16 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/46e352444f0e75ce38da9cffebf0f619.pdf 3de433b4a692b905d29bb18bf5d20b93 PDF Text Text Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong: a collection of living maritime cultural heritage and oral history Shadi Kalantar (PhD candidate at University of Naples “L’Orientale”, skalantar@unior.it) Zeinab Hadi (PhD student at University of Tehran, zeinab.hadi@ut.ac.ir) ABSTRACT Bandar-e Kong is a port-town located in the Iranian coasts of the Persian Gulf, which flourished in the 17th century CE with the presence of the Portuguese. Since then, Bandar-e Kong has been a departure point for Iranian ships sailing the triangle trade to India, Africa, and the Persian Gulf. The topic of this paper fits best within the Session: Collections-Based Research because this paper aims to introduce Bandar-e Kong’s living maritime heritage through the Ethnological Museum’s collections. The Ethnological Museum collections were donated by the town residents. It was founded in 2011 by retired captains and mariners of Bandar-e Kong, sailors themselves to Africa and India. These sailors turned curators preserve the UNESCO’s intangible heritage of Traditional Skills of Building and Sailing Iranian Lenj Boats in the Persian Gulf. In 2020 the authors were funded by the Municipality of Kong to document the objects curated at this museum. Our holistic approach recorded all vessels and related tools. All objects underwent morphological analysis, and each sailor-curator was interviewed to amass oral histories on the construction and use of the objects. These details together ultimately produced an oral history of the port-town of Bandar-e Kong during August and September of 2020. *All letters and wording not in Latin alphabet are Persian. Keywords: intangible cultural heritage, maritime ethnography, Persian Gulf, Bandar-e Kong List of Pictures: Picture 1: top: the Portuguese remains on the coast of Kong (copyright permission by Ayub Zarei); bottom: boatyard of Kong looking to the east (recorded by Shadi Kalantar). Picture 2: left: Nakhoda Ḥạ̣ mūd (copyright permission by Ali Bahri); right: Sarhang (copyright permission by Mohammad Ḥasanzade). Picture 3: top left: a jahle, a jar which is also used as a drum (accession number KEM-309); top right: a wooden mortar made in Africa (KEM-138); bottom left: a fragrance burner for cloths, probably made in India (KEM- 206); a tambūre or tanbūn which is used in spiritual ceremonies (KEM-095). All images recorded by authors. Picture 4: top left: qādūfs (accession number KEM- 22-23); top middle: Indian oars (KEM- 24-25); top right: mīdāf (KEM35); bottom left: a glass buoy (KEM- 71); bottom right: mokassar (KEM- 26). All images are recorded by authors. 1 �INTRODUCTION The Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong is a public effort to safeguard the national intangible heritage of navigation and ship/boat building in Iran. Objects are donated, entrance is free and curators volunteer. These curators are retired mariners from the triangle trade between the Persian Gulf, India, and Africa. Their presence and conversation play integral roles in the museum collections. In 2020 the authorities of the Municipality of Kong funded the authors to create an inventory form and accession each object in the museum collection. The outcome resulted in eight overarching categories. This process of collections management and the ensuing discussion on our select objects is why our paper fits best within the Collections-Based Research Session. Of the 491 objects recorded, we narrow our discussion to four. We selected the four objects as examples of the richness of intangible heritage in our recording process. Following is a short introduction to the port-town of Kong, the creation of the Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong, our inventory framework and results, and discussion of four objects from the collection. BANDAR-E KONG Bandar-e Kong or “Kong Port” (‫)بندر کنگ‬, is a town in the west of Hormozgan province, on the Iranian coast of the Persian Gulf. Today, Kong is approximately 6.5 Km² with a +20,000 population. The Portuguese had their main port on the island of Hormuz until 1622 when Iranians repossessed it (Lorimer 1915, 23-27; Al-Salimi and Jansen 2015, 223-235; Vosuqi and Khayrandish 2005). Subsequently, the Portuguese attacked Iranian coasts to recoup their losses. In response, Iran’s king, Shah Abbas the Great, agreed the Portuguese could settle along the coast (pointedly not on an island) (Floor 2006, 238-239) (1625 CE). The Portuguese chose Kong and remained there until 1721-22 CE (Stiffe 1899, 297; Floor 2006, 429-439; Habibi and Vosuqi 2008, 13-16). The Portuguese presence is still visible with the castle ruins (picture 1 top) with more likely to the east, based on geomagnetic survey (Mohammadkhani 2020, 95-99). Aside from the Portuguese, Kong remained an active port for Iranian ships sailing to Africa, India and west of the Persian Gulf (Tavernier 1678, 94-95; L’Estrang 1686, 157; Lorimer 1908, 1041; Noorbakhsh 1996; Hassannia and Bahri 2018). This continues to the present day; the Mihandūst ( ‫میهن‬ ‫ )دوست‬voyage from Dubai to Mombasa that Kaplan reported is a good instance (trip completed in 1974 Kaplan 2015). There is still an active traditional (wood) boat-building yard (picture 1 bottom), at 33 hectares (calculated in Google Earth) possibly the largest along the Persian Gulf. The wooden ships, known as lanj/lenj in Iran, are still built, repaired, and sailed thus continuing nautical traditions. 2 �Picture 1: top: the Portuguese remains on the coast of Kong (copyright permission by Ayub Zarei); bottom: boatyard of Kong looking to the east (recorded by Shadi Kalantar). The living knowledge and practice of lanj building, in addition to the high number of old and retired mariners concentrated in this little town, characterises Kong as a centre for traditional maritime heritage. So, naturally the Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong’s collection of ship and boat related objects and traded goods were gathered by retired sailors, captains and boatbuilders. These mariners continue to carry their maritime cultural knowledge. Some ethnographic and oral history studies have been previously done, which attempted to record the oral maritime history and intangible maritime heritage of Bandar-e Kong, specifically the terminology and function of maritime and navigational tools curated in the museum (Noorbakhsh 1996; Parsa 2013; Hassannia and Bahri 2018; Hassannia and Zarei 2020). 3 �ETHNOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF BANDAR-E KONG History of the building The Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong (‫ ) موزه مردم شناسی بندر کنگ‬is in a building located on the property of Hadj Mohammad Rashedan (‫ )حاج محمد راشدان‬and descendants. This building was a tradehouse of goods from Africa, India, and the southern countries of the Persian Gulf. After decades of abandonment, in 2011, captain Ali Bahri (‫)علی بحری‬, better known as Nakhoda Ḥamūd (‫)ناخدا حمود‬ attempted to establish the museum. Serendipitously, Traditional Skills of Building and Sailing Iranian Lenj Boats in the Persian Gulf was inscribed on the UNESCO’s “List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding” (Nomination file No. 00534). So, through the public attempt to safeguard national maritime heritage the Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong came into existence. Nakhoda Ḥamūd, along with the former mayor of the town Ayoub Zarei (‫)ایوب زارعی‬, worked to support our project funded by the Municipality of Bandar-e Kong. In 2020 the authors documented the museum collections and recorded oral history of maritime Bandar-e Kong in interviews with the retired sailors who now volunteer as curators at the museum. THE PROJECT OF DOCUMENTATION Our project saw the value of the storytelling of the sailor/shipbuilder-curators. They gather together every evening for tea or coffee and share stories from their travels to India and Africa. Bystanders, including researchers or visitors, can listen to their experiences and guidance on the use of the museum collections. The collections were donated and include a variety of everyday-life objects to maritime and navigation tools. Framework The aim of our project was to document the museum collections for scholarly use and to create an inventory list for authorities and curators of the museum. This project was carried out from 15 August 2020 to the end of September 2020 on site, over four weeks, and an additional +two weeks to digitise and edit the pictures. In total 491 objects were measured, photographed and described in the inventory forms we created; in some cases, drawings were also made. The utility of many objects, especially boat and ship related objects, were unknown to the authors, therefore, interviews with the mariners-curators were carried out to figure out the utility as well as terminology of maritime objects and other unknown elements. Here, the challenge was that these maritime terms are in the local dialect of Hormozgan which is called bandari (Pelevin 2010) and they mostly have no synonym in standard Persian. So, it was decided to document the objects with their bandari terms in the inventory list and define them. As mentioned, bandari maritime terms have been studied before (Eqtedari 1963; Mohebbi 1996; Noorbakhsh 1996, 86-106; Tabibnezhad 2011; Parsa 2013, 145-150; Hassannia and Bahri 2018, 111-118), however, the terms that were previously undocumented are now written in the inventory list. In addition, the name of the donator, where available, is recorded in the inventory list with the accession number. To record the objects’ function Ali Baḥri /Nakhoda Ḥamūd (picture 2 left) and Mohammad Hasanzade (‫( )محمد حسن زاده‬picture 2 right), better known as Sarhang (‫ )سرهنگ‬were interviewed. Ali Baḥri, on the one hand, is a retired captain and his father, whose nickname was Ḥamūd, was a captain too. Nakhoda (‫)ناخدا‬, could be translated as both captain and shipowner in the past (Tibbetts 1971, 58; Agius 2008, 415), however, today it only refers to captain. In this article, Ali Baḥri, who is referred to in this article by his reputation as Nakhoda Ḥamūd, was born in 1936 in Kong. Since his 4 �father was a well-known nakhoda as well, he always kept his father’s company onboard as a child. He soon started to work on a fishing craft and later became a nakhoda himself. Picture 2: left: Nakhoda Ḥ̣amūd (copyright permission by Ali Bahri); right: Sarhang (copyright permission by ̣̣ Mohammad Ḥasanzade). Mohammad Ḥasanzade, on the other hand, used to be a sarhang onboard. Sarhang, which is also known as mojaddami (‫ )مجدمی‬and moqaddami (‫)مقدمی‬, oversees all the sailing tasks onboard such as landing and docking (Tibbetts 1971, 58; Agius 2008, 419, 178-181). Ḥasanzade, himself, says: ‘sarhang gets orders directly from nakhoda and he should know everything about a sailing ship, every piece of it. He supervises sails, docking, landing, rising, lowering and changing the directions of the sails’. He is thus referred to, in this article, as Sarhang. He was born in 1945 in Kong and when he was eleven or twelve years old, he went on his first sea voyage on a sailing ship with his father. They travelled to Abadan on the west of the Iranian coast of the Persian Gulf and then to Tanzania in Africa and back to Kong. Sarhang started working on a ship as an unpaid young trainee and slowly, over time, advanced to the position of being a sarhang. Now that we’ve introduced our main interviewees, we will explain how we documented oral histories. The authors posed questions to these sailor-curators, amongst others, at their daily gathering. The authors followed the conversation amongst them in relation to the question. The questions sometimes led to disagreements so, different opinions and points of views on a subject were compared. In this article, where information is provided by Sarhang or Nakhoda Ḥamūd, it is quoted by their names and where the information is gained from a group’s conversation, it is mentioned as “group-discussion”. Collections and Objects The museum’s collections were categorised into seven classifications: Boat and Ship Related ( ‫اجزاء و‬ ‫)الحاقات قایق و کشتی‬, Boat and Ship Models (‫)مدل قایق و کشتی‬, Handicrafts (‫)صنایع دستی‬, Vessels (‫)ظروف‬, Modern Items (‫)اشیاء مدرن‬, Musical Instruments (‫ )آالت موسیقی‬and Others (‫ )متفرقه‬for those that could not be categorised to any of the above mentioned ones. The Boat and Ship Related Collection includes paddles and oars, sailing affiliations, navigational tools, crew’s personal boxes and other tools such as glass buoys (picture 4 bottom left). Boat and Ship Models is a small collection of few locally made dhow models and some made in India. Vessels 5 �Collection has a variety of locally produced potteries (picture 3 top left), to Chinese and European fine ceramics and glasses, jars for carrying Indian pickles, and African mortars (picture 3 top right) that have been traded around the Indian Ocean in the 20th century. Handicrafts Collection has a variety of locally produced items to Indian and African items that sailors brought as souvenirs from their voyages (picture 3 bottom left), with handicrafts, such as baskets, that mariners made onboard during sail. Modern Item Collection includes radios, televisions, phones and clocks that mostly are bought and brought from Dubai and Kuwait in the second half of the 20th century. The Musical Instruments Collection mostly has local drums and one tambūre (‫ )تمبوره‬or tanbūn (‫ ) تنبون‬which is a string ceremonial instrument (picture 3 bottom right). We selected four objects from the Boat and Ship Related Collection to narrow our discussion. Picture 3: top left: a jahle, a jar which is also used as a drum (accession number KEM-309); top right: a wooden mortar made in Africa (KEM-138); bottom left: a fragrance burner for cloths, probably made in India (KEM- 206); a tambūre or tanbūn which is used in spiritual ceremonies (KEM-095). All images recorded by authors. Paddles and Oars Three pairs of wooden oars, one pair of wooden paddles and one single paddle are available in the Boat and Ship Related Collection. All the three paddles are the same type, but the oars are two different types. Sarhang and Nakhoda Ḥamūd recalled their names as following and other mariners in the group-discussion confirmed them: paddles are called qādūf ( ‫( )قادوف‬picture 4 top left) or African paddle ( ‫)پاروی اِفریقایی‬, one pair of oars are called Indian oar ( ‫( )پاروی هندی‬picture 4 top middle) and the other two pairs are mīdāf ( ‫( )میداف‬picture 4 top right). The shafts of qādūfs vary from 170 to 172 cm among the three qādūfs and the widest part of the blade is 60-61 cm. This type of paddle has an arrowhead shaped blade and in the top of the shaft has a handle to hold the paddle (grip). The paddles are carved out of wood in one piece and there is no joint 6 �in them. We were informed in a group-discussion that this kind of paddle was purchased in African ports such as Mombasa. Sarhang remembers that qādūf, or the African paddle, was only used for paddling on a canoe. The Indian oars, as qādūfs, are carved from the trunk in one piece and the only joint part is the grip. The shaft is 140 cm and the blade, which is round, is 30 cm. Mīdāf, from which two pairs are available, has a longer shaft, approximately 200-220 cm, and the blade, unlike the previous ones, is attached to it with iron nails. This study brought up a contradiction with previous terminological studies over the terms mīdāf and qādūf. In Parsa’s glossary for Bandari maritime terms (2013, 234) mīdāf is mentioned as an equivalent for jaddāf which refers to the wooden structure which is built out of water for ships to stay still when they are not in the water. Ghādūf or ghādif (qādūf), on the other hand, according to Agius (2008, 183184, 406) means sailor (lit. rower). In addition to that, we faced another controversy, this time among the mariners in the group-discussion, about the usage of the Indian oars. Some described the objects as oars, while others described the objects used both as oars for small boats and as paddles for canoes. Mīdāfs, however, are certainly oars, as Sarhang recalled a song that they used to chant while rowing with mīdāfs to synch the rhythm of rowing, which is the repetition of two words: ‘hele, yāmāl’ (in Persian ‫ یامال‬،‫)هله‬. Picture 4: top left: qādūfs (accession number KEM- 22-23); top middle: Indian oars (KEM- 24-25); top right: mīdāf (KEM- 35); bottom left: a glass buoy (KEM- 71); bottom right: mokassar (KEM- 26). All images recorded by authors. Mokassar Mokassar (‫( )مکسّر‬picture 4 bottom right) is a tool which, according to Sarhang, is for making ropes from date palm’s fibres or coconuts’ husks. The Arabic word means broken so maybe it refers to the shape of this tool which has four grooves on the four sides. Linguistic analysis of these words’ etymology requires further study and was not intended for our current study. 7 �Mokassar is 70 cm high and has a quadrangular shape and its lower part is wider than its upper part like a pyramid with a flat top; the lower part is 15 cm wide, and the upper part is 10 cm. There are four grooves on the four corners in which fibres cross and there is a hole on the upper part from which this tool is hung and spun. Rope is made from the spinning fibres. To make thicker ropes, thinner ropes would be spun together. CONCLUSION Cultural heritage belongs to nations and people. They are the best guardians of one’s heritage, especially intangible heritage. The Ethnological Museum of Kong is a good example of how people, in a public effort, can preserve their own heritage and without much money for support. Unlike many great ethnological museums that exhibit collections from locations at a great distance from their heritage, the Ethnological Museum of Bandar-a Kong is located in its local context and has the capability of providing close interaction for visitors with the living carrier of intangible maritime heritage - the knowledge-keepers of traditional sailors and ship-builders. This project is an attempt to conserve the traditional maritime knowledge and contribute to the body of maritime oral histories. Acknowledgement This project was funded by the municipality of Kong which we are grateful for. We especially thank our interviewees, Mohammad Hasanzade and Ali Baḥri for being very patient and helpful as well as other mariners of Bandar-e Kong that were present at our group-discussions. We also acknowledge the support of Ayoub Zarei, former mayor of Kong who is an admirer of maritime cultural heritage. Bibliography: Agius, Dionisius. Classic Ships of Islam From Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean. Leiden. Boston: Brill, 2008. Al-Salimi, Abdulrahim and Jansen, Michael (eds.). Portugal in The Sea of Oman Religion and Politics. Vol. 5. Hildesheim. Zurich. New York, 2015. Eghtedari, Ahmad “‫ محمد علی سدید السلطنه کبابی بندر عباسی‬:‫ ”اصطالحات کشتی در جنوب ایران و رساله اوزان چو تألیف‬In ‫نشریه فرهنگ ایران‬ ‫زمین‬. Vol. 11 (1963): 135-154 Floor, Willem. The Persian Gulf: a political and economic history of five port cities. Washington DC: Mage, 2006. Habibi, Hasan and Vosuqi, Mohamman B. The Historical, Political and Social Study of Bandar Abbas Documents. Tehran: Iranshenasi, 2008. Hassannia, Mohammad and Bahri, Yaqub. ‫دریانوردی و لنج سازی بندر کنگ با تاکید بر بوم مسی‬. Tehran: Jonub Publications, 2018. Hassannia, Mohammad and Zarei, Ayub. Lasting Heritage of Sailors and Lanj Builders. Tehran: Jobub Publications, 2020. Kaplan, Marion. So Old a Ship Twilight of the Arab Dhow. London: Harriman House, 2015. L’Estrang, R.O (ed.). Travels of Monfieur Thevenot into The Levants. London: Printed by H. Clarck, 1686. Lorimer, J.G. Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia. Vol. 1. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1915. Lorimer, J.G. Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia. Vol. 2. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1908. Mohammadkhani, Kurosh. “Magnetic survey in the Portuguese castle of Kong” In Human and the Sea: a Review of Thousands of Years of Relationship between Humans and the Sea in Iran edited by Fereidoun Biglari, Jebrael Nokandehm, Abdolmajid Naderi Beni and Ali Hozhabri, 95-99. Tehran: National Museum of Iran and Ports and Maritime Organization of Iran, 2020. 8 �Mohebbi, “Parvis. A Persian Nautical Glossary from ca. 1900” In Iran. Vol. 34 (1996): 129-133 Noorbakhsh, Hossein. Koung Port: the city of navigators and shipbuilders in the Persian Gulf. Second edition. Tehran: Tabatabai, 1996. Parsa, Ali, ‫بادبانهای جنوب‬. Tehran: Nashre No, 2013. Pelevin, Mikhail. “Materials on the Bandari Dialect” In Iran & the Caucasus. Vol. 14 (2010): 57-78 Stiffe, A.W. “Former Trading Centres of the Persian Gulf: Kung” In The Geographical Journal, No. 13 (1899): 294-297 Tabibnezhad Motlaq, Abdolmajid. ‫ فرهنگ لغلت و اصطالحات صیادی و دریانوردی بوشهر و خلیج فارس‬:‫خیران‬. Bushehr: Bushehr Publications, 2011. Tavernier, John Baptista. Voyages. London,1678. Vosuqi, Mohammad B. and Khayrandish, Abd al-Rasul. Jarūn Name. Tehran: Miras-I Maktub, 2005. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong: a Collection of Living Maritime Cultural Heritage and Oral History Description An account of the resource Bandar-e Kong is a port-town located in the Iranian coasts of the Persian Gulf, which flourished in the 17th century CE with the presence of the Portuguese. Since then, Bandar-e Kong has been a departure point for Iranian ships sailing the triangle trade to India, Africa, and the Persian Gulf. The topic of this paper fits best within the Session: Collections-Based Research because this paper aims to introduce Bandar-e Kong’s living maritime heritage through the Ethnological Museum’s collections. The Ethnological Museum collections were donated by the town residents. It was founded in 2011 by retired captains and mariners of Bandar-e Kong, sailors themselves to Africa and India. These sailors turned curators preserve the UNESCO’s intangible heritage of Traditional Skills of Building and Sailing Iranian Lenj Boats in the Persian Gulf. In 2020 the authors were funded by the Municipality of Kong to document the objects curated at this museum. Our holistic approach recorded all vessels and related tools. All objects underwent morphological analysis, and each sailor-curator was interviewed to amass oral histories on the construction and use of the objects. These details together ultimately produced an oral history of the port-town of Bandar-e Kong during August and September of 2020. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Shadi Kalantar Zeinab Hadi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Kalantar, Shadi and Zeinab Hadi. 2023. “Ethnological Museum of Bandar-e Kong: a collection of living maritime cultural heritage and oral history.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Michelle Damian. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1920 Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/783e11a20265edc73c816f763522b079.pdf a9cd0317c6c8144dd4d4a131e22ef128 PDF Text Text 15th century carnelian bead cargo of the Indian Ocean World: a conversation starter on collections-based research in the Asia-Pacific Jennifer Craig (APConf5 Committee Member, Publication Lead Coordinator) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within the Collections-based Research Session because existing museum collections of carnelian beads from two archaeological shipwreck sites were analyzed. The sites include different ship constructions located at the far ends, to the north and south, of the Philippines; and they carried comparable artefacts. Both the Pandanan (1460-1487 CE) and Santa Cruz (1488-1505 CE) shipwrecks carried cargoes of similar ceramics (i.e. Chinese Jingdezhen and Thai Maenam Noi) and black glass beads (i.e. west India soda alumina); yet these sites also carried dissimilar cargo in both the ceramics and glass beads. Both sites also carried disproportionate carnelian beads. The resources to conduct the work to study carnelian are the morphological analysis of measurement and descriptors, technological analysis of SEM and compositional analysis of LA-ICPMS. My research questions ask what geographic patterns these analyses indicate of the carnelian beads: What is the source of the carnelian? Where were the bead workshops? What sailing routes did the carnelian move over to ultimately shipwreck off the Philippines? The expected results are that riverine systems that connected interior Indian carnelian were used to move raw material to west India bead workshops, via the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal into the Straits of Malacca to Southeast Asian entrepôt. Keywords: Collections-based research, rigor, connectivities, shipwreck List of Tables and Figures: Table 1 lists the Santa Cruz and Pandanan carnelian cargo average concentrations and standard deviations for the elements used in the statistical analysis with samples in parts per million converted to log10 values. Table 2 Agate/Carnelian artefacts analyzed in this study and their primary predicted group memberships from Canonical Discriminant Analysis. Figure 1 A Principal Component Analysis scatterplot of the agate/carnelian geologic sources and the agate/carnelian artifacts plotted by their first and second components. Figure 2 A biplot of the agate/carnelian geologic sources with the agate/carnelian artifacts plotted by their first two discriminant functions. INTRODUCTION In January 2023 I attended the Society for Historical Archaeology conference. This North American focused conference included a luncheon on Collections and Curation that invited practitioners of Collections-based Research. Wondering if I might be an oblivious participant, as someone who had recently completed a PhD dissertation on shipwreck beads collections stored in the National Museum of the Philippines, in the luncheon I found that there was a very clear definition of what collection-based research entailed for the North American Archaeologist/Curator, “using existing collections to pose and answer scholarly questions/it is a form of archaeological excavation in its own right. Searching through the contents of boxes and old catalogs found deep in repositories is a process full of discoveries/collections that can be generated over a period of decades by academic institutions, museums, volunteer organizations, and cultural resource management firms” (King 2014). This led me to think that if I was unaware of this definition then perhaps it is because it is not a concept in the Asia Pacific Region. I was curious to discuss with colleagues in the APConf 2023 of our ideas of collectionsbased research, including how might we like to define our own regional version, and I also wanted to 1 �share what remained to published of my work on the NMPL collection of carnelian beads from two shipwrecks. The topic of this paper fits best within this Session 23 on Collections-based Research because my case studies are museum collections of carnelian beads from two archaeological shipwreck sites in the Philippines. My research questions and methodologies are grounded in maritime archaeology, linguistics and museology. I wanted a space to explore what epistemologies I bring to collections-based research within a session of peers doing work on “collections''. My archaeology epistemology intersects with maritime-historical –indigenous-material science archaeology. Maritime archaeology in that my theoretical framework is the maritime cultural landscape, connecting artefacts and places across land and water. Historical archaeology in that I mostly work with objects made within the second millennia, with a slant of Art History in that I work across decades. Finally, built out of my exploration of linguistic methodologies to study cultural concepts and a human worldview, I am guided professionally by Indigenous-feminist archaeology. I use heart-centered practices: (1) show care for the living and the dead; (2) recognize we are all emotional and social as well as intellectual beings; (3) act upon our needs for responsible relationships with each other, with a range of communities, and with archaeological records, and; (4) emphasize rigor (Supernant, Baxter, Lyons, & Atalay 2020). Archaeometry contributes to the rigor of my answers to research questions on connectivities across large areas in short periods of time. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are the shipwrecks Pandanan (1460-1487 CE) and Santa Cruz (1488-1505 CE). The first was a Vietnamese-Chinese barge located in south-west Philippines and the second a South China Sea Tradition open-ocean vessel located in north-west Philippines. Aside from the hull design and location, several differences exist between the cargoes. The Pandanan cargo included Chinese Longquan celadon, Jingdezhen and Guangdong with Burmese Twante, Vietnamese Chu Dau and Thai Si Satchanalai; High magnesium black glass beads morphologically identical to black west India soda alumina (in similarities); Small and long red west India soda alumina glass beads; three agates (one pendant, two rough cornerless cube/pentagon). The Santa Cruz cargo included Minyao Chinese, blue and white Cham and Go Sanh Cham wares, Sukhothai fish plates; Waxy yellow east India glass beads; Potash high potassium blue wound glass beads; 54-106 hexagonal prism carnelians/agates; 2684 small lozenge carnelian/agates; one cornerless hexagon quartzite. Despite these differences the shipwrecks also carried three similar types of cargo: Chinese Jingdezhen and Thai Maenam Noi ceramics; black glass beads (i.e. west India soda alumina) (Craig 2021; Craig & Dussubieux 2022). I return to these details later as I consider context and connectivities across vast water bodies of the Indian Ocean and the seas in the Southeast Asia Region. This paper narrows into the discussion on the carnelian beads. Carnelian beads The range of carnelian/agate quantity comes from the inventory notes at the time of excavation and my morphology analysis results. The Pandanan excavation report included three agates. My morphological analysis recorded one pendant, and two rough cornerless cube/pentagon. The Santa Cruz inventory included 190 carnelians/agates beads. My morphological analysis recorded 54 hexagonal prisms and 26 small lozenge carnelian/agates. 2 �RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include the National Museum of the Philippines directors Jeremy Barns and Angel Baptiste, staff in the Archaeology Division Mary Jane Bolunia and Eusebio Dizon, staff in the Underwater Archaeology Division Clyde Jago-on and Bobby Orillaneda, and staff from the Records Section Nida Curvas. During fieldwork I appreciated the research assistance by Emil Bersamira and Bobby Orillaneda. The fieldwork was supported by the Social Science and Research Council of Canada MCRI, Society for Nautical Research, Brasenose College and Oxford University Meyerstein. The stone beads were exported for compositional analysis with Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), this details the elemental “recipe” (periodic table) of the stone to compare with known geological sources, by Laure Dussubieux (Chicago Field Museum, Elementary Analysis Laboratory) with funds from the National Science Foundation (BCS 1321731) and the Bruce and Barbara Trigger Award of the Anthropology Department McGill University; and statistical analysis and training supported by MITACS Research Training Award (2020). En route a fortuitous encounter with Dennys Frenez (Università di Bologna, Department of History and Cultures, Prehistory and Protohistory of Asia), Mark Kenoyer and Randall Law (University of Wisconsin– Madison, Department of Anthropology) with permission from NMPL colleagues, led to technical analysis of the bead bore putty impression samples at different magnifications (300X, 100X, 50X, 20X) with SEM- Hitachi 570 (University of Wisconsin–Madison, Laboratory of Experimental Archaeology). The technological analysis unanimously pointed to Indian craftsmanship where long faceted hexagonal beads are generally drilled with larger diameter diamond drills, and the smaller tabular lozenge shaped faceted beads are generally drilled with thinner diamond drills (Kenoyer pers. comm. 25 April 2017). Randall used statistical analysis with program SPSS [Table 1] using canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) to compare the Pandanan and Santa Cruz carnelian compositions to known agate sources (Carter & Dussubieux, 2016; Law et al., 2013). Table 1 lists the Santa Cruz and Pandanan carnelian cargo average concentrations and standard deviations for the elements used in the statistical analysis with samples in parts per million (PPM) converted to log10 values. These are compared to the four geologic sources Ratanpur, Mardak, Shahr-i-Sokhta and Ban Khao Mogul (reproduced/adapted from Carter and Dussubieux 2016:327, Table 3). When comparing these tables it is possible to see the difference between the elements and their ranges to notice how some line up but most are out of range. This indicates possible shared geography of source material but currently outside these locations. For example, with select elements the bead 1170E fits within the PPM range for Scandium (Sc) and Uranium (U) but not otherwise. 8829 A 8829 B 8829 C 8829 D 8829 E 1170 A 1170 B 1170 C 1170 D 1170 E B 23.31 23.15 41.12 6.61 24.42 B 10.51 33.41 15.45 24.89 16.08 Ni 3.39 1.95 2.66 2.94 1.78 Ni 2.66 1.55 1.44 1.56 1.15 Sb 1.16 0.48 1.16 0.66 1.19 Sb 1.00 3.78 0.28 2.11 0.88 Sc 2.86 2.19 2.28 2.85 2.00 Sc 2.21 2.12 1.96 1.88 1.81 U 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.05 U 0.35 0.09 0.01 0.02 0.01 1389 Ei 1389 Fi 1389 Gi 1389 Hi 1389 Mi 1389 Ni 1389 Oi 1389 Pi 1389 H 1389 I 1389 J 1389 K 1389 L 1389 M 1389 N B 9.28 9.48 12.97 3.52 15.02 4.05 32.18 6.21 20.23 58.89 12.41 37.05 18.21 26.78 12.98 Ni 0.76 3.54 0.69 0.2 1.97 1.98 1.96 1.90 4.86 2.50 1.91 2.61 1.74 0.96 0.92 Sb 1.51 1.32 1.14 1.21 1.66 1.50 1.62 0.64 4.52 2.97 0.73 1.72 1.55 2.32 1.38 Sc 1.58 1.40 1.22 1.32 2.12 1.96 1.42 1.34 2.59 2.84 2.29 1.97 1.95 1.58 1.62 U 0.55 0.95 0.12 0.04 0.08 0.18 0.10 1.02 0.08 0.04 0.14 0.06 0.08 0.01 0.03 3 �FRAMEWORK My research questions ask what geographic patterns these compositional, morphological, technological analyses indicate of the carnelian beads: What is the source of the carnelian? Where were the bead workshops? What sailing routes did the carnelian move over to ultimately shipwreck off the Philippines? The results indicate the first two questions are well researched and relatively clear routes can be drawn, while the third question points to gaps in the literature. RESULTS The expected results are that riverine systems that connected interior Indian carnelian were used to move raw material to west India bead workshops, via the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal into the Straits of Malacca to Southeast Asian entrepôt. My compositional results are that the Santa Cruz carnelian was sourced from an unknown location (Figure 1/TABLE 2), likely along the Deccan Traps of India (Carter & Dussubieux 2016). Perhaps there was some overlap with Ratanpur and Shahr-i-Sokhra but that's largely speculative (Figure 2). Technological analysis results of Indian craftsmanship adds details on the workshop location likelihood. The bead workshops near Ratanpur were in Limodara during the sixteenth century. The initial process of drying the stone and changing its colour by heating continued in Limodara (Dames 1918, 143; Lunde & Craig 2015, 22). Kenoyer, Vidale & Bhanet (1991, 45) show the location of agate bead production exclusively in Gujarat with raw materials from Ratanpur and Limodra, both situated along the Narmada River, flowing into the sea downstream of Broach (Lunde & Craig 2015, 27). 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 Shahr-i-Sokhra 0.05 Ratanpur (I) 0 Mardak Bet (I) Santa Cruz -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Figure 1 A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) scatterplot of the agate/carnelian geologic sources and the agate/carnelian artifacts plotted by their first and second components (created 23/6/2016). This graph shows Santa Cruz carnelian of largely unknown source. Perhaps some overlap with Ratanpur andd Shahr-i-Sokhra but that's largely speculative. 4 �Table 2 Agate/Carnelian artefacts analyzed in this study and their primary predicted group memberships (PGM) from Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA). CDA assumes that all groups (sources) are present in the dataset when generating PGMs. That is, it will provide an assignment even if the true source is not present because data is expected to anchor to centroids. Site name and dates Santa Cruz 1488-1505 CE Pandanan 1460-1487 CE Database ID Agate/Carnelian Predicted Group Membership 8829_D Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 8829_B Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 1170_C Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 8829_A Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 8829_C Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 8829_E Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 1170_E Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 1170_A Agate Mardak Bet (MB), India 1170_B Agate Shahr-i-Sokhta (SiS), Iran 1170_D Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Mi Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Ni Agate Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Oi Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Pi Agate Shahr-i-Sokhta (SiS), Iran 11389_Ei Carnelian Shahr-i-Sokhta (SiS), Iran 11389_Fi Carnelian Ban Khao Mogul (BKM), Thailand 11389_Gi Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Hi Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Ii Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Ji Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Ki Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Li Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Ai Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Bi Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Ci Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Di Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Qi Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_I Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_J Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_K Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_H Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_L Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_M Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_N Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 3043_A Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 3043_B Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 1087_F Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 5 �Figure 2 A biplot of the agate/carnelian geologic sources with the agate/carnelian artifacts plotted by their first two discriminant functions. The four labeled artifacts are outliers from those that have either a primary or secondary PGM assignment. All four were predicted to belong to one Indian source. Of those four, one had a PGM in the Thai source and three had PGMs in the Iran source. The importance of ports in the transport system is significant because the Gujarat area was strategically placed along the main shipping route. Early 16th century records by Ludovico di Varthema (travelled from 1503 to 1508), mentions the agate/carnelian trade of Cambay and the wide web of foreign markets, reached by ‘Mohammedan sea-faring traders’ along the Red Sea, East Coast of Africa, the Mediterranean and the Far East (Arkell 1936, 299). For the carnelian/agate source Shahr-i-Sokhra the port of Hormuz was likely. During the years 1325-1622 CE, the bulk of the India trade passed through Hormuz, and continued to do so even after the Portuguese took the city in 1514 CE (Lunde & Craig 2015, 26). Hormuz had a significant advantage over Aden, its main rival. “Ships out of Hormuz could sail to Gujarat almost all the year round, hugging the coasts of Makran and Sind, while Yemeni and Red Sea ships were completely dependent on the monsoon system, with narrow windows of opportunity for safely crossing the Indian Ocean.” (Lunde & Craig 2015, 26). Contemporary to the dates of the shipwrecks Pandanan and Santa Cruz, the port Rander (destroyed by Portuguese in 1530 CE) was described by Duarte Barbosa in 1514 CE as trading with Malacca, Bengal, Tenasserim, and Pegu. Prior to the silting of the estuary to Rander in the 16th century, stone beads were shipped out of Cambay by Portuguese and Gujarati merchants along with glass beads from Broach. The importance of Bharuch from the turn of the millennium through the 18th century, located 25 nautical miles from the sea on the north bank of the Narmada River (Maqbul Ahmad 1960, 58; Lunde & Craig 2015, 24), indicates the heavy riverine traffic of the Narmada River. Narmada River to Limodara and 6 �on to Bharuch/ Broach on southeast of Cambay’s estuary and Tapi River to Rander share a baseflow source in the Deccan Plateau grabens (Vanderkluysen et al. 2011). This is to say the mineral content of the geology is similar (Das, Krishnaswami & Kumar 2006). CONCLUSION In conclusion, presumably stone beads exported via Broach were along the river systems or in the saltwater on shallow lightering-craft. The archaeological and historical text evidence together indicates that bead production and port location were inextricably linked in Gujarat (Lunde & Craig 2015, 27). However, large gaps in the literature still remain for the story on how carnelian beads may have moved through the Bay of Bengal into the Straits of Malacca to Southeast Asian entrepôt. Returning to my raison d’etre of creating this session for discussion in our APConf 2023, on ideas of collections-based research, including how we might like to define a version in the Asia Pacific region. I consider the beads and Rey Santiago as I go into this question. Rey was my bead mentor. He curated the records and objects of bead collections in the NMPL, cultivated methodology of their study, (and the part that hooked me onto these small finds) extrapolated the stories of each bead from water and land. With these intangible and tangible inputs to my collections-based research, I propose that we, “pose and answer scholarly questions/it is a form of archaeological excavation in its own right. Searching [with mentors/ghosts/spirits/colleagues] through the contents of boxes and old catalogs found deep in repositories is a process full of discoveries[/magic/kinship-making/affirming that include] collections that can be generated over a period of decades by academic institutions, museums, volunteer organizations, and cultural resource management firms [so as to gather stories and storytell]” (King 2014; Supernant 2020; Supernant, Beisaw, Garrison, & Surface-Evans 2020). Acknowledgements To all of you mentioned in this text – Thank you! This includes the people who directly handled the beads, conducted paperwork to support this research, funded me and who produced the publications referenced below. Namely my thanks goes to Andre Costopoulos and Gwyn Campbell. Jeremy Barns, Angel Baptista, Mary Jane Bolunia, Clyde Jago-on and staff, Nida Curvas and staff, Dr Eusebio Dizon, Mauro Alvarez. I really appreciated the people who worked with me on a regular basis Bobby Orillaneda, Emil Bermisera, Vergil San Mateo, Allan Quinto, Paolo Tabirao, Larry Alba, Amelia Alhambra, Rey Bautista, Marcelo Cercado. Rey Santiago for his bead analysis training in 2011 and for providing access to photograph his Bead Typology Plates A - K. Nick Burningham for his mentorship and our long discussions and shared writing on ship construction technique. Along with Tom Vosmer, Eric Staples, Alessandro Ghidoni for our discussions on Arabian Sea People’s shipbuilding Laure Dussubieux for her compositional analysis of the beads at the Chicago Field Museum and dive buddy Mike Knight for his security in Chicago. Mark Kenoyer and Randall Law for their study of my stone beads after a chance meeting in an Oman Workshop on Shared Archaeological Heritage of Oman, India and Pakistan; and Dennys Frenez for helping me to learn how to conduct and record a technological analysis of bead bores. Financial support was provided by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada (specifically Major Collaborative Research Initiative / Indian Ocean World Center), the Nautical Research Society’s Tomlin Award, National Science Foundation administered by Elemental Laboratory Chicago Field Museum, and twice awarded Bruce Trigger Award from the Anthropology Department McGill University, McGill Faulty Excellence Award, Statistical training supported by Mitacs Research Training Award. Professional training in Museum Studies at the Western Australia Maritime Museum’s Department of Maritime Archaeology with the support of the prestigious Australia Endeavour Award. Many thanks go to Francisco Urbie of the Inter-Library Loans department at McGill University. Friends who worked with me along the way are namely Charlotte Pham, Veronica Walker Vadillo, Clifford Pereira, Brian Fahy, Kris Farmen, Kendra Besinger. This extends to my office colleagues and friends of the Indian Ocean World Center, McGill University: Lori Callahan, Tyler Yank, Omri Bassewitch Frenkel, Peter Hynd, Eric Bell, Rebekah McCallum, Caroline Seagle, Joseph Howard, Carl Hughes and Lillian Fradin, Pablo Arroyo. 7 �Bibliography Arkell, A.J. “Cambay and the Bead Trade”, Antiquity 10, no. 39, (1936): 292-305. Carter, A.K. & L, Dussubieux. “Geologic provenience analysis of agate and carnelian beads using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS): A case study from Iron Age Cambodia and Thailand'', Journal of Archaeological Science, (2016): 321-331. Craig, J. “Refining the chronology and distribution of mid-fifteenth to mid-seventeenth century Indian Ocean world glass”, Antiquity, (2021): 1-6. Craig, J. & L, Dussubieux. “Shifting patterns of glass bead cargo of 15th – 17th century Philippines shipwrecks.” In Glass Bead Technology, Chronology, and Exchange, LA-ICP-MS Glass Compositions from the Field Museum's Elemental Analysis Facility edited by Heather Walder and Laure Dussubieux, 177-195. Leuven: Catholic University of Leuven, 2022. Dames, M.L. (ed. and trans.). The Book of Duarte Barbosa, Volume 1. London: Hakluyt Society, 1918. Das, A., S. Krishnaswami, and A. Kumar. “Sr and 87Sr/86Sr in rivers draining the Deccan Traps (India): Implications to weathering, Sr fluxes, and the marine 87Sr/86Sr record around K/T.” Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 7, no 6 (2006): 114. Kenoyer, J. M., M. Vidale, and K. K. Bhan. “Contemporary Stone Beadmaking in Khambhat, India: Patterns of Craft Specialization and Organization of Production as Reflected in the Archaeological Record.” World Archaeology 23, (1991): 4463. Law, R., A. K. Carter, , B. Kuldeep, A. Malik, and M. D. Glascock. “INAA of agate sources and artifacts from the Indus, Helmand and Thailand regions”, In Proceedings of the 19th International Conference of the European Association of South Asian Archaeology, edited by D. Frenez and M. Tosi. Italy: Archaeopress, 2013. Lunde, P. and J. CRAIG. “Translocations of Mediaeval Ports in the Northern Indian Ocean and their Impact on Gujarat's Maritime Trade in Beads.” In Port Towns of Gujarat edited by Sara Keller and M.N. Pearson. 19-30. Gujarat: Darshak Ithihas Nidi, 2015. Maqbul S. Ahmad, India and the Neighbouring Territories in the Kitāb Nuzhat al-Muštāq fi’Ikhtirāq al-’Āfāq of al-Sharīf alIdrīsī. Leiden: Brill, 1960. Supernant, K., J. E. Baxter, N. Lyons, and S. Atalay. Archaeologies of the heart. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2020. Supernant, K. “From Haunted to Haunting: Métis Ghosts in the Past and Present.” In Blurring Timescapes: Subverting Erasure: Remembering Ghosts on the Margins of History, edited by S. Surface-Evans, A. Garrison, and K. Supernant, 85-103. New York: Berghahn, 2020. Supernant, K., A. M. Beisaw, A. E. Garrison, and S. Surface-Evans. “Epilogue: Ghosts, Haunting, and Refusals to Erasure.” In Blurring Timescapes: Subverting Erasure: Remembering Ghosts on the Margins of History, edited by S. Surface-Evans, A. Garrison, and K. Supernant, 185-195. New York:Berghahn, 2020. Vanderkluysen, Loÿc, John J. Mahoney, Peter R. Hooper, Hetu C. Sheth, and Ranjini Ray. “The Feeder System of the Deccan Traps (India): Insights from Dike Geochemistry.” Journal of Petrology 52, 2, (2011): 315–343. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 15th century carnelian bead cargo of the Indian Ocean World: a conversation starter on collections-based research in the Asia-Pacific Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within the Collections-based Research Session because existing museum collections of carnelian beads from two archaeological shipwreck sites were analyzed. The sites include different ship constructions located at the far ends, to the north and south, of the Philippines; and they carried comparable artefacts. Both the Pandanan (1460-1487 CE) and Santa Cruz (1488-1505 CE) shipwrecks carried cargoes of similar ceramics (i.e. Chinese Jingdezhen and Thai Maenam Noi) and black glass beads (i.e. west India soda alumina); yet these sites also carried dissimilar cargo in both the ceramics and glass beads. Both sites also carried disproportionate carnelian beads. The resources to conduct the work to study carnelian are the morphological analysis of measurement and descriptors, technological analysis of SEM and compositional analysis of LA-ICPMS. My research questions ask what geographic patterns these analyses indicate of the carnelian beads: What is the source of the carnelian? Where were the bead workshops? What sailing routes did the carnelian move over to ultimately shipwreck off the Philippines? The expected results are that riverine systems that connected interior Indian carnelian were used to move raw material to west India bead workshops, via the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal into the Straits of Malacca to Southeast Asian entrepôt. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer Craig Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Craig, Jennifer. 2023. “15th century carnelian bead cargo of the Indian Ocean World.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Michelle Damian. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1918 Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/da154ba2b3e3912f4f06212f4c3ace65.pdf 4a25e1d4ec099176701fde633d4ccf0e PDF Text Text Preliminary analysis of the early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines, c.1400 – c.1600 NM Austero1,2, BC Orillaneda1, LM Neri2 1 2 Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Division, National Museum of the Philippines School of Archaeology, University of the Philippines, Diliman ABSTRACT This study presents seven early handheld guns also known as “handgonnes” or hand cannons recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines. In this paper, three guns HHG-001, HHG-002, and HHG-003, feature shorter and stubby barrels with prominent reinforced sections, bulbous breech regions, and flared muzzles. The flared muzzles of these guns are typical of a blunderbuss type and or dart-firing guns of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The remaining handheld guns HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007, on the other hand, are tapered gun barrels without prominent reinforcement rings, and unflared muzzles that are probably designed for a single bullet and long-range firing. The smallest unflared muzzle gun HHG-005 measures only 39.1 cm long with a 1.31 cm bore diameter. While HHG-007 is the heaviest with a prominently thick gun barrel probably designed to withstand more powder charges. Compositional analysis using Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy showed that most of these guns were made of leaded tin bronze alloys. Comprised mainly of 37.77% to 83.57% copper, 3.11% to 22.41% tin, and 0.87% to 47.72% lead with other trace elements including arsenic, bismuth, nickel, and manganese, among others. The discovery of these guns in various merchant ships such as those of the Santa Cruz, Pandanan, and Lena Shoal shipwrecks is clear evidence of their use by the early seafaring merchants. The use of pXRF also revealed traces of possible black powder elements such as sulphur and potassium thereby suggesting the actual usage of these guns that warrants further investigation. Despite their size and offensive functions against pirates and crews of enemy ships, firing them would have been intimidating. Keywords: Seagoing firearms, handheld guns Lists of Figures Figure 1. Early handheld guns with flared muzzles. Figure 2. Early handheld guns with unflared muzzles. Lists of Tables Table 1. Early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines with their gun lengths and bore diameters. Table 2. Percent composition of major and minor elements of the seven early handheld guns using portable X-Ray Fluorescence analysis. INTRODUCTION Small artillery pieces are among the few of the vast number of archaeological materials discovered from most of the maritime and underwater sites in the Philippines. The archaeological excavation of the San Diego shipwreck in Fortune Island, Batangas for example, yielded thousands of lead musket balls, along with a few corroded iron pieces, barrels of rifles, harquebuses, and spring shots (Reverseau 1996; Alba et al. 1993; Alvarez 1992; Conese 1992; Cuevas 1992). San Diego was a Manila galleon sunk by the Dutch ship Mauritius during their naval battle on December 14, 1600. Interestingly, historical accounts have mentioned the vessel’s long-range, large artillery became inconsequential as the fighting occurred onboard using hand-to-hand combat, thereby employing small firearms such as harquebuses and rifles along with the other handheld weapons (Desroches et al. 1 �1996). Several projectiles and small caliber firearms were also discovered in other shipwreck sites in the country. These early handheld guns served as pieces of evidence that provide insights into how these firearms were possibly manufactured and used onboard the merchant vessels plying the seas during the pre-colonial period of the Philippines. The case studies discussed here include significant guns from the Pandanan, Lena Shoal, and Santa Cruz shipwrecks. First is a bronze early handheld gun from the Pandanan shipwreck, a middle to late fifteenth century Southeast Asian merchant vessel (see Orillaneda 2016a, 2016b; Tanaka and Dizon 2011; Dizon 1996, 1994; Peralta 1996; Cuevas 1995; Alba 1995). Second, are five early handheld guns, recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck, a possible Chinese-Southeast Asian hybrid junk that sank around 1490 off the island of Busuanga in the Philippines (see Orillaneda 2016a; Dizon 2003; Conese 1997; Goddio 2000; Lopez-Martin 2002). The third and final is a bronze early handheld gun from the Santa Cruz shipwreck, a possible late fifteenth to early sixteenth century hybrid ship of the South China Sea Shipbuilding Tradition (see Orillaneda 2016a, 2016b, 2012, 2008). In this study, compositional analysis using Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (pXRF) aimed to reveal the materials used in manufacturing these guns. Moreover, the discovery of these guns on board merchant ships such as those of the Santa Cruz, Pandanan, and Lena Shoal shipwrecks suggests their usage by early seafaring merchants. Hence, the use of pXRF also aimed to determine possible evidence of their usage. METHODOLOGY Seven early handheld guns were measured to determine length, width, diameters, and calibers: HHG-001, HHG-002, HHG-003, HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007. The gun length was measured with rulers, tape measures, and a digital caliper (Fujiwara) with a nominal accuracy of ± 0.01 mm. The terms hand cannon and hand gonne and sometimes handgonnes or handguns are already used interchangeably in the past referring to the early small-caliber handheld guns (e.g. Peralta 1996). To avoid confusion, the abbreviation HHG for “handheld guns” were used to code each artifact from HHG-001 to HHG-007. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy Analysis The composition analysis of the early handheld guns was conducted using portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (pXRF) of Olympus Vanta C Series Philippines with rhodium and tungsten anodes at 50 KeV. The analysis was conducted at the Lithics Laboratory of the University of the Philippines School of Archaeology (UPSA). For guns, HHG-001, HHG-002, and HHG-003, the data/spectra were recorded for approximately 180 s directly at the surfaces of the tiller, bulbous region, barrel, and muzzle. For guns HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007, the spectra were also recorded for approximately 180 s on the surfaces of the tiller, the reinforcement region, the barrel, and the muzzle. Additionally, spectra were also recorded for approximately 180 s on the surfaces of the touch holes, handles, sights, and 5th reinforcement rings for all the guns where applicable. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS This paper presents the early handheld guns recovered from the Pandanan, Lena Shoal, and Santa Cruz shipwrecks as shown in Table 1. These guns were categorized into two groups based on their possible usage: 1) close-range guns – these guns feature shorter and stubby barrels with prominent reinforced sections, bulbous breech, and flared muzzle regions, including HHG-001, HHG-002, and HHG-003; and, 2) long-range guns – these guns feature relatively longer and tapered gun barrels without prominent reinforcement rings, and unflared muzzles probably designed for a single bullet and long-range firing, including HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007. 2 �Table 1. Early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines with gun lengths and bore diameters. Gun lengths (cm) Sample Code Shipwreck Site HHG-001 Pandanan Shoal HHG-002 HHG-003 Bore Diameter (cm) Barrel Chamber Tiller Total 2.37 19.3 5.2 2.6 27.1 Lena Shoal 2.51 20.9 7.6 4.8 33.3 Lena Shoal 3.26 20.8 5.4 9.2 35.4 2.33 40.2 12.7 8.2 61.1 9.0 4.1 39.1 3.2 64.8 3.9 60.7 Lena Shoal HHG-004 Len HHG-005 Lena Shoal 1.31 26.0 HHG-006 Santa Cruz 2.08 45.2 16.4 Len HHG-007 Lena Shoal 2.78 40.4 16.4 Descriptions of the Guns Early Handheld Gun No. 1 (HHG-001) Recovered from the Pandanan shipwreck, this gun (Fig. 1, left) was thought to belong to small caliber cannons such as the lantakas and rentakas among others as most of its features are typical of the early handheld guns (Peralta 1996). The gun is about 27.1 cm long with a 2.37 cm bore diameter with prominent reinforcement rings. The tiller at the rear end is approximately 2.6 cm in length with only about 1.2 cm deep socket. This is too shallow to hold the tiller firmly without falling off, suggesting the gun was probably stocked-mounted (Peralta 1996). Wooden tillers, however, were mostly secured by iron straps or slotted into the end of the breech (Lepage 2005). Houston and Stroyan (2014) also described a similar hand cannon fired with a trestle-like stand. In that case, the tiller no longer needed to carry the entire weight of the gun; instead, it served as a handle when the cannon tube became too hot to hold after firing several shots (Lepage 2005). The flared muzzle of the gun is also indicative of other small caliber cannons such as a blunderbuss type and or dart-firing guns of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries CE (Lopez-Martin 2002; Peralta 1996; Powell 2010, 1095). Early Handheld Gun No. 2 (HHG-002) This gun is approximately 33.3 cm in length with a 2.51 cm bore diameter, recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (Fig. 1, middle) (Lopez-Martin 2002). Similar to HHG-001, it is a muzzle-loading gun with prominent wide bands of reinforcement rings from the tiller toward the muzzle (see Lopez-Martin 2002). Also similar to HHG-001, its flared-shaped muzzle is indicative of dart-firing guns used from 1464-1496 CE on China’s interior frontiers and in merchant junks against pirate attacks (Lopez-Martin 2002, Powell 2010, 1095). The rear end is also fixed with a tiller of about 4.8 cm in length with a 2.0 cm deep socket, probably deep enough to hold the wooden tiller attachment without falling off. In contrast to the HHG-001, however, this gun was also fixed with a “lug” or handle to add ease in handling and or aiming targets. 3 �Figure 1. Early handheld guns with flared muzzles: HHG-001 (left), recovered from the Pandanan shipwreck (IV-1993-V-1152), with prominent reinforcement rings and a “lug” probably as the gun’s rear sight; HHG-002 (middle), recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (IV-93-H-2901) with prominent reinforcement rings and a handle; HHG-003 (right), recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (IV-93-H-4011) with prominent reinforcement rings. Early Handheld Gun No. 3 (HHG-003) This gun is approximately 35.4 cm in length with a 3.26 cm bore diameter and was recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (Lopez-Martin 2002). Similar to HHG-001 and HHG-002, it is a muzzle-loading gun with prominent wide bands of reinforcement rings and a flared muzzle (Fig. 1, right). Flared muzzles of early handheld guns were intended to scatter the shots at close range and to ease loading (DK Publishing 2006, 247). However, HHG-003’s flared muzzle is narrower compared to those of the HHG-001, and HHG-002, thereby suggesting this gun is probably more effective when shot from a distance. Moreover, the rear end is also fixed with a prominent 9.2 cm tiller socket and a “lug” or handle to add ease in handling and or aiming targets. 4 �Early Handheld Gun No. 4 (HHG-004) This handheld gun measured about 61.1 cm long with approximately 2.33 cm bore diameter, also recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (Fig. 2a) (Goddio 2000). The barrel is slightly tapering towards the muzzle with a maximum diameter of 3.7 cm and a minimum diameter of 3.1 cm. The vent or the touch hole is located approximately 19.7 cm centimeters from the rear end with a simple spherical reinforcement. The stock or tiller socket at the rear end is prominently longer, measuring about 8.2 cm, suggesting a firm attachment of a wooden tiller. The remains of a possible wooden tiller can still be seen attached inside the rear end socket proposing that the gun was not stock-mounted. Early Handheld Gun No. 5 (HHG-005) This gun was also recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck, measuring about 39.1 cm long with approximately 1.31 cm bore diameter (Fig. 2b). The barrel is slightly tapering towards the muzzle with a maximum diameter of 2.0 cm and a minimum diameter of 2.2 cm. The vent or the touch hole is located approximately 4.2 centimeters from the rear end with a simple leaf-like or diamond shape design. The stock or tiller socket at the rear end is relatively longer, measuring 4.1 cm also suggesting a firm attachment of a wooden tiller. A tiny sized-gun can surely be easier to aim and fire. Early Handheld Gun No. 6 (HHG-006) The early handheld gun recovered from the Santa Cruz shipwreck is similar to the gun recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck, HHG-004. This gun is the longest, measuring about 64.8 cm long with approximately 2.08 cm bore diameter (Fig. 2c). The larger barrel is also slightly tapering towards the muzzle with a maximum diameter of 3.58 cm and a minimum diameter of 2.84 cm. The touch hole is approximately 3.2 cm centimeters from the rear end with a leaf-like or diamond-shaped reinforcement. The remains of the tiller socket at the rear end seem to have been broken, measuring only about 3.2 cm. The tiller socket was possibly longer for a firm tiller attachment. Early Handheld Gun No. 7 (HHG-007) This gun is the heaviest and largest of all five guns recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (Fig. 2d). It measures about 60.7 cm long and has a 2.78 cm bore diameter. The gun barrel is relatively thick, about 1.71 cm, which is probably designed to withstand more powder charges to propel a relatively bigger caliber bullet. The touch hole is approximately 3.9 cm centimeters from the rear end with a leaf-like or diamond-shaped reinforcement similar to that of HHG-006. The tiller socket is also short, suggesting a need for reinforcement straps and or added support stand when firing. A similar gun of Chinese origin from the fourteenth to fifteenth centuries was also found in the Molucca Sea in the Dutch Indies (McLachlan 2010). 5 �Figure 2. Early handheld guns with unflared muzzles: HHG-004 (A), recovered from the shipwreck (IV-93-H-0342) with a tapered gun barrel; HHG-005 (B), recovered from the shipwreck (IV-93-H-3417) with a tapered gun barrel; HHG-006 (C), recovered from the shipwreck (III-2001-Z-NA) with a tapered gun barrel; HHG-007 (D), recovered from the shipwreck (IV-1993-H-NA) with a relatively thick gun barrel and of a higher caliber. 6 Lena Shoal Lena Shoal Santa Cruz Lena Shoal �X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) Analysis Results from compositional analysis using pXRF revealed most of these guns were primarily a ternary alloy of Cu, Pb, and Sn (e.g. Pollard and Liu 2023). Comprised mainly of 37.77 percent to 83.57 percent copper, 3.11 percent to 22.41 percent tin, and 0.87 percent to 47.72 percent lead with other trace elements including arsenic, bismuth, nickel, and manganese, among others (Table 2). Pollard and Liu (2023) also noted that the sum of all three metal components of ternary alloys is usually around 98 percent. Our research, however, provided a range between the sums of 94.20 percent to 98.38 percent. Table 2. Percent composition of major and minor elements of the seven early handheld guns using pXRF. Percent Composition of Elements (Barrel) Sample Code Cu Sn Pb As Bi Ni Mn OE 0.05 0.01 1.04 0.09 0.03 1.31 0.88 0.09 0.04 0.74 22.41 22.4095 HHG-001 40.71 31.76 0.26 2.89 1.91 22.4095 22.4095 HHG-002 83.57 12.65 0.87 11.31 4.59 0.45 0.59 HHG-003 81.75 0.88 14.70 HHG-004 74.91 8.77 <LOD 0.66 0.06 0.02 0.07 0.02 1.30 <LOD <LOD 0.01 1.59 <LOD 0.03 0.01 1.59 0.83 HHG-005 HHG-006 HHG-007 77.81 14.31 5.40 37.77 8.71 47.72 47.48 3.11 47.05 0.26 4.20 0.82 Note: Copper (Cu), Tin (Sn), Lead (Pb), Arsenic (As), Bismuth (Bi), Nickel (Ni), Manganese (Mn), and Other Elements (OE). 7 �Interestingly, the use of pXRF also revealed traces of possible black powder elements thereby suggesting the actual usage of these guns and warranting further investigation into firing guns and recording residue. Trace amounts of sulphur and potassium were recorded on the surfaces of the muzzle and tiller of the early handheld gun HHG-001. Traces of sulphur were also recorded on the surfaces of the touchhole, handle, and muzzle of the early handheld gun HHG-003. These results further showed the importance of gunpowder and its use in most seagoing firearms (e.g., Kozari and Vizy 2013; McLachlan 2010; Khan 2004; Andaya 1992). The discovery of the early handheld guns from the shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines affirms the use of seagoing firearms. Records on the use of these light guns against pirates and crews of enemy ships were already known in merchant ships as early as the fourteenth century (Lepage, 2005). Their discovery onboard various merchant ships such as those of the Santa Cruz, Pandanan, and Lena Shoal shipwrecks is clear evidence of their use by the early seafaring merchants. Despite their size and offensive functions against pirates and crews of enemy ships, firing them would have been intimidating (McLachlan 2010; Lepage 2005). Acknowledgment We would like to thank the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) through the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Division (MUCHD) and the UP School of Archaeology (UPSA) of the University of the Philippines, Diliman for their unwavering support for this research. The Department of Science and Technology – Grants-in-Aid Program (DOST-GIA) for Biak na Bato, Bulacan Project for the portable X-Ray Fluorescence (pXRF) instrument used during the conduct of this research. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alba L. “Pandanan Underwater Archaeological Project Report. Pandanan Island, Balabak, Palawan. Third Preliminary Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (1995):1-6. Andaya LY. “Interactions with the Outside World and Adaptation in Southeast Asia.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia from early times to c. 1800, edited by N. Tarling, 345-395. Singapore, Cambridge University, 1992. Cuevas MA. “Pandanan Island Underwater Archaeological Project: Inspection of a Reported Site.” National Museum of the Philippines, (1993): 1-12. “Pandanan Island Underwater Archaeology Project: Second Preliminary Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (1995):1-6. Dizon EZ. “Status of Philippine Underwater Archaeological Researches from 1989-91: Prospects for 1992.” Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (1992), 16(1): 41-47. “A Decade of Archaeological Research in the Philippines.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture & Society, (1994), 22(3):197-222. “The Archaeology of a 15th century A.D. Shipwreck, located off Pandanan Island, Southern Palawan Philippines.” National Museum of the Philippines, (1996): 1-29. “Philippines”. In British Museum Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, edited by Delgado, 303–305. British Museum Press, London. 1997. “Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in the Philippines.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, (2003), 31(1/2): 1-25. DK Publishing. “Weapon: a visual history of arms and armour.” New York, Dorling Kindersley Linited, 2006. Goddio F, Pierson S, Crick M (Eds.). Sunken treasures: Fifteenth-century Chinese ceramics from the Lena Cargo. London: Periplus Publishing London Limited. 2000. 8 �Honasan A. “The Pandanan Junk.” In The Pearl Road: Tales of Treasure Ships in the Philippines, edited by Loviny, 13-23, 1996. Khan IA. “Early use of Cannon and Musket in India: A.D. 1442-1526.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 24, 2 (1981): 146-164. Keith DH, de Bry J. “Artillery.” In La Belle, The Archaeology of a Seventeenth-Century Ship of New World Colonization, edited by Bruseth, A&M University Press, Texas, 2017. Kelly J. “Gunpowder. Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World”. Basic Books (2004): 3-18. Kozari J, Vizy S. “The development of infantry firearms and its impact on army tactics.” Acta Acad. Agriensis, Sectio Historriae XLI (2013): 185-195. Lacsina LSP. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Sixth Progress Report”. National Museum of the Philippines (2004): 1-6. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Seventh Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines (2005a):1-4. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Eighth Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines (2005b): 1-4. Lepage JGG. “Medieval Armies and Weapons in Western Europe. An Illustrated History.” North Carolina, McFarland and Company Inc., (2005): 248-266. Lopez-Martin J. “Cannon.” In Lost at Sea: The strange route of the Lena Shoal junk, edited by Goddio F, Pierson S, Crick M, 239-241. Periplus Publishing Limited, London, 2002. McLachlan S. “Medieval Handgonnes. The First black powder infantry weapons.” Osprey Publishing, (2010): 82 Pp. Orillaneda BC. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: A Field Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004a), 1-8. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: A Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004b), 1-4. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Second Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004c), 1-5. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Third Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004d), 1-8. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Fourth Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004e), 1-5. “A Brief Report on the Sharing of the Santa Cruz Shipwreck Ceramic Artifacts.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2005), 1-2. “The Santa Cruz, Zambales Shipwreck Ceramics: Understanding Southeast Asian Ceramic Trade during the Late 15th Century C.E, ” Master’s thesis, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 2008. “Of Ships and Shipping: The Maritime Archaeology of the Fifteenth Century CE Southeast Asia.” In Early Navigation in the Asia-Pacific Region. A Maritime Perspective, edited by Chunming Wu, 29-57, Singapore: Springer Science + Business Media, 2016a. “Maritime Trade in the Philippines During the 15th Century CE.” Mousssons 27 (2016b): 83-100. “The Santa Cruz shipwreck excavation: A reflection on the practice of underwater archaeology in the Philippines.” In Innovation and adaptation: Marine archaeology in Southeast Asia, edited by Noel Tan, 86–102. Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum, 2012. Peralta JT. “Anatomy of a Shipwreck: Archaeology of the 15th-century Pandanan Shipwreck.” In The Pearl Road: Tales of Treasure Ships in the Philippines, edited by C. Loviny, 63-94. Mandaluyong, Philippines: Asiatype and C Loviny, 1996. Pollard AM, Liu R. “Predicting bronze casting recipes in Ancient China: ternary copper-lead-tin alloys and the “unit sum problem”.” Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023): 15:55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-023-01747-y Powell J. (Ed.). Weapons and Warfare, revised version. California, Salem Press. 2010. Reverseau JP. “Weapons: Small arms.” In Treasures of the San Diego, edited by Desroches JP, Casal G, Goddio F., 192-197. Association Française d'Action Artistique, Paris, 1996 Tanaka K, Dizon Z. 2011. “Shipwreck Site and Earthenware Vessels in the Philippines: Earthenware vessels of the Pandanan Shipwreck Site.” The MUA Collection, (2011), 1-11, http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1234 (Accessed December 27, 2021). 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Preliminary analysis of the early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines, c.1400 – c.1600 Description An account of the resource This study presents seven early handheld guns also known as “handgonnes” or hand cannons recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines. In this paper, three guns HHG-001, HHG-002, and HHG-003, feature shorter and stubby barrels with prominent reinforced sections, bulbous breech regions, and flared muzzles. The flared muzzles of these guns are typical of a blunderbuss type and or dart-firing guns of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The remaining handheld guns HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007, on the other hand, are tapered gun barrels without prominent reinforcement rings, and unflared muzzles that are probably designed for a single bullet and long-range firing. The smallest unflared muzzle gun HHG-005 measures only 39.1 cm long with a 1.31 cm bore diameter. While HHG-007 is the heaviest with a prominently thick gun barrel probably designed to withstand more powder charges. Compositional analysis using Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy showed that most of these guns were made of leaded tin bronze alloys. Comprised mainly of 37.77% to 83.57% copper, 3.11% to 22.41% tin, and 0.87% to 47.72% lead with other trace elements including arsenic, bismuth, nickel, and manganese, among others. The discovery of these guns in various merchant ships such as those of the Santa Cruz, Pandanan, and Lena Shoal shipwrecks is clear evidence of their use by the early seafaring merchants. The use of pXRF also revealed traces of possible black powder elements such as sulphur and potassium thereby suggesting the actual usage of these guns that warrants further investigation. Despite their size and offensive functions against pirates and crews of enemy ships, firing them would have been intimidating. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource NM Austero BC Orillaneda LM Neri Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Austero, Nero M., BC Orillaneda, LM Neri. 2023. “Preliminary analysis of the early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines, c.1400 – c.1600.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Michelle Damian. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1917 Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8d87d78d46c3dca6c0a564b0ba97b372.pdf 4201c17d4aab2a18c96a9a725fb4b32e PDF Text Text The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia Wisnu A. Gemilang1 Nia N. H. Ridwan1 Guntur A. Rahmawan1 Ulung J. Wisha2 1 Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Jl. Raya Padang-Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245 2 National Research and Innovation Agency ABSTRACT The potential of shipwreck site resources in “Spice Routes,” Ternate-Tidore, reflects several historical pieces of evidence relating to archaeological remains from the Portuguese and Spanish eras in the surrounding sea and coastal areas. In the 1990s, a plethora of archaeological remains were salvaged. An integrated archaeological study is an initial step to optimize the use of underwater archaeological resources in the area of interest. The survey consisted of local coordination, expert consultation, literature study, field surveys and underwater observations, mini excavations using water dredging, artefact samplings site measuring and documentation, artefact desalination, and C14 carbon dating analysis for wooden materials found within the site. Moreover, the water quality survey for marine tourism interests and Trinidad ship reconstruction is significant in supporting 500 years of circumnavigation of the earth by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastian Elcano and supporting publication and dissemination. Based on the present study, it is observed that Soasio and Tongowai sites have the potential to be developed as the centre of integrated marine ecotourism with maritime archaeology-based sites. This consideration is due to plenty of historical artefacts and tourism feasibility assessments. Therefore, local and regional regulations relating to regional spatial planning are crucial before implementing the ecotourism project in this area. Keywords: Maritime archaeology, shipwreck sites, sustainable marine tourism, Tidore List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: The distribution of underwater archaeology sites in Tidore Islands. Source: Field survey, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, 2021. Figure 2: The distribution map of historical sites in Tidore Islands. Figure 3: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; shipwreck indication (a); ceramic findings (b); jars and earthenware findings (c); bird’s eye view of Soasio site (d). Figure 4: Biodiversity in the surrounding Soasio site; coral covers (a); fish ecosystem (b), sediment substrate (c). Figure 5: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; underwater cannon finding (a); excavated cannon from Tongowai site (b); A pile of earthenware (c); coral covers and ecosystem in Tongowai site (d). Table 1: The formulation of the underwater heritage trail development strategy. 1 �INTRODUCTION Tourism is an essential aspect for a country, which can increase state and local government revenue (Runtunuwu 2020, 1). Tidore Island is becoming the preferred ecotourism destinations in North Maluku Province. Exotic natural panoramas combined with cultural-historical sites create an enchanting paradise in eastern Indonesia (Wijayanti et al. 2022, 1). Tidore Island is worthy of further development due to its strategic position and many mesmerizing coastal areas as a potency for supporting marine tourism. However, in developing the tourism potency of this region, many aspects should be considered since there many existing problems (Kader 2017, 20), such as the local facility and the low awareness of the underwater cultural heritage UCH importance (Fahri & Alhadar 2022, 2; Runtunuwu 2020, 2). The existence of two underwater archaeological sites, Soasio and Tongowai Sites, highlight the potential for underwater archaeology in the Tidore Islands. Aside from high biodiversity within the sites, these two primary sites have a historical value related to the shipping and international trade in the 15-17 centuries AD (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 173). Therefore, the further development should be supported by a tourism development strategy. Local tourism management and third party’s authorities should contribute to conserve the remains by establishing policies and protections (Masberg and Morales 1999, 290). Therefore, this research article on "The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia" is significant to support the development of underwater historical tourism in the Tidore Islands. CASE STUDY Based on information from the local community and local government in Ternate and Tidore, around the 1990s, there was a lot of goods looting in several archaeological sites in Tidore waters. The lack of knowledge of the local government and the community about the existence of UCH makes the remains more vulnerable and less protected (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 170). Therefore, identification of underwater archaeological potential in Tidore waters is essential as a basis for further conservation, development, and decision-making in terms of protecting the underwater archaeological remains. In addition, this study is expected to promote the potential of the site for marine tourism and other preservation strategies in dealing with the vulnerability of the site and its aquatic environment. RESOURCES As mentioned earlier, the primary location of this study is in the Soasio and Tongowai sites, Tidore Island, North Maluku Province (Figure 1). Many historical objects have been managed as an attraction for supporting the tourism aspect, such as the Tidore Sultanate Palace, Torre Fort, Tahula Fort, Sonyine Malige Museum, Sultan Nuku Tomb, Sultan Mosque and Sultan Pier (Sosmiarti and Fahlefi 2019, 282). However, the Tidore Islands underwater history is less promoted and even rarely visited due to the lack of local awareness regarding the importance of UCH. Therefore, in this study we will exhibit the underwater archaeological resources in Tidore and further development planning to promote and manage the remains. 2 �Figure 1. The distribution of underwater archaeology sites in Tidore Islands. Source: Field survey, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, 2021. FRAMEWORK The primary data of this study were obtained from a research report by the Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV) in 2019 and 2021. The research activities included: mapping bathymetry, hydro-oceanography, geology, and diving to observe archaeological sites' photos and videos, and the quality of the ecosystem and aquatic environment (Irani et al. 2022, 3). In addition, local interviews with the government, village officials, and communities around the site were also carried out. Masberg and Morales (1999, 290) suggest that five factors are included in ecotourism development: (1) an integrated approach; (2) planning and a slow start; (3) Education and Training; (4) maximizing local benefits and (5) evaluation and feedback. Outcomes are for a successful and viable ecotourism development; these five factors ensure the objectives are achieved. Artefact data analysis identified UCH from the Soasio Site and the Tongowai Site (Figure 1). We aimed to determine artefacts type, age, and the place of origin of production. In addition, observations of the position of the sites and GPS tracking data of important historical sites along the coast near the Soasio and Tongowai sites were also carried out, which were analysed to know the spatial distribution in relation to the two sites. 3 �RESULTS Historical Tourism and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Tidore Islands The oceanography of the Soasio site is characterized by relatively weak currents so divers can dive anytime. Aside from the underwater archaeological remains, clear seawater with various types of coral reefs and fish are attractions. The Soasio seabed has a slope of about 130 degrees. The distribution of artefacts in ship wood, ballast stone, and ceramics is 15-20 m deep (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 175). Figure 2: The distribution map of historical sites in Tidore Islands. Another site is situated in Tongowai Village where the cannon was found at a depth of 37-42 m (Figure 2). According to local interviews, the cannon had previously been lifted along with other artefacts by a salvage company in 1998. This was done by Japanese investors, as proved by the existence of two drums and ropes tied to the cannon, which were used to lift the cannon. The artefacts discovered in 1998 are stored in a Central Halmahera Guesthouse in Itagapura. The lifting of the artefacts at the Tongowai Site occurred when Tidore Islands was under the Halmahera Tengah Regency. The Significance of Underwater Archaeology in Tidore Islands Underwater Archaeology in Soasio The presence of shipwrecks at the Soasio site was known based on findings of four meters of wood in an inclined position at the depth of 12 meters. The remains are mostly covered by coral reefs and sediment deposits (Figure 3a). According to the historical records and local interviews, only Spain and 4 �Portugal colonized Tidore Island. Therefore, initial suspicions were that the ship was a Spanish or Portuguese ship anchored in the port of Tidore. However, the results of the C14 analysis show the oldest wood sample is from 1054 AD, and the youngest is from 1379 AD. The ceramics found at the Soasio site are categorized as porcelain and stoneware. Ceramics made from porcelain have a white glaze and blue-white colour under the glaze. One intact plate is known as Swatow blue and white porcelain, which was produced during the Wanli period (1575 – 1659 AD) of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), and a bowl fragment is known as blue-white porcelain from the time of Emperor Tianqi (1621 – 1627 AD) of the Ming Dynasty (Figure 3b). The findings of earthenware jars based on their size consist of large and small jars. There are seven large jars and two small jars. The jars are glazed brown, and three of them have four ears. The jars are all incomplete (Figure 3c). In the water area of the Soasio Site, there are interesting remains in the form of rock formations deliberately arranged from ancient times that look like wave breakers or beach protectors (Figure 3d). Figure 3: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; shipwreck indication (a); ceramic findings (b); jars and earthenware findings (c); bird’s eye view of Soasio site (d) The ecosystem around the Soasio site is covered by coral reefs, of about 60% (good condition) at a depth of 4-15 m, with the basic contour being a reef slope. The coral reef genera found included: Acropora sp, Merulina sp, Giniastrea sp, Montipora sp, Porites sp, Pectinia sp, Symphyllia sp, Favia sp, Astreopora sp, Montastrea sp, and Diploastrea sp (Figure 4a). Meanwhile, the types of fish found were indicator fish or associated fish and target/economic fish such as grouper, snapper, and pelagic 5 �fish (Figure 4b). The seafloor substrate consists of rubble/dead coral rubble, sand deposits and sediment resulting from landslides around the coast (Figure 4c). Based on the results of the calculation of the tourism suitability index, the Soasio site is included in the quite suitable category with a value of 73.02%. The suitability index value is based on the water brightness parameter, coral community cover, life forms, types of reef fish, archaeological site depth, current velocity, and reef depth. Figure 4: Biodiversity in the surrounding Soasio site; coral covers (a); fish ecosystem (b), sediment substrate (c). UCH in Tongowai Site The Tongowai site at a depth of 37-42 m is where the cannon was discovered. The artefacts found at the Soasio site are more scattered than at the Tongowai site. According to locals documented in Rahmawan et al. (2021, 175), the observed cannon was an artefact left over from salvage conducted in 1998 (Figure 5a). Another cannon, earthenware, and ceramics were removed in 1998 by a Japanese company and are in the government house of Halmahera Tengah Regency (Figure 5b). The condition of the pottery was not conserved, so a white surface was observed due to salting (Figure 5c). The brightness or visibility on the seabed of the Tongowai Site reaches 25 m. The bottom contour of the Tongowai waters is made up of reef flat and reef slope, with the bottom substrate consisting of dead coral fractures and sand deposits. Coral reefs are found at depths from 1 - 25 m with concentrations of dense coral cover at depths of 2 - 10 m. Percentage Cover (PC) of live coral reaches 6 �50 % (Good Condition…Figure 5d). The coral genera that can be found include: Acropora.sp, Montipora sp., Seriatopora sp., Oxipora sp., Porites sp., Stylopora sp., Pectinia sp., Psammocora sp., Galaxea sp., Fungia sp., Pocillopora sp., Favia sp. and Hidnopora sp., Goniastrea sp., and there are sponges, soft corals, and sea fans/Gorgonians. Based on the results of the tourism suitability index calculation, the Tongowai site's location is categorized into entirely appropriate for tourism with a value of 77.8%. Figure 5: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; underwater cannon finding (a); excavated cannon from Tongowai site (b); A pile of earthenware (c); coral covers and ecosystem in Tongowai site (d). Maritime and Underwater Heritage Trail Developments The places where the shipwreck and the underwater remains do exist in the Tidore Islands have potential for marine tourism, especially for underwater diving objects. Based on the process of identification and analysis of the data, a strategy for further protection and development of sustainable UCH in the Tidore Islands can be initiated. The formulation of the management strategy for developing underwater archaeology potential in the Tidore Islands is shown in Table 1. 7 �Table 1: The formulation of the underwater heritage trail development strategy. No Identified Criteria Strategic Plan  Aligning the vision and mission makes the Soasio and Tongowai 1 Mutual commitment sites sustainable tourist destinations  Involve community members in decision making. 2 People empowerment  Ensure that local communities receive benefits.  Ensure environmental sustainability.  Develop a tourist image (brand image) Gurabunga in line with the existing tourism image in the area.  Raising the history of various old buildings in the Tidore Island area, especially Tongowai and Soasio site  Environmental conservation. 3 Village attractiveness  Preservation of traditional customs and culture  Development of tourism product packaging in the form of enrichment of tourist attractions, development of tourism packages, and integrated tourism promotion.  Provision of supporting facilities for local product development.  Develop tour packages in Soasio and Tongowai village.  Education and training on village tourism and tourism awareness.  Tourism-based entrepreneurship courses/training for residents of productive age and school dropouts in order to develop local crafts, 4 Human resource development souvenirs, etc.  Intensive guidance to local guides on tourist assistance (especially climbing guides).  Provide knowledge to the public about UCH.  Formation of tourism awareness group.  Increase the creativity of the existing community.  Provide capital strengthening for the provision of support for tourism development, both for business capital for souvenirs and capital for 5 Villagers’ motivation supporting equipment for artistic attractions.  Equipping tourist companions, especially diving companions, and providing adequate diving support equipment.  Encouraging local regulations that facilitate licensing of business operations in the tourism sector in Soasio and Tongowai villages.  Planning and development of facilities & infrastructure adapted to the concepts and strategic plans of tourist destinations (coordination with Indigenous elders and the Tidore city government).  Building support facilities for unique traditional tourism activities.  Prioritizing the development of road infrastructure to facilitate access for tourists to Tongowai and Soasio Sites and adjacent villages.  Re-enable the security post along with the security forces or officers, 6 Facility and infrastructure to avoid criminal acts while in the tourist area.  The addition of a homestay in an adequate resident's house.  Public toilet construction.  Make a spatial/land use plan in the context of developing an environmentally friendly tourist village.  Install mooring/marking buoys on the two sites (Figure 8a).  Promoting Soasio and Tongowai to various mass media, namely print media, electronic media and also online media.  Make booklets and leaflets containing information on Soasio and Tongowai Village and guidebooks about UCH tourism.  Conduct counselling and socialization for tourism actors. 7 Promotion  Holding various events related to Tidore UCH.  Participate in national tourism festival events or exhibitions.  Installation of information boards (heritage trail) that tell the history of the sinking of the Trinidad ships and the history of the presence of the Spanish and Portuguese in Ternate-Tidore (Figure 8b). 8 �The right strategy for developing tourist destinations in Tidore UCH is through Community-Based Tourism, which reflects the diversity of culture, traditions, natural beauty, crafts and cuisine. Aim to become the local identity with a concentration of tourist destinations that does not compete for tourists. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Research Institute of Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV), Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesia for research funding in 2019 and 2021 in Ternate-Tidore. Gratitude is also given to the local communities of Tidore who have assisted during the field surveys. BIBLIOGRAPHY Fahri, J., Abubakar, R. and Alhadar, F.M. “Strategy for developing excellent tourist destination (A case study of Gurabunga Village, Tidore Island Municipality, North Maluku).” Journal of International Conference Proceedings 5, no.1 (2022): 1-12. Irani, H.R., Golverdi, M., Rastegar, R. and Rezaei, S. “Rapid ecotourism development and challenges: the case of ecolodge in Iran.” Tourism Recreation Research (2022):1-6. Kader, Abdurrahman. "Development planning of tourism destination as local superior economy sector: study at Tidore city islands." International Journal of Management and Administrative Sciences 5, no. 3 (2017): 19-25. Masberg, B.A. and Morales, N. “A case analysis of strategies in ecotourism development.” Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management 2, no.3 (1999): 289-300. Rahmawan, G.A., Ridwan, N.N.H., Wisha, U.J., Ilham, I., Gemilang, W.A., Andriani, F.W., Sudaryadi, A. and Irwansyah, I. “Ekowisata Terintegrasi Situs Kapal Tenggelam di Tidore Kepulauan, Maluku Utara.” Jurnal Kelautan Nasional 16, no. 3 (2021): 169-184. Runtunuwu, P.C.H. “Tourism sector development strategy in North Maluku: A case study of Tidore Islands.” International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality in Asia Pasific 3, no. 3 (2020): 1-8. Sosmiarti, S. and Fahlefi, U.A. “Pengembangan Potensi Wisata Sejarah Dan Kearifan Lokal Masyarakat Soasio Melalui Program Paket Wisata Dan Rumah Budaya Sebagai Pusat Kesultanan Tidore.” Buletin Ilmiah Nagari Membangun 2, no. 2 (2019): 94-108. Wijayanti, H., Marfai, M.A., Mutaqin, B.W., Hadmoko, D.S., Lavigne, F., Faral, A. and Riasasi, W. “Ecotourism in a Hazardous Small-Volcanic Island: Tidore Island, Indonesia.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1039, no.1 (2022): 12021. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 21: New Technologies and Interdisciplinary Strategies for the Promotion and Protection of Maritime Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 21 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 21 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia Description An account of the resource The potential of shipwreck site resources in “Spice Routes,” Ternate-Tidore, reflects several historical pieces of evidence relating to archaeological remains from the Portuguese and Spanish eras in the surrounding sea and coastal areas. In the 1990s, a plethora of archaeological remains were salvaged. An integrated archaeological study is an initial step to optimize the use of underwater archaeological resources in the area of interest. The survey consisted of local coordination, expert consultation, literature study, field surveys and underwater observations, mini excavations using water dredging, artefact samplings site measuring and documentation, artefact desalination, and C14 carbon dating analysis for wooden materials found within the site. Moreover, the water quality survey for marine tourism interests and Trinidad ship reconstruction is significant in supporting 500 years of circumnavigation of the earth by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastian Elcano and supporting publication and dissemination. Based on the present study, it is observed that Soasio and Tongowai sites have the potential to be developed as the centre of integrated marine ecotourism with maritime archaeology-based sites. This consideration is due to plenty of historical artefacts and tourism feasibility assessments. Therefore, local and regional regulations relating to regional spatial planning are crucial before implementing the ecotourism project in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wisnu A. Gemilang Nia N. H. Ridwan Guntur A. Rahmawan Ulung J. Wisha Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Gemilang, Wisnu A., Nia N. H. Ridwan, Guntur A. Rahmawan and Ulung J. Wisha. 2023. “The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Hans van Tilburg. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1916 Asia-Pac Session 21 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7062be1e10a33b21a436fa48583d28f0.pdf d7b554f1ee475142c7c78319a9bf60ff PDF Text Text The Application of Photogrammetry for Recording Indonesian Vernacular and Historical Boats and Boat Miniatures in Museum Collections Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa1,2 Chiara Zazzaro1 Agni Mochtar1,3 1 Università di Napoli “L’Orientale”, Italy Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha, Indonesia 3 National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Indonesia 2 ABSTRACT This paper fits best within Session 27 New Technology and Interdisciplinary Strategies as it focuses on the status and preservation of vernacular and historical boats and boat miniatures within Indonesian museum collections. The case study under consideration concerns challenges and strategies of using photogrammetry for recording these museum collections and for preservation, dissemination, and scientific research. The resources available to conduct the work include the full-size and miniature Indonesian boats kept in the Museum Nasional and Kebaharian Museum in Jakarta and other collections in Indonesia. The research questions of this project are: what is the suitable method, and what are the challenges in the 3D documentation of full-sized boats and miniatures in museums using the photogrammetry technique? The results of this project are comprehensive data regarding the photogrammetry workflow for museum collections and sets of digital boat models suitable for disseminating information and for scientific publication. This project is part of the Indonesian Boatbuilding Endangered Heritage Project, an ongoing collaboration among Indonesian and Italian scholars. Keywords: boats, miniatures, museum collections, photogrammetry List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: The comparison of photos sequences between miniature and full-sized boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. Figure 2: Detailed result on miniature boat Janggolan Madura. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. Figure 3: Defects on models shown on two sides of the boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. Figure 4: Imperfections due to reflection on sail material. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. INTRODUCTION In the last decades, the application of photogrammetry in the cultural heritage field has dramatically increased. Photogrammetry is easily accessible to everyone, and it provides a permanent record of heritage materials and data for accurate measurement and analysis (Yilmaz, Yakar, and Yildiz 2008, 9), which benefit the documentation and reconstruction process, and research dissemination (Forlin, Valente, and Kázmér 2018, 2). The digital data recorded by this method benefit researchers from different fields, including archaeologists, who can better manage the time spent on the field (Puspita et al. 2021, 343). For Indonesian museums, photogrammetry has become more popular with the rise of demands for digital access to museum collections. The need for digital access to entertainment and education spiked, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic (Bramantyo and Ismail 2021, 185; Soraya and Sigit Martyastiadi 2021, 26). However, only a few museums can cope with the demands, and most collections still need to be digitally represented nowadays—especially endangered maritime heritage in the form of historical and vernacular boats. In fact, in nautical archaeology, photogrammetry is especially useful for reverse engineering processes, extrapolating naval lines from 3D models and creating a permanent record P A G 1 �of boat architectures. Unlike other types of applications, photogrammetry measurements and tolerances are much less restrictive, and the accuracy obtained is sufficient at this scope (Martorelli, Pensa, and Speranza 2014). Vernacular boats and boatbuilding in many places in Indonesia faced a rapid decline with the introduction of modern shipbuilding, accompanied by a high demand for manufactured ships. The lack of knowledge transfer within the boatbuilder communities exacerbates the decline. As observed in the boatyards in Pasuruan, East Java, the skills and knowledge of boatbuilding are only taught from fathers to sons, without any guarantee that today’s generation wants to continue working on building boats (Mochtar, Taniardi and Purnawibawa 2021). A similar situation is found in Tana Beru, a village in South Sulawesi, where there is probably the largest cluster of wooden boatyards in the world, especially for building a type of boat known as pinisi. Here, most of the production concerns large boats, and only a few builders master the skills to make boats using traditional tools and processes and with the mandatory accompanying ceremonies (Zazzaro et al. 2022). The Endangered Indonesian Boat Building Heritage Project focuses on documenting the endangered boatbuilding traditions in Indonesia while also building up a digital archive of boats and boat miniatures collections, which are often overlooked. The digital copy of these collections could be used as educational tools and for conservation purposes. This latter use, for example, would have helped preserve boats of the Jakarta Maritime Museum, which lost around 100 collection items to a fire in 2018, including a Balinese outrigger boat and other important vernacular and historical boats (Nizar 2018). While the museum has now finished its reconstruction and is operating normally, the loss of part of the collection is severe. Even though digital archives will not replace the actual collections, their absence prevents the museum from creating replicas or integrating the exhibit with the digital collection. The Endangered Indonesian Boat Building Heritage Project campaigns to avoid a similar scenario from happening again using photogrammetry for documenting the boats and boat miniatures collections. CASE STUDIES The case study under consideration concerns challenges and strategies of using photogrammetry for recording historical and vernacular boats and boat miniatures in museum collections and for preservation, dissemination, and scientific publication. In the form of boats and their depiction, the maritime heritage is critically underrepresented in virtual platforms. The only present collections are the pinisi boat and the janggolan boat. Both miniatures are collections of the National Museum and are featured in the National Museum virtual tour (Virtual Tour 2023). Another boat type is the alut pasak dayak, a full-sized boat from the Jakarta Maritime Museum collection featured in the Tetangga Exhibition web-based online platform (Tetangga Exhibition 2023). Usually, the museum works together with third parties to provide all models used in these virtual or online exhibitions. The lack of proper equipment and necessary skills is mentioned as the cause of the museum's inability to support its own need for a virtual museum. Hence, there is a need to address this issue. Despite some ambiguous information on the provenance of some boats and boat models, every object has been carefully documented, just like an archaeological artefact. The recording is performed with a nautical archaeology approach, meaning that the documentation attempts to record all details in the object in opposition to merely recording the general form. Besides 3D photogrammetry of the boats and boat models, the project also aims to produce more detailed information, such as the hull lines and the description of the boat's components. Therefore, the results of this project would be helpful for the general public who only wish to see the collection and the specific public, such as researchers and conservators, who need to observe the detail of the objects. Another aim of the project is to train museum conservators P A G 2 �in photogrammetry documentation so that they will systematically produce digital copies of the new collection acquisitions in the future. RESOURCES The boats and boat miniatures recorded in this research are collections of various museums in Indonesia, namely the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta Maritime Museum, Museum of Indonesia, and Transportation Museum. The chosen boats and miniatures represent different regions in Indonesia and represent traditional workmanship for actual-sized boats, while the miniatures, to some degree, provide accuracy and similarities to the actual boats they represent. Miniature boats are usually made by artisans who know the boats' architecture very well because they usually live in the area or they were former boatbuilders. So far, data have been gathered from 2019 to 2023 through a series of fieldwork by research members. The documentation processes are conducted using different mirrorless digital cameras, Sony RX 100II, Sony Alpha 7C, Canon M100, and Canon M50. In order to reconstruct the objects using the photogrammetry technique, this research uses the program Agisoft Metashape. To support the purpose of disseminating the project results, Sketchfab is chosen as an online platform. Sketchfab offers dedicated categories for cultural heritage and historical objects and has been used by institutions as well as amateurs to display their collections. Sketchfab also provides editing tools and supports virtual reality devices (Statham 2019). FRAMEWORK Considering the urgency of photogrammetry documentation and its benefits for the public and scientific field, there is a need for rapidly, yet properly, documenting the collection of boats in Indonesian museums. This article explores the suitable method and challenges in documenting full-sized boats and miniature boats in museums using photogrammetry. RESULTS Photogrammetry Processes The principle of photogrammetry is to reconstruct the three-dimensional form of an object in digital form through a series of photographs. Ideally, the photographs cover 360 degree angles of the object from different elevations. Considering the complicated shape of the boats, the photos easily surpassed hundreds to generate desirable results. There are several steps to execute the work efficiently in a photogrammetry workflow. The basic workflow includes the digitization processes, which can be broken down into several steps, including preparations, recording, pre-processing, measurement analysis, finishing, exporting (Puspita et al. 2021, 344), and continued with interpretation and visualization processes to make the models accessible through different means (Condorelli and Bonetto 2022). Following those steps should help us to produce optimal results for photogrammetry. However, the shape of the objects, space, and light limitations inside the museum challenged the workflow. Most of the fullsized boats in the museums cannot be moved from the display room due to their weight and space P A G 3 �limitations inside the museum. For example, the Papua Canoe kept in the Jakarta Maritime Museum is 'trapped' by the museum building's structural pillars due to its large size. Another challenge was the lighting conditions in the museum: some 'immovable' collections are hard to be photographed with even lighting due to their positions and the proximity to structural obstacles such as walls and pillars, which also create shadows. Finally, the museum's lighting level, which was kept dim between 50-100 lux, proved challenging to work with. Digitisation proceeded in such conditions and limitations. The first step was the selection of the full-sized boats based on their authenticity, historical information provided by the museum, and visual observation in the museum. Only historical and vernacular boats were documented, and modern boats were excluded since they did not provide value to this project. Otherwise the miniature boats were selected based on their accuracy in representing the actual boat type, museum information, team observation, and craftsmanship. Miniatures of modern boats and 'strange-looking' vernacular boats deemed proportionally or architecturally inaccurate, were excluded. The project recorded two full-sized / eight miniature boats at the National Museum, eight full-sized / five miniature boats at Jakarta Maritime Museum, four full-sized / four miniature boats at the Transportation Museum, and two miniature boats at the Museum of Indonesia. The next step was recording or taking photographs of the boats. Miniature boats were more manageable compared to full-sized boats due to their size. They were usually displayed in a glass vitrine which can be easily transported to more open areas and placed on top of a table or pedestal helpful for the photogrammetry workflow. In order to document the miniatures, the object was photographed from all directions or 360 degrees with different elevations to capture details. For example, the higher elevation angles captured the mast, sail, and deck, and the lower angles captured the hull, keel, and rudder. A detailed photograph can be obtained while maintaining adequate overlap pictures capturing the whole dimension of the miniature boats. P A G 4 �Figure 1: The comparison of photos sequences between miniature and full-sized boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. On the other hand, recording a full-sized boat in museum collections requires a different approach. Space and light limitations and the size of the boat made shooting more complicated. A full-sized boat cannot be treated as a single object due to its size and obstacle in the working area. The team documented parts of the boats individually, and then tried to connect to these parts digitally. The focus of the documentation is on parts that contain essential detail. Since it was almost impossible to photograph the complete shape of the boat, continuity and overlap from one photo to the next were essential. With this approach, photos taken on full-sized boats have a clear direction and retain detail from all parts of the boat. The consequence of this technique was that the number of pictures taken was greater than the photos in the miniature collection, as shown in Figure 1. This process was also directly followed by museum staff, who participated in documenting their collection. Photos from each boat collection were then archived digitally, then processed using Agisoft Metashape software to produce a three-dimensional model. The processing included aligning the photos, building a dense cloud, building a mesh, texturing, calibrating, and simplifying the mesh for smaller file-size models. The final result was then exported in .obj and .mtl format, and texture map files were uploaded to Sketchfab. Photogrammetry Results The results of this project provided us with various data sets of historical and vernacular boats and miniatures in the form of three-dimensional models and detailed pictures. The photogrammetry method yielded satisfactory results, with the three-dimensional models successfully preserving the detail and texture of the boat and miniature boats, as shown in Figure 2. The detail allowed us to access more data for future research, including the iconography of the boats, decoration, and pattern used by different P A G 5 �vernacular boats. The calibrated model also preserved the detailed measurement of the boat parts. This record will provide invaluable data for studying boat characteristics, reverse engineering, and understanding the nature of the boats, especially in full-sized boats. Figure 2: Detailed result on miniature boat Janggolan Madura. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. However, on a few models, there are defects in the final results due to imperfections in capturing the image of the boat. Three factors usually contribute to the quality of the model produced from the photogrammetry: image quality, scene complexity, and environmental condition (O'Connor 2018). In this project, two noticeable imperfections can be observed in the final models: the different coloration of the boat parts and the holes usually in the lower parts of the boat models. The difference in coloration (as shown in Figure 3) could be observed in two different parts of the models due to the difference in light exposure. Figure 3 shows that the A side of the boat is correctly exposed to the light, while the B side is underexposed. Figure 3 shows that if the image records a shadow, the shadow will also be introduced to the final models (Kreimer 2020). This defect is often shown on full-sized boats, especially those positioned in the limited space of display rooms, which prohibit the introduction of additional lights or a tripod for long-exposure photographs. This defect could be reversed using Agisoft Delighter, with the expense of losing texture and detail on the model's surface, which is not ideal for the purpose of this project. P A G 6 �Figure 3: Defects on models shown on two sides of the boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. Another visible defect is the presence of holes in less textured and plain materials. In this case, holes occurred in the sail of miniature boats (see Figure 4). Single-colored materials lacking physical texture are difficult to reconstruct in photogrammetry (Kreimer 2020, 7). However, Figure 4 shows that Model A preserves the sail's detail and shape much better due to exposure to adequate light than Model B. The underexposed Model B also shows the cast of shadows in several parts, including the sail, mast, deck, and hull. While this defect is less likely to impact measurement data and its potential for scientific purposes (except the study of iconography, which is affected by the loss of details due to shadows), these models are less desirable to use for public benefit, considering their appearance. Figure 4: Imperfections due to reflection on sail material. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. P A G 7 �The photogrammetry results from this project show that practical methods for documenting the objects needs to be adapted to the complexity of the objects. The shape and size of full-sized boats provide challenges for the documentation team, which need to be overcome with a slightly different approach from the usual photogrammetry method. This project also shows the importance of proper lighting and location setup for object documentation. Considering the high complexity of the vernacular boats and miniatures, the details need to be preserved properly to allow their digital copies to benefit scientists and the public. In the case of Indonesian museums, these challenges are relatively common in many museums since only a handful of museums are equipped with proper working areas and needed equipment. This condition could change our mindset for displaying collections or storing collections, especially full-sized boats, in a more proper location, with access from multiple angles. CONCLUSION The results obtained from this project show that the photogrammetric method is an effective method for making three-dimensional collections models and has succeeded in giving a satisfactory output. However, due to technical challenges, planning and strategy are needed in collecting data for each collection. The technical challenges found were the position of the collection in the exhibition space or display room. In some cases the display space could be more conducive to photogrammetry by removing obstruction of building structures, and more space to place the camera. Another challenge is ensuring enough light in the photograph process. The position of the collection and the lighting conditions often make the collection underexposed, or in some cases, cause the material in the collection to reflect light, which makes the 3D model imperfect. For this reason, a different approach is needed to record the different types of collections in the form of full-sized boats and miniature boats. Documentation of full-sized boats can be done in several sections and focuses on boat attributes, compared to miniature boats that can be documented as whole objects. As a result, a three-dimensional model can be obtained with accuracy and detail and can be used for educational, academic, and public purposes. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the International Association for Mediterranean and Oriental Studies (ISMEO) for supporting the Indonesian Boatbuilding Endangered Heritage Project. We are also thankful to the Museum Nasional Indonesia (Indonesia National Museum), Museum Kebaharian Jakarta (Jakarta Maritime Museum), Museum Indonesia (Museum of Indonesia), and Museum Transportasi (Transportation Museum) for providing access needed for the documentation of the museum collections. P A G 8 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Bramantyo, B. D., and P. Ismail. “Digital Tourism Museum Nasional Indonesia Melalui Virtual Tour Di Masa Pandemi COVID19.” WACANA: Jurnal Ilmiah Ilmu Komunikasi 20, no. 2 (2021): 184–196. https://doi.org/10.32509/wacana.v20i2.1616. Condorelli, F., and J. Bonetto. “3D Digitalization and Visualization of Archaeological Artifacts with the Use of Photogrammetry and Virtual Reality System.” In International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 48 (2022): 51–57. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-2-W1-2022-51-2022. Forlin, P., R. Valente, and M. Kázmér. “Assessing Earthquake Effects on Archaeological Sites Using Photogrammetry and 3D Model Analysis.” Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 9, no. 6 (2018): 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2018.e00073. Kreimer, B. “Guide to Photogrammetry Photography.” Washington, D.C: Online News Association, 2020. Martorelli, M., C. Pensa, and D. Speranza. “Digital Photogrammetry for Documentation of Maritime Heritage.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 9, no. 1 (2014): 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-014-9124-x. Mochtar, A., P. Taniardi, and A. G. Purnawibawa. “As my father said Traditional boatbuilding in Pasuruan.” The SEAMEO SPAFA International Conference on Southeast Asian Archaeology and Fine Arts, December, (2021): 234–240. Nizar, H. Interview on JPNN, 17 January 2018. https://www.jpnn.com/news/kerugian-akibat-kebakaran-museum-bahari-takternilai, accessed 19 April 2023. Puspita, A. A., M. Triharini, M. Risfan, and B. Salam. “A Study on Museum Artifact Digitization Using Photogrammetry Method for Preservation and Design Education.” Advances in Social Sciences, Education and Humanities Research 65 (2021): 343350. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.211228.045. Soraya, A., and Y. Sigit Martyastiadi. “Aesthetics of Virtual: The Development Opportunities of Virtual Museums in Indonesia.” International Journal of Creative And Arts Studies 8 no. 1 (2021): 25-33. https://doi.org/10.24821/ijcas.v8i1.5346. Statham, N. “Scientific Rigour of Online Platforms for 3D Visualisation of Heritage.” Virtual Archaeology Review 10, 20 (2019): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.4995/var.2019.9715. Tetangga Exhibition. Jakarta Maritime Museum. https://tetanggaexhibition.com/en/node/3, accessed 19 April 2023. Virtual Tour. Badan Layanan Umum Museum Nasional Indonesia. https://www.museumnasional.or.id/virtual-tour, accessed 19 April 2023. Yilmaz, H. M., M. Yakar, and F. Yildiz. “Documentation of Historical Caravansaries by Digital Close Range Photogrammetry.” Automation in Construction 17, 4 (2008): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2007.09.003. Zazzaro, C., H. Liebner, A. Soriente, G. Ferraioli, and A. G. Purnawibawa. “The Construction of an Historical Boat in South Sulawesi (Indonesia): The Padewakang.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 17, 4 (2022): 507–557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-022-09332-5. P A G 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 21: New Technologies and Interdisciplinary Strategies for the Promotion and Protection of Maritime Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 21 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 21 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Application of Photogrammetry for Recording Indonesian Vernacular and Historical Boats and Boat Miniatures in Museum Collections Description An account of the resource This paper fits best within Session 27 New Technology and Interdisciplinary Strategies as it focuses on the status and preservation of vernacular and historical boats and boat miniatures within Indonesian museum collections. The case study under consideration concerns challenges and strategies of using photogrammetry for recording these museum collections and for preservation, dissemination, and scientific research. The resources available to conduct the work include the full-size and miniature Indonesian boats kept in the Museum Nasional and Kebaharian Museum in Jakarta and other collections in Indonesia. The research questions of this project are: what is the suitable method, and what are the challenges in the 3D documentation of full-sized boats and miniatures in museums using the photogrammetry technique? The results of this project are comprehensive data regarding the photogrammetry workflow for museum collections and sets of digital boat models suitable for disseminating information and for scientific publication. This project is part of the Indonesian Boatbuilding Endangered Heritage Project, an ongoing collaboration among Indonesian and Italian scholars. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa Chiara Zazzaro Agni Mochtar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Purnawibawa, Ahmad Ginanjar, Chiara Zazzaro, and Agni Mochtar. 2023. “The application of photogrammetry for recording Indonesian vernacular and historical boats and boat miniatures in museum collections.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Hans van Tilburg. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1915 Asia-Pac Session 21 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/dd7bbfa214bd7d4937538d155c9f0e91.pdf 9699d2a1a87397f3c219e9a8ecea795d PDF Text Text Satellite-derived bathymetry and rock detection for maritime archaeology using VENµS imagery Gerardo Diaz1, Dr. Yoav Lehahn2, Dr. Emmanuel Nantet3 1 Department of Bible Studies, Archaeology and the Ancient Near East. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel, PhD Student. 2 Department of Maritime Geosciences, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Israel, Senior Lecturer. 3 Department of Maritime Civilizations, School of Archaeology and Maritime Cultures, University of Haifa, Israel, Associate Professor. ABSTRACT Since its beginnings in 1975, deriving bathymetry by means of multispectral satellite imagery has been a method that has not yet been fully exploited in the maritime archaeology realm. It focuses on using the blue and green bands for their water penetration capabilities to later convert each pixel into depth values. This method can be replicated in time and space, while keeping costs low and covering large areas. In this research, two highresolution bathymetric maps using VENµS satellite imagery and a variation of Stumpf’s equation were produced. Two archaeological sites were selected: the harbour of Sebastos (built by King Herod) and the Achziv ridges on the northern coast of Israel. The importance of collecting satellite imagery under low Chl-a [mg/m3] conditions is addressed, and an algorithm for identifying shallow rocks above and below the water level is included. Our research suggests that satellite-derived bathymetry mapping along the Israeli coast is more efficient for satellite images taken between March and September, when Chl-a concentrations are likely to be lower; maximum depth penetration using VENμS is found to be approximately up to 23 m depth with a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.53. Keywords: VENμS; bathymetry; chlorophyll-a; rock identification List of Abbreviations Red, Green and Blue Satellite-Derived Bathymetry Chlorophyll-a RGB SDB Chl-a List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: Study Areas and Ground-truth data in comparison with VENμS satellite imagery. Figure 2: SDB results for low and high Chl-a content for the Achziv ridges. Figure 3: SDB results for the Harbour of Sebastos and the Hader port. Table 1: Comparison between in situ depth points taken during the Caesarea shipwreck excavation of December 2017 and the SDB map from May 2020. INTRODUCTION Most common approaches for deriving bathymetry rely on acoustic systems (such as sonar) or aerial alternatives such as LiDAR. However, these methods are expensive, labour-intensive and difficult to scale them into large areas (Stumpf et al. 2003, 547; Traganos et al. 2018, 2). In contrast, in recent years, Satellite-Derived Bathymetry (SDB) has been suggested as cost-effective for regions where traditional methods are either impractical to operate or highly expensive (Jagalingam et al. 2015, 565; Sam et al. 2018, 750), or there is poor or no data at all (Westley 2021, 17). The use of satellites to derive bathymetric maps has been proven to be not only reliable (Jagalingam et al. 2015, 560-566; Guzinski et al. 2016, 243-263; Sam et al. 2018, 1-14) but also cheaper in comparison with the technologies mentioned above (Jagalingam et al. 2015, 561). Bathymetric mapping highly benefits maritime and underwater archaeologists by facilitating them to understand site formation processes, shipwreck scours (Caston 1979, 193-204; Quinn 2006, 14191432); reconstruct paleo-landscapes (Westley et al. 2014, 411-430; Westley 2021, 12-14) as well as to 1 �conserve, protect, and preserve underwater cultural heritage (Maarvelend et al. 2013, 191-192). In this paper, near-shore landscape reconstruction is assessed through SDB and rock identification through VENµS satellite imagery. The study incorporates a procedural framework encompassing sea conditions such as low Chl-a content prior to acquiring high-resolution satellite imagery over the area of interest, and two algorithms capable of identifying rocks above and below the water. The significance of this approach stems from its replicability in oligotrophic waters of the Pacific Ocean, as well as the potential utility of the proposed algorithms in coastal environments exhibiting analogous reflectance properties. CASE STUDIES For the application of SDB, two different areas were selected along the coast of Israel. The underwater aeolian Achziv ridges, located off the coast of the North District (Figure 1A), were chosen due to their proximity to Shikmona (Haifa), where a 6-year record of Chl-a content is available, and lowbathymetric data is accessible. With respect to important archaeological sites, only Tel Achziv is known (c. 5 km south of the Israeli border with Lebanon). This site was a Phoenician city that rose at the end of the 8th century BCE and was also a maritime stop thanks to its convenient seaside location and easily accessible sand beach for landing (Jasmin et al. 2016, 276). The second area includes the Roman harbour of Sebastos and the modern port of Hadera (Figure 1A). The former was chosen because it is a very well-studied harbour (Raban et al. 2009; Bergin 2018; Galili et al. 2021, 8-16) and in situ depths are available. The latter because it contains low-resolution bathymetry, which serves as ground-truth data. The harbour of Sebastos, now fully submerged, was built by King Herod in 21 BCE. It took more than five years to construct, and when completed, it was the largest artificial harbour of its time in the Mediterranean (Raban 1992). Hadera is a medium-sized port, located around 3.7 km south of the previous. This port was completed in the early 1960s, and it currently specialises in coal and fuel oil products and serves the two adjacent power stations (MarineTraffic 2023; Shipnext 2023). RESOURCES The resources available to conduct this work include: Sonar Data Sonar bathymetric data was collected between 2001 and 2006. Horizontal resolution is 50x50 m and one metre vertically. Although this data is highly reliable, its spatial resolution is too broad, and it does not cover near-shore areas and regions proximate to harbours, which makes it impractical for maritime archaeology applications. Chl-a Field Observations Although there is some research including Chl-a concentrations to produce SDB maps (Li et al. 2019, 4; Li et al. 2021, 4), they do not evaluate how high concentrations can mislead SDB calculations. To estimate the sensitivity of SDB to fluctuating Chl-a concentrations, a series of measurements were taken from 2013 – 2019 on a weekly to monthly basis at the Shikmona station (Raveh 2015, 1-23; Rahav 2018, 10). Two notable contrasting periods were identified: one, during the Israeli summer season on 25 July 2018 (low Chl-a concentrations), and another on 14 December 2018 (high Chl-a content). In-situ Depth Measurements In December 2017, underwater excavations took place in Caesarea, in the northern part of the bay, around 60 m offshore (Derenne et al. 2019, 77). The investigation was led by Prof. Emmanuel Nantet from the University of Haifa. The excavation was aimed at conducting a reappraisal of a shipwreck discovered in 1976, briefly explored by Avner Raban (2008, 129; 2009, 69-149) and subsequently 2 �studied by Michael Fitzgerald (1989a, 4-9; 1989b, 184-190; 1989c; 1994, 163-223; 1995). Due to the important dimensions of her hull components, especially the 10-cm thick planking, it seems that she was initially a large merchantman, that sank in the Early Roman Period (Nantet 2020). Ten hull points were recorded from the ship, using a Total Station following the technique specified by Bowens (2009, 92). These points were later used to validate SDB depths in the Habour of Sebastos. VENμS Satellite Imagery VENμS (Vegetation and Environment monitoring New Micro-Satellite) is a recent initiative between the Israeli Space Agency (ISA) and the French Space Agency (CNES) aimed at developing, manufacturing, and operating a new Earth observing satellite using a superspectral camera that provides high resolution imagery in both space and time (VENμS, 3). VENμS acquires satellite imagery at four, five, and 10 m resolution with a revisit period of every two days. VENμS can be accessed at https://venus.bgu.ac.il/venus/. It provides three levels of products: L1 (TOA reflectance), L2, and L3 (surface reflectance). Two L3 products for the Achziv ridges were employed, one on 25 July 2018, and another on 14 December 2018 for low and high Chl-a content, respectively. The other product (L2) was used for the Caesarea and Hadera ports under low Chl-a conditions and was taken on 21 May 2020. Drone Imagery Although the harbour of Sebastos was the main commercial maritime trading place during the Roman and Byzantine periods, natural anchorages were highly utilised as well. The Sebastos harbour complex has two natural anchorages, which have been thoroughly studied by Ratzlaff et al. (2017), Galili (2017), and Galili et al. (2021). These two natural anchorages are commonly labelled as Northern and Southern anchorages. In this area, one set of aerial imagery was collected. The UAV deployed was a DJI Mavic Mini at 50-m above sea level to qualitatively validate the presence of these anchorages as well as some other underwater and above-water rocks along the study area. Images were taken on 10 February 2021 before the Israeli oil spill (16 February 2021). The images were then converted into orthomosaics by using the professional 3D modelling software Agisoft Metashape. FRAMEWORK The research questions for this paper are: ï‚· Which climate and water conditions should be considered to derive bathymetry from satellite sensors? ï‚· Up to what depth is satellite-derived bathymetry still reliable along the Israeli coast? ï‚· What is the reliability of the method in comparison with in-situ measurements? ï‚· How can one easily highlight both above-water and shallow underwater rocks? ï‚· How do underwater archaeologists benefit from this? RESULTS Except for L1 products, VENμS does not require a long pre-processing stage (e.g., DN to radiance and radiance to reflectance) or atmospheric corrections. The spectral band ratio model used in this research is based on Stumpf’s linear algorithm (Equation 1). The algorithm requires tunable constants mo and m1 to scale the ratio to absolute depth values (Stumpf et al. 2003, 550); n is generally taken as 1000 (Sam et al. 2018, 8; Li et al. 2021, 4; Traganos et al. 2018, 5) to ensure a positive outcome. Bands blue and green are used due to their maximum penetration capabilities, which correspond to bands two and four for VENμS. For this research, a variation of Stumpf’s equation was used (Equation 2) as proposed by Sam et al. (2018, 4) for relative depths where no tunable parameters are needed but ground-truth data is employed instead. 3 �ln(𝑛∗𝐵2) 𝑍 = 𝑚0 ln(𝑛∗𝐵4) − 𝑚1 ….……………………Equation 1 𝑍𝑟 = ln(𝑛∗𝐵2) ….……..…………...….………Equation ln(𝑛∗𝐵4) 2 First, Equation 2 is applied in a training area where sonar data near the shore is available (Figures 1B and 1D). The values obtained from this band ratio underwent a low-filter convolution to smooth and decrease the disparity between pixel values. Then, all pixel values were converted from five to 50 m pixel size to match the sonar’s spatial resolution. A scatter plot is produced between sonar (x-axis) and spectral (y-axis) data, and a quadratic regression model is obtained to ensure the best fitting model (Figures 1C and 1E). Second, a new band ratio is applied in a near-shore region of interest, and depth values are derived from the quadratic model, from which only positive and real values are considered. These values are assigned to a nx1 matrix labelled as Z. An additional nx2 matrix containing values for latitude (X) and longitude (Y) (in UTM coordinates) is adjoined to the previous matrix. These points are then exported to ArcGIS 18.0, and an SDB map is obtained by using kriging interpolation (Amante 2016, 123-133). Figure 1: Study Areas and Ground-truth data in comparison with VENμS satellite imagery. a) Study Areas; b) Sonar bathymetry map for the Achziv ridges; c) Scatter plot and regression analysis between sonar bathymetry (x-axis), and band ratio values (y-axis). For high Chl-a content: Y = 0.00009X2 + 0.00224X + 0.93679. For low Chl-a content, Y = 0.00039X2 + 0.02046X + 0.91304; d) Sonar bathymetry map for the Harbour system of Caesarea; e) Scatter plot and regression analysis between sonar bathymetry and band ratio values, Y = - 0.0003816X2 + 0.020445X + 0.856941. SDB Performance under Different Chl-a Concentrations: The Achziv Ridges Two bathymetric maps were generated for the Achziv ridges, its closeness to Shikmona makes them ideal for relating Chl-a measurements to specific dates. RGB colour composition is shown for low and high Chl-a content (Figures 2A and 2B). Maximum depths reach 23 m during July, as shown in Figure 1C, when Chl-a concentrations are likely to be low. In contrast, although the coefficient of 4 �determination (R2 = 0.9784) derived from sonar and spectral values was high during high Chl-a content (Figure 1C), SDB mapping was demonstrated to be entirely ineffective by not only concealing the aeolianite ridges but also misleading water depth values (Figure 2D) of up to 62.3-m. Additionally, white pixels represented erroneous and false bathymetry by showing values up to 12 m above sealevel. Conversely, SDB for July displays the ridges in detail. A major ridge expanding in a NNE-SSW direction, and two minor ridges closer to the shore at depths of 6–10 m were visible. Additionally, SDB proved to be useful for identifying shallow coastal geomorphological features such as a possible basin at 10–13 m depth, and an isolated rounded feature around the middle of the main ridge (Figure 2C), all of them not visible on the sonar data. Figure 2. SDB results for low and high Chl-a content for the Achziv ridges; a) low Chl-a RGB; b) high Chl-a RGB; c) low Chl-a SDB, two features; d) high Chl-a SDB, pixels in white denote false bathymetry above mean sea level. SDB and Rock Identification: The Harbour of Sebastos and the Hadera port The previous methodology was followed for the second study area (Figure 3A), obtaining a point grid matrix of nx3, containing latitude, longitude, and depths derived from the quadratic equation (Figure 1E), from which a high-resolution (five m/pixel) georeferenced bathymetric map was generated, covering a total area of 15,770 km2 (Figure 3B). Shallow areas were found between Hadera port and Sebastos harbour. Within these regions, traditional ship-based measurements would be almost inaccessible due to high expenses and complicated logistics in comparison with SDB. The algorithm’s final limitation went up to 23 m (Figure 1E), similar to the Achziv ridges (Figure 2). In general, SDB has better performance between four and ten metres deep. Uncertainties appear below four metres deep because the water column attenuation becomes very weak due to the short light transfer path (Dekker et al. 2011, 405, 415; Li et al. 2019, 11), which can lead to small discrepancies between the blue (band two) and green (band three). Moreover, the reflective properties of bottom substrates and bottom albedo also affect its accuracy (Green et al. 2000, 220-233). Above 10 m, light is attenuated, which can lead to weak signals (Lee et al. 2012, 2578). To evaluate the SDB’s performance, satellite depths were compared with the data mentioned in the Resources Section. Comparison between these measurements taken in situ and SDB depths (Figure 3C) yielded an outstanding RMSE of 0.52 m (Table 1), which is remarkably good if compared with similar studies (Westley 2021, 8), where the best RMSE was 2.56 m using Sentinel 2 data (10 m/pixel) and a polynomial fitting, or Li et al. (2019, 8), who reported an RMSE of 1.67 m using Planet Dove 5 �satellites (four m/pixel). Note that the shipwreck was again covered by sand during the SDB approach; thus, satellite depths should be slightly larger to reach the hull. Concerning rock identification, it was found that due to their water penetration capabilities, by multiplying bands three (cyan) and four (green), submerged rocks in shallow waters were enhanced. Likewise, rocks above the water were identified by subtracting band eight (red edge) from band seven (red). The results of applying both algorithms for rock identification are integrated in Figure 3. Underwater rocks are displayed in red, while rocks above the water are shown in yellow. Validation of the proposed algorithms for identifying rocks above and below the water was qualitatively corroborated in Figure 3D by overlying drone imagery over the rocky areas. Figure 3. SDB results for the Harbour of Sebastos and the Hader port a) RGB; b) SDB map and rock identification map; c) location of the Caesarea shipwreck points; d) location and validation of the Northern anchorages; Southern anchorages are enclosed in the white box. Table 1: Comparison between in situ depth points taken during the Caesarea shipwreck excavation of December 2017 and the SDB map from May 2020. Measurement number Measured depths in situ (m) SDB depths (m) Depth Difference (m) 1 2 2.5441 2.5771 3.021 3.021 0.4769 0.4439 3 2.7984 3.021 0.2226 4 2.6654 3.139 0.4736 5 2.5230 3.139 0.716 6 2.8519 3.139 0.2871 7 2.8090 3.118 0.309 8 2.5481 3.118 0.5699 9 2.1775 3.139 0.9615 10 2.7698 3.118 0.3482 RMSE = 0.5253 m 6 �CONCLUSIONS The results can be used to comprehend the geological and archaeological landscape of the ancient harbour of Sebastos as well as the northern ridges of Achziv. This approach can be easily replicated in other regions as long as Chl-a concentrations remain low using any other multispectral set of imagery (preferably high resolution). The following conclusions can be drawn from this research: ï‚· ï‚· ï‚· ï‚· ï‚· ï‚· ï‚· For the Israeli coast, SDB mapping should be done for images taken between March and September, when Chl-a concentrations are likely lower. Results show that a high R2 coefficient between ground-truth and spectral data does not necessarily mean that SDB values will be accurate or trustworthy; hence, special attention should be given to the environmental conditions at the time of image acquisition. Both VENμS products (L3 and L2) yielded highly reliable results and are highly recommended for SDB bathymetry studies. The maximum light penetration depth for the coast of Israel was up to 23 m. Errors likely below this depth. The product obtained from multiplying bands three and four from VENμS can be used for identifying rocks submerged in shallow waters. The subtraction of band eight from band seven is suitable for detecting rocks above the water level. It is strongly recommended to integrate rock identification with SDB for future research projects. It will be of special interest to replicate this method in the Asian Pacific to test both light penetration capabilities and the ideal yearly timing for multispectral image acquisition based on the Chl-a content of a proposed study area. Likewise, rock detection using other sensors should be examined as well. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research would not have been possible without the support from the University of Haifa scholarships during my M.A. programme. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Amante, Christopher J., and Brian W. Eakins. "Accuracy of interpolated bathymetry in digital elevation models." Journal of Coastal Research 76, (2016): 123-133. Bergin, B. 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E., Schill, S. R., Roelfsema, C., Phinn, S., Silman, M., and Asner, G. P. "Adaptive bathymetry estimation for shallow coastal waters using Planet Dove satellites." Remote Sensing of Environment 232 (2019): 8-11. Maarleveld, T. J., Guérin, U., and Egger, B. (Eds.) “Conservation and Site Management.” In Manual for activities directed at underwater cultural heritage: Guidelines to the annex of the UNESCO 2001 convention. UNESCO, 191-192, Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 2013. MarineTraffic. 2023. “Hadera Port.” Accessed on 27 May 2023. https://www.marinetraffic.com/en/ais/details/ports/19583?name=HADERA&country=Israel#Summary Nantet, Emmanuel. 2020. “Caesarea Shipwreck.” Accessed on 25 September 2021. http://www.hadashotesi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=25879&mag_id=128 Quinn, R. “The role of scour in shipwreck site formation processes and the preservation of wreck-associated scour signatures in the sedimentary record–evidence from seabed and sub-surface data.” Journal of Archaeological Science 33, no. 10 (2006): 1419-1432. Raban, A. “Sebastos: the Royal Harbour at Caesarea Maritima—A Short Lived Giant.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21, no.2 (1992): 111-124. Raban, A. J. Underwater excavations in the Herodian harbor Sebastos, 1995-1999 seasons, 129, Oxford: BAR International Series, 2008. Raban, A. J., Artzy, M., Goodman, B., and Gal. Z. The Harbour of Sebastos (Caesarea Maritima) in its Roman Mediterranean Context, 69-149. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2009. Rahav, E., Belkin, N., Paytan, A., and Herut, B. "Phytoplankton and bacterial response to desert dust deposition in the coastal waters of the southeastern Mediterranean Sea: A four-year in situ survey." Atmosphere 8 (2018): 305. Ratzlaff, A., Galili, E., Waiman-Barak, P., and Yasur-Landau, A. “The Plurality of Harbors at Caesarea: The Southern Anchorage in Late Antiquity.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 12, no.2 (2017): 125-146. Raveh, O., David, N., Rilov, G., and Rahav, E. "The temporal dynamics of coastal phytoplankton and bacterioplankton in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea." PLoS One 10, no.10 (2015): 1-23. Sam, L., Prusty, G., and Gahlot, N. "Evaluation of optical remote sensing-based shallow water bathymetry for recursive mapping." Geocarto International 33, no.7 (2018): 1-14. Stumpf, R. P., Holderied, K., and Sinclair, M. "Determination of Water Depth with High-Resolution Satellite Imagery over Variable Bottom Types." Limnology and Oceanography 48, no. 1/2 (2003): 547-550. Shipnext. 2023. “The Shipping Platform.” Accessed on 27 July 2023. https://shipnext.com/port/hadera-ilhad-isr Traganos, D., Poursanidis, D., Aggarwal, B., Chrysoulakis, N., and Reinartz, P. "Estimating satellite-derived bathymetry (SDB) with the Google Earth Engine and Sentinel-2." Remote Sensing 10, no.6 (2018): 2-5. VENμS. 2023. "VENμS Mission and Products." VENμS (Vegetation and Environment monitoring New Micro Satellite), accessed on 23 May 2023. https://venus.bgu.ac.il/Links/VENuS_mission_summary_VM05_v02.pdf Westley, K., Plets, R., and Quinn, R. “Holocene paleo geographic reconstructions of the Ramore Head area, Northern Ireland, using geophysical and geotechnical data: Paleo landscape mapping and archaeological implications.” Geoarchaeology 29, no. 6 (2014): 411-430. Westley, K. "Satellite-derived bathymetry for maritime archaeology: Testing its effectiveness at two ancient harbours in the Eastern Mediterranean." Journal of Archaeological Science 38, (2021): 8. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 21: New Technologies and Interdisciplinary Strategies for the Promotion and Protection of Maritime Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 21 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 21 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Satellite-derived bathymetry and rock detection for maritime archaeology using VENµS imagery Description An account of the resource Since its beginnings in 1975, deriving bathymetry by means of multispectral satellite imagery has been a method that has not yet been fully exploited in the maritime archaeology realm. It focuses on using the blue and green bands for their water penetration capabilities to later convert each pixel into depth values. This method can be replicated in time and space, while keeping costs low and covering large areas. In this research, two highresolution bathymetric maps using VENµS satellite imagery and a variation of Stumpf’s equation were produced. Two archaeological sites were selected: the harbour of Sebastos (built by King Herod) and the Achziv ridges on the northern coast of Israel. The importance of collecting satellite imagery under low Chl-a [mg/m3] conditions is addressed, and an algorithm for identifying shallow rocks above and below the water level is included. Our research suggests that satellite-derived bathymetry mapping along the Israeli coast is more efficient for satellite images taken between March and September, when Chl-a concentrations are likely to be lower; maximum depth penetration using VENμS is found to be approximately up to 23 m depth with a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.53. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gerardo Diaz Yoav Lehahn Emmanuel Nantet Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Diaz, Gerardo. 2023. “Satellite-derived bathymetry and rock detection for maritime archaeology using VENµS imagery.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurlt Knoerl, and Hans van Tilburg. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1914 Asia-Pac Session 21 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/88a6a949dfd7178bd3445fe4eb22138a.pdf 16dcbcccbbb8647d5df1433c10710ac7 PDF Text Text THE SOCIAL HISTORY OF ARTEFACTS AND THE LAW IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Professor Craig Forrest (University of Queensland, Director, Marine and Shipping Law Unit) ABSTRACT The loading of objects on a vessel, their loss, then physical discovery, recovery and subsequent movement, all take place in a legal context. That context is not static and cannot be viewed entirely in hindsight from the now. In unravelling the legal rights and interest to recovered objects the inter-temporal nature of the law requires consideration and possible application. Moreover, irrespective of what law applies at any given time, this intertemporal legal context reflects evolving values and is part of the object’s social history. This paper examines this intertemporal nature of salvage law and other related laws as they might apply to objects recovered in Southeast Asia over the past 40 years. THE COLLECTION The Abbott Collection comprises approximately 2300 ceramics purchased by a private collector from antique markets in Indonesia and Singapore between 1966 and 2016. The collection has never been catalogued but is believed to include ceramics from a wide range of South-East Asian States, including Thailand, China, Indonesia and Viet Nam, with some dating from at least the 9th century (Polkinghorne 2022, 11-12). As collectables, these ceramics have little or no provenience or provenance other than, in some cases, the identity of the seller in Indonesia or Singapore. Marine encrustations and glaze condition, together with information provided by the antique sellers in some cases, suggests that most were recovered from shipwrecks in Indonesian waters. Otherwise, little is known about these ceramics. They could, however, reveal much about the Maritime Silk Route and the entities involved. In investigating these ceramics, the project seeks to establish the ceramics “original cultural and historical contexts and to re-establish links to their communities of origin” (Polkinghorne 2022, 12). This entails undertaking provenience and provenance research and linking the collection with communities with verifiable links to each ceramic. That link could be the place of manufacture, the place of loading on board the ship, the nationality of the ship and or its owners, or the place of its sinking. That link could also include those who recovered the ceramics from the shipwrecks, facilitated its movement to market, and ultimately the seller and purchaser. THE LEGAL CONTEXT The collector purchased the ceramics and shipped them from Indonesia or Singapore to Australia in good faith and in the belief that all actions were in accordance with the laws as understood at the time. Nevertheless, the lack of any provenience or provenance at the time of purchase means that the legal context would have been largely unknown. As this project reveals the provenience of each ceramic so the provenance and wider legal context will require investigation and application. With 2300 ceramics acquired over a 50-year period, such an undertaking is onerous. This is made more complex as the manufacture of a particular ceramic, its loading on board a vessel, loss, then physical discovery, recovery and subsequent movement, all take place in a legal context that changes over time and place. That context is not static and cannot be viewed entirely in hindsight from the now. This paper considers this inter-temporal nature of the applicable law, as well as its determination across place – jurisdictions. This consideration of the legal context is not, however, purely for the purpose of determining its current status. The applicable law – in time and place – also reflects the social history of the ceramic. 1 �Each ceramic in this collection was a trade good; manufactured as a commodity. Who owned it, how it was traded, and how it was shipped would have been governed by the law at that point in time. Moreover, that law might differ depending on where the ceramic was at that point in time. As such, if for example, it was manufactured in what is now China, the law of that place might apply to ownership when manufactured, but the law of some other place, such as what is now Singapore, might have applied to the sale of the ceramic while the law of the nationality of the ship or its owner might apply to its transportation. Moreover, what these laws were in the 15th century will be quite different to that applied in the 18th century. Having been lost at sea, the ceramics in this collection were likely salvaged sometime in the last 100 years, and more likely only in the last 50 years, given the state of diving and salvage technology. Most, but perhaps not all, of the ceramics in this collection are thought to have been recovered in waters over which Indonesia today exercises some form of jurisdiction, and if in the territorial waters – which is most likely - absolute sovereignty. But it may not have been salvaged by an Indonesian national or from an Indonesian vessel, and at the time of salvage, the location of the shipwreck might not have been in Indonesian waters given the changes in jurisdiction over the last 100 years. Even within Indonesian territorial waters, the law of Indonesia has also changed considerably, especially in the last 30 years. INDONESIAN LAW The earliest applicable Indonesian law that will have applied is ‘Barang Muatan Kapal Tenggelam (BMKT)’ which translates to ‘valuable items recovered from shipwreck’, contained in Chapter VII of the Indonesian Commercial Code since 1938 and based on traditional Dutch salvage law. That is not to say that it was actually applied and there are likely to have been many cases where local communities simply recovered ceramics and sold them to dealers without recourse to any legal mechanisms; and without any original owner to pursue the ceramics, no legal issues would have arisen. Indonesian law also provided some protection over cultural heritage that was also based on early Dutch colonial law. In 1931, the colonial government enacted the Monumenten Ordonnantie Number 19 of 1931 (Stbld. 1931 no. 238) which imposed an obligation to register cultural property and banned their export. This Law was subsequently amended by Monumenten Ordonnantie Number 21 in 1934 (Stbld. 1934 no. 515). It is not likely these laws applied to underwater cultural heritage. Following the salvage and sale of ceramics from the Geldermalsen, Indonesia introduced legislation, Presidential Decree Number 43 of 1989, that regulated the salvage of historic wrecks and asserted ownership of all wrecks within Indonesian territorial waters (Pearson 2019, 709). This legislation also established the National Committee for the Recovery and Utilisation of Valuable Items from Shipwrecks. This Presidential Decree was subsequently replaced with Presidential Decree Number 25 of 1992 together with Law No. 5 year 1992 concerning Cultural Heritage, which was enacted following the Belitung looting in the early 1990s. At the same time, the salvage law regime was also changed when Chapter VII was taken out of the Commercial Code and replaced with Law Number 21 of 1992 concerning Navigation (which was later replaced by Law No. 17 of 2008 concerning Navigation) (Nayati 1998, 144). Further legislative changes occurred in the 2000s. In 2009, a Minister of Finance Regulation No. 184 of 2009 addressed Procedures for Determining the Status of Use and Sale of Valuable Objects from the Ship's Shipwreck, followed, in 2010, by amendments to the law protecting cultural property in Law No. 11 of 2010 that imposed a temporary moratorium on commercial salvage. This was made permanent in 2016 in Presidential Decree No. 44 of 2016 which included historic wrecks in one of the Negative List of Investment, effectively imposed a moratorium on salvage operations (Pearson 2019, 709). Other relevant regulations include an export ban under Ministry of Trade Regulation No. 44/M-DAG/PER/7/2012 and optimisation of Indonesian cultural heritage under Law No. 5 of 2017 2 �concerning Cultural Advancement. Most recently, Presidential Decree No. 1 of 2022 concerning Registration of Cultural Property was introduced. These amendments were largely intended to ensure that Indonesia kept significant and scarce artefacts stored in museums. But legislative definitions of ‘cultural heritage value’ and ‘national identity’ are so ambiguous as to have little or no legislative significance. Most importantly, Presidential Decree Number 8 of 2023 reinstituted the government-controlled salvage regime, which reverted to the shared model of public/private sharing of the salvage of underwater cultural heritage (UCH). AUSTRALIAN LAW While the Indonesian law is pertinent to the provenance of the ceramics, the collection is in Australia and subject to Australian – South Australian and Federal – law. It is thus principally Australian law that governs the ceramics. In light of the socio-legal history of a ceramic, how then is Australian law to address them? While this short paper cannot address this complex issue in detail, three important underlying principles are considered: the nature of inter-temporal law, non-retrospectivity and the choice of law in conflict of laws. Inter-temporal law The doctrine of intertemporal law, in the words of Judge Huber of the International Permanent Court of Arbitration, means that “a juridical fact must be appreciated in the light of the law contemporary with it, and not of the law in force at the time when a dispute in regard to it arises or falls to be settled” (Island of Palmas 1932, 845; Elias 1980, 286). As such, whether the recovery of a particular ceramic in, say, 1967, was legal, recourse must be had to the law that existed in 1967 at the place where the salvage occurred, or, if then in international waters, at the place where the ceramic was landed. It is the law as then in existence that will determine rights and duties of the relevant actors, including the salvor, the original owner and the relevant State. The collection is therefore going to be divided into categories dependant on the governing law at the time and place of their recovery; each category giving rise to possibly different rights and obligations. The greater the incremental change in the law in a particular place and the more places involved, the more categories are likely to emerge. Judge Huber went on to clarify the doctrine by declaring that “as regards the question which of different legal systems prevailing at successive periods is to be applied in a particular case (the so-called intertemporal law), a distinction must be made between the creation of rights and the existence of rights” (Island of Palmas, 1932 845; Elias 1980, 286). What this means is that while the right might be acquired in accordance with the law at that time, its continued validity is also dependant on the law at any point in time thereafter when the right is relevant to a dispute. This clarification on the doctrine is, at least in an international law context, is subject to some debate but as a general proposition it is appropriate for the case in question (Elias 1980, 292). It means that, for example, the salvor might acquire salvage rights over the wreck, but over time, should the law as to the rights of the salvor over the wreck site change, then the changed law might apply. That new law would not address the acquisition of the right to the wreck, but only the continuation of that right. The debate concerning this clarification of the doctrine lies in the risk that the application of a new law might, in effect, amount to a retrospective law that negates the original acquisition of the right. This is a particular risk where the new law arises from a statutory instrument or an international agreement domestically implemented, such as the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of UCH (2001 Convention). 3 �The emergence of Australia’s Historic Shipwreck Act 1976 might illustrate this point. The Act was adopted in part to address the discovery of a number of old Dutch shipwrecks and the recovery of objects from these sites. For current purposes, the recovery was legal in accordance with the law at the time, and as such, the new Act could not apply retrospectively such that it negated the acquisition of the salvage rights of the salvors. The Act did, however, impose a new obligation on the salvors: a requirement that they register all objects that had been recovered from those sites. Since his new law did not impact the right acquired at the time of recovery, but imposed a new statutory obligation, it applied only from 1976 onwards. Inter-temporal law then is not only a consideration of the rights acquired at the relevant point in time, but also the impact that changing laws then have on those rights over time (and place), provided that the new law did not apply retrospectively. Non-retrospectivity The prohibition of the application of any law retrospectively is often, but not universally, regarded as a fundamental principle of law, especially with respect to criminal law (Kryvoi and Matos 2021, 46). It is generally applied to international conventions such as the 2001 Convention. As codified in article 28 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties which declares that “[u]nless a different intention appears from the treaty or is otherwise established, its provisions do not bind a party in relation to any act or fact which took place or any situation which ceased to exist before the date of the entry into force of the treaty with respect to that party”. As article 28 evinces, this is not an absolute prohibition. Indeed, States may give a treaty, or some of its provisions, retroactive effect (von der Decken 2018, 510). Many States, for example, argued the 1970 UNESCO Convention that addresses the illicit trafficking of cultural heritage, should have applied retrospectively in order to address the loss of their heritage during the colonial era. Whilst not accepted, this nevertheless illustrates the circumstance in which States may regard retroactivity as legitimate. It may thus be open to a State such as Indonesia to address the issue of salvage and export of UCH through retrospective legislation, though this may come at a cost in terms of claims for lost rights from individuals. Such legislation would have to be unequivocal in its scope of application. It remains to be seen whether this research project will reveal any instances of retrospective legislative application and its effect on the applicable law. Choice of law in conflict of laws Since the Abbott Collection ceramics are found in Australia, only Australia has the judicial capacity to determine and enforce rights to them. It is thus Australian law that applies. That does not, however necessarily mean that Australian domestic rules will apply given Australian choice of law rules that are applied when there is a conflict between the laws of different jurisdictions relevant to the dispute in question; and in this case between the laws of Australia and Indonesia (though other jurisdiction may also be pertinent, such as China, Viet Nam etc, depending on the ceramic in question). As a general proposition, the Australian common law choice of law rule for rights to property is the law of the place where a property was situated at the time the property right is said to be acquired - the lex rei sitae (Davies et.al 2019, 795). A salvor’s property right to ceramics salvaged in Indonesian territorial sea will therefore be determined in accordance with Indonesian law at that time, even if that dispute were to be adjudicated in Australia. Where the location is not in Indonesian waters, the determination of the applicable law may be rather more complex and require detailed consideration of the conflict of law rules in an intertemporal context: not always an easy undertaking. 4 �A SOCIO-LEGAL HISTORY OF THINGS The ceramics in this collection, ranging from as early as the 9th century and recovered in different locations over a period of 50 years, means the applicable law at any given point in time is not a straightforward task. If identifying a particular right, or the legality of a particular act needs to be determined, then this is a necessary task. But for each ceramic the continually changing legal context is also part of its social history. The applicable law would have played a role in shaping the initial commodification of the ceramic, its transformation across space and time as its exchange value and use by different social groups have altered to a point where it is elevated beyond commodification and transformed into a public good This project therefore not only seeks to identify and apply the relevant law to each ceramic, but to place its socio-legal history as a fundamental component of the ceramic as we understand and utilise it today. BIBLIOGRAPHY Davies, Martin; Bell, Andrew, Brereton, Pau and Douglas, Michael. Nygh’s Conflict of Laws in Australia, 10th ed LexisNexis, 2019. Elias, T.O. “The Doctrine of Intertemporal Law” The American Journal of International Law n. 74 (1980) 285. Hatcher, Michael and Thorncraft, Anthony The Nanking Cargo Hamish Hamilton 1987 Island of Palmas case (Netherlands, United States) 2 R. Int’l Arb. Awards 831 Polkinghorne, Martin. Reuniting cargoes: Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Maritime Silk Route, Australian Research Council Linkage Grant, 2022 (on file with author) Kryvoi, Yarik and Matos, Shaun. “Non-Retroactivity as a General Principle of Law” Utrecht Law Review no. 17(1) (2021) 46–58. Nayati, Pudak. “Ownership Rights Over Archaeological/ Historical Objects Found in Indonesian Waters: Republic of Indonesia Act No 5 Of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects and its Related Regulation” Singapore Journal of International and Comparative Law, no. 2 (1998): 142 – 174. Pearson, Natali. “Protecting and Preserving UCH in SE Asia.” in The Palgrave Handbook on Art Crime. Edited by Hufnagel, Saskia and Chappell, Duncan, 685-730. Palgrave MacMillan, 2019 von der Decken, Kersten. ‘Article 28’ in Oliver Dőrr and Kirsten Schmalenbach (eds) Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A Commentary Springer Palgrave, 2018 510. 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 24: Recovering dispersed and salvaged legacy collections of UCH in Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 24 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 24 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Social History of Artefacts and the Law in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource The loading of objects on a vessel, their loss, then physical discovery, recovery and subsequent movement, all take place in a legal context. That context is not static and cannot be viewed entirely in hindsight from the now. In unravelling the legal rights and interest to recovered objects the inter-temporal nature of the law requires consideration and possible application. Moreover, irrespective of what law applies at any given time, this intertemporal legal context reflects evolving values and is part of the object’s social history. This paper examines this intertemporal nature of salvage law and other related laws as they might apply to objects recovered in Southeast Asia over the past 40 years. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Craig Forrest Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Forrest, Craig. 2023. “The social history of artefacts and the law in Southeast Asia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1913 Asia-Pac Session 24 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1a998882def4719a29729a35d110c954.pdf 109ba92ad732ad752e8068cb3a296555 PDF Text Text Analysis of UNESCO Best Practices of Underwater Cultural Heritage from the perspective of marine sustainable development and challenges in 2022 New Chinese UCH Regulations Liu lina Associate Professor in Xi’an Jiaotong University, PhD. Master's Supervisor. Research interests in cultural heritage law, international law, IP law. Email:liulina@ xjtu.edu.cn ABSTRACT The topic of this paper fits best within this Session17, the 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ ,because it summarizes the ways in which underwater cultural heritage contributes to the sustainable development as a Marine resource through its own inheritance and development, and suggests that China should change its legislative idea of underwater cultural heritage. The case studies under consideration are the latest 13 Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, which are analyzed in three aspects: 1) legal protection based on the legislative concept of marine resource law, 2) protection of cultural heritage resources through long-term monitoring and dynamic classification, and 3) sharing the benefits of cultural resources and environmental economic development. The resources available to conduct the work include the list of Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and China's newly revised version of Regulations on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2022. The research questions are how underwater cultural heritage can contribute to the sustainable development of the oceans through its own inheritance and development, and how China should change its legislative idea of underwater cultural heritage. The research approaches are case review and legal text analysis. The results are the legal protection of underwater cultural heritage in international law with the concept of resource law, and China’s responses. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage; Best Practices; sustainable development; UNESCO 1 �1. INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within this Session 17, the 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’, because the newly revised Chinese Regulations on the Protection and Administration of Underwater Cultural Relics is implemented in April 2022. The protection of underwater cultural heritage (hereinafter referred to as “UCH”) in China is facing a historical opportunity of rapid development of environmental and resource protection. This paper proposes the rule of law that environmental resources should be used to promote the sustainable development of underwater cultural heritage, through the evaluation and analysis of the current UNESCO "Best Practice of Underwater Cultural Heritage". And this paper lays out that China should change the concept of governance of underwater cultural relics - from the protection of cultural relics themself only to the governance of environmental resources. 2. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are the Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (hereinafter referred to as “the 2001 UNESCO convention”). In 2015, the Meeting of States Parties (hereinafter referred to as “MSP”), by its Resolution 4/5MSP adopted at its fifth session, wished to strengthen cooperation among States Parties by inviting them to submit examples of Best Practices in the implementation of the Convention. To submit a Best Practice example to the Conference of States Parties, heritage must1: ● i）fall within the definition of Article 1 of the 2001 Convention or is at least 100 years old, but is classified as underwater cultural heritage under national legislation, ii) be adequately protected both legally and practically, in particular through the implementation of the Rules concerning activities directed at underwater cultural heritage of the Convention, iii) respect responsible and non-intrusive access, iv) have a framework for sustainable management. These Best Practices are evaluated by the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (hereinafter referred to as “STAB”), which makes recommendations to the MSP 1 https://en.unesco.org/underwater-heritage/best-practices 2 �regarding their designation. Until May 2023, this establishes a register of 13 Best Practices for use by all States Parties to the 2001 UNESCO Convention. After consideration, the reasons are analyzed in three aspects. 2.1 The establishment of national legal frameworks for UCH protection First of all, the Best Practice encourages countries to ensure their legal protection for UCH archaeology, conservation, and management by establishment of national legal frameworks for UCH protection. There are 6 Spain’s UCH practices2 selected into the list of Best Practices, benefiting from a series of special laws. For example, the Historical Heritage Act (law 16/1985 of 25 June, on Spanish Historical Heritage ) and the Andalusian Historic Heritage Law (Law 14/2007 of 26 November on the Historical Heritage of Andalusia). Secondly, the Best Practices encourages countries to make specific laws that define their own underwater cultural heritage. According to the Portuguese law "Decree No. 164/97 on underwater archaeological activities[3]", underwater heritage is recognized on the basis of its cultural value, not on the basis of 100 years. Spanish law believes the value of underwater heritage reflects the memory and identity of the marine community, which is more important than age. In 2009, the National Museum of Underwater Archaeology of Spain (ARQUA) launched The National Plan for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (the Green Book), which aims to the adoption of a series of specific measures for the protection, conservation and diffusion of this rich heritage in waters to create awareness, in a coordinated way, for all the departments and public government bodies involved in this protection.in Spain. Finally, Protection and fight against commercial exploitation by law. One of the six Best Practice, the Nuestra Senora de las Mercedes Project, Spain4 is an excellent example for UCH protection by effectively combating illegal commercial salvage activities on an international level and resolving ownership issues through judicial means. And the de las Mercedes cargo was definitively deposited in the 2 Such as “Andalusian Underwater Heritage Conservation Project,Spain”, “Cap del Vol and Cala Cativa shipwrecks, Spain”，“Deltebre I shipwreck, Spain”, “the Bou Ferrer Shipwreck, Spain”, “the Nuestra Senora de las Mercedes Project, Spain”, “The National Museum of Underwater Archaeology（ARQUA）,Spain” 3 UNESCO.List of National Cultural Heritage Laws, https://en.unesco.org/cultnatlaws/list/last-update-august-2015?page=50&order=title_field&sort=asc 4 On May 18, 2007, the US company Odyssey Marine Exploration announced in the media that it had transported a cargo of 500,000 gold and silver coins to the United States but did not give any information about the identity of the wreck from which the extraction originates or the exact location of the extraction.The Spanish government, in the face of suspicion that a Spanish ship could be treated,decides to wage a legal battle against the treasures haut company in the courts of United States, Finally, on February 14, 2012, the US courts give the final reason to the Spanish State to  return the cargo to Spain in 2022. More information on website: https://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/mnarqua/en/colecciones/yacimientos/ns-mercedes.html 3 �National Museum of Underwater Archeology in 2012. 2.2 To promote the appropriate conservation of UCH through long-term monitoring and dynamic classification The best practice also emphasizes long-term monitoring and dynamic protection models of UCH. Firstly, it shows how to establish UCH databases to improve the electronic information management. Compared with the cultural heritage on land, information of UCH is more difficult to collect. In 2004, the government of Andalusia in Spain established the Management and Information System of Cultural Assets of Andalusia (MOSAICO), which systematically manages hundreds of historical shipwrecks in the region. Secondly, the daily management of UCH requires multiple and dynamic monitoring. For example, Portugal has formed a conventional management model with multiple departments, interdisciplinary personnel to protect UCH in the Cascais region: the UCH management is carried out by the Cascais City Council. Underwater archaeologists have dedicated their time and effort to locate those sites, by drafting an archaeological map. Besides, the Directorate General of Cultural Heritage, the National Maritime Authority, and the Cascais Port Authority, which are responsible for different protection issues. Lastly, a dynamic and continuous model of UCH conservation should be developed. For example, the "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Chinchorro Bank, Mexico" was selected as Best Practice in 2019, developed interdisciplinary studies to understand the formation and the transformation processes of submerged archaeological contexts. The Sub-Directorate of Underwater Archaeology of the Mexican National of Anthropology and History Institute (INAH) has been conducting investigations and evaluations of 69 underwater sites recorded in the region's underwater cultural resources database since 2006. 2.3 Increase public awareness, recognition and protection of heritage Best practices encourage responsible and non-intrusive public access to underwater cultural heritage in accordance with Articles 2.55 and 2.106 of the Convention, because public awareness can prompt regional economic growth and protect UCH. Several examples of Best Practices have shown that UCH protection and economic development are mutually reinforcing. First of all, local governments can develop 5 Articles 2.5: The preservation in situ of underwater cultural heritage shall be considered as the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage. 6 Articles 2.10: Responsible non-intrusive access to observe or document in situ underwater cultural heritage shall be encouraged to create public awareness, appreciation, and protection of the heritage except where such access is incompatible with its protection and management.  4 �non-intrusive and diverse UCH tourism activities which have demonstrated the protection of cultural resources and environmental development complement each other. For example, the “underwater archaeology Museum in Ferte de san Jose El Alto, Mexico7” One of two locations of this Museum of Campeche is in Playa Bonita, which strengthen the visibility of UCH and promote economic growth through various public hands-on activities. Another example is the "the Barge Arles-Rhône 3, France8" was taken out of the waters of the Rhône in 2011 to be restored and it thus joined the very exclusive club of boats found complete (or almost) in excavations, and presented in The Departmental Museum of Arles Antique in 2013. This Museum was expanded in order to exhibit these wrecks since 2013. Hence, it is also a good demonstration of boosting economic growth by constructing an underwater archaeological museum, which can share and display the submerged underwater heritage to the public. 3. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include the list of Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention9 (which have been analyzed above) and latest revised version of Regulations of the People's Republic of China on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Relics in 202210. In the 1980s, China began to pay attention to the importance of marine resources and underwater cultural relics. In order to protect the marine resources, and reasonable and effective use of water resources, the State Council has successively promulgated Marine Environment Protection Law of the People's Republic of China and the Water. In order to manage the protection of underwater cultural relics, the Regulations of the People's Republic of China on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Relics”(hereinafter referred to as the "The Chinese UCH Regulation") were promulgated in 1989. Since then, China's UCH protection has developed with laws to follow, and China has become one of the few countries in the world to formulate 7 https://www.inah.gob.mx/red-de-museos 8 https://www.arlesantique.fr/le-musee/lhistoire-du-musee 9 Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention: https://en.unesco.org/underwater-heritage/best-practices 10 Regulations on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2022 version), https://www.doc88.com/p-41999417420347.html 5 �specialized legal regulations for UCH. Since the implementation of 1989 Chinese UCH Regulation for 30 years, the close relationship between UCH and other marine resources has become deeply realized by Chinese legal experts. UCH in China (such as sunken ships and submerged towns and villages) serve as stable and long-term habitats for marine life. The Chinese UCH Regulation revised in 2022 is mindful of the concept of coordinated and integrated management of UCH as an important marine resource. 4. FRAMEWORK The research questions are how Chinese UCH can sustainably develop as a marine resource, through the change of Chinese legislative idea of UCH after analysis of the UCH best practices in 2001 UNESCO Convention. The research approaches are case review and legal text analysis of the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version）. The Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version）was implemented in April 2022. Drawing on 13 UCH best practices of 2001 UNESCO Convention. China needs to change the legal idea from the protection of UCH itself to the management of a kind of marine resource along with promotion of the high-quality development of UCH. The approach of rule of law presents 3 aspects. Firstly, according to different types of underwater heritage, enhance the capacity building of China UCH as marine cultural resources. For example, the duty of "other relevant departments of governments" as the coordinating authority is clarified in the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version）. It takes into account the need to consider the development and utilization of UCH in the use of sea area, and the need to pay attention to the protection of underwater resources in the development of fisheries and port operations, and the need not to neglect UCH in port security and military use of the sea area. Article 4(2)5 provides that “other relevant departments of the people’s governments at or above the county level shall be responsible for the work concerning the protection of underwater cultural relics within the scope of their respective scope of responsibilities”, which clarify the responsibility of “other government departments” as the coordinating authorities. 6 �Secondly, adhering to sustainable development of UCH, Chinese legal protection of UCH need to formulate a dynamic and long-term management instead of only the establishment of UCH databases. Taking protection of UCH as an example of marine use, the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version）adds a consultation mechanism for the delimitation of the protected zone of UCH. The Article 7(2) states that “for the delimitation and adjustment of underwater cultural relics reserves, the opinions of relevant departments and holders of rights to use water areas should be solicited, advice of experts and the public shall be taken, and the opinions of relevant military organs shall also be solicited where military administrative areas and military use of seas are involved”5. Thus, it is clear that UCH, as a type of water resource, should be consulted through the mechanism of delimitation and adjustment of UCH protection areas, the relevant departments and the right to use the waters should be consulted. Thirdly, UCH, as a kind of non-renewable marine cultural resource, so the the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version) shall increase public awareness and participation, and encourage UCH protection coordinated with economic development. Art. 16 is a new article that is “the competent cultural relics departments, cultural relics collection entities, and other entities shall, by holding exhibitions, visits, scientific research, and other means, fully maximize the role of underwater cultural relics, strengthen the publicity and education of Chinese excellent traditional culture and the legal system for the protection of underwater cultural relics, and improve the awareness of the whole society for protection of underwater cultural relics and the enthusiasm for participating in the protection of underwater cultural relics”5. Take the “Nanhai No.1 shipwreck11” for example, in 2007, China Central Television（CCTV) broadcasted the entire salvage of the "NanhaiNo.1 shipwreck", which attracted public attention. The construction of the Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck Museum, also called “The Guangdong Maritime Silk Road Museum”. Nowadays, Hailing Island, where the “The Guangdong Maritime Silk Road Museum '' is located, is already Top 10 most popular islands in China, with beautiful scenery and cultural relics accompanying it. 11 No.1 Nanhai shipwreck,a shipwreck dating back to the Song Dynasty (960 A.D.-1279 A.D.),. The excavation the ancient shipwreck was listed by China in its top 10 archaeological discoveries for 2019. More information on website: https://www.msrmuseum.com/Home/Enindex 7 �5. RESULTS The results are that from the perspective of marine sustainable development, protection UCH under the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version) faced new challenges. On the basis of a clear and complete UCH database formed, regular monitoring and continuous dynamic management should be established for specific UCH projects. Flexibly utilizing UCH, such as non-intrusive tours, on the other hand should be invested in the conversation of UCH with economic growth After analyzing the new developments of UCH legal protection in China, it becomes obvious that isolated national UCH legal systems still face the problems in the effective protection of the UCH. The 2001 UNESCO Convention provides for its States Parties an effective international cooperation scheme. It is beneficial for a state, like China, to protect its national UCH under the legal instrument of the UNESCO 2001 Convention. BIBLIOGRAPHY 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 17: The 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ Subject The topic of the resource Session 17 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 17 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Analysis of UNESCO Best Practices of Underwater Cultural Heritage from the perspective of marine sustainable development and challenges in 2022 New Chinese UCH Regulations Description An account of the resource The topic of this paper fits best within this Session17, the 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ ,because it summarizes the ways in which underwater cultural heritage contributes to the sustainable development as a Marine resource through its own inheritance and development, and suggests that China should change its legislative idea of underwater cultural heritage. The case studies under consideration are the latest 13 Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, which are analyzed in three aspects: 1) legal protection based on the legislative concept of marine resource law, 2) protection of cultural heritage resources through long-term monitoring and dynamic classification, and 3) sharing the benefits of cultural resources and environmental economic development. The resources available to conduct the work include the list of Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and China's newly revised version of Regulations on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2022. The research questions are how underwater cultural heritage can contribute to the sustainable development of the oceans through its own inheritance and development, and how China should change its legislative idea of underwater cultural heritage. The research approaches are case review and legal text analysis. The results are the legal protection of underwater cultural heritage in international law with the concept of resource law, and China’s responses. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Liu lina Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Lina, Liu. 2023. “Analysis of UNESCO Best Practices of Underwater Cultural Heritage from the perspective of marine sustainable development and challenges in 2022 New Chinese UCH Regulations.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Mariano Azna. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1912 Asia-Pac Session 17 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ec28e12b41c45c37b9eb472c7d3cc427.pdf 4b983e86c60a5911c3b8876bd21a7003 PDF Text Text Motivating and Enabling Pacific States to Ratify the 2001 UCH Convention Dennis Marita (Director of the Culture Division at the Ministry of Culture and Tourism,Solomon Islands) Ellen Lekka (UNESCO, Samoa) Craig Forrest (University of Queensland) ABSTRACT Ratifications of the 2001 UCH Convention by Pacific States has been poor. Using Solomon Islands and the Marshall Islands as case studies, this paper begins by considering the utility of the 2001 UCH Convention for these States before turning to the difficulties and challenges in enabling ratification. These include not only capacity issues but also the extent to which ratification requires amendment of existing laws and broader policy issues relating, for example, to tourism and international relations. KEYWORDS: Solomon Islands; Marshall Islands; UNESCO INTRODUCTION There are 15 States widely regarded as Pacific States - Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Marshall Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, Palau, Fiji, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, New Zealand, Cook Islands and Niue – and a number of territories belonging to Australia, United States and France. Of these Pacific States only two have ratified the 2001 UCH Convention: FSM and Nuie. With 72 States Party to the 2001 UCH Convention, this is a significant under-representation. The more so when considering the extent of the maritime zones (exclusive economic zones and continental shelf) of these States, which together make up the largest maritime domain in the world’s largest ocean. This non-participation was reflected in the negotiations that led to the 2001 UCH Convention at which only New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and Samoa attended at least one of the four negotiation meeting; the remaining States did not attend at all. UNESCO has sought to educate, facilitate and encourage Pacific States to engage with and ultimately ratify the 2001 UCH Convention. So far this has had limited immediate success. The resulting underrepresentation is not, however, confined to the 2001 UCH Convention, but across all the UNESCO Cultural Heritage Conventions. None are party to the 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict or the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Of the only three UN Member States not party to the World Heritage Convention, two are from the Pacific – Nauru and Tuvalu. Moreover, other than New Zealand, no Pacific State has more than one World heritage site, and some – Cook Islands, Niue, Samoa and Tonga – have none. And while all are party to the 2003 Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention, engagement in that Convention is also limited, with only four States having a single item each on the World List – FSM, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu; the rest have none. In this broader heritage contest, the lack of representation in the World Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage lists is both a function of the increasingly complicated processes for nomination, and the concern that Pacific States do not have the resources to effectively manage and protect significant heritage that is subject to the relevant international Convention and the obligations contained therein. It is clear that a lack of human and financial resources constrain the ability of Pacific States to act. It is thus worth contextualising this by noting that the bottom seven positions of the 207 listed States in the World Bank’s 2021 ranking by GDP were taken up by Pacific States: Tonga, FSM, Marshall Islands, Palau, Kiribati, Nauru and in last place Tuvalu (World Bank 2012). Not surprising many of the Pacific 1 �States are also the smallest in the World by pollution, with all but New Zealand and Papua New Guinea having a pollution of less than 1 million, and in some cases considerably less. Palau has a population of around 18,000; Tuvalu 12,000 and Nauru 11,000 (Worldometer 2023). As a region, Oceania has the lowest pollution in the world with a total of less than 20 million, spread over the largest maritime domain (UN World Pollution Prospects 2002). Against the backdrop, there are a range of underlying reasons for a lack of interest in the 2001 UCH Convention. In the context of current challenges faced by Pacific States, UCH is not a priority on the political and national agenda and not surprisingly there is “a lack of visibility, public support and understanding of the values attached to UCH, and the incompatibility with economic development projects.” (Nikishiwa 2017, 20) There is also a basic lack of understanding of the convention and uncertainty as to its relation with the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. This paper considers the difficulties Pacific States face in the process of considering ratification of the 2001 UCH Convention through a review of two case studies – Solomon Islands and Marshall Islands. ADVANTAGES OF RATIFICATION The Pacific States were born by seafarers undertaking significant feats of seamanship and navigation over hundreds of years beginning as far back as 3,500 years ago. Little has been found of the physical remains of these endeavours, but better technology and a greater emphasis on Pacific indigenous heritage bods well for the future. Much more recently, the western age of exploration, colonialisation and a world war have left UCH across the Pacific. Not only is this historically and archaeologically important heritage but is of great tourism potential and requires sustainable management. The 2001 UCH Convention provides the bedrock upon which this UCH can be managed. It contains an internationally agreed legal framework supported by international best practice in maritime archaeology. Perhaps more importantly, the 2001 UCH Convention is essentially a framework for State cooperation, including in the sharing of information, training and in the use and transfer of relevant technology. Only through ratification and ‘membership’ as States Parties, can a State engage in deliberations about UCH in an international context; participate in the UNESCO organs of the 2001 UCH Convention, particularly in the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body and have access to the UCH Fund that supports various activities, including training, workshops, public awareness raising and technical missions. There is little cost to ratification, with representation the only direct cost, and that, in any event, is a matter for each State to decide as to the level of participation. The only indirect cost is the law reform required to ensure a State gives effect to its international obligations arising out of the 2001 UCH Convention. Despite these obvious advantages, Pacific States have not ratified the 2001 UCH Convention. The case of Solomon Islands and Marshall Island may highlight some of the reasons for this. SOLOMON ISLANDS The UCH resources of the Solomon Islands includes caves and sacrificial sites used for shark or crocodile worship, submerged villages and artificial islands, historic shipwrecks including the remains from La Perouse expedition of 1788, and famously, hundreds of planes and shipwrecks 2 �resulting from the fierce battles of the WWII. Indeed, Iron Bottom Sound, between Guadalcanal and Savo Islands, is so named because of the number of WWII wrecks lying there. It is a particularly popular dive tourism site. UNESCO’s bid to encourage ratification of the 2001 UCH Convention in the Pacific began shortly after it came into force in 2009. UNESCO organised an inter-governmental meeting in Honiara, Solomon Islands, attended by representatives of Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu (Takahashi 2011, 6). It was designed to stimulate interest and assist States in ratifying the 2001 UCH Convention; reinforce existing cooperation in the Asia Pacific Region and set up new linkages for the protection and management of UCH. While useful in that it introduced the 2001 UCH Convention to Pacific States, little came of this meeting. UNESCO did publish Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania in 2010 to raise awareness within the region, and a Feasibility Study on a Pacific UCH Capacity Building programme did follow, but nothing appears to have come of that (Mckinnon and Kimura 2012). Pacific States did not show any real interest in pursuing ratification. In 2021 UNESCO (author Ellen Lekka) and contracted consultants (author Craig Forrest, together with Matthew Carter and Ole Varmer) organised a consultation workshop on the 2001 UCH Convention in the Solomon Islands over two days: 23–24 June, bringing together key stakeholders representing government, industry, development partners and international experts to discuss possible ratification of the 2001 UCH Convention. A draft Gap Analysis was prepared to compare Solomon Islands’ legislation to the requirements of the 2001 UCH Convention, as well as a National Interest Analysis detailing the benefits and obligations should Solomon Islands ratify. At that meeting, the Director of the Culture Division at the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (author Dennis Marita), spoke about the importance of the ocean to Solomon Islanders’ identity, he declared that “Solomon Islands is a maritime country, and a great part of its heritage and history is based on the ocean”. The Director also expressed the desire of the Solomon Islands Government to ratify the 2001 UCH Convention. This has yet to happen, and a number of reasons might explain why. While the 2001 UCH Convention does not impose significant obligations on States Parties, each State does need to ensure that its legislation is capable of giving effect to these obligations. The extent to which each State can respond to this obligation is both a function of the complexity and modernity of its existing legislation and its capacity to amend that legislation or introduce new legislation. The Solomon Islands Gap Analysis revealed that the existing law applicable to wrecks, salvage and maritime jurisdiction (Shipping Act 1998; Protection of Wrecks and War Relics Act 1980) required some amendment, as did aspects of related legislation such as the Environment Act 1998 and Protected Areas Act 2010; though these do provide a sound footing for the implementation of the 2001 UCH Convention – subject to minor amendments. In many respects, while the needs for amendments were modest, the task of coordinating these across multiple legislative instruments (and relevant departments) is time consuming and requires dedicated human resources. Indeed, the age of some of the legislation that required amendment (eg. Protection of Wrecks and War Relics Act 1980) attests to the difficulty in generally keeping legislation contemporary and up to date. The main recommendation from the Gap Analysis was the adoption of a new stand-alone legislative instrument to give effect to the 2001 UCH Convention. Given that the 2001 UCH Convention provides the framework this should not be a particularly difficult legislative instrument to draft but it does require time and resources and a certain level of subject matter expertise. 3 �Time and resources that are not easily directed to heritage, especially heritage like UCH, which is out of sight and not immediately relevant to much of the population, whose cultural traditions often favour intangible heritage (Jeffrey et al 2021, 137). This is hardly surprising when considering issues such as climate change and other threats that challenge a State’s very existence. As such, attempts to address issues related to heritage are often tagged on to broader issues such as sustainable development. And these all compete for limited resources. The nature of UCH in Solomon Islands may also play a role, in that the most obvious examples of UCH are not indigenous Solomon Islander heritage, but rather that from World War II (Forrest and Corrin 2013). It is often perceived in tourism terms and as a financial commodity, rather than genuine heritage. At the very least the idea of it being heritage does exist because of the emphasis placed on it by the two belligerent States: Japan and Untied States. That this heritage will not in fact fall within the scope of the 2001 UCH Convention until the early 2040s is not always appreciated and therefore coloured the view they have of the 2001 UCH Convention as to its role in Solomon Islands. Solomon Islands has also not fared well in terms of its engagement with other international cultural heritage regimes. In 1998, East Rennell was inscribed on the World Heritage List. At the time, the World Heritage Committee noted that adequate long-term legislative, regulatory or institutional protection was not in place. Nevertheless, the property was inscribed on the list with a number of recommendations made to address these issues, but Solomon Islands failed to address them and, in 2003, the property formally entered the non-compliance response system, and in 2013, placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger where it remains (Hamman and Hølleland 2023, 98-99). This illustrates the significant capacity challenges faced in all areas of cultural heritage management and does not bode well for UCH without external assistance. MARSHALL ISLANDS Having been discovered by around 2000 years ago, the Marshallese archipelago, with 1225 islands and islets, is vast. The settlement of this archipelago required extraordinary navigational skills and seaworthy craft. While little physical remains of this early seafaring have been discovered, other traditional sites demonstrate the intimacy Marshallese have with the ocean, including coral reef heads featured in traditional oral history and ancient fish traps, some of which are still in use today. The UCH resources of the Marshall Islands also extend to the Japanese and United States wreckage of WWII; and the material evidence of nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll (Naone 2011, 1). The notion of cultural heritage in Marshall Islands appears to be coloured by its association with the United States. After achieving self-governance in 1979, the Marshall Islands entered into a Compact of Free Association with the United States which allowed, amongst many things, for the Historic Preservation Office to continue its roles as provided for in the 1966 U.S. National Historic Preservation Act. Indeed, four sites are listed on the US National Register of Historic Places: Kwajalein Island Battlefield, Roi-Namur Battlefield, Debrum House and Marshall Islands War Memorial Park (Forrest and Jeffrey 2018). In 1991, the Historic Preservation Act was adopted by the Nitijela as a response to the perceived legal vacuum in relation to indigenous Marshallese historic preservation. This included submerged cultural heritage and was followed by the adoption of Regulations Governing Access to Prehistoric and Historic Submerged Resources. These provide for a reasonable 4 �protective regime, though difficult to enforce given the vast distances involved and the limit enforcement capability (Naone 2011, 1 and 5). Whilst there was therefore some recognition of the importance of UCH, the Marshall Islands was not engaged in the negotiations that lead to the 2001 UCH Convention. Importantly though, it was engaged with the World Heritage Convention and in 2010 the Bikini Atoll Nuclear Test Site was inscribed on the World Heritage List; including the ships that were sunk during the 67 nuclear tests that took place there. These form an integral part of the World Heritage site and are the only UCH specifically protected in Marshall Islands. However, these wrecks are not only cultural resources but also an environmental threat. Other than the affect that atomic tests have had, and continue to have, on these wrecks, a number still have potentially polluting bunker fuel on board, and some still have unexpended ordinance, requiring intervention (Forrest and Jeffrey 2018, 61-64). As part of its commitment to educate, facilitate and encourage States to ratify the 2001 UCH Convention, UNESCO commissioned desk-based reports on the State of the legislative framework and UCH related programme in the five States of Micronesia – including Marshall Islands (Forrest and Jeffrey 2018). The key recommendation was that Marshall Islands become a party and adopt a new Act to give effect to the Convention, at the same time making consequential amendments to the Historic Preservation Act, Regulation and Control of Shipping Act and Wrecks and Salvage Act, and others as appropriate. In 2021, this was followed by a more detailed consideration of this legislative framework together with a draft National Interest Analysis and a two-day workshop (7-8 December 2021) together with educational material, based on the model used for the work undertaken the previous year for Solomon Islands. The recommendations arising out of that work were substantially similar to those for Solomon Islands: ratification of the 2001 UCH Convention with consequential, but limited, amendments to a range of legislation and the adoption of a new stand-alone legislative instrument to give effect to the 2001 UCH Convention. As yet, no action appears to have been taken following this work and recommendations. Trite, but again the underlying cause is a lack of resources. SUSTAINED INSTITUTIONAL AND STATES PARTIES ASSISTANCE Both Solomon Islands and Marshall Islands would benefit from ratification of the 2001 UCH Convention and both States appear eager to do so. The inevitable effect of consultants working remotely with no ongoing relationship with those in the States responsible for progressing the path to ratification has begun to toll on the momentum generated by the work undertaken in the past two years. Given these States’ significant financial and capacity constraints, and where cultural heritage issues are a low priority given the geo-political and environmental challenges being addressed, it is difficult to criticise lack of progress. It thus falls to those assisting these States to persist in ongoing dialogue, and perhaps just a little bit of pressure, to ensure that momentum does not falter and fade entirely. There is thus a role to play for organisations such as UNESCO Pacific Office, Pacific Islands Museum Association, International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) - both ICOMOS Pacifika and ICOMOS International Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage), and the Pacific Heritage Hub at University of the South Pacific. All have an interest in assisting these States, but there appears to be little coordination and sharing of the load, in part because these organisations too face resourcing constraints. Perhaps what is needed is a more coordinated approach with one organisation that takes the lead and coordinates the efforts of all other organisations with an interest in the protection and management of the Pacific UCH. 5 �The 2001 UCH Convention (article 2(2)) is, above all, a cooperative regime and States Parties are bound to cooperate as a fundamental principle of this regime. Australia is edging close to ratification. In 2018, the federal government adopted the Underwater Cultural Heritage Act that is consistent with the 2001 UCH Convention and will allow for Australia to fulfil its obligations following ratification. In March 2003 the Federal government’s Joint Standing Committee on Treaties concluded its hearing and report on the 2001 UCH Convention by recommending ratification. If, as is now highly likely, ratification will take place, Australia will owe obligations to other States Parties, and if those were Pacific States, the benefits of having a relatively well resourced and highly skilled neighbour would be of significant benefit. Pacific States would do well to follow an Australian ratification. Bibliography Forrest, Craig and Corrin, Jennifer. “Legal Pluralism in the Pacific: Solomon Island’s World War II Heritage” International Journal of Cultural Property 20 (2013): 1-21. Forrest, Craig and Jeffrey, Bill. UNESCO Report: Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH)-related legislation and programme review in the five countries in Micronesia United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2018. Guerin, Ulrike, Egger, Barbara and Penalva, Vindha. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania. Paris: UNESCO, 2010. Hamman, Evan and Hølleland, Herdis. Implementing the World Heritage Convention. Cheltham (UK): Edward Elgar Press, 2023. Jeffrey, Bill, McKinnon Jennifer F. and Van Tilburg, Hans. “Underwater cultural Heritage in the Pacific: Themes and Future Directions.” International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies 17, no. 2 (2021): 135-168. Mckinnon, Jennifer F. and Kimura, Jun. Feasibility Study on a Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Capacity Building Programme. Paris: UNESCO, 2012. Naone, Mary Jane. The Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Marshall Islands; A Discussion of the Resources, the Legislation, the Community, Protection and Preservation. The MUA Collection, 2011 http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1185 Nishikawa, Chihiro. “Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia Pacific and UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.” International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies 17, no. 2 (2021): 15-38. Takahashi, Akatsuki. “UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS).” The MUA Collection, 2011 http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1575 World Bank Gross Domestic Product 2021 https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/GDP.pdf Worldometer 2023 https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/ UN World Pollution Prospects 2002: Summary of Results https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 17: The 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ Subject The topic of the resource Session 17 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 17 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Motivating and Enabling Pacific States to Ratify the 2001 UCH Convention Description An account of the resource Ratifications of the 2001 UCH Convention by Pacific States has been poor. Using Solomon Islands and the Marshall Islands as case studies, this paper begins by considering the utility of the 2001 UCH Convention for these States before turning to the difficulties and challenges in enabling ratification. These include not only capacity issues but also the extent to which ratification requires amendment of existing laws and broader policy issues relating, for example, to tourism and international relations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dennis Marita Ellen Lekka Craig Forrest Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Marita, Dennis, Ellen Lekka, and Craig Forrest. 2023. “Motivating and enabling Pacific States to ratify the 2001 Convention.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Mariano Azna. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1911 Asia-Pac Session 17 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/49930b45db7e90226999b355c41c2ed9.pdf fa7982c3988e4735ab59b2773cb3c268 PDF Text Text The Next Steps of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation in Taiwan: A Legal Aspect Wen-Yan Chiau (National Taiwan Ocean University & National Sun Yat-sen University, Chair Professor; Apconf-5, liaison for Taiwan) Email: chiau0717@gmail.com ABSTRACT In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to value the spirit of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in 2015 Taiwan passed its Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA). Although the law has been in force for seven years, there are still many important elements that have not yet been fully implemented. The main reasons are the insufficient capacity of the competent authorities, the lack of underwater archaeology talents, and Taiwan's special environmental conditions. For example, the implementation of in-situ preservation, the designation of UCH protected areas, shallow water survey technology, the establishment of a national research center of UCH, and the raising of public awareness and school education all need to be further studied and implemented. Therefore, this article will illustrate the intention of important parts of UCHA, as well as the challenges promoted by practice, and finally put forward some suggestions for future protection of UCH in Taiwan. It is believed that the experience of Taiwan may serve as a reference to other countries concerned. Key words: underwater cultural heritage (UCH), Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA), Taiwan. 1. INTRODUCTION In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to value the spirit of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention), Taiwan passed its Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA) in 2015. Although the law has been in force for several years, there are still many important elements that have not yet been fully implemented. The main reasons are the insufficient capacity of the competent authorities, the lack of underwater archaeology talents, and Taiwan's special environmental conditions. For example, the implementation of in-situ preservation, the designation of UCH protected areas, shallow water survey technology, the establishment of a national research center of UCH, and raising of public awareness and school education all need to be further studied and implemented. Therefore, this article will introduce the recent activities at UCH, illustrate the intention of important parts of UCHA, as well as the challenges promoted by practice, and finally put forward some suggestions for future protection of UCH in Taiwan. 2. RECENT ACTIVITIES IN UCH Since 2006, the Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH) of the Ministry of Culture has promoted the “Project for the General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas of Taiwan”. This has included the investigation of waters surrounding the Penghu Archipelago (Pescadores), Green Island, Matsu Islands, Dongsha (Pratas) Atoll, and Taiwan Island. The project has already progressed through four stages of assessing the overall value of UCH in the waters of Taiwan. As of the end of December 2019, a total of 90 specific targets had been found through underwater verification by the underwater archaeology team led by Dr. Cheng-Huan Tsang. Of these, 20 objects have been identified as shipwrecks and other specific target objects. Six of these have complete underwater cultural inventories (Shy 2016; Underwater Cultural Heritage Network 2022). 1 �3. ISSUES IN THE IMPLIMENTATION OF UCHA Taiwan’s UCHA consists of seven chapters and 44 articles. The chapters cover general provisions, rights attribution and international cooperation, activities directed at UCH, in situ preservation of UCH, excavating out of the water, penalty provisions, and supplementary provisions (Kuo et al 2017). The Act was adopted in 2015 and amended in 2022 with minor revisions. Although the law has been in force for several years, it has not yet been fully implemented. The key issues are summarized as follows. 3.1 Enforcement capacity of competent authority Article 2 of the UCHA clearly stipulates that “the competent authority of this Act is the Ministry of Culture (MOC).” Operationally, its subordinate agency – BOCH – is the responsible authority for day-to-day management. Under the BOCH, there are four divisions and a research institute. Of these, the “Underwater Cultural Heritage Section” of the “Division of Antiquities and Archaeological Sites” is the body that is responsible for all relevant UCH affairs (BOCH 2021). However, the BOCH is essentially a land-based authority that is located in downtown Taichung in the City of Taiwan, and it is without any vessel or port facilities for enforcement of the UCHA. In addition, the BOCH is also in lack of underwater archaeology professionals due to the limitation of budget and manning quotas. 3.2 Establishment of the national UCH research institute Taiwan has long anticipated the establishment of a research institute dedicated to UCH. Referring to similar foreign cases (e.g., the National Research Institute of Maritime Culture Heritage (NRIMCH) in Mokpo, Korea (UNESCO 2023); the Department of Underwater and Marine Archaeological Research (DRASSM) in Marseille, France (Ministère de la Culture 2023), Article 7 of the UCHA stipulates that the BOCH may “designate” a dedicated organization for the preservation of and research on UCH. However, UCH is a new concern for Taiwan and as yet there is no such research institute. In this regard, the former legislators Wen-Yan Chiau and Yi-Hua Lin proposed an amendment bill to amend Article 7 of the UCHA to say: “The competent authority may ‘establish’ or designate a dedicated organization for the preservation of and research on underwater cultural heritage, to perform any necessary investigation, research, excavation, restoration, education, promulgation, international cooperation, and other activities with respect to UCH.” This amendment bill was passed on 15 November 2022 (Liberty Times 2022). Even with the legal support, the establishment of national UCH research institute still needs more supports from the central government. 3.3 In situ preservation and UCH protection zones Echoing the spirit of the 2001 Convention, Article 27 of the UCHA expressly stipulates that “the preservation of UCH in situ shall be the first option considered, before any activities directed at this heritage are allowed or commenced.” Further, the proper means for in situ preservation may include record management, protection zones, or other proper preservation measures. When the review committees decide that it is necessary to designate a specific UCH protection zone, according to Article 28 of the UCHA, the BOCH should consult with the relevant authorities to designate and publicize it within the relevant area to preserve the UCH in situ. To allow for public engagement, Article 28 also stipulates that the authority should hold a public hearing or explanation session inviting civilians or groups with an interest in the area to attend. Since Taiwan still does not have a UCH protected area, it is necessary to learn from countries that ratified the 2001 Convention some time ago, in planning and management matters in the future. 2 �3.4 Conditions for UCH excavation In principle, the UCH should not be removed from the water. Pursuant to Article 34 of the UCHA, exceptions are limited to the following situations: (1) the UCH is related to the historical status or recognition of the nation; (2) if the UCH were absent, it could preclude a full understanding of human history; (3) the UCH is of substantial commercial value that could not be protected without removing it from the water; (4) excavation is necessary for investigating and conducting research on the UCH; (5) the UCH could not be sufficiently preserved, protected, or managed without being removed from the water because of an emergency or changes in the existing environment; (6) other situations in which the competent authority deems it necessary to remove the UCH from the water. When excavation is to be undertaken, pursuant to Article 35 of the UCHA, a preservation and maintenance plan for the UCH should be proposed at the same time. In this plan, “nondestructive technology and survey methods should be used preferentially.” In addition, people with expertise in underwater archaeology, underwater operations, and preservation science should collaborate to design the measures for the excavation or emergency response. For more than a decade, nevertheless, the UCH affairs in Taiwan have focused on general surveys, and there are still no plans to excavate UCH from its waters. Many opportunities for UCH research and presentation were missed due to the overly conservative mentality of officials, lack of largescale funding, and the expansion of in-situ conservation to a no-excavation concept, which made it difficult to excavate. 3.5 Public education on UCH Article 12 of UCHA stipulates that “the competent authority shall promote the underwater cultural heritage education at each level of school. After consulting the Ministry of Education, the competent authority shall stipulate regulations related to the implementation and encouragement of the aforesaid education.” Although the authorities have organized many popular science exhibitions, special lectures and training of underwater archaeologists in recent years, the promotion of UCH at all levels of schools has not yet been launched. 4. STRATEGIES FOR BETTER PRESERVATION OF UCH In response to the above issues and challenges, a number of strategies are proposed to strengthen the protection of UCH in Taiwan. 4.1 Raising the public awareness on the importance of UCH In addition to the aforementioned education about UCH at all levels of school, it is necessary to raise awareness of the importance of UCH among the general public. The BOCH has held many underwater archaeology exhibitions in recent years, and has also used new technologies such as Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality, which have attracted many people (Tung 2020). However, the popularity of these exhibitions is still insufficient; In particular, in order to properly protect UCH, it is necessary the public understand that underwater archaeology is not treasure hunting, but protection of the common heritage of mankind. 4.2 Involving the stakeholders and designating UCH protected areas The Regulations on Delineation and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Zones are derived from Articles 28, 30, and 31 of the UCHA. Multiple stakeholders (e.g., diving associations and tourism companies) will be highly interested in the nominated UCH waters. Therefore, before designating UCH protection zones, negotiation among stakeholders, nongovernmental organizations, and relevant agencies is essential to 3 �promoting UCH preservation and management. The BOCH already held a first-ever workshop on March 28, 2023 in Green Island, Taitung County on the delineation and management of “Green Island Wreck No. 1”. To win support from the local stakeholders it is recommended that the BOCH organise more workshops, explanation sessions and public hearings. 4.3 Conducting a pilot excavation project of important shipwreck In regards to the multiple purposes of research, restoration, training, education and exhibition, Taiwan needs to go further to identify a valuable shipwreck for excavation. Surely, this activity shall meet the requirements of excavation regulated in Articles 34 and 35 of UCHA. UCH professionals from other countries could initially provide guidance on the excavation projects. 4.4 Facilitating the international cooperation on preserving stone tidal weirs Based on recent investigations, there are approximately 600 stone weirs in the waters of Taiwan, nearly 350 of which are in the Penghu Archipelago (Penghu National Scenic Area Administration 2022; Stoneweir.info 2023). This example of UCH is important because these are included in the project “Indigenous People, Traditional Ecological Knowledge, and Climate Change: The Iconic Underwater Cultural Heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs, ID 180”. This project forms part of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021–2030 (IOC 2021). In this regard, Taiwan is urged to actively participate in this international cooperation project to preserve its abundant stone tidal weirs. 4.5 Establishing the national research institute of cultural heritage Pursuant to Article 7 of the UCHA, the Ministry of Culture may establish or designate an institute responsible for UCH preservation, protection and management. It is believed that this national-level institute can best integrate various research resources, including technologies, professions and budgets. As mentioned earlier, the French DRASSM is a national-level research institute of 50+ years. Equipped with research vessels and many professionals, the DRASSM has participated in various international UCH projects and achieved fruitful results with stable budgets and operations. In 2009, the NRIMCH was established in Korea to promote the country’s maritime culture and exchange research results with other international research institutions or museums. These institutes are all worth referring to as Taiwan establishes its own. In 2022, Penghu County Government entrusted Dr. Cheng-Hua Tsang of the National Tsing Hua University to conduct a project to establish the National Underwater Cultural Museum. The first step is to establish a research institute for the museum. 4.6 Integrating the planning and management of all marine protected areas The marine protected areas (MPAs) is an umbrella name which may include national parks, fishery resource protected areas, national scenic areas, national monuments and marine sanctuaries. However, the administrative jurisdiction of MPAs is scattered among Taiwan's numerous agencies. As the Government is drafting a bill on the Marine Protection Act, there is an opportunity to integrate planning and management of marine protected areas, including natural and cultural heritage. 4.7 Actively participating the international organizations and related meetings Although Taiwan is not currently a member of the United Nations, many laws and policies still follow international treaties and initiatives. UCH is an emerging matter, and Taiwan does not have enough experience in this regard, and needs to absorb the experience of other countries. Therefore, Taiwan should actively participate in international organizations and 4 �relevant meetings and cooperate with other countries or regions to jointly protect the UCH. 5. CONCLUSION In 2015, Taiwan adopted UCHA in accordance with the spirit and intent of the 2001 Convention. The passage and enforcement of UCHA represents Taiwanese determination to preserve, protect and manage this common heritage of mankind. As UCH is a new affair in this country, Taiwan still lacks experience in law enforcement, professional manpower, related technology, protected area designation and underwater archaeology excavation. In particular, better planning and stable funding support are needed for school education at all levels and the establishment of specialized research institutions. Eight years after the enactment of the law, therefore, it is necessary for Taiwan to review its UCH protection performance, learn from countries that ratified the 2001 Convention some time ago, and formulate the steps and projects to promote UCH protection. Bibliography [1] Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture (BOCH), Republic of China (Taiwan) (2021), Organization Chart, https://www.boch.gov.tw/home/en-us/Chart (Accessed 1 April 2023). [2] Kuo, C-C., Liao, C-P., Chiau, W-Y., Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Taiwan: Legislation and Challenges, paper presented at the Third Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 2017. [3] International Oceanographic Commission (IOC), UNESCO, Letter to Dr. Akifumi Iwaqbuchi, Ref.: IOC/VR/21.362/JB/AC/ml, 6 October 2021. [4] Ministère de la Culture, Department of Underwater and Underwater Archaeological Research (2023), https://www.culture.gouv.fr/en/Thematic/Archaeology/Actors-training/Archaeology-services-at-the-Ministryof-Culture/Department-of-Underwater-and-Underwater-Archaeological-Research (Accessed 3 Marc 2023). [5] Liberty Times, Adoption of the Third Reading of the Amendment to the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, the competent authority may establish a dedicated institution, 25 November 2022, https://news.ltn.com.tw/news/politics/breakingnews/4123994 (Accessed on 4 April 2023) (in Chinese) [6] Penghu National Scenic Area Administration, Twin-Hearts Stone Weir, 12 May 2022, https://tinyurl.com/yvfh4nnm (Accessed 25 May 2022) [7]Shy, G-L., The preservation and reuse of underwater cultural heritage, In: Chiau, W-Y., and Huang, H-W., Blue Economy and Marine Conservation, The Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Ocean and Taiwan, 2016, 310-338. [8] Stoneweir.info, The Records of the Stone Weirs, https://stoneweir.info/List?M=CAT001&S=All&P=1 (Accessed 10 April 2023). [9] Tung, Y-Y., A Review of Taiwan’s underwater cultural heritage dissemination works and future prospects, Journal of Cultural Heritage Sep. 2020 (53): 7-26. [10]Underwater Cultural Heritage Network, Taiwan’s Promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH) of Ministry of Culture, 2022, https://uch.boch.gov.tw/AboutHeritage/Promote (Accessed 4 April 2023). [11] UNESCO, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-roadinstitutions/national-research-institute-maritime-cultural-heritage (Accessed 28 April 2023). 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 17: The 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ Subject The topic of the resource Session 17 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 17 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Next Steps of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation in Taiwan: A Legal Aspect Description An account of the resource In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to value the spirit of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in 2015 Taiwan passed its Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA). Although the law has been in force for seven years, there are still many important elements that have not yet been fully implemented. The main reasons are the insufficient capacity of the competent authorities, the lack of underwater archaeology talents, and Taiwan's special environmental conditions. For example, the implementation of in-situ preservation, the designation of UCH protected areas, shallow water survey technology, the establishment of a national research center of UCH, and the raising of public awareness and school education all need to be further studied and implemented. Therefore, this article will illustrate the intention of important parts of UCHA, as well as the challenges promoted by practice, and finally put forward some suggestions for future protection of UCH in Taiwan. It is believed that the experience of Taiwan may serve as a reference to other countries concerned. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wen-Yan Chiau Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Chiau, Wen-Yan. 2023. “The Next Steps of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation in Taiwan: A Legal Aspect.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Mariano Azna. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1910 Asia-Pac Session 17 2023