixed PreContact and historical deposits. Laboratory analyses agreed with these interpretations. Uncertain contexts have limited chronological interpretations so the collection needs to be addressed as a totality. The Rosario House Ceramic Collection A large variety of European and Asian ceramics were recovered from the initial testing at the Rosario House. The vast majority of the ceramics dated from the late 18th century to the late 19th century. European ceramics made up 24% of the Rosario House collection and were dominated by wares manufactured in the United Kingdom. This is no surprise given the English domination of ceramic production at that time (Tames 1995:39). Asian ceramics present at Rosario House were manufactured in both China and Japan. The Chinese ceramics, porcelain and stoneware, composed 71% of the collection and tended to cluster in the late 18th to mid-19th century. Japanese porcelain and stoneware made �up the remaining 5% of the collection and dated from the late 19th century to the 20th century. Fig. 3: European Ceramics. (Adapted from Bulgrin 2010) European ceramics (Fig. 3) are uncommon finds on historic sites in the Marianas and the Rosario House is unique in the quantity and richness of their discovery. European refined earthen wares present were produced for food service or hygienic purposes. The more utilitarian earthenwares of the time produced for food preparation and storage such as yellow ware, Rockingham glazed yellow wares, and annular whitewares were present but in very low numbers. Decorated refined earthenwares predominated. Creamwares, pearlwares, whitewares, and a very few semi-porcelain sherds were recovered. The only wares that were not decorated were the creamwares and a single tin glazed earthenware sherd. These are presumably some of the earliest European ceramic type introduced into the Marianas (other than a very few majolica vessels, none of which were discovered at the Rosario House). Decoration ranges from inexpensive shell edged wares �and sponge stamped wares to transfer prints. Transferprints were recovered in all colors produced, but blue was the most common. Plates and large serving or hygienic vessels predominated as vessel forms with cups and bowls making up the majority of the rest of the collection. Unusual vessel types include an open vegetable dish, a chamber pot or spittoon, a child’s chamber pot, a possible candlestick and a teapot. Importantly, none of the recovered ceramics matched any other within the collection and it appears that they were acquired individually. Two unusual finds include a copper luster sherd and a fragment of an animal figurine. Chinese porcelains and stonewares made up by far the largest proportion of the ceramics collected from excavations at Rosario House. This study does not address the large quantity of utilitarian stoneware recovered at the site. Asian stoneware jars of various makes and national origins were ubiquitous in trade within Southeast Asia and the Manila Galleons, being the shipping containers of their day. Almost all of the Chinese porcelain (Fig. 4) present was of the type commonly referred to as Provincial ware whose production was centered in Fujian province (Macintosh 1977; Sheaf and Kilburn 1988). These wares were produced for Asian tastes rather than European and are of a different quality and aesthetic to the porcelain exported to the West. Porcelain bodies were a uniform light grey. Glazes ranged from pale blue through pale grey for most sherds. More unusual glaze tints included pale greenish grey and pale cream colored. Most vessels were decorated with blue underglaze handpainting but there are examples of underglaze block printing and overglaze hand painting as well. Unglazed rings on both the interior and exterior are another common technique present. Unglazed footrings and sand adhesions are also common. Several sherds were �clearly of inferior production runs as they appeared to be over oxidized perhaps due to an early opening of the kiln. Fig. 4: Chinese Porcelain. (Adapted from Bulgrin 2010) A small number of porcelain sherds were clearly produced for the European export trade based on quality, form, and painting style. One sherd has characteristics of early 19th century English porcelain and another higher quality painted sherd has an Empire Shape lobed body (Berthoud 1990:105). Many porcelain sherds from Rosario House are identical to ceramics recovered from the wreck of the Junk Tek Sing that sank in 1822 (Pickford and Hatcher 2000). These include motifs such as stylized peach sprays, stylized Sanskrit printing, floral sprays, and lingzhi fungus and flower heads within a spiral or bloom. Koh (2013) has identified the majority of the porcelain from the Tek Sing as Dehua Blue and White. Dehua blue and white porcelains were a lesser quality ware that was principally marketed to Southeast Asia. Koh (2013) has also proposed that the Tek Sing cargo serves as a reference collection for the late �Qianlong/Daoguang period (late 18th century – 1850). Nevertheless, the variety of glazes present and different painting techniques and quality among the porcelain collection make it unlikely that all of the collection is the product of the Dehua kilns. Porcelain vessel types are overwhelmingly for food service, predominantly bowls and cups. The general impression from working with the collection is that sets of bowls and cups are present at the site but this can not be stated with certainty due to the small size of most of the sherds recovered and the few cross mends that could be made. A number of sherds from small plates with a dark blue edge with lotus blossoms was found in two of the excavation units and were almost certainly a set. Similar decorated plates are dated from 1825-1850 (Mudge 1986:182). Block printed “debased Sanskrit” pattern bowls are another possible set present in the assemblage. The availability of these as sets is reinforced by block printed “Sanskrit” bowl sherds recovered from excavations at the Governor’s palace at Hagatna (Schuetz 2007:139). Fig. 5: Chinese Stoneware. (Adapted from Bulgrin 2010) �Chinese stoneware (Fig. 5) makes up a small proportion of the Rosario House collection. Two distinct types are present in the collection. The first type has a buff body and cream colored glaze. Decoration consists of crimson overglaze painting. The second type has a body varying from grey to pale buff to pinkish buff, glazes ranging from pale greyish blue to cream, and underglaze blue painting. The ceramic collection from Rosario House seems to be a direct reflection of economic opportunities for an elite family on Guam. The earliest architectural remains at Rosario House date to approximately 1750 but there are no imported artifacts from that period. Upon legalization of private trade, foreign artifacts immediately appeared but in low quantities. With the advent of the whalers quantities increase and more varied goods are available. European ceramics appear to be individually acquired and may reflect lodging and board transactions for whaling crews. Chinese ceramics are available in greater quantity and possibly in sets. However, the porcelain’s quality is low and lower quality stoneware copies are sometimes substituted for porcelain vessels. Provincial porcelain is difficult to date, particularly as fragmented as it is in the Rosario House collection. However, the porcelain recovered from the Rosario House site is extremely similar in style to the cargo recovered from the Tek Sing wreck of 1822 (Pickford and Hatcher 2000). Logically the porcelain at both location dates to approximately the same date. Given that cargoes may have been assembled over time from wares in storage a time frame of the late 18th century – 1830s seems appropriate for the porcelain. Ceramics at Rosario House dating to the late 19th century and early 20th century are almost entirely Japanese stenciled porcelains. Two different ceramic types, Chinese Provisional porcelain and English refined earthenwares are predominant in the Rosario House collection. �Clearly these ceramics were manufactured in two different areas of the world under very different conditions and their distribution in tandem is unlikely. It is also interesting that European ceramics appear to have been acquired singly while Chinese ceramics were available in sets or small lots of similar decoration. These patterns indicate two different streams of availability. It is likely that the European ceramics were acquired in serial transactions with Euro-American sailors as payments for lodging, meals, or commodities such as dried meat, coffee or tobacco, that were locally available. Whaling ships may have carried ceramics as part of a suite of trade goods to reprovision and refit ships over the whaling voyage. It is possible that crews were able to draw from these against future wages for their needs or they may have brought their own trade goods in their sea chests against future need. Chinese porcelain availability in sets (Fig. 6) indicates a different kind and direction of trade. These were available for trade or purchase in bulk, if not necessarily on a regular basis. Provincial porcelain was produced for and marketed to the Southeast Asian market. It is unlikely that whaling ships would have chosen to load these ceramics in bulk at their home ports in New England or the United Kingdom when cheaper industrially produced English earthenwares were available. It is also unlikely that these ceramics are tied to the Manila Galleon. These porcelains would have been readily available in Manila but in order to be transported to Guam via the galleon trade they would have had to be trans-shipped through Acapulco and back to Guam. This is an unlikely scenario as separate taxes and fees would have had to be paid and the ceramics could have already been sold for a substantial profit in Mexico. In addition, the bulk of the Provincial porcelain in the Rosario collection postdates the �Manila Galleon. Therefore, it appears that these ceramics were being shipped directly from the Philippines to Guam, most likely by the annual supply ship or mail schooners. It is ironic that the demise of the galleon trade actually led to an increased availability of consumer goods on Guam. It is not clear whether this was speculative trade or orders put in by local consumers or retailers for delivery. Fig. 6: Porcelain Patterns. (Adapted from Bulgrin 2010) Conclusion Several preliminary conclusions on consumer choice can be made for the family that lived at the Rosario House given the caveats of limited sample size. The first is that the end of the galleon trade and the political turmoil of the South and Central American revolutions expanded the availability of foreign commodities on Guam. This supposes that other non-preserved commodities such as fabric that presumably made up the bulk of trade followed the pattern for ceramics. The second is that options on the products available were still limited. Large serving bowls and other serving vessels, and hygienic vessels such as ewers and basins and chamber �pots were probably only available when European or American ships were in port. This hypothesized punctuated availability likely extended to other commodities as well. Rarity and inherent fragility possibly indicate use of these vessels primarily for display and prestige purposes. In the case of imported ceramics, there was a preference for food service vessels such as cups, bowls and plates, over utilitarian vessels such as pans, mixing bowls, bottles, and jars. Presumably food storage and preparation functions were being taken up by more durable though heavier stonewares. In the case of European ceramics, there was a preference for decorated wares and this continued over time. This is in contrast to the general trend by European manufacturers of producing plainer, whiter vessels such as molded ironstones. There was also a preference for blue decorated wares over other colors. Finally, even when broken, imported ceramics retained some value as there are multiple examples of broken sherds rechipped into circular gaming or tally pieces. Hopefully, more archaeological testing will be conducted at the Rosario House in conjunction with planned rehabilitation and these hypotheses can be tested with additional data. (Please note that this research was conducted privately by the author under Guam Preservation Trust Grant GPTG-08-01 and does not represent the opinion or the policy of the U.S. Navy) References Barratt, G., 2003 The Chamorros of the Marianas Islands, Early European Records, 1521-1721. Occasional Historical Papers Series No. 10, CNMI Division of Historic Preservation: Saipan. Berthoud, M.,1990 A Compendium of British Cups. Micawber Publications: Shropshire. �Bulgrin, L., 2010 Catalog of the Non-Utilitarian Ceramics from the Rosario House Site, Hagatña, Guam. Report prepared under Guam Preservation Trust Grant GPTG-08-01 Coomans, P., 2000 1667-1673. History of the Mission in the Marianas Islands, Occasional Historical Papers Series No. 4, CNMI Division of Historic Preservation: Saipan. Driver, M., 1989 Fray Juan Pobre in the Marianas, 1602. Richard Flores Taitano Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam: Mangilao. Driver, M. and O. Brunal-Perry (eds), 1996 Carolinians in the Mariana Islands. Richard Flores Taitano Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam: Mangilao. Farrell, D., 2011 History of the Mariana Islands To Partition. Public School System, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan. Freycinet, L., 2003 An Account of the Corvette L’Uranie’s Sojourn at the Mariana Islands, 1819. Translated by Glynn Barratt, Occasional Historical Papers Series No. 13, CNMI Division of Historic Preservation: Saipan. Giraldez, A., 2015 The Age of Trade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy. Rowman and Littlefield: Lanham,MD. Koh, N.K., 2013 Dehua Blue and White. Retrieved June 26, 2017, from http://kohantique.com/Dehua/dehua_blue_and_white.htm Levesque, R. (ed), 1995 History of Micronesia: Vol. 6 Revolts in the Marianas. Les Editions Levesque: Quebec. Levesque, R. (ed), 1996 History of Micronesia: Vol. 7: More Turmoil in the Marianas. Les Editions Levesque: Quebec. Macintosh, D., 1977 Charles Ltd: London. Chinese Blue and White Porcelain. David and �Madrid, C., 2006 Beyond Distances: Governance, Politics and Deportation in the Mariana Islands from 1870 to 1877. Northern Marianas Council for Humanities, Saipan. McDonough, J. A. S.J. (ed), 2004 The Life and Martyrdom of Diego Luis De San Vitores, S.J. MARC Monograph Series No. 3, Richard Flores Taitano Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam: Mangilao. Moore, D., J. Amesbury, R. Hunter-Anderson, and E. Wells, 1993 Archaeological Excavations at Rosario House, Agana, Guam. Report prepared for Tanaguchi-Ruth-Smith and Associates. Micronesian Archaeological Research Services: Mangilao Mudge, J., 1986 Chinese Export Porcelain in North America. Clarkson N. Potter Inc,: New York. Pickford, N. and M. Hatcher, 2000 The Legacy of the Tek Sing. Granta Editions: Cambridge. Quimby, F., 2011 The Hierro Commerce: Culture Contact, Appropriation and Colonial Entanglement in the Marianas, 1521–1668. Journal of Pacific History, Vol. 46, No. 1. Rogers, R., 1995 of Hawai’i: Honolulu. Destiny’s Landfall: A History of Guam. University Russell, S., 1998 Tiempon I Manmofo’na: Ancient Chamorro Culture and History of the Northern Mariana Islands. Micronesian Archaeological Survey No.32, CNMI Division of Historic Preservation: Saipan. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 1: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology and Capacity Building in the Pacific Islands Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) spanning human history from the Stone Age to the atomic age. Since the first Pacific UCH Workshop held in Solomon Islands in 2009, the Pacific island nations have been progressing in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme by awareness raising, research and capacity building activities through inter-disciplinary cooperation and promoting synergy with the Pacific World Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage Programmes. Notable progresses include, among others, the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Outcome Document of the 3rd UN International Cooperation on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Samoa, 2014) that contains references to the importance of UCH for sustainable development of SIDS and SIDS ratification of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), as well as the enhanced cooperation between universities in the Pacific islands and professional training institutions through UNESCO University Twinning and Networking Programme (UNITWIN) for Underwater Archaeology. With this as its background, the session “Underwater and maritime archaeology and capacity building in the Pacific Islands” will be held with the aims to: i) share information on recent progress in awareness raising, research and capacity building activities in underwater and maritime archaeology in the Pacific Islands, ii) identify priority actions, iii) foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. The session especially welcomes presentations focusing on the protection and management of UCH belonging to indigenous community shared UCH in the Pacific, addressing challenges and opportunities facing Pacific SIDS in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme and the promotion of the UCH Convention, presenting good practice in ensuring the effective engagement of Pacific island countries and community in UCH management for their sustainable development, and proposing collaborative projects in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, Samoa Andrew Viduka, Maritime and Commonwealth Heritage, Australian Government, Nicolas Bigourdan, Western Australian Museum Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Trade in Ceramics on Guam in the Wake of the Manila Galleon Description An account of the resource Various colonial factors led to the Mariana Islands being one of the most economically isolated areas of the Pacific from the late 17th century until the late 18th century. This isolation is reflected in the dearth of artifacts of European and Asian origin in the archaeological record. Starting in the late 18th century rules on public trade were relaxed and outside goods became more readily available in the Marianas, if still uncommon. This paper considers the ceramic collection from the Rosario House located in Hagatna, Guam. The Rosario House has the largest data set of imported Euro-American and Asian historical artifacts that has been discovered in the Mariana Islands to date. The collection is dominated by Provincial Chinese porcelains and stonewares but also includes a sample of refined European earthenwares. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lon E. Bulgrin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Lon E. Bulgrin Asia-Pac Session 1 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 8: Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites and Conservation of Wet Archaeological Materials Description An account of the resource This session will focus on in-situ preservation and conservation management issues, conservation analyses and treatments, and applied conservation research of archaeological materials from underwater cultural heritage sites. The main purpose of this session is to encourage the exchange of ideas and practices as well as to encourage the development of conservation networks throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Presentations, posters and workshops are invited that address any of the following areas: <br /><br /> <ul> <li>In situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage sites, including reburial practices</li> <li>Conservation management of underwater cultural heritage sites, including on-site monitoring</li> <li>Conservation treatment case studies</li> <li>Research into the analysis and treatment of wet archaeological materials</li> <li>Review of the status of wet archaeological conservation programs in the Asia Pacific region</li> <li>Development of collaborative conservation research and treatment programs</li> </ul> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards PhD candidate, University of WA Jon Carpenter Western Australian Museum, Australia Mi Young Cha National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage Republic of Korea Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Conservation of Artefacts from the Pearl Shell Fleet Mothership - Sanyo Maru 1937 Description An account of the resource During November 2016 an expedition to the Arafura Sea, led by Maritime Archaeologist David Steinberg (Heritage Branch, Department of Tourism and Culture, Northern Territory, Australia) recovered a number of artefacts from the wreck of the Sanyo Maru a mothership for the Japanese pearl shell fleet. After 78 years underwater the steel-built vessel, resting upright, still retained substantial structural integrity. The dive team investigated the stern-half of the ship penetrating the main deck house via original accessways. The steel-framed structure still enclosed the space but the intervening plating was mostly absent due to corrosion. Cabin walls were also missing. Despite the relatively open environment a surprising number and type of artefacts remained in a good state of preservation, particularly ceramic items and glass bottles (two sealed with original contents). In terms of organic materials two perfectly intact lacquerware bowls and a quantity of chopsticks were recovered. Metal objects recovered vary in condition the extent of corrosion mainly a consequence of galvanic reactions. This paper explains the preparations to manage the artefact materials from the conservation perspective, photographic recording, cleaning and packing in the field situation and laboratory conservation treatments. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jon Carpenter Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Jon Carpenter Asia-Pac Session 8 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/aac684a25246f9d94bd70937f29ea769.pdf 1c6e71ba4896ed3f5732973be43800ee PDF Text Text The elaboration of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Etienne Clément Abstract The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted in 2001. Like many such treaties, its text is the result of a compromise between opposing views. The negotiations leading to this instruments started in the Eighties at the initiative of underwater archaeologists who teamed up with lawyers and with the International Law Association. These pioneers considered that the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) did not protect adequately the underwater cultural heritage. But many States Parties to the UNCLOS were reluctant to re-open any kind of negotiation that might affect the delicate balance of the UNCLOS. Moreover, the industry of salvage was also extremely reluctant to any new international legislation that may affect their activities, especially in the high seas. The process of preparation of an international legal instrument was suspended several times. It was finally put on tracks thanks to the pugnacity of a few UNESCO staff and ICOMOS members supported by Ministries of a Foreign Affairs of several countries wo convinced the UNESCO General Conference to enter the process of elaboration of a Convention. During the negotiation of the text, the views expressed by the delegations of UNESCO Member states were often antagonistic. In the discussions, the ICOMOS Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICUCH) played a major role, by sensitizing the diplomats to the urgency of adopting a legal instrument at a time when technology had made possible to explore practically all ancient vessels lying on the seabed. The author has participated in some key steps of the elaboration of the Convention and will present some of the legal and ethical positions expressed at the negotiations and that have led to the compromise adopted in 2001. Key words: UNESCO, UNCLOS, outreach, UCH �Introduction The protection of the underwater cultural heritage, in particular ancient shipwrecks laying on the seabed under various jurisdictions, is by nature an international issue. It is therefore natural that the United Nations, in particular UNESCO as the specialized agency with the UN mandate for cultural heritage, has looked into the matter and adopted in 2001 the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, one of the seven UNESCO Conventions in the area of culture. It was elaborated as a response from the international community to the removal and destruction of underwater cultural heritage by industrial activities and by the so-called “treasures hunters”. The Convention reflects the growing recognition of the need to ensure the same protection to underwater cultural heritage as that already accorded to land-based heritage. It provides legal protection, enables States Parties to adopt common approaches to preservation and provides effective professional guidelines. The mains principles of the convention and its Annex had long been endorsed by professionals in UCH. It is to be remembered that the draft of the Annex was drafted by UCH professionals who started working on it in 1983. The Convention entered into force in January 2009. As of 15 July 2017, 57 countries are States Parties to it, which is an honorable score but does not give it the status of a universal instrument. For instance only two countries in Asia and the Pacific have joined it. But those States which joined it made an important commitment by agreeing on rules applicable by vessels bearing their flag and by their nationals, including also the treasures hunters. �Keys steps towards a Convention UNESCO has been concerned with the protection of UCH since its early days. Its Recommendation on International Principles Applicable to Archaeological Excavations, a non-legally binding text adopted by the General conference in 1956 applies also to underwater archaeology. The Council of Europe, as early as 1978, began to develop a draft European convention for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage. The draft reached an advanced stage but was never adopted by the Council of Ministers. The issue was raised again during the negotiations for the United Nations Law of the Sea Convention and resulted, in the closing days of these negotiations, in the adoption of two articles (149 and 303). However these articles are widely felt by cultural experts to be unsatisfactory and incomplete. They are indeed ineffective to protect underwater cultural heritage beyond the contiguous zone, they do not resolve the conflict between ownership claims, salvage claims and cultural heritage interests and they do not give any guidance on how underwater cultural heritage should be treated. They are also sufficiently ambiguous to give rise to alternative interpretations. In 1990, under the leadership of its Chairperson, Professor Patrick J. O’Keefe1, the Cultural Heritage Law Committee of the International Law Association undertook to study the international legal protection of the underwater cultural heritage. It produced its first report and a draft text of a convention for the meeting of the International Law Association in Cairo in 1992. One year later, the Director-General of UNESCO was requested by the UNESCO Executive Board to undertake a study into the feasibility of a new international instrument. As the International Law Association �had an advisory status with UNESCO and was well advanced in its work on a draft convention, the Director-General decided to wait until the ILA work was complete before reporting back to the UNESCO Executive Board. In 1994, in Buenos Aires, the Cultural Heritage Law Committee produced its final report and draft convention to the ILA meeting which adopted it and transmitted it to the Director-General of UNESCO. In parallel to this legal process, a group of influential underwater archaeologists who were members of the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) created the ICOMOS Committee for Underwater Cultural heritage (ICUCH) and advocated within ICOMOs for the development of specific ethical and professional standards for underwater archaeology. They argued that underwater archaeology had particular requirements related to its environment which has led to the development of specific techniques and that underwater conservation is always a pressing and expensive immediate necessity. Their efforts led to the preparation and adoption of the International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage by ICOMOS General Conference in Sofia in 1996. To be noted that the ICUCH played a major role during the whole negotiation process of the 2001 Convention, in particular through its Chairpersons, Graeme Henderson (Australia) and Robert Grenier (Canada). With the ILA draft in its hands, as a useful basis for a possible new instrument, the UNESCO Secretariat was ready to start preparing a feasibility study requested by the Executive Board. Within the UNESCO Secretariat in 1994, Dr. Lyndel V.Prott was the Head of the International Section of the Division of Cultural Heritage. She played a major role, as a renowned lawyer and an international civil servant, all over the process of elaboration of the Convention. I had the honor to be the other member of �her two-person team and rejoined later by a then junior colleague, Mr. Ieng Srong. In preparing the feasibility study, the Secretariat looked at the relevant articles of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and at the International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage. In 1995, a large number of artifacts found in the wreck of the Titanic, which was discovered several years before, were exhibited all over the world. This travelling exhibition gave a sort of technology signal that most shipwrecks that could be found on the seabed were technically accessible and that cultural objects could be removed. At the occasion of one such international exhibition in Greenwich (United Kingdom), an expert meeting was organized for legal experts and underwater archaeologists. It included those experts who had worked on the ILA draft and the ICOMOS Charter as well as lawyers familiarized with salvage Law. The discussions anticipated the difficulty of finding a compromise on a draft legally-binding text which could be accepted and implemented universally. The Director-General submitted the feasibility to the Executive Board in May—June 19952 and recommended that this Board transmits its recommendation to the UNESCO General Conference which has the authority, under UNESCO’s constitution, to decide on the elaboration of a Convention. But during the discussion, although a number of delegates emphasized the urgency of the situation, the majority requested more time before launching the preparation of a Convention. They insisted that the jurisdictional aspects of the question should be further studied, namely the compatibility of a possible new convention with the provisions on jurisdiction contained in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). �Therefore, instead of transmitting the Director-General’s recommendation to the General conference, the Executive Board requested him to urgently convene an expert meeting to discuss this issue and to report to the General Conference just a few months later. But the time was too short between June and October 1995 to convene, before the General Conference, an expert meeting based on a fair geographical balance and representing the various interests involved. The Secretariat therefore wrote to all countries which had expressed an interest in order to receive their comments on the feasibility study. Thirteen replies (Australia, Colombia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, The Netherlands, Philippines, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States and the U.N. Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea) were received. A majority of them were in favor of a Convention. But divergent opinions were expressed about the content of the norms, for instance on the concept of a specific cultural heritage zone or on specific protected areas. It was also accepted that UNESCO was the appropriate forum and that the norms to be prepared should duly take into account the balance achieved in the UNCLOS Convention. The 1995 session of the UNESCO General Conference did not launch yet the formal process of elaborating a Convention. Instead, it invited the Director-General: - to pursue further discussions with the United Nations in respect of the UNCLOS and with the International Maritime Organization (IMO) - to organize, in consultations with UN and IMO, a meeting of experts representing expertise in archaeology, salvage and jurisdictional regimes - to make the views of the experts known to UNESCO Member States and invite their comments; �- and to report back to the 29th session of the General Conference (1997) Therefore UNESCO Secretariat had proposed to the IMO (London) and to the United Nations Division of the Law of the Sea (New York) to nominate some of the above experts in order to ensure consistency with the work already developed within these two organizations. The expert meeting took place in May 1996. It was chaired by Dr. Carsten Lund (Denmark). To be noted that Dr. Lund remained the Chair of all further intergovernmental experts meetings that took place until the adoption of the Convention in 2001. The 1996 meetings was an important one because it agreed that a possible Convention be grounded on the principle incorporated in Article 303 (1) of the UNCLOS Convention which says that: “States have a duty to protect objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea and shall cooperate for this purpose”. The majority agreed that UNESCO was the right venue for such a Convention, although a minority group believe that it should be adopted within the Law of the sea framework at the United Nations in New York. The General Conference finally gave the green light for a Convention in October 1997 at its 29th session3. It decided that the question should be regulated and that the method adopted should be an international convention. It invited the Director-General to convene meeting, but this time with expert representing their Governments. Four such governmental experts meeting took place from 1998 to 2001. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was finally adopted on 2 November by the Plenary Session of the 31st General Conference with 88 votes in favor, 4 against and 15 abstentions4. �Major issues during the negotiation of a Convention The three main issues at the core of the experts’ deliberations were: - the jurisdiction (including the necessary compliance with the UNCLOS) - the relation with the Law of salvage or salvage law - the standards for research in underwater cultural heritage. Jurisdiction Fig. 1: The maritime zones. In the territorial sea, the national legislation of the coastal State applies to underwater cultural heritage. Beyond the territorial sea, the coastal State’s jurisdiction is generally very limited under national legislations. Often the coastal States have jurisdiction over their own nationals and vessels bearing their flag. But it is often expressed in vague terms and with serious difficulties of implementation without any State cooperation system. Underwater cultural heritage being largely located in the oceans which fall �under the Law of the Sea Convention, its legal regime falls under UNCLOS articles 149 and 303: Article 149 Archaeological and historical objects. All objects of an archaeological and historical nature found in the area shall be preserved or disposed of for the benefit of mankind as a whole, particular regard being paid to the preferential rights of the State or country of origin, or the State of cultural origin, or the State of historical and archaeological origin. Article 303 Archaeological and historical objects found at sea i. States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea and shall co-operate for this purpose. ii. In order to control traffic in such objects, the coastal State may, in applying Article 33, presume that their removal from the sea-bed in the zone referred to in that article without its approval would result in an infringement within its territory or territorial sea of the laws and regulations referred to in that article. iii. Nothing in this article affects the rights of identifiable owners, the law of salvage or other rules of admiralty, or laws and practices with respect to cultural exchanges. iv. This article is without prejudice to other international agreements and rules of international law regarding the protection of objects of an archaeological and historical nature. These articles, according to archaeologists and lawyers concerned with the preservation of the underwater cultural heritage, were considered as �insufficient for an effective protection of the cultural heritage. Indeed, in the Exclusive Economic Zone and on the Continental Shelf, UCH remains practically unprotected. Another serious problem is that the provision in Article 303 stating that 'Nothing in this article affects the rights of identifiable owners, the law of salvage or other rules of admiralty…” appeared to protect the commercial exploitation of historic shipwrecks, leading to the destruction of archaeological resources without their scientific examination. The relation with salvage law was therefore an issue of very lively discussions, often antagonistic, during the several experts meetings form 1998 to 2001. Salvage law Salvage Law or Law of Salvage or Law of Finds is based on practical and economic considerations. The function of salvage is to encourage the recovery of goods at sea that are in danger of being lost. The primary objective of the salvage industry, recognized in salvage law, is the recovery of commercially valuable property from a shipwreck. But in some countries, the salvage industry had extended its activity to commercial exploitation of submerged archaeological sites, often by teams of unqualified persons. Therefore for many years archaeologists had been concerned by the loss of scientific information caused by such unprofessional excavation and by the destruction of artefacts not considered commercially valuable. The activities of the salvage industry were regulated by the 1989 International Convention on Salvage, adopted under the auspices of the International Maritime organization (IMO). It does not include provisions on the underwater cultural heritage. As the Article 303, iii, of the UNCLOS protects salvage law, most experts considered that the international legal framework in 1998 was an invitation to looting. �Standards for research in UCH When the first meeting of experts opened in 1996, the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) had just adopted its International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage at its General Conference in Sofia (see above). To be noted that the International Law Association had included in several provisions of its draft Convention on UCH that underwater excavations were to be undertaken in accordance with the ICOMOS UCH Charter, which would be an annex to the ILA draft. Therefore given the importance of the ICOMOS Charter which sets standards for research and conservation of the UCH, the members of the ICOMOS Committee for Underwater Cultural heritage (ICUCH) were associated closely to the elaboration of the text of the UNESCO Convention. They were very influential in the process leading to the adoption of the 2001 Convention. The way towards a compromise The process involved a long and patient campaign initiated by underwater archaeologists in Europe, Australia, North America and later in other regions. They needed to convince even their own peers - i.e. the ‘land’ archaeologists- to team-up with them in order to convince Ministries of Foreign affairs of their respective countries to support the idea of a Convention. Indeed in many countries Ministries of Foreign Affairs were quite hesitant to open negotiations on an issue related to the Law of the Sea, only a few years after the entry into force of the UNCLOS Convention. To be noted that members of the International Law Association (ILA), especially Professor Patrick J. O’Keefe, the Chairperson of the ILA Cultural Heritage Law Committee, played an �important role in the informal lobby in favor of an effective convention. Other influential institutions included ICOMOS, ICUCH, the International Council of Museums (ICOM) and several Maritime museums all over the world. In 1998, reaching of a compromise to be included in a Convention appeared to be very challenging. At the beginning of the discussions, there was a consensus only on the necessity to avoid creating a new “archaeological zone” in addition to the zones established by UNCLOS. There was also an agreement that a Convention should refer to some kind of guidelines on how to treat UCH. All the other issues were the object of profound divergences between experts and between the UNESCO Member States. However, gradually, a consensus emerged to obtain protection of UCH wherever it is located beyond the territorial seas, in all maritime zones including international waters, through a State cooperation system. The salvage Industry was also represented in the experts meetings. Indeed at the request of the UNESCO General Conference, UNESCO Secretariat had asked the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to designate experts to represent the interests of the maritime industry, including the salvage industry. The Tourism diving industry was not invited as such, but several countries’ delegations included experts which expressed the views of this sector. The consistency with the UNCLOS Convention was ensured by representatives of the UN Division of the Law of the Sea (New York) who played a very positive role in this respect. Some “Treasures Hunters”, although not invited officially, showed up at one of the meetings and opposed the adoption of a text, without success. To be noted that “treasures hunters” were more influential among �international TV channels, which, during the years of the negotiations, displayed TV shows glorifying their activities. The negotiations also had to face language difficulties. For instance, archaeologists and lawyers understood differently the concept of “rules”, the former saw them as rules applicable to professionals and the latter as rules applicable to States. This has rendered the role of the courageous Chairperson, Dr. Carsten Lund (Denmark), an almost impossible task5. The composition of each country’s delegation was also a challenge. Only important delegations could include international lawyers, cultural heritage lawyers, salvage lawyers as well as archaeologists. But most delegations were composed of only one international lawyer, often with little background in archaeology. The compromise adopted in 2001 Despite the antagonistic positions that continued to be expressed during the whole negotiation process, a compromise was reached in 2001. It included a very advanced State cooperation system containing provisions of legal and professional or ethical nature binding both States parties and UCH professionals. The Convention was structured under a main text and an Annex which is an integral part of the Convention. The main text contains basic principles for the protection of UCH and a detailed State cooperation system. The Annex includes widely recognized practical rules for the treatment and research of UCH which reflects practically the text of the ICOMOS Charter. The basic principles of the Convention include the obligation to preserve UCH “for the benefit of humanity”, the “in situ” preservation as the first option (not the only one), a commitment for no commercial exploitation and an obligation of training and information sharing. It does not include �the sovereignty rights of States and the issue of the ownership of wrecks which remain regulated by civil law, other domestic law and private international law. The compromise on the relation with salvage law was one of the most difficult to reach. It is contained in Article 4 of the 2001 Convention which excludes the application of salvage law, except when and if three cumulative conditions are met: Article 4- Relationship to Law of Salvage or Law of Finds Any activity relating to underwater cultural heritage to which this Convention applies shall not be subject to the law of salvage or law of finds, unless it: (a) is authorized by the competent authorities, and (b) in in full conformity with this Convention, and (c) ensures that any recovery of the underwater cultural heritage achieves its maximum protection. But the Convention was not adopted by consensus. The Culture commission of the General Conference had recommended the Plenary of the UNESCO 31st General Conference to adopt the draft Convention by 94 votes in favor, 5 against and 19 abstentions. The Plenary adopted it with 88 votes in favor, 4 against and 15 abstentions6. Conclusion Sixteen years later, the Convention is ratified by 57 countries. This relatively low level of ratification can be explained by several factors. Perhaps it still reflects the fact that the Convention may have a few detractors among some of the UNESCO Member States. But most �probably, many countries do not consider the ratification as a priority as they do have the technology nor the human or financial resources to be involved in activities towards the underwater cultural heritage. In these countries, there are also very few archaeologists who have training in underwater archaeology. There is therefore no effective influential group that could persuade their respective authorities to join the Convention or that could campaign among the public on the importance of this heritage for their country and for humanity. But the advancement of technology and the ability of a growing number of countries to own such technology may however have a positive influence on the rate of ratifications in the following years. Endnotes 1 Professor Patrick J. O’Keefe has worked for more than 40 years on legal instruments to protect the underwater cultural heritage. He has. 2 UNESCO General Conference documents 28C/39 and 28C/39 Add. 3 UNESCO General Conference Document 29C/Resolution 21 4 UNESCO General Conference Documents 31C/24 and 31C/Resolution XV, para D 5 Lund, C., 2006. The making of the UNESCO Convention 2001. Finishing the interrupted voyage, papers of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, Institute of Art and Law/UNESCO, Leicester/Bangkok: 14-19 6 UNESCO General Conference Documents 31 C/24 and 31 C/Resolution XV, para D References: Clément, E. 1996, Current developments at UNESCO concerning the protection of the underwater cultural heritage, Marine policy, Vol 20, No 4, pp 309-323 O’Keefe, P.J., 2014, Shipwrecked Heritage: A Commentary on the UNESCO Convention on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Second edition, Institute of Art and Law, Builth Wells, UK. �Prott, L.V., 2006, Finishing the interrupted voyage: papers of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, Institute of Art and Law/UNESCO, Leicester/Bangkok. Srati, A., 1999, Draft Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural heritage, a commentary prepared for UNESCO, UNESCO document CLT99/WS/8 UNESCO, 1984, La sauvegarde du patrimoine subaquatique, cahiers techniques: musées et monuments # 4, UNESCO document [II] CLT.82/XXIX.4/F Biography Etienne Clément, JD 1978, LLM International Law 1980, (University Brussels) had responsibilities in UNESCO 1984-2015. He contributed to the development of international standards for the protection of cultural heritage, including to the elaboration of 2001 Underwater Cultural Heritage Convention. From 1998, he was UNESCO Representative to Cambodia, Deputy Director Field operations (Paris), Deputy Director Regional Bureau (Bangkok) and Director Pacific States. He is author of articles on conventions for cultural heritage and is currently advising governments on these instruments. He lectures at Science Po Lille (France) and is member of ICOMOS International Committee on Legal, Administrative and Financial Issues (ICLAFI). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 7: Underwater Cultural Heritage Politics, Laws, Ethics and Values Description An account of the resource All cultural materials are potentially cultural resources. However, because not all of them can be preserved or studied, choices must be made based on evaluation and re-evaluation. Values are learned and depend on cultural, intellectual, historical, and psychological frames of reference. Consequently, valuation is made individually, but is shared by communities. Valuation of underwater cultural heritage has, then, a broad range of determining value depending on the community to which it belongs. A clear example of this is the protection of human remains. The 2001 UNESCO Convention includes, in its definition of underwater cultural heritage, human remains which have been underwater for more than 100 years. However, the Christian philosophy on the treatment of human remains is different to that of Asian philosophy that teaches that human remains will never become underwater cultural heritage since, if they are seen by someone in an underwater site, it is imperative to rescue the human remains and bury them on land according to their beliefs. This session aims to create a forum for policymakers, managers, and archaeologists devoted to underwater cultural heritage where they can share their experiences of and research on the valuation of underwater cultural heritage. We aim to accept papers that help us to understand the definition of ‘underwater cultural heritage’ in the Asia-Pacific regions, comparing those definitions with the definition of the 2001 UNESCO Convention and trying to find a common interpretation. We will also be looking to examine the meaning of the underwater cultural heritage sites and objects for different communities. Finally, we will be expecting papers exploring the different possibilities of the use and/or conservation of this underwater cultural heritage according to the values and needs of the different communities. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd., UK Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The elaboration of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted in 2001. Like many such treaties, its text is the result of a compromise between opposing views. The negotiations leading to this instruments started in the Eighties at the initiative of underwater archaeologists who teamed up with lawyers and with the International Law Association. These pioneers considered that the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) did not protect adequately the underwater cultural heritage. But many States Parties to the UNCLOS were reluctant to re-open any kind of negotiation that might affect the delicate balance of the UNCLOS. Moreover, the industry of salvage was also extremely reluctant to any new international legislation that may affect their activities, especially in the high seas. The process of preparation of an international legal instrument was suspended several times. It was finally put on tracks thanks to the pugnacity of a few UNESCO staff and ICOMOS members supported by Ministries of a Foreign Affairs of several countries wo convinced the UNESCO General Conference to enter the process of elaboration of a Convention. During the negotiation of the text, the views expressed by the delegations of UNESCO Member states were often antagonistic. In the discussions, the ICOMOS Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICUCH) played a major role, by sensitizing the diplomats to the urgency of adopting a legal instrument at a time when technology had made possible to explore practically all ancient vessels lying on the seabed. The author has participated in some key steps of the elaboration of the Convention and will present some of the legal and ethical positions expressed at the negotiations and that have led to the compromise adopted in 2001. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Etienne Clément Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Etienne Clément Asia-Pac Session 7 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e9501e89c86be4d23d22596ced86f864.pdf 161a636e91266705b1699c71225189bd PDF Text Text Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Taiwan: Legislation and Challenges Ching-Ching Kuo Ph.D. Student, Department of Environmental Biology and Fishery Science Institute of Marine Affairs and Resource Management National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan kuomaster@gmail.com Chun-Pei Liao Ph.D. Student, Department of Environmental Biology and Fishery Science Institute of Marine Affairs and Resource Management National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan a314172427a@hotmail.com Wen-Yan Chiau Dr. /Professor, Institute of Marine Affairs and Resource Management National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan chiau0717@gmail.com Abstract The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted in 2001 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The convention acknowledges the importance of underwater cultural heritage as an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity and a particularly important element in the history of peoples, nations, and their relations with each other concerning their common heritage. The responsibility of protecting and preserving the underwater cultural heritage therefore rests with all States (UNESCO, 2017.). By echoing the spirit of the above convention, the Legislative Yuan (Parliament) of Taiwan adopted the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act on November 24, 2015. The Act was promulgated by the President and was also put into force on 9 December 2015. The Law is in seven chapters with 44 articles. The chapters cover general provisions, attributed rights and international cooperation, activities involving underwater cultural heritage, in-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage, excavation management in the sea, public education  Correspondent author. �and professional training, penalties, and supplementary provisions. This paper introduces the recent research projects of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan, illustrates the enactment process of the new law and highlights its main features. The paper concludes that it is essential to have further integration of management affairs, establishing national research institute, strengthening the international cooperation and the professional training, implementing related bylaws and mechanisms, and promoting public awareness, which also become daunting challenges faced by Taiwan as it marches toward the protection of its precious underwater cultural heritage. Key words: UCH, Taiwan, UNESCO Introduction Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) refers to all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical, or archaeological character, such as ruins, architecture, handicrafts, human remains, boats, aircrafts, environments having an archaeological character and natural environments. According to Article 3 of Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act promulgated on December 9, 2015, “Underwater Cultural Heritage” means all traces of human existence having a historical, cultural, archaeological, artistic, or scientific character which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously: (1) sites, structures, buildings, artifacts and human remains, together with their archaeological and natural context; (2) vessels, aircrafts, other vehicles or any part thereof, their cargo or other contents, together with their archaeological and natural context; and (3) objects of a prehistoric character. The UCH contains rich information related to cultures, history, geography and technology. A shipwreck, for instance, is testimony to trade and cultural dialogue between peoples. It also functions as a time capsule, providing a complete snapshot of the life on board at the time of sinking. Therefore, how to protect this common heritage of all mankind become the center of international concern. �Brief History of Legislation Since 2000, some scholars in Taiwan, Professor Wen-Yan Chiau (later served as legislator) with the National Taiwan Ocean University, have being concerned about the protection of UCH and have organized several international conferences. In 2005, Professor Chiau was commissioned by Construction and Planning Agency, Ministry of the Interior to conduct a literature study on UCH in Dongsha (Pratas) Islands in the South China Sea. He concluded that at least 28 wrecks were clearly recorded. Over the past ten years, the UCH research projects made by the Academia Sinica and the National Sun Yat-sen University, under the authorization of the Ministry of Culture, discovered nearly 100 wrecks in the waters around Taiwan, including GUANG-BIN Warship that participated in the first SinoJapanese War and British S.S. BOKHARA were sunk in Penghu (Pescadores) Archipelagoes, British SOBRAON near Matsu Islands and the unknown “GREEN ISLAND No. I” in East Taiwan (Bureau of Cultural Heritage, 2014). These wrecks are as valuable as “NANHAI No. I” and “DANDONG No. I” of China and the important research projects in other countries. In the past, however, such precious UCH resources in Taiwan were not protected through a proper mechanism and were possibly destroyed by illegal and unappropriated underwater activities. Moreover, the important principles and spirit of the UNESCO UCH Convention have not yet been implemented in the domestic laws and the existing Cultural Heritage Preservation Act does not apply to the preservation, protection and management of UCH. Thus, there is an urgent need to formulate an exclusive law for Taiwan to preserve, protect and manage its rich and valuable UCH. In view of this, the Ministry of Culture drafted a specific law called the "Law on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Republic of �China". After years of discussions, the draft of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act was finally proposed by the Executive Yuan (Cabinet) and submitted to the Legislative Yuan (Parliament) for discussion. The Draft was completed gradually through researches conducted by experts and scholars commissioned by the Ministry of Culture, expert meetings, national public hearings, and related legal operating procedures as well as the acquisition of public consensus (Ministry of Culture, 2015). In the Legislative Yuan, Legislator Wen-Yan Chiau and Legislator Pi-Han Chen also proposed the corresponding versions (Legislative Yuan, 2015). Since the 8th session of the Parliament had limited time for UCH discussions, Legislator Chiau consulted Professor Nien-Tsu Alfred Hu and some key officials with the Ministry of Culture and integrated three versions into one, which served as the basis of discussion upon the consent of the Committee. On November 9, 2015, the integrated version was reviewed by the Committee and submitted to the Legislative Yuan for determination. On November 24, 2015, the Legislative Yuan finally approved the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act through a three-reading procedure. The Act was promulgated by the President on December 9, 2015, becoming the first exclusive law regarding the preservation of UCH in Taiwan (Office of the President, R.O.C., 2015). The approval and implementation of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act ensure the effective preservation, protection, and management of UCH in the waters around Taiwan under a specific and clear legislation. Principles and Main Contents Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act consists of seven chapters with 44 articles in total: Chapter One "General Provisions", �Chapter Two "Right Attribution and International Cooperation", Chapter Three " Activities Directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage ", Chapter Four " In-situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage", Chapter Five "Excavating Out Of The Water", Chapter Six "Penalty Provisions" and Chapter Seven "Supplementary Provisions". Main contents of the Act are summarized as follows (Laws and Regulations Database of the Republic of China, 2017). 1. Respect and response to the spirit of the UNESCO Convention The themes of Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act are to preserve, protect and manage UCH, build the historical connection, and develop the characteristic of the maritime country in accordance with the spirit of the UNESCO Convention and other international agreements. In this regard, the Act includes the principles of the Convention in many articles with the hope to preserve and manage UCH in Taiwan like that operated in many parts of the world. For example, Article 4 of the Act reflects the spirit of the Convention and stipulates that “Any activity involving underwater cultural heritage should avoid unnecessary interference with human remains and historical sites” and that “UCH should not be commercially exploited.” 2. Carry out general survey and registry management Article 5 of the Act stipulates, “the competent authority shall undertake a general survey of underwater cultural heritage, or record and manage the files after conducting the investigation, research and review, in accordance with the procedures prescribed by this Act, on the reports from individuals or organizations that indicate a suspected underwater cultural heritage existed.” In addition, Article 6 also regulated that the competent authority shall fully set up case data for the investigation, �research, excavation, preservation, and restoration for underwater cultural heritage. The data shall be permanently preserved in accordance with the Archives Act and its relevant regulations. The survey of underwater cultural heritage is also stipulated in Article 9 of the Act：“Where an environmental impact assessment is required for an exploitation activity, or where a governmental agency and state-owned enterprise makes or ratifies a plan with respect to exploitation and utilization of a water area, it is required to conduct a prior investigation related to the existence of underwater cultural heritage or suspected underwater cultural heritage. A notification of the discovery shall submit to the competent authority if any.” 3. Establish a national institute for the preservation and research of UCH Referring to the foreign cases (e.g., Department of Underwater and Marine Archaeological Research, DRASSM, in Marseille, France), Article 7 of the Act stipulates that “the competent authority may designate a dedicated organization for the preservation and research of underwater cultural heritage to perform the investigation, research, excavation, restoration, education, promulgation, international cooperation, and other activities with respect to underwater cultural heritage.” For recruiting professionals to protect UCH in Taiwan, Article 11 of the Act also stipulates that “the competent authority shall educate and train the relevant professionals with respect to underwater cultural heritage in order to undertake the preservation of underwater cultural heritage.” The items, manners, procedures, examinations, evaluations, utilization, withdrawal, revocation, and other related affairs of the professionals will be further regulated by competent authorities after consulting related agencies. �4. Establish a Review Mechanism Regarding the administrative aspects, Article 8 of the Act expressly stipulates that the competent authority shall convene the review committee of underwater cultural heritage to review the following subjects: (1) applications for activities directed at underwater cultural heritage; (2) coordination with other authorities in charge of other affairs with respect to activities incidentally affecting underwater cultural heritage; (3) the recordation and management of underwater cultural heritage; (4) the zoning of underwater cultural heritage protection areas; (5) subject substantially relating to the preservation of underwater cultural heritage. 5. Report the discovery of cultural relics Pursuant to Article 13 of the Act, “anyone who discovers suspected underwater cultural heritage shall terminate any activity that has an influence on such heritage, maintain completeness of the site, and promptly report the discovery to the competent authority excepted that there is a need to prevent an urgent and severe danger or there is a substantial public interest at stake, such activity may not be terminated, and the discovery of such shall be reported to the competent authority.” After receiving the report referred to in the first paragraph, the competent authority may take the following measures: (1) restrict or terminate all or part of the activity which has an influence on the suspected underwater heritage in a specific water area; (2) undertake necessary investigation, research, and other related underwater operations; and (3) set up a temporary protection zone in the water area of the discovery site. Article 18 of the Act also stipulates that the citizen or the vessel master of the country, who discovers suspected underwater cultural heritage or activities directed at underwater cultural heritage in the �exclusive economic area or on the continental shelf of other states, shall promptly report such discovery or activity to the competent authority. The government of Taiwan may report such discovery or activity referred to in the preceding paragraph to the relevant states or international organizations. 6. Stipulate right attribution and international cooperation The right attribution and international cooperation are included in Chapter 2 of the Act. For instance, Article 15 of the Act stipulates that “any underwater cultural heritage discovered in the internal waters and territorial sea of the Republic of China, except for the state vessels and aircraft in which a foreign state declares an interest, shall belong to the Republic of China.” “The Republic of China, in the exercise of its sovereignty, has the exclusive jurisdiction to regulate, authorize, or approve activities directed at underwater cultural heritage in the internal waters and territorial sea of the Republic of China.” With a view to cooperating on the best methods of protecting the state vessels and aircraft prescribed, however, the competent authority, should inform the flag state and, if applicable, other states with a cultural, historical or archaeological link, with respect to the discovery of such identifiable state vessels and aircraft. Additionally, Article 21 of the Act stipulates that the ROC government may enter into bilateral, regional or other multilateral agreements or develop existing agreements with other states or international organizations, for the preservation, protection, and management of underwater cultural heritage. 7. Strictly regulate activities directed at UCH Article 22 of the Act stipulates that “activities directed at underwater cultural heritage shall not be undertaken unless an application with an �underwater cultural heritage activity plan is filed by a scholar, experts, or academic/professional scientific research institutions to the competent authority and approved thereby.” With the case of international cooperation, the Act further regulates that “foreigner(s) shall cooperate with domestic scientific research organizations or institutions to file such application.” Pursuant to Article 23 of the Act, those activities directed at UCH should be supervised by the competent authority; The competent authority shall also stipulate the regulations related to the UCH activities including the operational procedure, qualification of relevant operational personnel, method for in situ preservation, method for evacuated, preservation or protection method after excavation, and other matters related to the underwater cultural heritage activities should be complied with. Practically, this highlights the importance of bylaws of the Act. 8. In situ preservation and planning for UCH protected areas With echoing to the spirit of the Convention, Article 27 of the Act expressly stipulates that “the preservation in situ of UCH shall be the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage.” And, the proper means for in situ preservation may include recordation management, protection zone, or other proper preservation measures. When the review committees make a decision that it is necessary to designate a specific underwater cultural heritage protection zone, according to Article 28, the competent authority should consult with relevant authorities to designate and publicize an underwater cultural heritage protection zone within such water area to preserve the underwater heritage in situ. To allow the public engagement, Article 28 also regulated that the authority should hold a public hearing or explanation session inviting civilians or groups with an interest at stake to attend. �Article 30 of the Act regulates the content of the management and protection plan, which include the following: (1) basic data: location, measure of area, significance of the underwater cultural heritage, description and scope diagram of research; (2) range classification; (3) accountable authority distribution and reporting system (4) routine maintenance: preservation, maintenance and recordation of the environmental landscape; (5) emergency maintenance: prevention of natural or human damage and emergency disaster disposal; (6) education and promotion: production and exhibition of promotional material as well as education activities; (7) source of funding; (8) management plan of entrust; and (9) other matters related to management and protection. For well managing UCH, Article 31 of the Act regulates the activities that are prohibited within UCH protection zone, such as salvage of UCH, usage of explosives, trawling or anchoring, mining, installation of electric cables and pipelines, discarding waste water or hazardous substances, dredging and construction of ocean engineering. As for management and protection of the underwater cultural heritage and settling illegal matters, according to Article 32, the competent authority may request assistance from the Coast Guard Administration to help in the enforcement of the Act. 9. Regulate the conditions for UCH salvage In principle, the underwater cultural heritage shall not be excavated out of the water. Pursuant to Article 34, exceptions are only limited to the following situations: (1) the underwater cultural heritage related to historical status or recognition of the nation: (2) the absence of such underwater cultural heritage could be detrimental to a full understanding of human history; (3) the underwater cultural heritage is of substantial commercial value that cannot be protected without excavating it out of the water; (4) excavation is necessary for the investigation and research of �underwater cultural heritage; (5) the underwater cultural heritage cannot be sufficiently preserved, protected or managed without excavating it out of the water due to an emergency or the change of the existing environment; (6) other situations in which the competent authority deems necessary to excavate out of the water. While excavation to be undertaken, pursuant to Article 35 of the Act, the preservation and maintenance plan for UCH should be proposed at the same time, and in which “non-destructive technology and survey method shall be used preferentially.” In addition, the expertise of underwater archaeology, underwater operators, and preservative scientist shall jointly participate in the measure for the excavation or emergency disposal. 10. Stipulate strict penalties for protecting UCH Chapter 6 of the Act strictly stipulates the penalty provisions. As Article 37 regulates, for instance, any person who commits any of the following offenses shall be liable to imprisonment for up to five years, detention, and/or a fine of NT$200,000 to NT$10,000,000: theft of UCH with an intention to possess for his own or for a third person, damage of UCH within the protection zone or temporary protection zone, conveyance of UCH which belongs to the Republic of China out of the country, and undertaking UCH activities without prior approval of the competent authority. It is hope that the penalties can effectively stop the illegal activities which are harmful to the protection of UCH in this country. Challenges Ahead Over the past few decades, Taiwan has realized its richness of UCH through academic research and investigation, research projects commissioned by Ministry of Culture, findings by the local civil groups, fishermen or diving enthusiasts. However, these precious cultural relics �and artifacts were not protected properly due to the absence of related laws on the preservation of UCH in this country. Since the implementation of Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act is still in its infancy, the protection of UCH is unavoidably encountering many challenges as follows (Chiau and Kuo, 2014). Dissemination and Implementation of bylaws The Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act is a fundamental law of Taiwan for the protection of UCH. In late 2016, the Ministry of Culture had already formulated some 9 bylaws for implementing the Act. They include the enforcement regulations on：UCH survey and management before development in the marine area, seabed and subsoil management, activities directed at UCH, UCH professionals training, promotion of public education on UCH, delineation and management of UCH protection zone, and incentives and subsidy on UCH research and protection. However, the challenges are to disseminate those concept of protecting UCH and smoothly implement those tasks among various stakeholders. Establishment of a national-level research institution Pursuant to Article 7 of the Act, the Ministry of Culture may appoint an institute responsible for UCH preservation, protection and management. It is believed that this national-level institute is able to best integrate various research resources, including technologies, professions and budgets. The DRASSM established in Marseille, France, for instance, is a national-level research institute with a history of more than 50 years. Having equipped with research vessels and many professionals, the Institute has been participating in various international UCH projects and has achieved abundant results with solid budgets and operations. In �2009, the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage was established in Korea to promote the country’s maritime culture and exchange research results with other international research institutions or museums. These institutes are all worth referring to as Taiwan establishing its own one. Enhancing technologies and professionals training The technologies such as side scan sonar, multibeam depth sounding system, sub-bottom profiler and magnetometer have been applied in UCH survey and research in Taiwan (Liu, 2010). However, there is a necessity for developing and/or enhancing new technologies especially for those UCH buried in shallow waters, lagoons, estuaries and river bed. On the other hand, it is in short of UCH professionals in Taiwan. Over the past ten years, although several training workshops for underwater archaeology have been held in Taiwan, few trainees are willing to engage in underwater archaeology due to limited job opportunities. After the Act is promulgated, the demand for professionals will definitely increase. The Ministry of Culture should be keen to training and employment of UCH professionals, especially their appropriate and stable job opportunities. The Ministry should also have professionals recruited in its subordinated agencies and even engage the international professional certification in order to provide appropriate and safe jobs for UCH professionals. Strengthening international exchange and cooperation Pursuant to Article 19 of the Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage promulgated, the UNESCO urges the international cooperation and information sharing regarding the protection of UCH. As mentioned above, the research, protection and management of UCH is still in its infancy in Taiwan. As a cultural entity and a responsible country, �there is essential to learn from and/or work with other countries for better managing the common heritage for all mankind. Raising the public awareness on UCH protection With the development of underwater technologies and diving techniques, it is easy to dive into the deep sea, resulting in more opportunities of discovery, collection and destruction of UCH. However, different from treasury hunting, the concept of preservation of UCH must promote through the nation-wide education and propaganda to raise the public awareness of the protection of UCH. Firstly, the government may include UCH concepts in the textbooks for the public schools and encourage universities to establish related departments on UCH research. Secondly, many countries establish maritime museums and marine parks to encourage the public to engage in cultural tourism. For example, underwater museum in Alexandria, Egypt, Mary Rose in the UK, Baiheliang Underwater Museum in China, Underwater Archaeological Park in Finland and Dalarö Blue Park in Sweden showcase the creativity by combining nature and cultures. These examples are all worth referring to for raising the public awareness on UCH. In the aspect of social education, the educational promotion for diving enthusiasts is especially important in this case. Improving integration among related government agencies The management of UCH involves many aspects, including investigation, research, excavation, repair, education, promotion, supervision, enforcement, international cooperation and other related activities. Many government departments and agencies may engage in the administrative procedures in Taiwan, including Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Education, Council of Agriculture, Coast Guard Administration, Ministry of the Interior, �Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry Communications and local governments. of Transportation and Related stakeholders and interested parties, such as fishermen, diving clubs, or recreation industries are also involved. In view of this, a better governance of UCH issues will rely on the close cross-department cooperation. And, integration among the related agencies is a must and represents a daunting challenge faced by Taiwan. Concluding Remarks Although Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act is promulgated, daunting challenges remain in the implementation of this brand new legal system. It is hope the government can facilitate the establishment of a national research institute of UCH, training programs for professionals and the public awareness of the protection of UCH. International cooperation and information sharing also deserve the priority. Reference Office of the President, R.O.C., 2015. Promulgation of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, Gazette of the President Office, No. 7223, Taipei. Ministry of Culture, 2015. Legislative Yuan Approved the Draft of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act through a Threereading Procedure and Implemented the Legislation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Taiwan, http://www.moc.gov.tw (Retrieved on 16 January 2016). Bureau of Cultural Heritage, 2014. The Phase 3 Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Waters around Taiwan, Ministry of Culture, Taipei. Laws and Regulations Database of the Republic of China, 2017. Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, �http://law.moj.gov.tw/Eng/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?PCode=H0170102 (Retrieved on 14 July 2017). Legislative Yuan, 2015. The Report of the Education and Culture Committee on the Draft of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act proposed by Legislator Pi-Han Chen and other 27 Legislators and Legislator Wen-Yen Chiau and other 28 legislators respectively, Legislative Yuan Related Documents, Yuan-Tsung No. 1082, Government Proposal No. 15341, Legislator Proposal No. 17968 and No. 17668-1. Chiau, W.-Y. and Kuo, C.-C., 2014. Current development and challenges of underwater archaeology in Taiwan, presented at the International Workshop on Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Building-up the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road, South China Sea Institute, Xiamen University. National Development Council, 2012. Golden Decade and the National Vision, Executive Yuan, Taiwan. Liu, C.-Y., 2010. Applications of Underwater Technology in Marine Archaeological Survey, presented at the 2010 Seed Talent Training Workshop on Underwater Archaeology, National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2017. Underwater Cultural Heritage, http://www.unesco.org/new/zh/culture/themes/underwater-culturalheritage/2001-convention/ (Retrieved on 14 July 2017). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 7: Underwater Cultural Heritage Politics, Laws, Ethics and Values Description An account of the resource All cultural materials are potentially cultural resources. However, because not all of them can be preserved or studied, choices must be made based on evaluation and re-evaluation. Values are learned and depend on cultural, intellectual, historical, and psychological frames of reference. Consequently, valuation is made individually, but is shared by communities. Valuation of underwater cultural heritage has, then, a broad range of determining value depending on the community to which it belongs. A clear example of this is the protection of human remains. The 2001 UNESCO Convention includes, in its definition of underwater cultural heritage, human remains which have been underwater for more than 100 years. However, the Christian philosophy on the treatment of human remains is different to that of Asian philosophy that teaches that human remains will never become underwater cultural heritage since, if they are seen by someone in an underwater site, it is imperative to rescue the human remains and bury them on land according to their beliefs. This session aims to create a forum for policymakers, managers, and archaeologists devoted to underwater cultural heritage where they can share their experiences of and research on the valuation of underwater cultural heritage. We aim to accept papers that help us to understand the definition of ‘underwater cultural heritage’ in the Asia-Pacific regions, comparing those definitions with the definition of the 2001 UNESCO Convention and trying to find a common interpretation. We will also be looking to examine the meaning of the underwater cultural heritage sites and objects for different communities. Finally, we will be expecting papers exploring the different possibilities of the use and/or conservation of this underwater cultural heritage according to the values and needs of the different communities. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd., UK Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Taiwan: Legislation and Challenges Description An account of the resource The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted in 2001 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The convention acknowledges the importance of underwater cultural heritage as an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity and a particularly important element in the history of peoples, nations, and their relations with each other concerning their common heritage. The responsibility of protecting and preserving the underwater cultural heritage therefore rests with all States (UNESCO, 2017.). By echoing the spirit of the above convention, the Legislative Yuan (Parliament) of Taiwan adopted the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act on November 24, 2015. The Act was promulgated by the President and was also put into force on 9 December 2015. The Law is in seven chapters with 44 articles. The chapters cover general provisions, attributed rights and international cooperation, activities involving underwater cultural heritage, in-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage, excavation management in the sea, public education and professional training, penalties, and supplementary provisions. This paper introduces the recent research projects of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan, illustrates the enactment process of the new law and highlights its main features. The paper concludes that it is essential to have further integration of management affairs, establishing national research institute, strengthening the international cooperation and the professional training, implementing related bylaws and mechanisms, and promoting public awareness, which also become daunting challenges faced by Taiwan as it marches toward the protection of its precious underwater cultural heritage. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ching-Ching Kuo Chun-Pei Liao Wen-Yan Chiau Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Ching-Ching Kuo Chun-Pei Liao Wen-Yan Chiau Asia-Pac Session 7 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/45797196b5f418082118327cf12bec5a.pdf 4f835872505b469e39b2ff2f5a1e7481 PDF Text Text The ethics behind climate change: Small Island Developing States in the Pacific as new underwater cultural heritage Dr. Elena Perez-Alvaro Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd. elenaperezalvaro@gmail.com Abstract Predictions forecast changes in climate that may affect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Warmer waters mean more chemical changes and the proliferation of teredo navalis. Ocean currents may cause disturbances to the layer of sediment protecting underwater cultural heritage sites. The rises in sea levels would reduce the amount of time an air-breathing diver can safely spend under water and hence their productivity. Rises would also mean expansion, which could raise the problem of ocean delimitation. Also our land tangible cultural heritage will be submerged: entire nations and their cultural heritage may disappear, an issue affecting mostly the Small Island Developing States -many of them in the Pacific-, more vulnerable to rises in sea levels. Their identity as citizens of their cities, as members of a community with their own tangible past, complete with their cultural heritage, will disappear. Their land heritage will become underwater cultural heritage but for more than 100 years will not be protected under the 2001 UNESCO Convention. This paper will look at climate change in these Asia-Pacific communities from the ethics as a core element and will study the introduction of these flooded areas as new underwater cultural heritage, proposing an AsiaPacific values-orientated qualification of underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource. Key words: SIDS, tangible cultural heritage, climate change, UNESCO Convention Introduction One of the commonly agreed principles of preservation of underwater cultural heritage named by the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage is the preservation in situ �as the first option (Preamble, Article 2.5. and Rule 1 of the Annex (UNESCO, 2001). The reason for this being mainly because archaeological objects are better preserved under layers of mud and in saline water. The ship, once she has sunk and lies at the seabed, reaches a state of equilibrium with the upper parts destroyed and the buried remains covered (Green, 1990). After reaching this state of equilibrium, the wreck will either be only disturbed by human intervention or by geological changes like the ones forecast by climate change (Wachsmann, 2011). Global warming is, as (Chapman, 2003) observes, an environmental and political issue. Climate change is warming the oceans and the ice at the poles is melting causing sea levels to rise. Oceans are also being over fertilized and suffering chemical changes, such as acidification or changes on the salinity. Currents also may change their pattern and consequently, ecosystems are becoming increasingly endangered. These climate changes will have a direct impact on underwater cultural heritage (Dunkley, 2013); (Van de Noort, 2013). Higher global surface temperature will dry out some submerged heritage and, on the contrary, sea-level rises will flood many coastal areas, creating new underwater cultural heritage. In fact, climate change will raise the sea level enough to inundate 136 sites considered by UNESCO to be cultural and historical treasures (Marzeion and Levermann, 2014). In addition, each one of the changes (warmer waters, changes in currents, rising oceans and chemical changes) will have a different effect on the various materials that constitute a submerged archaeological site. Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are vulnerable to rises in sea levels and even become uninhabitable (UNESCO, 2008). In this regard, some authors warn that climate change will also modify social and cultural behaviours, with communities changing how they live and work, migrating �and abandoning their heritage. Therefore, all heritage needs to be considered vulnerable to natural disasters (UNESCO, 2008). The first part of this paper will analyse some cases of sites affected by climate change that have already happened. Later, we will look at the concept of “climate change”. The third part studies what would happen to these Small Islands Developing States and the concept of identity. We will next be looking to both ethical and legal aspects of climate change affecting the cultural heritage. Finally, this paper will propose a new policy for the preservation of underwater cultural heritage under the threat of the climate change. Issue Climate change has already caused damages to underwater cultural heritage. Sheridan and Sheridan (2013) state that civilization is heading to informed self-destruction. They define culture as “the last cab off the climate rank”. Several examples: 1. In Spain, a Phoenician shipwreck is being exposed due to the change of currents affecting the oceans. The shipwreck that was 25 years ago at a depth of 6 metres it is now only at a depth of 1.8 metres (Rubio, 2014). Its preservation in situ may not be the best option anymore, since it is now readily accessible to human intervention and to further changes in the currents that may damage her. 2. The raising of sea levels has disturbed the underwater graves of soldiers killed in World War II on the Marshall Islands (McGrath, 2014). The tides have exposed a cemetery containing 26 human bodies and the coffins and human remains are being washed away. 3. According to a leaked diplomatic cable1, the Dalai Lama called attention to the climate changes that Tibet is suffering. Although �Tibet is entirely landlocked, its temples are being inundated which will convert them to underwater cultural heritage in the future, an example that could be repeated: The Dalai Lama argued that the political agenda should be sidelined for five to ten years and the international community should shift its focus to climate change on the Tibetan plateau. Melting glaciers, deforestation and increasingly polluted water from mining projects were problems that 'cannot wait.' The Dalai Lama criticized China's energy policy, alleging that dam construction in Kham and Amdo have displaced thousands of Tibetans and left temples and monasteries underwater. In view of these examples, climate change is an ultimate moral challenge and cultural heritage managers have to be prepared for policy’s changes (Sheridan and Sheridan, 2013). If the current global temperature is prolonged over the next two millennia, 40 of the UNESCO Cultural World Heritage sites will be affected. Of the 720 sites listed in the cultural and mixed categories in the UNESCO World Heritage list, 136 of them will be impacted by rises in sea levels (Marzeion and Levermann, 2014). In addition, 3 to 12 countries will lose more than half of their current land surface (Marzeion and Levermann, 2014). Consequently, climate change may affect the underwater cultural heritage in two forms: a) Additional submerged places will be created and, on the contrary, previously submerged places will become exposed. A total of fifteen of the world’s twenty megacities are situated by the sea. “If water levels rise even further, by 3, 4 or 5 metres in centuries to come, we will have to give up some of the cities” (Rahmstorf and Richardson, 2009). These underwater cities or even countries will be in the future underwater cultural heritage. This paper will focus on this aspect. �b) The current underwater cultural heritage will be affected, damaged or moved. Variations in seawater follow universal chemical, physical and biological laws. The shipwreck, in contact with water, experiences equilibrium (Florian, 1987). At 400-800 metres depth archaeological sites experience low and near constant water temperatures all year-round (Daly, 2011). Sunlight, a biodeterioration accelerator, does not penetrate below 200m. At the seafloor the current speeds are often very low with minimal tidal effects and sediment transfer rates are also low. Erosion by currents, tidal movements or changes in water circulation, resulting in objects being removed and displaced is a real threat as well as erosion by dredging, fishing and anchoring. Sediment accretion will be also having consequences (Chapman, 2003): archaeological deposits could be buried by accreting silts. As a consequence, the discovering of the new underwater sites would be more difficult. State of knowledge Earth is a planet with high water content (71%). In fact it should be called Ocean, instead of Earth as the volume of water is 1370 million km³ (Rahmstorf and Richardson, 2009). There are four main climate changes that will affect the oceans: 1. The Warming of the Waters. There have always been fluctuations in water temperature, especially in the surface layer of water that is in direct contact with the atmosphere (the top 50–200 metres). The temperature in this layer has increased by more than 3°C in the last 50 years. Such an increase in temperature will most likely gradually spread to deeper layers, where shipwrecks and other heritage sites are located. This warming could result in changes such as coral bleaching and species migration. Other issues will also affect �underwater tangible heritage such as chemical changes or the increasing of shipworms. 2. Currents. Some experts predict that climate change could cause a possible interruption of the thermohaline circulation, largely responsible for regulating the earth’s temperature. Such change would affect the submerged heritage in different ways, such as the modification of the sediment layer. Much underwater cultural heritage is preserved at present thanks to a protective layer of sediment, mostly formed by microorganisms. Any disturbance of this layer could damage the archaeological materials. A change in currents can also displace some or all of a submerged archaeological site, decontextualizing it from its original location or otherwise dispersing the objects. 3. Chemical Changes. A variety of chemical changes might occur in the waters as a result of climate change such as acidity and salinity. If the pH of seawater decreases and the oxygen increases, it will become more acidic. As a consequence, underwater material is more likely to corrode. Also textiles dissolve more readily in acidic water, meaning any archaeological textiles remaining under water would likely be lost. Changes in salinity may also be proved problematic since salinity also accelerates corrosion. 4. The Rising Sea Levels. Increased global temperatures melts land ice, which adds water to the sea. Similarly, an increase in water temperature results in the expansion of the sea, since warm water occupies a larger volume than colder water. Sea levels react only very slowly, and it takes many centuries—or even millennia—for large continental ice masses to melt. However, since ice masses are becoming wetter because of the contact with water, they will almost certainly melt at a much faster rate. Researchers estimate �that there will be a rise in the sea level of between 18 and 59 cm by the year 2100; but it could exceed one metre. The rising sea level would be the most difficult challenge facing cultural heritage. Not only could it submerge the land-based cultural heritage, but underwater cultural heritage might also be affected. Some of the issues recognised in this regard are as follows:  Increased depth. More water means greater depth and shipwrecks lying on the seabed will be subject to greater pressure, which may be more than they can withstand.  Prospection. It would have an effect, mainly due to the reduction in the amount of time a diver can remain under water.  Marine boundaries. Higher sea levels will result in legal maritime boundaries becoming less well-defined. Political issues and legal disputes are expected to arise in the affected areas and the melting of the Arctic will open new maritime commercial routes which will translate into claiming of new territories as we will see.  Flooding. Some land-based archaeological sites will flood, meaning that some cultural heritage will become underwater cultural heritage.  Increased storms. Higher sea levels will cause more powerful storms that will devastate low-lying areas. These will be in the form of tropical storms and hurricanes/cyclones, at best eroding at worst destroying both land and underwater heritage. Although these are largely predictions for the future, some cultural heritage sites are already experiencing these changes. Small Islands Developing States The Pacific Islands region comprises 22 countries and territories, nine of them fully independent (Barnett and Campbell, 2010). It is divided into �three regions: Melanesia -of large cultural diversity and more than 800 languages spoken-, Polynesia -more homogenous- with “only” 30 languages- and Micronesia -with strong links to the United States (Barnett and Campbell, 2010). This cultural diversity may change for the effects of climate change. The IPCC 4th assessment report identifies small island states as being the most vulnerable countries of the world to the adverse impacts of climate change. The Pacific is in fact one of the world’s most vulnerable regions. Not only their cultural heritage will be affected but also their agriculture, water resources, forestry, tourism and other industry-related sectors. However, the impact of climate change in these communities will not only be noticeable on flooding lands, but also in its effects on agricultural production and fisheries, and, as a consequence, in the availability of food. However, there has been little research on understanding how people is going to adapt to climate change. For instance, the Tuvalu State is already losing not only its territory because of the floodings, but also its identity and heritage: its culture as a nation is transforming. Communities on the Torres Strait are also suffering king tides and flooding that make life non-viable. The islands will probably be completely submerged in the future, meaning 7000 people already have to adapt to climate change. Australia has invited them to live on Australian territory but this would mean that the land of such states—and, therefore, their tangible culture—will be lost. There are two basic responses to climate change for these territories: mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation includes all policies and laws that have been drafted on climate change. Adaptation has its origins in evolutionary biology, seen as the basis for natural selections and it implies long-term processes. This paper proposes a mix of mitigation and �adaptation actions in order to understand and face the effects of climate change on the cultural heritage. Ethical dilemmas This section will highlight the main ethical dilemmas attached to the loss of a territory, as it is going to happen to some Asia-Pacific States. 1. Identity seems a concept intrinsically linked to the concept of heritage. For Ashworth (2007) heritage is a need of the individual and of society to reinforce a socio-cultural identity: it is a contemporary commodity and it is linked to the concept of “national identity” that can be shaped through a few selected points of heritage and supporting mythologies. An object of heritage can become an evocative symbol of identification that acts as a trigger for emotions and narratives. 2. Emotion: this identification of a person with a place or an object is established because the person identifies itself with the place (or object) and feels something related to it. In this regard, Smith (2006) concludes that the “real sense of heritage is when our emotions and sense of self are truly engaged”. The emotional value of heritage is felt and it is reinforced through experiences and re-experiences that create a sense of nostalgia (Smith and Waterton, 2009). Heritage is then not valued for the specific information it contains but for the notions it evokes among people. 3. Memories: memories, as emotions, are not spontaneous but they need to be actively remembered (Smith and Waterton, 2009): they need a root in a concrete object or site and need to be maintained. Cultural heritage is intrinsically political and symbolic, used in lieu of description to evoke memories or emotions. And it is highly selective. If some Small Island Developing States of the Pacific leave their territories and, as a consequence, part of their tangible cultural heritage, �they will lose part of their identity, their memories and the emotions that they experience with their heritage. Legal perspective Legislation can be used to minimize human threats to underwater cultural heritage. There is only 1.9 million km² of ocean area where nature conservation regulations apply. There is some Marine Protected Areas (MPA) but some authors (Rahmstorf and Richardson, 2009) believe that at least 20 to 30% of the world’s oceans should be protected. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), Group I concludes that the oceans are warming and the salinification of water is changing. Although they are not visible ocean circulation changes, the ocean biogeochemistry is changing since there is evidence of decreased oxygen concentrations. And the sea level is definitely rising (IPCC, 2007). Despite of all this information, international instruments fails to protect cultural heritage from climate change forces (Sheridan and Sheridan, 2013). There are gaps in the capacity of the legislation for future protection. Only the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) has some response to climate change (Sheridan and Sheridan, 2013). The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage does not mention climate change as an adverse factor for underwater cultural heritage. However, Dromgoole (2013) feels that the term in the definition “partially or totally underwater, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years” is of importance for the predicted sea level changes due to climate change. However, and despite this minor concession, the Convention does not explicitly mention “climate change” and as a consequence, it does not propose solutions. Neither the 1982 UNCLOS Convention does. �The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) has no direct reference to underwater cultural heritage, nor does the Kyoto Protocol (1997) which aims to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases. The instruments that try to cover the topic provide good intentions rather than solutions. They make a good starting point for the development of the field, although they tend to be vague and imprecise and no remedies are proposed. As a consequence, there is a need for ranking the potential impact of climate change on individual heritage and determining the vulnerability, sensitivity and resilience to future changes (Howard, 2003). Conclusions As this paper has tried to demonstrate, rises in sea levels, warmer waters, ocean acidification and changes in currents will affect underwater cultural heritage (Dunkley, 2013). Warmer waters mean more energetic oceans (that cause more erosion) and the migration of invasive species. It also means expansion, which will cause the problem of oceans delimitation. In addition, this rises in sea levels will reduce the amount of time and productivity an air-breathing diver can spend under water safely. In addition, saltier waters mean less clear waters. Changes in ocean temperatures also affect and alter oceanic currents which will have an impact on underwater visibility for divers besides of the erosion of the heritage. And although the direct effects of acidification are not still well understood (but it is known that will harm marine fauna) it increases the current rates of metal corrosion, which will be particularly harmful to the underwater heritage of the World Wars (Dunkley, 2013). Each site deserves unique treatment and it is difficult to set common criteria. The climate change consequences on heritage need different strands of research, like risk factors, socio-economic research and nature and cultural stress factors (UNESCO, 2008). Some authors predict that �future generations will face damage and loss of underwater cultural heritage or will have to make great efforts to protect them (Marzeion and Levermann, 2014). However, as Sheridan and Sheridan (2013) observe, it seems that people may need to see their cultural heritage threatened, temples washed away or cathedrals destroyed by flooding to be convinced of the effects of climate change in culture and to evaluate and propose solutions. However, it is erroneous to assume that the most visible remains are the most threatened. There is a need for practical and political response to the effects of climate change on underwater cultural heritage but also a priority of raising awareness of the impacts. Some authors emphasise the inadequate financial resources and a lack of creativity on managing underwater cultural heritage despite it being a growing “industry” (Kingsley, 2011). Some inter-agency cooperation might be necessary (Van de Noort, 2013), as well as convincing policy makers to include climate change impacts in planning (Cassar and Pender, 2005). This paper proposes the inclusion of underwater cultural heritage as natural heritage, which is another subject on policy agendas for protecting the world’s oceans from climate change. The differentiation between cultural and natural is a barrier that excludes underwater cultural heritage and avoids a common interdisciplinary work, as it will be seen in the next section. However, is an Asia-Pacific values-orientated qualification of underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource, focusing on identifying and recovering the connections between the nature and culture sectors. Proposal The present study focuses the required actions to manage the underwater cultural heritage under the threat of climate change in four steps: recognizing the loss, starting the debate, creating a legal framework in �which situate the debate and recognizing underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource. 1. Recognizing the loss: there have already been two periods of climate change in the past which could have affected the heritage. It is essential to understand that although climate change does destroy the heritage, it also creates new heritage (for instance flooded cities or islands will become underwater cultural heritage in 100 years). This is an ethical issue on heritage as process: understanding that it is inevitable to lose some cultural heritage but that we will also gain some. On these premises, however, it is again the time to evaluate the importance of the sites and to undertake actions to preserve the selected ones. 2. Starting the debate: climate change debate has occupied few concerns in the archaeological and heritage arena. Whatever the causes, the effects may be devastating (Chapman, 2003). This paper has tried to trigger the debate, which needs to be discussed and disseminated through academic, social and political agendas. 3. Creating a legal framework: the 2001 UNESCO Convention that guides States on the management of their underwater cultural heritage does not include climate change as a danger to the heritage. As with any other international instruments, the authors of the Convention would hope to become an example to the states (Carman, 2013). If this Convention does not take climate change into consideration neither will States. This paper presents a high-risk concept: underwater cultural heritage is a part of the oceans and as a consequence underwater cultural heritage preservation has more similarities to underwater natural heritage than to terrestrial cultural heritage. Although the methodology (archaeology) and the ethical concerns that both underwater and land heritage face have a major equivalence, in the aspects of preserving and facing climate change, underwater cultural heritage has to fight the same battles as the �natural heritage in the oceans. The changes that will affect them are the same. As a consequence, the same legal and political agendas on climate change affecting the oceans should already include (as coral reefs are included) underwater cultural heritage on their agendas. 4. Recognizing underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource: Aznar-Gómez (2013) states that although underwater cultural heritage is not considered a natural resource by the UNCLOS Convention, the seabed and the sand is covering the archaeological objects. Also the nonsedentary fishing species live around artificial reefs made by shipwrecks. For this reason, some authors (Rössler, 2006) have tried to link cultural and biological diversity for the better preservation of underwater cultural heritage. In fact, the 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage is an instrument for the preservation of both, cultural and natural heritage. Aplin (2002) argues that distinction between natural and cultural heritage is blurred and Chapman (2003) reminds the close relationship between ecological and archaeological site management and suggests a liaison between archaeologists and other parties interested in natural environment. Lixinski (2008: 379) claims that the “nature and culture dichotomy” listed in the 1972 World Heritage Convention is simply artificial, as it is proved to be in the wording “the combined works of nature and man”. According to the author, the holistic approach to heritage seen as “significance” and not as a place or as an object blurs that dichotomy. Accordingly, it is necessary to adjust natural policies on the oceans to accommodate underwater cultural heritage. If shipwrecks are considered artificial reefs, the same preservation policies applied to natural reefs can be applied to the artificial ones (that is, underwater cultural heritage). �Endnotes 1 US embassy cables. The guardian. 10th August 2010 Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/220120 References Aplin, G. 2002. Heritage identification, conservation and management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ashworth, G. J. 2007. On townscapes, heritages and identities. In: Institute for Advanced Studies Colloquium on Urban-Rural (2007). Flows and Boundaries. Lancaster: Lancaster University. Aznar-Gómez, M.J. 2013. Treasure hunters. In: AIMA 13 Conference: Towards Ratification: Australia's Underwater Cultural Heritage. [Unpublished paper]. Canberra: 4 October 2013 Barnett, J., and Campbell, J. 2010. Climate change and small island states: Power, knowledge, and the South Pacific. Earthscan. Carman, J. 2013. Legislation in Archaeology: Overview and Introduction. In: C. Smith (2013) Encyclopaedia of Global Archaeology. New York: Springer: 4469-4485 Cassar, M. and Pender, R. 2005. The impact of climate change on cultural heritage: evidence and response. Published in the 14th Triennial Meeting The Hague Preprints. Vol. II. Chapman, H. P. 2003. Global warming: The implications for sustainable archaeological resource management. Conservation and management of archaeological sites, 5(4): 241-245. Daly, C. 2011. Climate change and the Conservation of Archaeological sites: a review of impacts theory conservation and management of archaeological sites. Dublin Institute of Technology, vol. 13, no 4: 293310. Dromgoole, S. 2013. Underwater cultural heritage and international law. Cambridge University Press. (Vol. 101). �Dunkley, M. 2013. Ocean Climate Change and Underwater Archaeology. [online]. English Heritage 12th September 2013. Available at: http://heritagecalling.com/2013/09/12/oceanic-climate-change-andunderwater-archaeology/. Florian, M-L.E. 1987. Deterioration of organic materials other than wood. In C. Pearson (1987). Conservation of marine archaeological objects. Butterworth and Co Publishers: 21-54. Green, J. 1990. Maritime Archaeology: A technical Handbook. San Diego: Academic Press. Howard, P. 2003. Heritage: management, interpretation, identity. London: Library of Congress Cataloguing-in Publication Data. IPCC 2007. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change. Available at: https://www.ipccwg1.unibe.ch/. Kingsley, S. 2011. Challenges of Maritime Archaeology: in too deep. In: T.F. King (2011). A companion to cultural resource management. Wiley: Blackwell Publications: 223-244. Kyoto Protocol 1997. United Nations. Available at: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php. Lixinski, L. 2008. World Heritage and the Heritage of the World: Book Review. By F.Francioni and F. Lenzerini. The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008 European Journal of Legal Studies. Vol 2 (1) 2008: 371-386. McGrath, M. 2014. Climate change helps seas disturb Japanese war dead [online]. BBC News: Science and Environment. 7th June 2014. Available at: http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27742957. Marzeion, B. and Levermann, A. 2014. Loss of cultural world heritage and currently inhabited places to sea-level rise. Environmental Research Letters. 9 (2014) 034001: 1-7. Rahmstorf, S. and Richardson, K. 2009. Our threatened Oceans. The sustainability Project. London: Haus Publishing. �Rössler, M. 2006. World Heritage- Linking Cultural and Biological Diversity. In: B.T. Hoffman (2006). Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 201-205. Rubio, M. 2014. Peligro: el mar devuelve el barco fenicio. [online]. Laverdad.es: Murcia. 6th May 2014. Available at: http://www.laverdad.es/murcia/v/20140505/mazarron/peligro-devuelvebarco-fenicio-20140505.html. Sheridan, R. and Sheridan, J. 2013. International heritage instruments and climate change. Illinois: Common Ground Publishing LLC. Smith, L. 2006. Uses of Heritage. London and New York: Routledge. Smith, L. and Waterton, E. 2009. Heritage, Communities and Archaeology. Wiltshire: Duckworth Debates in Archaeology. UNESCO 1972. Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Paris, 16 November 1972. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/. UNESCO 2001. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Paris, 2 November 2001. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001260/126065e.pdf. UNESCO 2008. Policy Document on the Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties. UNESCO World Heritage Centre publications on climate change. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/CC-policydocument/ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1994. United Nations “Rio Conventions”. Available at: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/items/6036.php. Van de Noort, R. 2013. Wetland Archaeology in the 21st Century: Adapting to Climate Change. In F. Menotti and A. O’Sullivan (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Wetland Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 719732. �Wachsmann, S. 2011. Deep-submergence Archaeology. In: A. Catsambis, B. Ford and D.L. Hamilton (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 202-221. Biography Elena Perez-Alvaro, doctor in Underwater Cultural Heritage, is a cultural heritage consultant for Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd. Her primary responsibility is to provide the clients with curatorial specialist advice, from management to legal or uses advice. Her publications consider ethical, legal and management aspects of cultural heritage, including the valuation and interpretation of cultural heritage, protection from climate change, the enhancement of intangible heritage, the relationship between natural and cultural heritage, cultural heritage of colonised countries or the cultural heritage of indigenous communities. She has also undertaken a wide variety of teaching posts, including at university level. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 7: Underwater Cultural Heritage Politics, Laws, Ethics and Values Description An account of the resource All cultural materials are potentially cultural resources. However, because not all of them can be preserved or studied, choices must be made based on evaluation and re-evaluation. Values are learned and depend on cultural, intellectual, historical, and psychological frames of reference. Consequently, valuation is made individually, but is shared by communities. Valuation of underwater cultural heritage has, then, a broad range of determining value depending on the community to which it belongs. A clear example of this is the protection of human remains. The 2001 UNESCO Convention includes, in its definition of underwater cultural heritage, human remains which have been underwater for more than 100 years. However, the Christian philosophy on the treatment of human remains is different to that of Asian philosophy that teaches that human remains will never become underwater cultural heritage since, if they are seen by someone in an underwater site, it is imperative to rescue the human remains and bury them on land according to their beliefs. This session aims to create a forum for policymakers, managers, and archaeologists devoted to underwater cultural heritage where they can share their experiences of and research on the valuation of underwater cultural heritage. We aim to accept papers that help us to understand the definition of ‘underwater cultural heritage’ in the Asia-Pacific regions, comparing those definitions with the definition of the 2001 UNESCO Convention and trying to find a common interpretation. We will also be looking to examine the meaning of the underwater cultural heritage sites and objects for different communities. Finally, we will be expecting papers exploring the different possibilities of the use and/or conservation of this underwater cultural heritage according to the values and needs of the different communities. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd., UK Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The ethics behind climate change: Small Island Developing States in the Pacific as new underwater cultural heritage Description An account of the resource Predictions forecast changes in climate that may affect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Warmer waters mean more chemical changes and the proliferation of teredo navalis. Ocean currents may cause disturbances to the layer of sediment protecting underwater cultural heritage sites. The rises in sea levels would reduce the amount of time an air-breathing diver can safely spend under water and hence their productivity. Rises would also mean expansion, which could raise the problem of ocean delimitation. Also our land tangible cultural heritage will be submerged: entire nations and their cultural heritage may disappear, an issue affecting mostly the Small Island Developing States -many of them in the Pacific-, more vulnerable to rises in sea levels. Their identity as citizens of their cities, as members of a community with their own tangible past, complete with their cultural heritage, will disappear. Their land heritage will become underwater cultural heritage but for more than 100 years will not be protected under the 2001 UNESCO Convention. This paper will look at climate change in these Asia-Pacific communities from the ethics as a core element and will study the introduction of these flooded areas as new underwater cultural heritage, proposing an AsiaPacific values-orientated qualification of underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Asia-Pac Session 7 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b501753de63f323578fb631cd3b3827f.pdf bc1c99ef6aa5ed29d43b31bb8377a6c9 PDF Text Text A Methodology for Accurate and Quick Photogrammetric Recording of Underwater Cultural Heritage Kotaro A.P.P.A.R.A.T.U.S. apparatus.japan@gmail.com Yamafune LLC Abstract In the past seven years, photogrammetry has become one of the main recording methods in maritime and underwater archaeology. The application of photogrammetry allows archaeologists to re-create underwater cultural heritage sites in 3D digital formats, and extract from these 3D digital models data and information required for subsequent scholarly research. The author has been using photogrammetry since 2014 and has successfully created nearly 40 underwater cultural heritage models on more than 10 archaeological projects. The projects have ranged in size, accessibility, and water clarity, introducing a number of variables to the photogrammetry of the artifacts. The variety of experiences gained on these projects have enabled the author to construct his own methodology and workflow for photogrammetric recording. In this paper, the author shares examples of his methodology and workflow for photogrammetric recording of various projects in different countries. Key words: UCH, photogrammetry, Photoscan Introduction Agisoft PhotoScan and other off-the-shelf photogrammetry software became available for archaeologists in 2010. By 2017, after only 7 years, photogrammetry has become a one of the most frequently used recording methods for UCH (underwater cultural heritage) sites. The author of this paper works as a professional maritime archaeologist and applied photogrammetric recording on more than 35 archaeological sites in more than 10 different countries. Because of its submerged circumstances of many shipwrecks, each site has different conditions: such as visibility and �colors of waters, depth, topography, water current and so on. Those different conditions create problems that requires different ways to solve those difficulties. Additionally, each project has different mission statement, or project’s goal. For that reason, each submerged site requires different types of methodologies for data-collection and data processing. Moreover, to use produced 3D digital models as archaeological data, it is important to create 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D models (Yamafune et al., 2016). Yet, to produce these accurate models, it is essential to takes a week to produce local coordinate system that gives scale and georeferenced on the model. To solve these lengthy problem, the author created a methodology that produces local coordinate system in short time (1 or 2 dives) yet provide fairly accurate results. In this paper, the author shall share his methodology of photogrammetric recording that he has developed and currently using. Literature Review and Terminological Confusion of Photogrammetry Before the author starts discussions regarding his photogrammetry methodology, there is an important point that must be noted. The point is a confusion related with the word ‘photogrammetry;’ ‘photogrammetry’ has been used repeatedly in history; probably the first time it appeared in/as a discipline of science was during the WWII. When airplane became widely available for military use, cameras were mounted on scouting airplanes; then photos taken from the mounted cameras where meticulously re-calibrated and composed to create a photomosaic, or a map, of enemy’s territories. In other words, ‘photogrammetry’ that were used first during the WWII was a technique to create accurately composed photomosaic (Burtch, 2008; Van Damme, 2015; Konecny, 2003). And it �was a well-known fact that Dr. George Bass and Dr. Frederick Van Doornick, well-known ‘first generation’ maritime archaeologists, used photogrammetry for their Yassiada underwater expeditions in 1960s; detailed site plans were produced based on photomosaic that were taken from a camera that was mounted on horizontally positioned rails on the seabed (Van Doorninck, 1967; Bass, 1972; Bass and Van Doorninck, 1982). In their publications, they used a word ‘photogrammetry;’ however, it must be noted that ‘photogrammetry’ in their article and ‘photogrammetry’ that produces 3D digital models today uses different systems and indicate different recording systems. Another terminological confusion related to a word ‘photogrammetry occurred in 1990s. In 1990s, maritime archaeologists started practice DSM (Direct Survey Method); many cases this system is referred as trilateration. DSM provides a local coordinate system/network to help production of 2D site plans of submerged shipwreck site. DSM is a method to directly measure distances in between control points and detailed/reference points to create positional networks. Consequently, DSM provides XYZ coordinates of control points and detailed points, and maritime archaeologists use these XY coordinates to produce 2D site plans (Holt 2003: Green and Gainsford 2003). When DSM became a popular method among maritime archaeologists as a mapping method in 90s, another method was also often used to produce 2D site plans; and this another method is also called ‘photogrammetry.’ This photogrammetry is known with the software Photomodeler. Photomodeler is a photogrammetry software; and this photogrammetry mainly applied for underwater excavations in 1990s and 2000s uses a meticulously calibrated camera and its images that captures at least three reference �points in one image. Thanks to meticulous calibration of the camera and its series of images, Photomodeler can calculate the XYZ coordinates of reference points; and these reference points are used to produce 2D site plans and 3D CAD drawings. Indeed, the data sets that DSM and this photogrammetry produced were very similar; both system provides XYZ coordinates of reference points on submerged sites. A few articles were published in 1990s and the early 2000s related to this photogrammetry that produce XYZ coordinates of reference points, or a local coordinate system (Green et al., 2002). However, photogrammetry that related Photomoder is different from photogrammetry that can produce 3D models. Confusingly, around 2010, when photogrammetry that can produce 3D models began to become popular recording methods, EOS system (the software company manufactures Photomodeler) released upgraded version of the software called Photomodeler Scanner. This Photomodeler Scanner can produce 3D models of subjects that uses similar system with ‘photogrammetry’ that the author will discuss in this paper. Nonetheless, it is important to be noted that Photomodeler that can provide XYZ coordinates of reference points and Photomodeler Scanner that can produce 3D models are different types of ‘photogrammetry.’ And a word ‘photogrammetry’ mainly referred in articles of maritime archaeology in 1990s and early 2000s were mainly focus on Photomodeler and its system that provides XYZ coordinates of reference points on archaeological sites. In 2010, Agisoft PhotoScan was released. While Autodesk 123D Catch, Photomodeler Scanner and other photogrammetry software that produce 3D digital models were also released around the same time, thanks to its georeferencing systems and user-friendly workflows, Agisoft Photoscan immediately became popular photogrammetry software among maritime �archaeologists are keen to apply quick and accurate recording methods on submerged sites. By 2017, many maritime archaeology projects enjoy this recording application. Nonetheless, another confusing terminological problem is happening. After 2010, almost all the time ‘photogrammetry’ indicates a system that produces 3D digital models; however, there are many different words were being used to indicate this one system. The author often hears SfM (Structure from Motion) in the United State and Japan, some articles including IJNA (International Journal of Nautical Archaeology) prefer Multi-image Photogrammetry, some Italian scholars sometimes use Close-range Photogrammetry, and scholars form northern European countries sometimes use Computer-Vision Photogrammetry. Yet all these words imply one system that produces 3D digital models based on digital images. Concluding this section, the word ‘photogrammetry’ implies different systems when it was used for maritime archaeology. From 1960s and 1980s, ‘photogrammetry’ implies a system that produced a photomosaic of sites; from 90s and 00s, ‘photogrammetry”’ implies a system that used calibrated digital cameras and its photos to calculate XYZ coordinates of reference points located on the site to produce 2D site plans and 3D CAD drawing (by connecting reference points). After 2010, ‘photogrammetry’ implies a system that produces 3D digital models. Furthermore, this ‘photogrammetry’ after 2010 that produces 3D digital models is called in different names, such as SfM, Multi-image Photogrammetry, Close-range Photogrammetry, Computer-Vision photogrammetry, and so on, yet these all names indicate only one system. In this paper, the author shall use a word “photogrammetry” in his discussions, and this “photogrammetry” indicates a system that produces 3D digital models. �Importance of Local Coordinate Systems Tying the site plan to a set of local coordinates is a key factor to create 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced photogrammetric 3D digital models. There are two reasons that creating a local set of coordinates is important. The first reason is to correct scale and distortion of the photogrammetric models and to geographically reference the site plan. One of the advantages of photogrammetry is that it does not require precise calibration of the camera. Although calibration is recommended, the software primarily uses pixel information to reconstruct a site, which means that the construction of the point clouds does not require manual calibration. Moreover, the software reads metadata from the camera and lens and minimizes the errors. Distortions are inevitable, however, and this possible error can be minimized by applying known distances and specific photo capturing sequences, or “flight path.” The second reason to establish local coordinate system is that unless tied to a system of coordinates, models float in unspecified tridimensional fields. To fix the models in the correct position, local coordinates must be included on the models. Without this, it is impossible to export the computer graphics files to mapping software with the correct position. Georeferenced information facilitates a straightforward workflow when models and orthophotos (high resolution photomosaic) are exported. Also, the processing and rendering capacity of the Agisoft PhotoScan software is limited by both software and hardware configurations. This constrains the maximum polygon count for the mesh (which makes up the surface of the model), and the maximum number and resolution of UV mapped textures (‘UV’ is a XY coordinates for texture), which are composed photomosaic on surfaces of mesh. Large data sets can be divided into smaller Chunks (PhotoScan’s term), which are separately �processed. These Chunks can be imported into a single PhotoScan file afterward without merging (Tool > Append) and other modelling and mapping software applications and merged without decimation (the reducing of the polygon count). When models and orthophotos are georeferenced, the merging process is automatic, and exported files are opened in their correct positions in other software. A set of local coordinates is paramount to ensure an accurate manipulation of models or orthophotos. Scale-bar Methods and DSM While local coordinates system that is produced by DSM can be used to scale-constrain photogrammetric model, Agisoft PhotoScan also allows the input of measurements in a different way. PhotoScan uses scale bars, or known distance, instead of importing local coordinates collected using DSM. At actual archaeological sites, establishing control points and local coordinates may take a week. This may not be suitable for a short-term survey project. The author had tested the both methods to fix distortions and scale of photogrammetric models. Measuring methods that will be discussed and compared are: trilateration (DSM) using 3H Site Recorder, and scale bars that are placed on the site. To compare and examine the accuracy both methods, local coordinates and known distances of both methods were applied to a photogrammetric model, and each different method was compared to control measurements. The control measurements were taken directly from the wooden model. For this test, the author used a 1:10 scale wooden model of a saveiro, a 20th-century Brazilian coastal sailing boat. In order to simulate an archaeological shipwreck site, the wooden model was laid down on its starboard side, �and its floor timbers were pulled slightly out so that its starboard futtocks lay on the bottom (See also Fig. 2 and 3). Direct Survey Method (Trilateration) The first method to discuss is trilateration, also known as Direct Survey Method (DSM). Trilateration (DSM) has been repeatedly used in underwater archaeological recordings. For this DSM, the author used 3H Site Recorder (Demo Version). In order to acquire coordinates of reference points, a control network first had to be established. The author placed eight control points around the wooden model, set all the control points to a congruent height (40 cm from the ground), and set this height as the surface of the water, or depth of 0 cm. To establish the positions of the control points, or a control network, 19 measurements were taken. The tolerance established for errors was set at 0.3 cm; therefore, all distance errors bigger than 0.3 cm were shown in red (shorter) and blue (longer). Only one distance (CP5 – CP7) showed a + 0.39 cm statistical error after the adjustment of the control points. After the control network, or positions of datum points, was established, 11 reference points were placed on the model. A total of 44 measurements were taken from the control points; each reference point was measured from the nearest four control points (Fig. 1). Two measurements indicated over 0.3 cm error; however, both errors were less 0.5 cm, which is within an acceptable range of error. �Fig. 1: The Local Coordinate Network of reference points and control points around the Saveiro Wooden Model (Top View: Horizontal Plane). Scale-bars Method Scale bars are often used when pictures of archaeological sites are taken. These scale bars can be extremely useful in photogrammetry. Scale bars give accurate scale information in archaeological photography, and when a site is being mapped using photogrammetry, they can be used to check measurements after other methods, such as DSM, were used to correct distortion and scale of a created photogrammetric model. However, distortions and dimensions can be fixed by using only scale bars, a feature that allows archaeologists to skip the time-consuming DSM system. To test the accuracy of this method, four scale bars were placed on the four sides of the saveiro model. In this particular case, considering the size of the model the four scale bars available were unnecessarily long. Therefore, seven 10 cm scale bars with markers were created on the existing scale bars. These smaller 10 cm bars were entered as fixed distances in the photogrammetric model (Fig. 2). �Fig. 2: Seven 10cm scale bars created on the Saveiro Photogrammetric Model for the Scale Bar Method. Comparison of DSM and Scale-bars Methods To test the accuracy of these two survey methods mentioned above, the measurements from all photogrammetric models of the saveiro were compared within a single set of control measurements. The control measurements were taken directly from the wooden model; 21 selected distances between reference points were taken for this purpose (Fig. 3). The control measurements were compared to the measurements obtained by the other methods (Table 1). �Fig. 3: The photogrammetric model of the Saveiro Wooden Ship Model and the measured distances between reference points for the comparison. �Table 1. Distances between reference points to compare different surveying methods to fix distortions and scales of the Saveiro Wooden Ship Model’s photogrammetric mModel The results suggest that scale-bar can be a more accurate scale-constrain method in a photogrammetric model. The measurements taken from the photogrammetric model with trilateration (DSM) coordinates display an average error of 0.39 cm. The more accurate results obtained were through the use of scale bars; the scale bars allowed an average error of 0.19 cm. The results of the experiments with two scale-constrain methods discussed show that the scale bars method provided better results in fixing scales from photogrammetry surveys. The main disadvantage of trilateration (DSM) is that it requires many measurements. For instance, �the saveiro model required 19 measurements to establish the control point network and 44 measurements to calculate the coordinates of reference points. On the other hand, the scale-bars method does not require any measurements. However, it is important to note that the scale-bars methods cannot establish a local coordinates system. This is a disadvantage when compared to the traditional trilateration (DSM) method; scale bars can fix distortion and scale of photogrammetric models, but they need a complementary method to establish local coordinates. The Recommended Method to Produce 1:1 Scale-constrained Georeferenced 3D Models Following is an experimental methodology that author composed and applied on several underwater shipwreck sites, and these photogrammetric models shows successful results. Testing Scale-bar Method on Larger Underwater Sites The author tested scale-bars method on various underwater shipwreck sites; including Operation Forager directed by Dr. Jennifer McKinnon and Dr. Toni Carrell (Saipan 2017: 8 wrecks), Fourni Underwater Survey Project directed by Dr. George Koutsouflakis and Dr. Peter Campbell (Greece 2017: 9 wrecks), and Converging the World Project directed by Nicholas Budsberg and Charles Bendig (the Bahamas 2017: 1 sites). While recording those submerged archaeological sites, the author positioned 4 – 8 scale bars on each site for photogrammetric recording. To test possible distortions in a larger submerged site (for instances �around 30m x 30m), the author intentionally scale-constrained only one corner with a 1m scale bar using the Scale-bars method, and check calculated distance using a 1m scale bar on the opposite site. The result showed that the distance error of the 1m scale bar on the opposite side is 2.5mm. And this result stay same with other photogrammetric models of other sites (errors varies in 0.5mm – 3mm). In other words, if a 3D digital model is scaled by one side of the 30m x 30m coverage area, distance error (or distortion) can be less than 2.5mm anywhere if an archaeologist tries to measure 1m-long areas; and it also means that possible maximum positional errors from one end to the other end of the 30m-long site (if this distortion occurs in linier manner) is 7.5cm. Again, the biggest advantage of the scale-bars methods is its simplicity and speed. It doesn’t require any tape measurements; scale-bars can be simply positioned around the sites. More importantly, once ‘Scale Bars’ are created in Agisoft Photoscan, camera locations and scale of the created model can be fixed based on known distances by ‘Optimize Cameras’ command (open ‘reference tab’ > input known distances on ‘Scale bar’ > ‘Update’ > ‘Optimize Cameras’). Using this ‘Optimize Cameras’ command, distance errors on the 1m can be 0.5mm or less. This means possible distance error of 30m-long site is 1.5cm. Importance of the ‘Flight Path’ To obtain good/accurate results with minimum distortions on created photogrammetric models discussed above, the author strong believes that his distinctive “flight path” is the key factor. The author originally developed his flight path to ensure successful rate in “Align Photos” process. Photo alignment is the most important phase in photogrammetric modeling. To maximize the probability of creating successful photo �alignment, the author developed a flight path for sequences of photo shooting. The best results have been achieved by capturing surrounding area first to lock the site. Then, photographs are taken perpendicularly to capture a top view of the site with appropriate overlap. After complete photo shooting in both transversal and longitudinal paths, additional photographs must be taken with the camera tilted to capture vertical surfaces of rich tridimensional structures (Fig. 4). Actual ‘flight path’ of archaeological sites can vary depending on multiple factors; therefore, meticulous planning of a flight path is an important part of successful photogrammetric recording. Most important factor of flight path is its interwoven manner; sometimes the diver who use photogrammetry only apply transversal path without the longitudinal path and the locking paths. In other words, if only one direction of flight path is applied, directional distance/length of from one point on one side to another point on the opposite side shall be long, and distortions on images will be accumulated. However, if three paths (Locking path, transversal path, and longitudinal path) are properly operated, distance from one side to the opposite side will be shorter hence the distortion can be minimized. For that reason, the author strongly recommends that photo-shooting sequences, or ‘flight path,’ for photogrammetry have to be practiced with interwoven manners. �Fig. 4: Recommended flight path for photogrammetric recording. Applying Local Coordinate System on Scale-bars Method Next step to create a 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D models is to apply a local coordinate system on a created 3D digital model. As it was discussed earlier, scale-bars methods can produce fairly accurate scaleconstrained 1:1 models; however, these models cannot carry georeferenced/positional information. Having a georeferenced/spatial information is essential for archaeologists to use 3D photogrammetric models as scientific data for their analysis. In order to apply/generate a georeferenced data on a created 3D model, it only requires XYZ coordinates of three control points within a site. The author uses distances between three control points placed on the archaeological site to establish a temporal XY coordinates on the three points. A triangle can be created if distances between three points are known. To obtain these distances from a created scale-constrained 3D model, control point must be created/placed on the model. Control point can be created easily in Agisoft PhotoScan as markers by double clicking on the respective position on the mode (these markers can be created on the photos by right clicking and choose ‘create markers’ in Agisoft PhotoScan). Then scale-bars were �created between these three points to extract calculated distances between the points (choose two respective markers on reference pane > right click on selected markers > create ‘scale bars’ > click ‘view estimated’). Using these distances between three points, a triangle can be created using 3D CAD software such as Rhino 3D. Then orientation of the triangle must be adjusted based on depth-measurements of these control points collected by diver’s dive computer (Fig. 5). This adjusted triangle and positions of its three corners give new/adjusted XYZ coordinates of the three points; the author uses these coordinates to adjust angle of these three control points on the 3D model in Agisoft PhotoScan (open reference tab > input XYZ coordinates of the corner of the adjusted triangles > ‘update’). Once these adjusted coordinates were applied, the 3D photogrammetric model shall contain georeferenced information. Fig. 5: Adjustment of the coordinate triangle (The blue triangle is a temporal triangle that was created based on distances between control points. And the red one is the adjusted triangle; its orientation was adjusted based on depth-measurements of the three control points. Then new coordinates were collected from corners of the red triangle). �Using a 1:1 scale constrained photogrammetric model as new local Coordinate System On the Conversing the World Project, the team of maritime archaeologists excavated an early sixteenth century Spanish shipwreck in the Bahamas during the summer 2017; this shipwreck is also known as the Highbourne Cay Shipwreck. The author is in charge of photogrammetric recording of the shipwreck site, and he applied the combination of scale-bars and triangle geo-referencing methodology explained above to create 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D digital models. Furthermore, once a 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D model of the site was created in Agisoft PhotoScan, it is easy to extract coordinates of any possible points on the 3D model by creating markers (right click on the model or a photo > ‘create makers’ > ‘view estimated’). This means that when 3D models are created on the same area or smaller areas within the site in following day, coordinates of reference points/markers can be collected from the first 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced model, and apply these coordinates on newly created 3D models. This means once a local coordinate system is generated within the first model, archaeologists can use this coordinate system to both scale-constrain and geo-reference following photogrammetric models. The author prefers to call this first 1;1 scale constrained georeferenced 3D model as ‘Mother Model’, and following 3D models that receive coordinates from Mother Model as Child Models. In other words, the Mother Models itself works as a local coordinate system of the site, and archaeologists can extract XYZ coordinates of any reference points form the Mother models to create another 1:1 scale constrained georeferenced 3D digital models. �Conclusion Past 7 years, photogrammetry became one of the most frequently used recording applications on UCH (Underwater Cultural Heritage). However, if archaeologists use these 3D digital models as scientific data, it is vital to create 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D digital models. Once a 3D digital model carries/contains correct/real scale and georeferenced information, archaeologists are able to extract dimensional information, section profiles, DEM (Digital Elevation Models) and contour maps, orthomosaics (high resolution photomosaic), 2D siteplans, and other scientific data. The author’s methodology uses simple scale bars placed on site and a triangle created in 3D CAD software based on distances in between three control points. This methodology provide accurate results in a short-term (for instances, if a site is 30m x 30m in size and 20m deep, it will be 0.5mm possible error in 1m, or 1.5cm possible error in 30m, with the optimization, and it takes only 3 - 4 dives with one diver). Once the first model, or Mother Model, is created, following photogrammetric models from the campaign can take advantage of a local coordinate system of Mother Model. In other words, photogrammetric recording processes can be much faster, so that archaeologists are able to create series of 3D digital models during the same excavation campaign. Consequently, maritime archaeologists can obtain enough dataset to study a shipwreck site with layers of information and study stratigraphy of shipwrecks. References Bass, G. F. and Van Doorninck, F. H., 1971. A fourth-century shipwreck at Yassi Ada. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75(1): 27–37. �Bass, G. F. and Van Doorninck, F. H., 1982. Yassi Ada, Vol. 1: A Seventhcentury Byzantine Shipwreck. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. Burtch, R., 2008. History of photogrammetry. Lecture Notes on the History of Photogrammetry. Ferris State University, Big Rapids (https://spatial.curtin.edu.au/local/docs/HistoryOfPhotogrammetry.pdf, Last Updated 2008, Accessed 11/24/2015). Green, J. and Gainsford, M., 2003. Evaluation of underwater surveying techniques. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 32: 252-261. Green, J., Matthews, S. and Turanli, T., 2002. Underwater archaeological surveying using photomodeler, virtualmapper: different applications for different problems. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 31: 283-292. Holt, P., 2003. An assessment of quality in underwater archaeological surveys using tape measurements. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 31(2): 246-251. Konecny, G., 2003. Geoinformation Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry and Geographic Information Systems. Taylor & Francis, London. Van Doorninck, F. H., 1967. The Seventh-century Byzantine Ship at Yassi Ada; Some Contributions to the History of Naval Architecture. PhD Thesis, University of Pennsylvania. Van Damme, T., 2015. Computer Vison Photogrammetry for Underwater Archaeological Site Recording: A Critical Assessment. MA Thesis, University of Southern Denmark. Yamafune, K., Torres, R. and Castro, F., 2016. Multi-image photogrammetry to record and reconstruct underwater shipwreck site. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 17-3-2016 (online). . �Biography Kotaro Yamafune received his Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Hosei University in Tokyo in 2006. He entered the Nautical Archaeology Program in the Anthropology Department at Texas A&M University in September 2009 and received his Master of Arts degree in August 2012. He continued his studies in the Texas A&M University Nautical Archaeology Program and earned his doctorate in May 2016. His research interests include shipbuilding in Medieval Europe and the European Age of Discovery, and ship reconstruction. He also focuses on photogrammetric recording of submerged cultural heritage, including ship � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Methodology for Accurate and Quick Photogrammetric Recording of Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource In the past seven years, photogrammetry has become one of the main recording methods in maritime and underwater archaeology. The application of photogrammetry allows archaeologists to re-create underwater cultural heritage sites in 3D digital formats, and extract from these 3D digital models data and information required for subsequent scholarly research. The author has been using photogrammetry since 2014 and has successfully created nearly 40 underwater cultural heritage models on more than 10 archaeological projects. The projects have ranged in size, accessibility, and water clarity, introducing a number of variables to the photogrammetry of the artifacts. The variety of experiences gained on these projects have enabled the author to construct his own methodology and workflow for photogrammetric recording. In this paper, the author shares examples of his methodology and workflow for photogrammetric recording of various projects in different countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotaro Yamafune Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Kotaro Yamafune Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ca521fbf9871fd5ccea14958a5342eab.pdf 50a2da2b93919375039998fd8e24370c PDF Text Text Seamanship and Navigation: Seafarers on Board Daily Skills in Chinese Junk Xu Lu Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society xuluxm2013@yahoo.com Yu Long Fa Xiamen Old Fishing Port 13666084562@163.com Abstract Chinese sailing traditions changed a little through time; sailors inherited their onboard skills, expertise, and experience by orally imparting others with physical instruction. But these daily skills were rarely recorded or studied in the past. For seafarers, how to operate and maneuver a Chinese junk was their daily work; and apart from sparse historical documents such as Phing-Chou Kho Than (Yu, 1117), Shi Liu-Qiu Lu (Xiao and Xia, 1580) (Fig. 1), and preliminarily observations by G.R.G. Worcester, Joseph Needham, Thomas Hoppe, and others, seamanship and navigation were kept in the minds of surviving successions of living sailors. In 2004, the author had an opportunity to sail on a nearly 100 year old Jin Hua Xin as an apprentice sailor for her last voyage. Several months of onboard experiences provided a rare field investigation to approach the complex mechanism of crew, their organization and their daily work. This experience led the authors to raise a marine ethnographic field investigation project along Fujian coast. Experimental archaeology creates effective scenes for realistic performance of past systems. A small full-size replica LanTay II was built for a series of archaeological voyages; the data gathered from the traces of past sailing routes will verify and add some knowledge for understanding the real daily work of Chinese seafarers onboard. In this paper, the authors shall present combined researches on historical documents, past observations with lively oral materials achieved by marine ethnographic field investigation on traditional sailing ports along South Fujian coast; throughout this research, the authors approach the knowledge about seafarers onboard daily skills and try to present the research about the sailors methods to maneuver the junk and its navigation system by means of a combination of instinct, eyesight, memory, and skill. �Key words: Chinese junk, seafaring, ethnography Fig. 1: One of the Earlier Documents to Record the Compass Bearing Direction for Sailing Routes between Fu-Chow to Ryukyu in 1580. Introduction In 2004, the author had opportunity to sail on the three-masted Jin Hua Xin as an apprentice sailor for her last voyage, this long voyage from Dong Shan Bay of southern Fujian to Zhu-Hai of Canton took 9 days and covered 330 nautical miles. Jin Hua Xin was the last working traditional sailing junk in China coast; nearly 100 years old (Xu, 2010). Several months of onboard investigation voyage provided a rare field experience to approach the complex mechanism of crew, their organization, and their daily work; and this experience led the author to raise a subject of seafarers with a marine ethnographic field investigation project along the Fujian coast in 2001. The details of seafarers daily work on Chinese junks are little known by outsiders previously; yet the last successors of sailors and fishermen recollected their past stories piece by piece. Experimental archaeology creates an effective scene for realistic performance of past systems by sailing a full-scale reconstruction boat. A small full-size replica LanTay II is planning an archaeological voyage to cross the Taiwan Strait, the data gathered from the traces of past sailing routes will verify and add some knowledge for understanding the real daily work of Chinese seafarers onboard. Previous Researches �The studies on seamanship for operating and maneuvering Chinese junks have not yet been explored in detail. To improve productivity, safety and speed standards of the traditional water transport industry, a unique official field investigation and iconographies collected for Chinese cargo junks had been engaged in Fujian during 1958-1959. These works were restrictedly published in book in 1960，also a reference for sail design and use was attached in its appendices. This may be the only short description in Chinese for sailing practices. Sometime in the early 20th century, European scholars tried to understand the composition of Chinese junk. A brief description about the structure and working principle of yuloh has been included in G.R.G. Worcester’s marine ethnographic field investigation (1947). Joseph Needham (1971) also had a brief introduction about the action of wind on a Chinese junk under sail, and the principles of tacking and wearing. There are also a few references about the performance of Chinese sails under different angles of apparent wind in Thomas Hoppe’s English manuscript in 2004. One of the earlier European scholars who observed Chinese traditional navigation is G. R. G. Worcester (1947). He noticed some important details and technical logic that others had not found before; his description is a following: “In former days, lighted joss sticks suspended from the deck head were the only timepieces…the cheap alarm chock has greatly simplified navigation for the junk master. The junks carry no charts of any kind. The laodahs find their way by means of a skillful combination of sea instinct, keen eyesight, good memory, and an instinct for direction nearly as a homing pigeon…they stand in for the land, depending entirely upon their knowledge of its appearance and the depth and nature of the soundings to give them position, for to them the bottom of the sea has its hills and valleys like the land, and they acquire an intimate acquaintance with its contours and the type of bottom to be expected in each locality.” �Another European scholar, Joseph Needham, noted the joss sticks used by Chinese seafarers (1971): “…(besides sand-glass,) Burning incense in stick-like form is a practice which goes far back into China’s Middle Ages, and it would have been very easy to measure time approximately enough with the ‘joss-sticks’.” Needham (1971) also categorized the history of navigational methods into three periods: (a) primitive navigation (b) quantitative navigation (Measurement): +900 A.D. in East Asia (c) mathematical navigation: +1500 A.D. In 2008, an original map of the China Seas region was rediscovered in the Bodleian Library Special Collections in Oxford by Robert K. Batchelor (2014) and Timothy Brook (2013). The Selden Map is a detailed map of Southern China dated the mid-16th century; it appears that the old Xiamen port is the beginning of all the sea routes on the map, it also labeled the trade routes departing from Xiamen. A recent paper summarized the navigation and religion in traditional Chinese junk have listed several historical materials and demonstrated with two collections of sounding lead in Quan-Zhou (Lin, 2015). Historical Contexts A boat under sail is a very complex historical mechanism; the vessel consists and represents a naval architecture system, as the tools for different functions, as a space to reflect the weather, the waves and the currents, and as a society for the composition of crew and their daily life. In his encyclopaedic work, Heavenly Creations (chapter on boat, Tian- �Gong-Kai-Wu), Song Yingxing (1637) divided the Chinese vessels into sea-going, river and other craft; and then, he classified these for many types according to their different sailing environment. This classification may be applied even today because Chinese sailing traditions have changed little through time, and the last sailors and fishermen of wooden sailing junk still survive/alive. This paper focuses on Sha-Po-Wei, the main area of old Xiamen port until the first half of the 20th century, the ages when wooden sailing boats shuttle in the Taiwan Strait. Sha-Po-Wei, along with adjacent coast lines, was an ideal port for seafarers due to its location on the sea route connecting East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Taiwan (Fig. 2). The demand of marine transportation and ocean fishery brought seafarers from coastal regions of Quan-Zhou and lower Zhang-Zhou River. Seafarers of Sha-PoWei divided into two types: crews and fishermen. The crews mainly migrated from Hui-An county of Quan-Zhou, while fishermen moved from Zhang-Zhou river basin belong to Hai-Chen county. Fishermen of Sha-Po-Wei called themselves ‘sea beggars,’ and it is subdivided into several groups according different fishing method, namely types and lengths of fishing vessel. Those groups (between fishermen and local resident, fishermen and crews, even between different groups of Sha-Po-Wei fishermen) were rarely communicating each other. Furthermore, both fishermen and crews lived in their own enclosed social space to avoid troubles with others; many of them have not even walked several miles out to countryside in whole their life. �Fig. 2: A Map of South Fujian and Old Amoy Port Sha-Po-Wei. Organization To learn composition of crews is the first step to approach their daily life. In general, 15-20 tons deadweight trade vessel with two sails allocated 56 sailors, 30-35 tons also two sails would be 7-8 sailors, 55-65 tons with three sails has 12-13 sailors. Crews were temporary employed between by the ship owner; however, in addition to their lower wage, every sailor was allowed to carry a few private cargo up to 250 kilograms, and usually the ‘laodahs’ (equivalent to captain in Western) had doubled weight and doubled payment more than other crews. There are five chief positions in Chinese trade vessel; these were laodah, (and vice laodah, which is �equivalent to helmsman in the western world), mast head, sampan, foreboard, and supply chief (besides the ‘chu-hai’ who served as ship owner's representative also in charge of accounting and port to call for loading and unloading cargo). The crews were on duty during the day and in two shifts in the night; they changed shifts in midnight. Laodah and vice laodah keep working throughout the voyage until they cast the anchor. Chuhai did not participate in onboard works. For a local long-line fishing vessels crew size was much bigger than a corresponding-sized merchant ship. Lodah and vice laodah had to work day and night during the deep-sea fishing voyage; there were no chief positions for other sailors, hence there were no arranged shifts. After vessel dropped the long liner fishing, sampans were lowered one by one along the fishing route; 3-4 sailors on each sampan were taking back the hooks. This hard work usually lasted all day long. There is a small shrine at the aft area of the poop deck containing the effigy of the junk’s patron saints, Goddess of Mercy, Matsu, Guandi, etc. The laodah or vice laodah of trade vessel burned incense in stick-like ‘joss-stick’ one by one throughout the voyage to keep alight in the shrine where the compass laid also. For fishing junks, it was same but joss-stick only burned one in morning and one in evening, as well as some important occasions and critical times. Many local long liners have one ‘tong-ki’, a trance-state man while intercommunicated oracles onboard; he would give advice in case of an emergency. The tong-ki was a fisherman in normal times, and they did not receive extra payment. A living room/quarters was located at the aft area of the ship, or the lower area of the quarter-poop deck; laodah’s bunk on the back on the left, opposite side was for chu-hai. In Chinese junk, portside also named yuloh side while starboard called sail side. Ice butt and stove located in the sail �side, toilet and water bin were in the yuloh side. Sailors carried water in a bin contained 30 ‘dan’, or 1500 kilograms. Seamanship The bamboo strip sails had been adopted in Chinese junks since the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), and used up until the early 20th century. However, the last successors of seafarers along the Fujian coast, which the average age is 80 years old, mostly never saw the bamboo sails; some of them just heard them from their previous generation or two generations earlier in which these sails were being used. To operate a bamboo matting sail, it has to be rolled and unrolled; it is heavier than one used cloth sail. There is an idiom applied to both sail types, and that says ‘trim one's rubber to the wind’. The cloth lugsail was fasten on odd number of bamboo from luff to leech where could see the balance from the mast; each end of the batten on the leech was connected by the bight and through some euphroes lead the control sheets terminated in one main sheet to the stern of the upper deck. The sail was often very heavy, and it required the whole crew at the winch to set the sail. On Jin Hua Xin, it required approximately 12 minutes with six sailors to turn the winch. The vice laodah held the tiller and order the trimmer to control the main sheet, while the laodah served as a navigator and rarely handled the rudder. The leeward sailing, windward sailing, and wind abeam sailing were the main points of Chinese sailing junk under different angles of apparent wind. The latter was rarely recorded by previous researchers, both Song Yingxing (1637) and Needham (1971) seemed to be confused between the beam reach and windward sailing. The local seafarers call it ‘tripod sheet’ as the sheet system have fasted the main sail keep it at approximate 50 degree angle with the stern, which is the position in between the leeward sailing and windward sailing. The Old Xiamen �seafarers often used tripod sheet when they set sail to Tainan by the winter monsoon (northeast or north wind). The main sail of Fujian junk was hung on starboard side of the mast, thus the sailors on quarterdeck would see the bamboo battens while sailing with tripod sheet; they called it open sail (all the way on the road was port tack, the batten was force to left the mast). When the boat went back to Xiamen by using same monsoon, no matter sailing with close reach or beam reach ,it was starboard tack; this was call close sail (the batten was pushed to touch the mast) as the bamboo battens could not been seen at the position of laodah. Moreover, Chinese sailors often worked to windward tacking and jibing by turn the stern to wind; accident jibe was deemed to be dangerous especially under the strong wind. Onboard tools include axes, nails, knives and cloth tec., were used for emergency repairs. The author learnt and experienced to block the bottom loopholes in the towed voyage of Lan Tay II at February 2004 (Fig. 3). Fig. 3: To block the bottom loopholes of the LanTay II. �Navigation Just like people live in mountains naturally know and understand their surrounding landform, Chinese seafarers understood that the seabed had hills and valleys similar to the land with different sediment types; sailors used these sediments and topography of the seabed to acquire positions of the vessel on voyages. The last successors of Fujian seafarers did not use the needle sailing route manuscripts, but they relied on their trained eyesight and memories. Yet, some of them also learnt the manuscripts given by their previous generation; therefore, they can read and understand it. Phing-Chou Kho Than, written between 1111 and 1117 by Chu Yu, described navigation techniques as follow: “The ship’s pilots are acquainted with the configuration of the coasts, at night they steer by the stars, and in the day-time by the sun. In dark weather they look at the south-point needle (compass). They also use a line a hundred feet long with a hook at the end, which they let down to take samples of mud from the sea-bottom, by its smell they can determine their whereabouts.” The sounding lead was used to ascertain the depth of water, the head of lead has a hole filled with soap or grease to stick to a few seabed materials to identify if there was sand, mud, or stones. The weight of a sounding lead was between 3-5 kilograms. The word ‘fathom’ and ‘water’ was used by old Xiamen port seafarers to mean a two-arm span, which is approximately 1.6 meters. Usage of the sounding lead was also described by Xiao LiuQiu Man Zhi written in 1755. When thrown into the sounding lead from window of yuloh or shipboard, sailors should remain the boat stationary. Every five waters there was a red sign in the rope. �The laodah or vice laodah burned a joss-stick and kept it alight in the shrine after the ship set sail, and each incense ran about one hour; this also helped them to acquire the positions in the sailing route. Chinese seafarers almost never used the ‘distance’ to describe the sea route, but instead of ‘how long’ it took. In the middle of the Selden Map, there is an illustration of a Chinese mariner’s compass at the top, this may be the earliest sample can be seen today (Fig. 4). The compass was divided into 24 points represented by the twelve Chinese, earthly branches and the twelve heavenly stems. The most common compass was consisted of a round wood box, where an arrow shaped needle was balanced inside. The oldest style compass was dry-pivoted, later ones were filled with water; yet both were called ‘drygen’ by local seafarers. After the compass was improved with 12 Chinese characters, it came to 360 degrees; this compass was called ‘luo-gen’. The seafarers were taught to use the compass and to calculate the tides and winds since they were young. Every seagoing junk had two dry-gens, at least, should one needle lose its magnetic field. The Vice laodah kept one on his side, while the loadah kept another one. In the night, it was illuminated by the laodah’s opium pipe. Even sampans from long line fishing junks had their own small dry-gens. Fig. 4 (right): The Chinese Mariner’s Compass on Selden Map. �Besides compass and sounding lead, Sha-Po-Wei fishermen used primitive astronomical guidance for them to orient themselves. They could read directions by simply by 4 stars during the night. Venus for east, Needle End Star for south, West Star for west and North Star for north. Sailing Routes There are a least eleven historical documents about compasses and its bearing directions for sailing routes in Taiwan Strait: these are listed as follows: 1. Si yi Guang Ji (四夷广记), written between 1592 and 1598 by Shen Mao Shang. 2. Shun Feng Hsiang Sung (顺风相送 Fair Winds for Escort), written in about 1593. 3. Tung His Yang Khao (东西洋考 Studies on the Oceans East and West) ,written in 1617 by Chuang Hsich. 4. Chih Nan Cheng Fa (指南正法 General Compass Bearing Sailing Directions), written before 1669. 5. Hai Kuo Wen Chien Lu (海国闻见录)，written in 1730 by Chen Lun Jiong 6. Peng hu Ji Lue (澎湖纪略)，written during the reign of Emperor Qianlong in Qing Dynasty by Hu Jian Wei. 7. Xiao Liu Qiu Man Zhi (小琉球漫志)，written in 1755 by Zhu Shi Jia. 8. Wai Hai Ji Yao (外海纪要), written in early 19th century by Li Zen Jie. 9. Xia-Men Zhi (厦门志，Xiamen Chronicle), written in 1839 by Zhou Kai. 10. Xia-Men-Gang ji shi (厦门港纪事), written in 1843 by Dou Zheng Biao. 11. Hai Jiang Yao Lue Bi Jiu (海疆要略必究), written in 1856 by Li Yan Yu. �When a ship set sail to Tainan from Xiamen, nearly all the above documents showed similar descriptions for navigation; departing from Nan Tai Wu of Xiamen at direction between ‘chen’ and ‘Xun’ (amount to 127.5°)，it takes seven ‘gen’ to Peng-Hu hill, then sail at direction of ‘xun’ (about 135°)，and it takes another five ‘gen’ to Luerhmen of Tainan. Many sailors of old Xiamen port served on merchant junks between south Fujian and Taiwan; they sailed to Tai-Nan in north wind season, went to Wu-Qi of Taichung, Lu-Kang of Chang-Hua, Dong-Shi and Bu-Dai of Chia-Yi, kee-Lung during south wind season. Mostly, they set sail from the old Xiamen port; it took less than one tide to arrive Bay Liao-Luo of Quemoy. After waiting for good wind, they set sail again and used the tripod sheet sailing to Ma-Kung of Peng-Hu for approximately twenty hours. They then waited for suitable winds and tides to Luerhmen; it would take another 10 hours. They would try to sail closer to the east direction when sailed across Taiwan Strait. It would take much less time when ones sailed from Tainan to Xiamen. Archaeological Experiment of LanTay II On 21st May 2017 at 10 am, LanTay II set sail from port of Liao-Luo of Quemoy planning to trace the historical sailing route by heading 127.5° to Peng-Hu (Fig. 5). The weather forecast for the day were Wind Northeast Beaufort force 3, Swell 1.3 meters, but the author onboard found that the wind had veered to east and increasingly, while the swell is more angular than the wind after the ship entered Taiwan Strait. The course of the ship had to turn in direction of 170°-180° to steer quartering sea. The LanTay II was under control until 16 pm, when the skipper made the decision to abandon the boat at the position 24.1743°N, 118.5535°E, while the situation was Wind East Beaufort force 6-7, Swell 3 meters and 6-7 meters �instantaneous. The 6 years of preparatory archaeological voyage lasted 6 hours, all the crew numbers transferred to companion ship. Fig. 5: The archaeological voyage of LanTay II. As postmortem reports of the experiment, Sha-Po-Wei indigenous fishermen had compiled the warning signals as below: a. The day of 21st May was the 26th day of the fourth month in Chinese lunar calendar, one of the brightest days of the Great White Planet in the whole year; and it is the day for brewing disaster the whole year ahead in Taiwan Strait. It means that this is a day with storm surge and a taboo day for sailing. b. The included angle of wind and wave increasing with the height of the sun which reached the maximum after 12 am, and they stacked up into higher swell. The best set sailing time to cross Taiwan Strait was 4 am. �c. The position where the ship was abandoned is right between seabed valley and hills based on the past records; that was where the swell on the sea surface become rougher (Fig. 6). Fig. 6: The Sha-Po-Wei indigenous fisherman motioned the topography of the seabed of the Taiwan Strait they recorded half a century ago. Discussion The seamanship and navigation of the Chinese Junk requires a plethora of nautical knowledge and a variety of onboard skills. All knowledge regarding Junk ships (including sail and rudder, sounding lead, mariner’s compass, joss-stick, compass bearing recorded for sailing route, wind and tide, etc.) formed a closely connected knot of complementary techniques. The information gathered during the marine ethnographic field investigations at old Xiamen port indicated that a series of traditional onboard skills displayed by the last successors of sailors and fishermen may be closely corresponding to skills and techniques described in the historical documents that range from Song Dynasty to Qing Dynasty. Nonetheless, details of the geographic parameters of sailing routes are still obscure, such as accurate depths and seabed materials, and the sailing directions under the effect on winds and tides. An old local �seafarers proverb says, ‘The stationary compass bearing recorded but flexible brains’, and also says ‘Live performances to speak clearly’, thus experimental archaeological methodologies, or sailing a real ship, shall be used to study their historical context to reconstruct navigational practices and methodologies for sailing in China Seas. The better way forward with archaeological voyages is involving the older seamen and indigenous fishermen into the sailing investigations. The authors believe that expected discoveries of this research-investigation will bring new evidence that significantly extends our knowledge of earlier onboard lives of Chinese Junk ships. Oral Sources 1. Capt. Zhuang XingJie, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 27th March 2012. 2. Capt. Zhuang XingJie, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 30th March 2012. 3. Huang ChaoQi, Ruan PengShi, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 11th April 2012. 4. Capt. Zhuang XingJie, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 13th April 2012. 5. Huang ChaoQi, Yu LongFa, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 21st April 2012. 6. Huang Chao Qi, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 17th June 2014. 7. Ruan YaYing, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 10th November 2014. 8. Ruan YaYing, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 11th April 2015. 9. Zen JinTang, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 12th April 2015. 10. Ruan YaYing, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 12th December 2015. 11. Zen JinTang, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 18th December 2015. 12. Ruan QueTou, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 27th December 2015. 13. Ruan ShiLu, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 30th December 2015. 14. Ruan ShiLu, Ruan QueTou, Sha Po Wei of Xiamen, 8th January 2016. �15. Capt. Zhang TongLong, Ruan QingTing, and Yu LongFa, Si Ming Nan Road of Xiamen, 27th May 2017. References Anonymous, 1653. Selden Map of Southern China and Southeast Asia (MS Selden Supro 105). Bodleian Library (University of Oxford), Oxford. Anonymous, 1593. Fair Winds for Escort / Shun Feng Hsiang Sung (MS Selden Supro 145). Bodleian Library (University of Oxford), Oxford. Anonymous, ca. 1669. Chih Nan Cheng Fa / General Compass Bearing Sailing Directions (MS Selden Supro 578). Bodleian Library (University of Oxford), Oxford. Batchelor, R. K., 2014. The Selden Map and the Making of a Global City, 1549–1689. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Brook, T., 2013. Mr. Selden's Map of China: Decoding the Secrets of a Vanished Cartographer. Bloomsbury Press, New York. Chen, Lun Jiong, 1730. Hai Kuo Wen Chien Lu, Repn. in 1970. Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei. Chu, Yu, 1111-1117. Phing-Chou Kho Than, Repn in 2006. Elephant Press, Zhengzhou. Chuang, Hsich, 1617. Tung His Yang Khao (Studies on the Oceans East and West), Rpen in 1970. Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei. Dou, Zheng-Biao, 1843. Xia-Men-Gang ji shi. In Six Xiamen Territoria Seas Literatures Annotation of Xiamen, Repn. in 2013, Xiamen University Press, Xiamen. Hoppe, T., 2004-2008. Mainland China Revival of the Junk. Unpublished Manuscript. Hu, JianWei, ca. 1736. Peng hu Ji Lue, Repn. in 1970. Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei. Li, YanYu, 1856. Hai Jiang Yao Lue Bi Jiu. In Six Xiamen Territoria Seas Literatures Annotation of Xiamen, Repn. in 2013, Xiamen University Press, Xiamen. �Li, ZenJie, ca.1800. Wai Hai Ji Yao. In Six Xiamen Territoria Seas Literatures Annotation of Xiamen, Repn. in 2013, Xiamen University Press, Xiamen. Lin, Han, 2015. Navigation and religion in traditional Chinese ship. Symposium of Navigation and Religion of the Traditional Ships in East Asia, Busan. Needham, J.,1971. Science and Civilisation in China, Nautical Research, Vol. IV: Physics and Physical, Part III: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Sailing Cargo Junks Office of Department of Transportation of Fujian (Ed.), 1960. Fu jian sheng Mu Fan Chuan tu ji (Collection of Cargo Junks Drawings for Fujian Province). Department of Transportation of Fujian, Fuzhou. Shen, MaoShang, 1592-1598. Si yi Guang Ji, Repn. in 1947. China Central Library, Nanking. Song, YingXing, 1637. Heavenly Creations (Tian-Gong-Kai-Wu) in Sequel to Si-Ku-Quan-Shu, Zi Radical, Repn. in 2002. Shanghai Ancient Books Press, Shanghai. Worcester, G. R. G., 1947. The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze: A Study in Chinese Nautical Research, Vol. 1: Introduction and Craft of the Estuary and Shanghai Area. Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, Shanghai. Xiao, ChongYe and Xie Jie, 1580. Shi Ryukyu Lu (Diplomatic Mission to Ryukyu), Repn. in 1997. Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei. Xu, Lu, 2010. A Ship Archaeological Investigation on Canton Style Sailing Junks: the Jun Hua Xing Case. In China Maritime Museum (Ed.), The Position and Mission of China’s Maritime Culture, Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, Shanghai: 236-252. Zhou, Kai, 1839. Xia-Men Zhi (Xaimen Chronicle), Repn. in 1996. Lu Jiang Press, Xiamen. Zhu, ShiJie, 1755. Xiao Liu Qiu Man Zhi, Repn. in 1970. Economic Academy of Taiwan Business Bank in 1970, Taipei. �Biographies Xu Lu (Chinese: 许路) is Founding Director and Chief Maritime Archaeologist of NVOCC Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society (CSJES). He is a commissioner of China Maritime History Studies Association and Fellow of The explorers Club. He also works as a co-research fellow for NSC-ANR project Maritime knowledge for China Seas hosted by École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) and Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica (IHP) in 2014-2018 duration. His English publication include The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sea Going Sailing Junks: An Overview (Delta Book World, 2014). Yu LongFa (Chinese: 余龙发) is a local fisherman at Xiamen old fishing port, born in 1952 at ShaPoWei. He works as a professional fisherman since the age of 12, being a skillful master of seamanship and navigation in east and South China Sea during past 50 years. He assisted Mr. Xu Lu with the recording and decoding on board skills in Chinese Sailing Junk. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Seamanship and Navigation: Seafarers on Board Daily Skills in Chinese Junk Description An account of the resource Chinese sailing traditions changed a little through time; sailors inherited their onboard skills, expertise, and experience by orally imparting others with physical instruction. But these daily skills were rarely recorded or studied in the past. For seafarers, how to operate and maneuver a Chinese junk was their daily work; and apart from sparse historical documents such as Phing-Chou Kho Than (Yu, 1117), Shi Liu-Qiu Lu (Xiao and Xia, 1580) (Fig. 1), and preliminarily observations by G.R.G. Worcester, Joseph Needham, Thomas Hoppe, and others, seamanship and navigation were kept in the minds of surviving successions of living sailors. In 2004, the author had an opportunity to sail on a nearly 100 year old Jin Hua Xin as an apprentice sailor for her last voyage. Several months of onboard experiences provided a rare field investigation to approach the complex mechanism of crew, their organization and their daily work. This experience led the authors to raise a marine ethnographic field investigation project along Fujian coast. Experimental archaeology creates effective scenes for realistic performance of past systems. A small full-size replica LanTay II was built for a series of archaeological voyages; the data gathered from the traces of past sailing routes will verify and add some knowledge for understanding the real daily work of Chinese seafarers onboard. In this paper, the authors shall present combined researches on historical documents, past observations with lively oral materials achieved by marine ethnographic field investigation on traditional sailing ports along South Fujian coast; throughout this research, the authors approach the knowledge about seafarers onboard daily skills and try to present the research about the sailors methods to maneuver the junk and its navigation system by means of a combination of instinct, eyesight, memory, and skill. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu Yu Long Fa Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Xu Lu Yu Long Fa Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b529e1801d2ecbc7f3598dd2fa22c6af.pdf f49e7ebd2cd59e79eab61d7476e47351 PDF Text Text Uraga Port between Manila and Acapulco Kahoru Suzuki Japan Society for Nautical Research s-k20@nifty.com Abstract Uraga Port at the southern end of the Miura Peninsula, located at the entrance of Tokyo Bay, is formed as a deep cove from the Pacific Ocean; it is less susceptible to weather conditions and is suitable for the natural environment. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Japan opened three international trade ports. Holland and England is Hirado, Portugal is Nagasaki, Spain is Uraga. Ieyasu Tokugawa begins dispatching shipbuilding engineers and miners from Spain and as a result of negotiating with the Philippine Governor General, the Spaniards of Manila visited Uraga Port every year since 1604 and the Franciscan Monastery in the town was built. Ieyasu Tokugawa also sent British William Adams to Manila and negotiated to continue dealing with Spain However, contrary to the intention of Ieyasu Tokugawa, Spain did not convey shipbuilding technology and mining technology. In 1611, Mexican envoy Sebastián Vizcaíno came to Uraga, but only the east coast of Japan was investigated. At the beginning of the Edo period Christianity was forbidden in 1613. Just before the death of Ieyasu Tokugawa, Diego de Santa Catalina came to Uraga, Ieyasu Tokugawa questioned Spain's attitude, banished him to Spain, and the transaction with Spain was completely completed. Japan took an isolation policy and only Uraga Port quietly disappeared as a trade port. Key words: Galleon, port, Manila, Acapulco Introduction When Ieyasu Tokugawa appeared on the political front stage, Japan was isolated from East Asian countries being a disorderly situation both economically and externally. For him, therefore, it was natural trend to �revive the economic infrastructure and turn it into a way to open the country. First of all, Ieyasu Tokugawa started the normalization of diplomacy in Spain, which had been severed by the San Felipe incident. In December 1598, Ieyasu Tokugawa contacted Franciscan missionaries and negotiated to invite a Spanish ship in Manila to Uraga. He sent a letter to the Spanish Governor of the Philippines to dispatch construction engineers of Galleon ship and innovative smelting engineers of Mexico. As a result, the Franciscan monastery was built in Uraga. Since 1604 a Spanish ship from Manila to Acapulco had entered to Uraga every year, which was opened as an international trade port. It is worth noting that William Adams from England was closely involved in this Uraga diplomacy. Today, a number of studies on William Adams conducted by Japanese, Dutch, or British researchers, but on him as a diplomatic advisor of Ieyasu Tokugawa for Spain is not considered at all. Despite the fact that politicians did not usually hire foreigners in Japanese history, reasons why only William Adams was hired were not discussed among scholars. Although Nagasaki and Hirado trades have been investigated a lot, no survey on Uraga trade has been done. Why did Ieyasu Tokugawa abandon the deportation order of missionaries by Hideyoshi Toyotomi and accept Catholicism? Request Spanish Miners and Shipbuilding Technicians �Ieyasu’s negotiations with Spain are not limited to trade. He was trying to invite shipbuilders for western styled Galleon ships and miners. At that time Japan was using troublesome method, called haihuki method, for silver mining. Because of its immaturity, this method led lots of economical loss. On the other hand, Spain used a revolutionary amalgam method in Mexico and Peru that used ‘lead’. This technology was discovered in Mexico in 1557 and was adopted in 1571, whereby Mexico gained a lot of silver. For Ieyasu’s future perspectives on progress of economic policy, introduction of this technology to domestic silver mining had an important meaning. In addition, Japan did not have any construction technologies for large western typed sailing vessels to withstand trans-Pacific voyage, Ieyasu Tokugawa thought that its technological introduction from Spain was important as well. To accomplish his two plans, in December 1598 Ieyasu Tokugawa summoned a Franciscan missionary Jerónimo de Jesús who had experiences of trade-negotiations in Japan since the era of Hideyoshi Toyotomi. Ieyasu Tokugawa proposed for Spain to use Uraga as a trading post and build big ships there. In order to avoid drifting alike the San Felipe issue, Jerónimo de Jesús considered that using another ports in the Far East between Manila and Acapulco passage was useful. To do so, he thought, it was essential to survey the east coast of Japan for safe voyage �around the Far East. Yet, Jerónimo de Jesús explained that he had to request these plans to the Spanish Governor of the Philippines. However, the Spanish side did not intend to accept Ieyasu's request at all. Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia mentioned this issue in his An Account of Japan, 1609 that there were abundant of silver veins in Japan; even though they did not have a good smelting technology, production is surprisingly vast. He also remarked that if Japan had had foreign miners and mercury for production of silvers, wealth of Japan might have become a threat for Spain. As for shipbuilding technologies, Antonio de Morga, an aide of the Spanish Governor of the Philippines remarked about this issue in his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, he said that giving technology of shipbuilding to Japan was not a wise decision. Manila did not receive any attacks from Japan before that time because only because Japan did not have any technologies to build large sailing vessels. If Japan became to possess such technologies, Japan would come to Manila by ship to attack the Spanish territories. If those trading posts were attacked by Japanese troops, 500 Spaniards in a castle have no power to fight back. Japanese Laws Regarding Shipwrecks and Extinction of Yawata Ships In Japan it was believed that shipwrecks were caused by Gods of the sea since the ancient times, and cargos and trade goods of the wrecked ships �were legally confiscated by the owner of the coastal land. To ease the anger of the sea gods, thereafter, new temples or shrines were built using sales-profits of such goods from the wrecks. No captain of the ship had any rights to repair the ships or to retrieve properties and cargos from the wrecks. The substantial loss of the San Felipe confiscated by Hideyoshi Toyotomi exceeded 1 million pesos. Therefore, the Spaniards from Manila to Acapulco had to avoid getting stranded in Japan. Ieyasu Tokugawa was concerned that this Japanese custom regarding shipwrecks was a biggest obstacle against the negotiations with Spain. In 1602, Ieyasu Tokugawa noted to the Spanish Governor of the Philippines that ‘in the future we would not confiscate any cargos and trading goods of drifting ships from your country, and Japan should also provide some foods and places to repairs Spanish ships’. The similar political statements were written in the trade patent form with the Netherlands and with England later. In a letter of July 1599, the Spanish Governor of the Philippines requested three issues to Ieyasu Tokugawa, viz. control and punishment of the Yawata ships (Japanese pirates) in the Philippine Sea, prohibiting Japanese from visiting Manila without permission, and not dispatching more than three vessels each year (Ikoku Nikki). Spanish asked for a proof or an insurance of a public trade to Japanese side, and requested as many permission documents (Watanai Seal Imprint) for trading with Ieyasu Tokugawa. According to a study by a Japanese scholar, Ieyasu �Tokugawa enacted an order that any ships having neither seal nor permission document should not allowed to go to the Philippines. This new regulation or red seal system was executed from 1600; the origin of red seal trade system was born from the Uraga diplomacy by Ieyasu Tokugawa. Two Spanish Vessels Drifted into Kanto There were two records of drift incidents of Spanish ships from Manila to Kanto has. The first one is commander Don Juan Esquerra drifted to Otaki Kazusa in the fall of 1601. At this time, Ieyasu Tokugawa provided a sailing ship built by William Adams in Japan and provisions. He successfully returned to Luzon in 1604 (Ikoku Nikki). After that, an ambassador visited to Uraga in May 1606 to display their appreciation for Ieyasu’s treatment on commander Don Juan Esquerra. This visiting was recorded as "Sagami-kun to Miura Odori Hanedai" in 1606. The second wreck occurred in September 1609. The Spanish Governor of the Philippines Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia or Don Rodrigo wrecked at Kanto Iwawada on his return trip to Acapulco. This time, Ieyasu Tokugawa sent William Adams to Iwawada. In An Account of Japan, 1609, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia mentioned ‘Ieyasu’s favorite British officer William Adams brought a passage-permission “salvo conducto” and a red seal “chapa”’. At this opportunity, Ieyasu Tokugawa tried re-negotiating with Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia, regarding the dispatch of miners. The agreements of this negotiation between them were listed below: �1. Providing provisions and foods for Spaniards. 2. Repair for ships shall be provided by Japanese shipbuilders with normal wages. 3. Ambassadors shall be treated respectively in Japan, and accommodations are provided to them. 4. Between 100 and 200 Spanish miners shall be dispatched to Japan. When a vein was discovered by Spanish, half of the smelted silver will be divided among miners, and the remaining half shall be divided into Ieyasu Tokugawa and King Felipe. 5. Priests have to be allowed to stay in Japan for the Spanish miners, and all jurisdictions for them were controlled by Spanish side. 6. When Spanish were attacked by Japanese, the Japanese king shall punish the offenders. 7. Exorcise Dutch from Japan. 8. Permit Spanish to survey on east coast of Japan. The reason why ‘shipbuilders and Galleons’ was not a part of this agreement was that Ieyasu Tokugawa already owned sailing vessels which were built by William Adams and their construction techniques. To Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia, Ieyasu Tokugawa gave a 120 ton ship which was designed and built by William Adams for his return trip. This ship was named San Buena Ventura and, in August 1610, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia left Uraga port for Acapulco. In the maritime history of Japan, the first ship crossed the Pacific Ocean was this vessel built by William Adams. William Adams' Negotiations with Manila Since 1604, Uraga Minato in the Kanto area had been used as a trading post by Spanish mercantile ships every year. On the other hand, Portugal �tried to prevent Manila from its trading with China and Japan. According to Lorenzo Pérez’s Apostolado y martirio del Beato Luis Sotelo en el Japón, following this notion, in May 1606 the Spanish Roundtable Conference was held at the Kingdom of Spain, and the king ordered the Spanish Governor of the Philippines to stop Manila from its trade with Japan. To mitigate and solve this problem, Spanish captain Francisco Moreno Donoso together with a missionary Beato Luis Sotelo visited Ieyasu Tokugawato in order to seek a solution. Beato Luis Sotelo suggested Ieyasu Tokugawa to send William Adams to Manila as a negotiator with Spain. As a result, William Adams visited the Spanish Governor of the Philippines Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia on 15th June 1608 at Manila. This was thirteen years before the beginning of Japan’s commerce with England, i.e. Adams' home country. This was also one year before Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia drifted to Kanto Iwawada on his return voyage to Acapulco in 1609. Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia understood the potential of profits that the Philippines gained from trade and relationships with Japan. On 9th July 1608, he released all Japanese prisoners in order to finish, or get rid of, issues related to Yawata ships (Japanese pirates) which had been pending. Then, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia wrote a letter to Ieyasu Tokugawa on the same day. This letter in Ikoku Nikki, which was translated by one of Ieyasu’s personal scholars, is as follows: �捧 前将軍家康尊公書云 本国伊須波二屋之帝王 当国呂宋為守護拙夫被仰付 今度致渡海 候。然者、前々於守護人 御懇意之段令承知候。到我等、無御異 議候様可恭候 縦雖隔雲山万里候。心中者非其儀候。彌々可申談 候。次又拙夫、此国参着砌 当所数年逗留之日本人徒者共候而 所之騒ニ罷成候之間 当年者壹人も不相残帰国之儀申付候。雖然 毎年渡海之商客 何も無疎意人等候之間 致馳走候。向後別儀有 ・ ・ ・・ 間敷候。如例年 今年も黒船差渡候。則到関東可乗入之旨 安子 申付候。併海路不任雅意候へは 日域中者、皆以御国之儀候之間 何所へ成共 風次第可入津之由申付候 此加飛丹同船中者共 御 馳走奉仰候。兼又貴国居住之ふらて之儀 如前々被加御哀燐候様 是又奉仰候。少進物以目録申上候。奉表寸志而已。恐惶敬白。 慶長拾三年五月廿七日 鈍、ろちりこで 朱印 びへいろ 判也 謹上 日本国御主、大御所様 (Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia, who arrived in Manila was the Governor of the King of the Spanish Kingdom. In order to strengthen the bond for long-lasting relationship with your country (Japan), Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia released all the Japanese prisoners who had been imprisoned in Manila for several years. Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia believed that two nations shall have good relationship and conflicts in �such will not reoccur. This year, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia will send one ship, and he will give an order the ship to enter Kanto, and Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia has already mentioned so to ‘Ange’ and requested provisions and other hospitality for its captain.) The author believes that, together with one captain and one navigator of the ship, William Adams was onboard this ship to Japan in 1608. A person, who was described as ‘Ange’ in the letter, was also known as Miura Anno. Indeed, his person was William Adams. His presence onboard was also described in Lorenzo Pérez’s letter, saying that he ordered William Adams to enter the Kanto area. The Minister of State of Mexico for Japanese and Chinese affairs, C. A. Lera also mentioned and described William Adams as ‘Anjin’. In the book of Ikoku Nikki, additionally, William Adams was written and named as ‘Anza’, ‘Anji’, ‘Ann’, or ‘Anzin’, and in Japanese Travel Book written by John Saris, William Adams was named ‘Ange’. William Adams' trip to Manila, indeed, solved the problems related to Yawata ships (Japanese pirates) that had been causing problems in Philippine waters, and he managed to resume the Uraga trade. In the same year, to avoid unnecessary conflicts, an ordinance was enacted in Uraga that was to forbid Uraga residency to do any violence activities against Spanish people. According to Apostolado y martirio del Beato Luis Sotelo en el Japón, written by C. A. Lera, this ordinance was created based on William Adams’s advice. In Uraga, a Franciscan monastery was constructed in the same year as well which was also based on advice of �William Adams. These generous treatments toward Spanish people in Uraga were not because Ieyasu Tokugawa mitigated his attitude against Christianity but because rather Ieyasu Tokugawa needed to withhold his negative opinions toward Christianity in order to make his business with Spain more successful. Importance of William Adams Why Ieyasu Tokugawa did heavily trust William Adams as a diplomatic adviser? In the history of Japan, his case was extremely exceptional because there were no other cases, except for William Adams. Japanese emperors, shoguns, or important authorities have never used foreigners as their important consultants before. Presumably, indeed, this happened because of the Uraga diplomatic and trading policy by Ieyasu Tokugawa. 1. When William Adams visited Ieyasu Tokugawa first time in April 1600, he asked Ieyasu Tokugawa to give him permission to start business in Japan like other Portuguese or Chinese merchants, but Ieyasu Tokugawa did not give him any permissions, which William Adams recorded in his journal. If Ieyasu’s interest had been to use William Adams for trade purposes with England or the Netherlands, he might not have had been allowed by Ieyasu Tokugawa to trade with Spain. Ieyasu Tokugawa would have asked William Adams on the early stage to look for Dutch or British trading partners as soon as possible. However, the trade with the Netherlands established later in August 1609, nine years after Adams came to Japan and that one with England was established in October �1613, thirteen years after his arrival. In addition, trading agreements were established with the Netherlands and England because these countries needed Japan for their international competitions. Their positive attitudes toward trades with Japan were so much different from the passive or rather negative attitude of Spanish. Ieyasu Tokugawa himself was the person who eagerly invited Spain to Uraga to establish a good economic relationship with Manila or Acapulco. 2. Indeed, Ieyasu Tokugawa never invited any mercantile vessels form the Netherlands and England to enter Uraga. Both nations were only permitted to build commercial halls in Hirado. If Ieyasu Tokugawa wished, Ieyasu he could easily have invited or ordered mercantile vessels from the Netherlands and England to establish trading posts in Unaga, which is very close to Edo, in order to make Kanto as an international economic center. However, only Spain was frequently asked and invited to use Uraga by Ieyasu Tokugawa. 3. Another interesting fact was that Ieyasu Tokugawa gave William Adams a house at Edo, as well as at the village of Hemi where close to Uraga. Ieyase Tokugawa gave even a fief near Uraga to William Adams, too. These facts clearly indicate that William Adams was expected to work as an Ieyasu’s diplomatic advisor for Spanish issues, not for a simple trading advisor with England and the Netherlands. This is obvious because another Dutch diplomatic advisor Jan Joosten only received a house at Edo from Ieyasu Tokugawa. �4. On 15th August 1615 when the ambassador Diego de Santa Catalina, who was sent by the Spanish Governor Mexico, arrived in Uraga on Masamune’s ship, San Juan Bautista, Ieyasu Tokugawa summoned William Adams from Hirado to Uraga. This event also indicated that William Adams was especially expected to work on diplomatic negotiations, in particular, with Spain. It is clear from the above that William Adams was a heavily specialized personal for Ieyasu’s Spain diplomacy. Relationship between Masamune’s European Ship and Sebastián Vizcaíno. In June 1611, to thanks to hospitalities that Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia received from Ieyasu Tokugawa during the wreck incidents on his way returning to Acapulco, Sebastián Vizcaíno, the ambassador of the Spanish Governor of Mexico, entered Uraga. Another mission of his was to survey the east coast of Japan and to discover a legendary island where produced fruitful amounts of gold and silver believed to exist near Japan, and to make this legendary place as Spanish new trading port in East Asia. Not surprisingly, Sebastián Vizcaíno did not manage to find a fictitious gold and silver island, repeatedly encountered storms, and his ship was destroyed eventually and returned to Uraga for repair on 7th November 1612. After Sebastián Vizcaíno returned to Uraga, he asked Ieyasu Tokugawa to lend his help for construction of a new sailing vessel to go home. However, Ieyasu Tokugawa received from him only some �nautical charts and maps of east coast of Japan, not any silver mining engineers. Then, Ieyasu Tokugawa began to realize that his attempt to invite Spanish miners to Japan to improve Japan’s domestic mining system would not be materialized. Instead, Sebastián Vizcaíno asked Masamune Date, a local lord of Oshu, for help. When he visited the east coast of Japan, such as coasts of Oshu, for surveying, he met Masamune Date who said to him that Masmune Date loved to invite mercantle vessels from Mexico. After that, Sebastián Vizcaíno offered a shipbuilding master to Masamune Date and, thanks to this goodwill, Masamune Date later dispatched his embassy to Europe. Accordingly, Ieyasu’s attempt to invite Spanish miners to Japan fell apart without any successes. It was 1st February 1614 that Ieyasu’s new executive order to completely ban against Christian propagations throughout the country was enacted. Thus, his plan to transform Uraga into an international trade port was perished and ended. Conclusion Leyasu 's Uraga diplomacy was exclusively focused on relationship with Spain. Moreover, the port that Ieyasu Tokugawa used to invite Spanish mercantile vessels was always Uraga port. Other ports that Ieyasu Tokugawa used to invite other European nations such as England, the Netherlands, and Portugal were not Uraga but Hirado or Nagasaki. Ieyasu’s true intention was to import and learn new profitable techniques of mining developed in Mexico. For Ieyasu Tokugawa, therefore, William �Adams was a very important diplomatic consultant to negotiate with Spain. To build a friendly relationship with Spain, Ieyasu Tokugawa answered to requests by the Spanish Governor of the Philippines to give permissions with red seals to the limited numbers of Japanese mercantile ships. In other words, the original concept of Ieyasu's red seal trade system was born from his Uraga diplomacy. From the beginning, Spanish did not have any intentions to send their silver miners to Japan. Ieyasu’s mistake was that he could not disclose their intentions. Failure of his Uraga diplomacy resulted in the complete ban on Christianity in Japan. Nearly 300,000 Japanese who believed in teachings of the Society of Jesuit and Franciscan were killed in the end. Consequently, Japan or Tokugawa-Shogunate decided to close the doors to any foreign countries, except for the Netherlands and for China. It could be said that Ieyasu’s Uraga diplomacy with Spain also triggered the 250 years of Japan’s national isolation. References Suzuki, K., 1994. Uraga port opening and intention of Tokugawa Ieyasu. Kanagawa Chiikishi Kenkyu, Vol. 12:1-17. . Suzuki, K., 2010. Diplomatic Relation between Span and Japan by Ieyasu Tokugawa. Shin Jimbutsuourai Sha, Tokyo. Suzuki, K., 2014. Spain diplomacy and Uraga minato. Kanagawa, Vol. 52: 1-20. Regional �Biography Kahoru Suzuki, born in 1946 at the Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, is a specialized national public servant in the Japanese government, who was decorated with the Order of the Sacred Treasure, Silver Rays in 2016. She is a member of the Japan Society for Nautical Research and the Society of Japanese Historical Research. In 1993 she received her BA in Japanese History from Kokugakuin University. Her books include The Sagami Miura Clan and their History (Shin Jimbutsuourai Sha, 2007), Diplomatic Relation between Span and Japan by Ieyasu Tokugawa (Shin Jimbutsuourai Sha, 2010), or The Mukai Navy and its Surroundings (Shincho, 2014). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Uraga Port between Manila and Acapulco Description An account of the resource Uraga Port at the southern end of the Miura Peninsula, located at the entrance of Tokyo Bay, is formed as a deep cove from the Pacific Ocean; it is less susceptible to weather conditions and is suitable for the natural environment. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Japan opened three international trade ports. Holland and England is Hirado, Portugal is Nagasaki, Spain is Uraga. Ieyasu Tokugawa begins dispatching shipbuilding engineers and miners from Spain and as a result of negotiating with the Philippine Governor General, the Spaniards of Manila visited Uraga Port every year since 1604 and the Franciscan Monastery in the town was built. Ieyasu Tokugawa also sent British William Adams to Manila and negotiated to continue dealing with Spain However, contrary to the intention of Ieyasu Tokugawa, Spain did not convey shipbuilding technology and mining technology. In 1611, Mexican envoy Sebastián Vizcaíno came to Uraga, but only the east coast of Japan was investigated. At the beginning of the Edo period Christianity was forbidden in 1613. Just before the death of Ieyasu Tokugawa, Diego de Santa Catalina came to Uraga, Ieyasu Tokugawa questioned Spain's attitude, banished him to Spain, and the transaction with Spain was completely completed. Japan took an isolation policy and only Uraga Port quietly disappeared as a trade port. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kahoru Suzuki Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Kahoru Suzuki Asia-Pac Session 6 2017