1 10 9 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2963bb29b78f7c5b7fcaf9a015fe093e.pdf 4fb38873c315e1d2814cfd3e3aec8b8f PDF Text Text Influencing the contemporary narrative on whaling heritage Bradley W. Barr National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, 175 Edward Foster Road, Scituate, MA 02066, USA Email: Brad.Barr@noaa.gov Abstract Whaling heritage is a significant part of the world’s maritime history, and its landscape footprint is global. In the 19th Century, the Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters were the epicenter of whaling, where both many of the most productive whaling grounds were located as well as the primary ports that serviced this industry. The most compelling stories of whaling heritage occurred in these waters, and the names of the storied whaling ships, and the perils they encountered, are well known. These are stories that not only illuminate significant events in our collective maritime past, but contain lessons learned that can inform and offer knowledge relevant to current, yet similar, problems we face today. The contemporary whaling narrative is dominated by the more recent history of whaling, and the divisive atmosphere created by the controversy surrounding the few countries that continue to have active commercial whaling industries. Efforts need to be directed at changing this contemporary narrative, perceptions of the public that whaling heritage is more than killing these giants of the sea. Increasing awareness of the many influences, positive and negative, that whaling, throughout its history, has had on shaping our geo-political system, societies, cultures, economies, and even expanding our knowledge of the oceans and their resources is essential. Through this expanded awareness and appreciation of how whaling helped shape the world we know, we can acquire some needed support for continued historical research and documentation of this part of our maritime heritage. Changing this narrative may also help in preserving the significant places in our global whaling heritage landscape, and hopefully inform wiser decisions about contemporary issues through learning from the past. Key words: Whaling Heritage, Global Whaling Heritage Landscape, Contemporary Narrative, Public Acceptance, Lessons Learned Introduction: Blood in the Water The predominant perception of whaling in modern society is all about killing whales, animals viewed as intelligent and social creatures that are brutally murdered for no particularly good reason. Except for a dwindling number of cultures, we no longer kill whales for meat, have little contemporary use of the oil rendered from their blubber, and have persisted in pursuing leviathan largely for political reasons related to preserving 1 �nationalistic prerogatives and traditional subsistence. This perception of whaling is a surprisingly recent phenomenon (Epstein, 2008), arising quite rapidly from a confluence of ideas, and a well-crafted campaign by environmental non-governmental organizations, related to the worldwide emergence of an ecological ethic in the mid1960’s. Epstein (2008) suggests that “Save the Whales” became a syllogism for the idea of saving the environment more generally, which led to this rapid and paradigmatic shift in the prevailing perception of whaling, and its nearly universal adoption by both society and particularly countries that had previously been very active advocates for the whaling industry throughout its history. When we think of whaling, what some see in their mind’s eye is the blood in the water. However, the whaling industry has, historically, contributed much to society and our collective well being. It has given us products that have illuminated our cities at a time when urban crime was epidemic (Starbuck, 1878), made the machines of the industrial age run smoothly and efficiently, and significantly influenced the global geo-political landscape. It was one of the first truly global industries, was a driver for opening up international trade and diplomatic relations, and was an economic engine for the global economy throughout most of the 19th Century. Whalers, somewhat like the Internet today, connected the world, and made it seem a bit smaller. The public learned about the world vicariously through the whalers’ experiences, covered extensively in the newspapers and magazines of the time. The whaling ships brought with them goods from their home countries and infusions of money to ports around the world to supply their operations and service their ships. They took away from these ports both local products and information about these places and their life ways. Popcorn, for example, is likely one of those products brought back to America by the whalers (Smith, 1999). They helped to increase our understanding of not just whales, but the oceans they live in and the other creatures that share these waters, illuminating a deeper knowledge of ocean currents and winds, weather and climate. They were, as described by Rozwadowski (2005), the first blue-water oceanographers. Not all the historical contributions of the global whaling industry were positive. In many far-off ports and places whalers put ashore to resupply, they introduced diseases to aboriginal cultures and often the deleterious effects of alcohol on 2 �these societies were exacerbated by visits from whaling ships. For example, it is believed that, quite unintentionally, the American whaling ship Wellington introduced mosquitos to Hawaii while restocking their water supplies during a visit to the islands in 1827 (Sedgwick, 1901). The introduction and influence of alcohol in Hawaii, after the first whalers began to arrive in Hawaii in 1819, was identified as a increasingly significant problem in Hawaii’s whaling ports through the latter part of the 19th Century, and has been attributed, beyond simply the intoxication of both Hawaiians and sailors, as a contributory factor in colonialism and its effects on Native Hawaiian society in this period (Brown, 2011). And, indeed, whale populations were decimated in many places around the world, leaving a legacy of impacts that remain on still recovering populations, which now face other challenges. In their wake, whalers undeniably left a host of environmental and societal impacts that often had severe and long-term deleterious effects. However, this was balanced, to one degree or another, by the economic benefits and geopolitical implications of their activities in these places. The dominant and powerful contemporary discourse surrounding whaling is quite definitively negative, as Epstein (2008) has observed. Notwithstanding whether the whaling industry is deserving of this widely-held public perception or not, one of the challenges this creates is that it makes raising public awareness about the positive aspects of whaling heritage far more challenging. To achieve some success in effectively reaching contemporary audiences with this more expansive, comprehensive and balanced view of whaling heritage, to help them be more open to receiving information that conflicts, perhaps deeply and with moral and ethical implications, with this prevailing discourse, offering some historical context is essential. To understand and appreciate the past, and to learn the important lessons this history offers, we need to find a way to overcome this contemporary perception of whaling as simply “blood in the water”. Whaling heritage and places Maury’s 1851 map whaling grounds and the more recent map of whaling voyages and species observed by Smith et al., (2012), taken from 19th logbooks and other documents, clearly demonstrate the global geographic reach of whaling in the 19th Century. While the extent of whaling during this period may have been global, it is the 3 �particular places in this landscape that help to tell the story of whaling heritage. The whaling grounds, such as the Japan Grounds, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Western Arctic, were the places the whalers travelled to in search of whales, and spent time at sea catching and processing their quarry. These are places visited when the whales were plentiful and the profits were favorable, and inextricably linked with the storied whaling ports like Honolulu and Lahaina in Hawaii. Such port cities served the industry, offered provisioning supplies, ship repair and maintenance facilities and skilled craftsmen, often men to supplement whaling crews, and other less socially acceptable amenities, like grog-shops and prostitution (Daws, 1967). These ports, and all the whaling grounds, are places where whaling is a part of their history and heritage. As Barr and Delgado (in press) have suggested: ...we live in a world of places, created in the perceptions of people who are often deeply attached to these places and imbue them with special meaning. The landscape of whaling heritage and the significant places that are part of that landscape therefore also warrants some consideration in our collective efforts to interpret and inform, to educate and excite the imaginations of the public, as well as to increase and expand the awareness and appreciation of the importance of whaling heritage in our collective history. To effectively preserve and protect these places, we will need to be aware of and address the prevailing contemporary perception of whaling. Hawaii’s Whaling Heritage: What whaling contributed...... It has been suggested that whaling had a profound effect on the economic, cultural and social history of Hawaii (Barr and Delgado, In Press; Lebo, 2010; Raupp and Gleason, 2010). In the late 18th Century, as whaling began its global expansion, larger whaling ships began to be built that we capable of multi-year trips to new whaling grounds. With the discovery of the “Offshore Grounds” off Peru, the Sperm whaling grounds off Japan (LaCroix, 2002), the “Kodiak Grounds”, off Southeast Alaska (Burcin, 2005), and ultimately the Western Arctic whaling grounds North of the Bering Strait (Bockstoce, 1986), trips from the New England home ports to the Pacific were routinely three to four years by the mid-1800’s (Davis et al., 1987). Given such long voyages to the Pacific, 4 �the Hawaiian Islands were strategically located to provide ports to service this growing fleet. By 1822, approximately 60 whaling ships were routinely visiting Hawaiian ports, and by 1846, almost 600 ships were arriving each year (Juvik et al., 1998). While this impact gradually diminished over the next fifty years (Raupp and Gleason, 2010) it left a legacy of change in Hawaii. During the 1820’s to the 1830’s, the population of Honolulu tripled, from 3000 to 9000, and with this came the building of roads, housing, and other needed infrastructure (Daws, 1967). The waterfront area of Honolulu harbor also expanded: “The harbor made the town...by the middle of the 19th century Honolulu had grown from a tiny village to a busy Pacific port of call, the metropolis of the islands and the capital of the kingdom” (Daws, 1967). Given the substantial quantities of fresh water needed by ships, the first water supply system in Hawaii was installed in Honolulu harbor (Nellist, 1951). The existing water supply in Honolulu had become “impoverished and polluted” (Daws, 1967) and this new water system offered not only potable water to the ships, but to the residents of the harbor area. Whaling became an economic engine for Honolulu and the Islands (Daws, 1968; cf Raupp and Gleason, 2010). One of the most important interactions between the whalers and the Native Hawaiians was their service as crew on these ships. Lebo (2010) reports that by 1860, Native Hawaiians comprised upwards of one half of such crews in the Pacific and Arctic. As the influence of the expressed needs of the whalers for resupply of types of foods familiar to Yankee crews increased, the agriculture of the islands also began to change. The Hawaiian economy of the 1820’s was transformed from a trade-based to cashbased system. While not an uncommon occurrence in colonial systems (Feyrer and Sacerdote, 2006; Settles, 1996), this transition to the cultivation of foods to supply the whaling fleets visiting Hawaii changed the face of Hawaii’s agricultural landscape. One interesting example, offered by Daws (1967), of the impact of changing cultivation practices related to the increase in use, for a period of time in the 1840’s, of the port of Lahaina. Maui had begun to grow white potatoes, which were favored by the whaling crews over the native sweet potato. While there were other factors that contributed to the enhanced use of the port Lahaina, particularly the more liberal nature of the port with regard to prostitution and grog-shops, now that “Lahaina sported both the potato 5 �and the prostitute...the combination was all but irresistible” (Daws, 1967). Daws concludes, “In the mid-50’s, the potato boom ended but the prostitutes remained. Other things being equal, Honolulu's better shipping facilities prevailed again”. Finally, a speculative argument could be made that this change in Hawaii’s agricultural practices may have set in motion later changes, like the rise of the sugar, pineapple, and coffee cultivation that brought even greater political influence of non-Hawaiian interests that ultimately contributed to the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893. Daws (1967) discusses the sociological phenomenon of the perception of the working and personal habits of Native Hawaiians, and how this prevailing western perception was used to influence the actions of the American government with regard to Hawaii and its economic future. While clearly there were many other contributory social, cultural, and economic factors that may have had considerably more impact (Kuykendall, 1967), this fundamental change in the political power structure in Hawaii may have been facilitated not only by this change in the agricultural landscape of the Islands to accommodate the visiting whaling fleet, but also the subjugation of the Native Hawaiians that resulted as part of the colonial occupation of Hawaii. There is little doubt that Hawaii, and its essential ports of call, is a critically important place in the global whaling landscape. Not all these stories of the interaction between the whalers and the people of Hawaii may have represented particularly positive contributions, but they undoubtedly had a significant influence on Hawaii and its history. Whaling and Diplomacy The 19th Century was a period in American history that saw the emergence of this new country on a potential trajectory toward becoming a world power, foretelling the political hegemony of the United States in the 20th Century. The diplomacy of this fledgling country at the end of the 1700’s, right after its war of independence with England, was just beginning to develop. However, the American whalers had already been traveling to far off lands, making port calls with their ships, and forging commercial relationships with their counterparts in these countries for many years. As Fredrick Jackson Turner (1920) has suggested, it is the trader, what he called the “pathfinder of civilization”, that most often is earliest at the threshold of the frontier, and in this whaling was no exception. According to Starbuck (1878), the first ships sailing under the new American 6 �flag to enter a British port after the revolutionary war, in 1787, were the whalers Bedford, Industry, and Speedwell, all out of Nantucket. They had gone to England to try and recommence trade in whale oil and bone with the British. Starbuck (1878) also makes mention of another event where whaling was driving American diplomacy (and war). During War of 1812, Peruvian privateers, as allies of England in this war, were seizing US whalers. The US deployed a “diplomatic” envoy to address this issue, but securing the support of the Chilean army, the envoy led the fight to free captured whalers from their captivity in Peru. The history of whaling is rife with stories of first encounters with remote civilizations, sailing into unknown and uncharted waters, forging commercial relationships with ports where no American ship had visited previously. They were, indeed, Turner’s “pathfinders of civilization”. One particularly important event that was largely driven by the need for the whaling fleets to have ports in the North Pacific readily available was the opening of Japan by Admiral Perry in 1853. Burcin (2005) summarizes the event, and the intimate connection between Perry’s mission and the whaling fleets, which ultimately compelled the Japanese to permit vessels from other countries to enter their ports. Burcin (2005) recounts that the contemporary reports of the mission did indeed emphasize the importance of that mission in meeting the pressing needs of the whaling industry, but in subsequent historical analyses of the mission, the connection is often not mentioned or mentioned only in passing. By the mid-1800’s, America had a virtual monopoly on whaling in the Pacific, and with the Russians openly hostile to American whalers in their territorial waters, access to the ports in Japan was strategically essential. Indeed, as Burcin (2005) concludes “Commodore Perry’s expedition relied upon whalers’ experience in Japan not only for information about a little understood society but also as a political justification to sail into Edo Bay in July 1853”. Not only was whaling considered a justification for Perry’s expedition, but also for two previous Naval missions to Japan in 1846 and 1849, and a key justification for the American Exploration Expedition in 1836 commanded by Charles Wilkes (Burcin, 2005). There is little doubt that America’s whaling interests were driving diplomacy in the Pacific region. If American “whaling hegemony” in the 19th Century (Basberg, 2006) did serve an important role in the 7 �development of the American political hegemony in the 20th Century, this is an important story to tell. Conclusion Rudyard Kipling (1941) said, “If history were taught in the form of stories, it would never be forgotten”. Therefore, telling the compelling stories of 19th Century whaling should be an effective way to not only expand the awareness and appreciation of this influential human activity that has helped to shape the modern world, but perhaps assist in empowering the protection and preservation of the essential places in that history for future generations. However, storytelling requires both a good story to tell, and a willing and appreciative audience. There is little doubt that whaling can provide many suitable stories, but finding a willing audience may present a more significant challenge. This may be a bit of an overstatement, as places like the New Bedford Whaling Museum, New Bedford Whaling Historic Park, and Mystic Seaport seem to attract many visitors. Recent books on whaling, such as Dolan’s (2008) Leviathan, have received multiple awards and are bestsellers, while readers young and old continue to be drawn toward Melville’s (2001) story of Ahab and Ismael in Moby Dick. Certainly, the discovery of the Two Brothers near French Frigate Shoals in the Papahānoumokuākea Marine National Monument attracted an extraordinary amount of press coverage and generated considerable public interest. However, while it is one thing to attract visitors, read a bestseller, or follow a news story, its quite another to recognize and act on supporting the preservation of our collective whaling heritage, particularly to actively support protecting the particularly important places in the global whaling landscape. Perhaps encouraging public appreciation that whaling has helped to shape what the world is today, and the many contributions this industry has made to society, our economic well being, and to our rich maritime heritage, is the greatest challenge. There are many things that have happened throughout history, viewed through the lens of today that may not seem something about which we should be very proud. Through these experiences, however, we have learned a great deal and should not dismiss these lessons of history because contemporary perspectives diminish their perceived importance. We, as the conservators of this heritage, should not just tell the stories, but offer some sense of the historic context of the stories we are telling, helping the listener 8 �not only understand and interpret the implications of this powerful contemporary antiwhaling discourse on that history, but to suggest the need for acting to support and encourage the preservation of the global whaling heritage landscape so that what remains is not lost. Time is a powerful enough opponent in the efforts to preserve heritage resources, as they are ephemeral, degrading through natural process in the environment. However, the places in this global whaling heritage landscape, the stories they tell and the lessons they provide, are enduring. They are also worthy of preserving for future generations. Acknowledgements Thanks to Jim Delgado and Hans van Tilburg for helpful comments and advice regarding the ideas presented in this paper. Disclaimer: The opinions expressed here are solely the author’s, and do not reflect the views of the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, NOAA, or the US Government. References Barr, B. W., and Delgado, J. P., (In Press). Preserving whaling heritage: The role of marine protected areas as “museums of the sea”. Presented at the 4th Symposium on Whaling and History, Commander Chr. Christensen’s Whaling Museum, Sandefjord, Norway, 18-21 June, 2013. Basberg, B. L., 2006. Two Hegemonies – Two technological regimes: American and Norwegian whaling in the 19th and 20th century. Presented at the XIV International Economic History Congress, Helsinki, August 2006, retrieval November 29, 2013, from http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers3/Basberg.pdf Bockstoce, J. R., 1986. Whales, Ice, and Men: The History of Whaling in the Western Arctic. University of Washington Press, Seattle WA. Brown, M., 2011. ‘Äina Under the Influence: The Criminalization of Alcohol in 19th century Hawai’i. lili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, Vol. 7: 311339. Burcin, T., 2005. Commodore Perry’s 1853 Japanese Expedition: How whaling influenced the event that revolutionized Japan. Master’s Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, retrieval October 13, 2013, from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05132005 131722/unrestricted/MAThesis.pdf. Davis, L. E., Gallman, R. E., and Hutchins, T., 1987. Productivity in American Whaling: The New Bedford Fleet in the 19th century. Working Paper No. 2477, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, retrieval April 13, 2012, from http://www.nber.org/papers/w2477.pdf 9 �Daws, G., 1967. Honolulu in the 19th Century: Notes on the Emergence of Urban Society in Hawaii. Journal of Pacific History, Vol. 2: 77-96. Daws, G., 1968. Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Dolan, E.J., 2008. Leviathan: The History of Whaling in America. W. W. Norton and Company, New York, NY. Epstein, C., 2008. The Power of Words in International Relations: The Birth of an AntiWhaling Discourse. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Feyrer, J., and Sacerdote, B., 2006. Colonialism and modern income – islands as natural experiments. Working Paper No. 12546, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. http://www.nber.org/papers/w12546 Juvik, S. P., Juvik, J. O., and Paradise, T. R., (Eds.), 1998. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Hilo, HI. Kipling, R., 1941. The Collected Works of Rudyard Kipling. Ams Press, Brooklyn, NY. Kuykendall, R. S., 1967. The Hawaiian Kingdom: 1874-1893: the Kalakaua Dynasty. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. HI. Lacroix, S. J., 2002. The economic history of Hawai’i: A short introduction. Working Paper No. 02-3, East-West Center, Department of Economics, University of Hawaii at Manoa, retrieval October 10, 2013, from http://ideas.repec.org/p/hai/wpaper/200203.html Lebo, S. A., 2010. Local Perspective of Hawaii's Whaling Economy: Whale Traditions and Government Regulation of the Kingdom's Native Seamen and Whale Fishery. Coriolis, Vol. 1: 3-37. Melville, H., 2001. Moby Dick: or The Whale. Penguin Classics 150th Anniversary Edition, Penguin Putnam, Inc., New York, NY. Nellist, G. F., 1951. An Early istory of onolulu’s Water System. Board of Water Supply, City and County of Honolulu, retrieval February 26, 2014, from https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10524/11867/1951-NellistEarly-History-of-Honolulu.pdf?sequence=1. Raupp, J. T., and Gleason, K., 2010. Submerged whaling heritage in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 34: 66–74. Rozwadowski, H. M., 2005. Fathoming the Ocean: The Discovery and Exploration of the Deep Sea. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Sedgwick, T. F., 1901. Chickens and their Diseases in Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 1, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, retrieval February 26, 2014, from http://books.google.com/books?id=bfJFAQAAIAAJ. Settles, J. D., 1996. The Impact of Colonialism on African Economic Development. University of Tennessee Honors Thesis Projects, retrieval December 12, 2013, from http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_chanhonoproj/182 10 �Smith, S. F., 1999. Popped culture: A social history of popcorn in America. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC. Starbuck, A., 1878. History of the American whale fishery from its earliest inception to the year 1876. (Reprinted 1989), Castle Books, Secaucus, NJ. Smith, T. D., Reeves, R. R., Josephson, E. A., and Lund, J. N., 2012. Spatial and seasonal distribution of American whaling and whales in the age of sail. PLoS ONE, Vol. 7 (4): e34905. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034905, retrieval October 22, 2013, from http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjourn al.pone.0034905&representation=PDF Turner, F. J., 1920. The Frontier in American History. Henry Holt and Co., New York. Biography Brad Barr received a BS from the University of Maine, a MS from the University of Massachusetts, and PhD at the University of Alaska. He is currently a Senior Policy Advisor in the NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Adjunct Professor at the School of Marine Sciences and Ocean Engineering at the University of New Hampshire, and a Visiting Professor at the University Center of the Westfjords in Iceland. He is a member of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas, the International Committee on Marine Mammal Protected Areas, and IUCN Marine Mammal Protected Areas Task Force. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Influencing the contemporary narrative on whaling heritage Description An account of the resource Whaling heritage is a significant part of the world’s maritime history, and its landscape footprint is global. In the 19th Century, the Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters were the epicenter of whaling, where both many of the most productive whaling grounds were located as well as the primary ports that serviced this industry. The most compelling stories of whaling heritage occurred in these waters, and the names of the storied whaling ships, and the perils they encountered, are well known. These are stories that not only illuminate significant events in our collective maritime past, but contain lessons learned that can inform and offer knowledge relevant to current, yet similar, problems we face today. The contemporary whaling narrative is dominated by the more recent history of whaling, and the divisive atmosphere created by the controversy surrounding the few countries that continue to have active commercial whaling industries. Efforts need to be directed at changing this contemporary narrative, perceptions of the public that whaling heritage is more than killing these giants of the sea. Increasing awareness of the many influences, positive and negative, that whaling, throughout its history, has had on shaping our geo-political system, societies, cultures, economies, and even expanding our knowledge of the oceans and their resources is essential. Through this expanded awareness and appreciation of how whaling helped shape the world we know, we can acquire some needed support for continued historical research and documentation of this part of our maritime heritage. Changing this narrative may also help in preserving the significant places in our global whaling heritage landscape, and hopefully inform wiser decisions about contemporary issues through learning from the past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bradley W. Barr, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/144da149fd45a993c87426b87fb61fa9.pdf 27ba06cc34c03d27f18e7bd37f7a65ee PDF Text Text The Intangible Underwater: Integrating Intangible Cultural Heritage into the Study of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites Suzanne S. Finney Maritime Archaeology and History of the Hawaiian Islands (MAHHI) Foundation Honolulu, Hawaii 96830, USA suzanne.finney@gmail.com Abstract Intangible cultural heritage (henceforth ICH) is an integral component to the understanding of many cultural heritage sites worldwide. While the collection of stories, oral histories and other intangible information to interpret terrestrial sites is increasingly practiced, less so is the collection of this information to identify underwater cultural heritage sites, in particular those sites without material remains. The focus for intangible cultural heritage often seems to end at the shore, and not extend into the waters, for many nations. This presentation discusses the application of ICH for underwater cultural heritage, using examples from the Pacific to illustrate the importance of recording all information for underwater areas in order to ensure adequate protection and interpretation of the significant cultural heritage of many coastal, islands, and other submerged sites. Key words: Intangible, Oral history, Chants, Pacific, ICH Introduction UNESCO describes intangible cultural heritage as, “traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts” (UNESCO n/d). Rather than documenting materials or sites, the ICH list records ‘elements’ of cultures and social practices. Of the 30 elements listed for 2013, only one appears to have any type of marine or maritime focus (Shrimp fishing on horseback in Oostduinkerke, Belgium), and on the total list of 282 elements listed since 2008, only a handful are marine, maritime or underwater oriented 1. The documentation and protection of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites can, and often does, include the recording of oral histories related to the sites, but this information is usually peripheral to the recording of the material, or tangible, remains, focusing on the collection of 1 �information related to the material remains under study rather than toward an allencompassing cultural understanding of the area. Research in UCH may be expanding beyond the investigation of individual shipwrecks, bridges and ports to larger concepts of regional navigation, seafaring and the like, but a truly holistic examination of the tangible remains associated with most UCH sites, should always include a systematic collection of information about the intangible significance of the sites and the areas where sites are located. This is particularly timely in the face of budget and staff reductions with which many offices charged with the collection and protection of both UCH and ICH must currently contend. This paper offers a brief consideration of how a synthesis between UCH and ICH data collection might be approached, beginning with two examples of research that incorporates both tangible and intangible data. It also explores the idea of collecting information on other research projects, focusing on topics of relevance to the Pacific Islands and those which could possibly lead to additional World Heritage and/or Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity nominations for the region in the future. Example: Sea Turtle Consumption in the Marshall Islands A good example of how a project incorporates the tangible and intangible aspects of underwater cultural heritage is the development of a proposed project involving sea turtle use and consumption in the Pacific. Regina WoodromRudrud, an environmental anthropologist and sea turtle biologist, has drafted a project that would incorporate ethnographic field techniques, sea turtle biology and maritime archaeology to determine the risk to human populations of sea turtle consumption in the Marshall Islands (WoodromRudrud et al., 2007). She and her colleagues contend that the understanding of the potential negative impacts of turtle consumption in the Marshall Islands cannot be complete without understanding the physical environment in which turtles live, feed and breed, including hazards brought on by shipwrecks from World War II and the post World War II nuclear testing in the region. In this case, knowing where and when turtles are hunted and how they are consumed by the Marshallese is combined with learning where turtles hunt for their food, and how the impact of shipwrecks in the water might affect the food chain between turtles and humans. If turtles are being exposed to harmful contaminants, which are stored in their 2 �bodies, then the people eating those turtles are exposed to the contaminants. Maritime archaeology assists with this research by locating shipwrecks in the areas where the turtles forage to determine what types of contaminants may be present. In the conclusion the authors state: We argue that research into this situation is essential as we have found a high probability that there are toxicants remaining in the RMI environment and that due to the long life (50+ years receiving low dose radiation and other contaminants) and normal habits of sea turtles, such as site fidelity to certain resting areas and resting in submerged resources such as irradiated shipwrecks (among others), site fidelity to certain foraging areas and several species eating organisms that may be growing directly on toxic surfaces (such as algae and sponges), and embryo development and metamorphosis taking place a few feet down in contaminated sand, their contamination from those products is highly probable (WoodromRudrud et al., 2007: 17). Example: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument The Papahānaumokuākea2 Marine National Monument is located in the northwest section of the Hawaiian Islands. For years there has been systematic research and investigation into the maritime cultural heritage of the area, and a number of significant historic ship and aircraft wrecks have been identified and recorded. There have also been tremendous advances in the collection and understanding of Hawaiian sites and traditional uses of the area. Much of this information comes from the study of the intangible heritage of the Hawaiians, the chants and histories passed down for generations. There have also been a number of projects involving archaeological fieldwork on Hawaiian sites on the islands, including the collection of intangible information on place names within the Monument. There is not been much evidence to date that this has led to documenting underwater Hawaiian sites, but the importance of collecting intangible information about the area, and incorporating this information into the ongoing research, interpretation and protection of the Monument is also a good example of the holistic approach to understanding underwater cultural heritage by compiling tangible and 3 �intangible information. As described in the maritime heritage management plan for the Monument: Aspects of Native Hawaiian heritage, including fishing, religion, and politics, are links to the kind of broad, interdisciplinary understanding of the heritage of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands that can help management pursue a sustainable direction for this World Heritage Site (Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 2011: 28). Shipwrecks Raupp, Finney and Gleason (2011) discuss the use of 19th century whaling wrecks for multidisciplinary research in the Pacific, incorporating fields such as history, archaeology and biology. The collection of ICH should also be considered a component of this research. The location of shipwrecks is often learned through oral histories and stories from local inhabitants. Once a location is determined and these wrecks are mapped, the collection of intangible data often ends. Yet the impact of these wrecks can continue on, in genealogies from descendents of the survivors or changes in habits around the location of wrecks. For example, in Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, four whaling ships were captured and burned in April 1865 as part of the activities of the CSS Shenandoah during the U.S. Civil War. The whaling crews were all left on Pohnpei while the Shenandoah continued into the Arctic Ocean to look for more whaleships to capture3. By the time a vessel arrived in Pohnpei to rescue the whaling crews, one of the whaleship masters, Captain John Eldridge, had decided to stay on Pohnpei. He raised a family whose descendants still live on Pohnpei. Collecting information from the family during an archaeological investigation of the wreck sites led to more information about the whaling wrecks and the history of the harbor where the wrecks are located. The shipwrecks are not the end of the story; it continues to develop through the history of the family on Pohnpei. This is also true for more recent wrecks. Ship and aircraft wrecks from World War II are often found through written records from the period, but as many maritime archaeologists know, local knowledge is likely to be more accurate in locating wrecks. Stories from eye witnesses and information from fishermen about where nets are snagged, lead to the discovery of new wrecks. A recent survey of one the atolls in the Republic of the Marshall Islands documented several 19th and 20th 4 �century shipwrecks based on information gathered from local informants, including stories passed down about how the ships were sunk (Finney, 2007). The ability to collect this type of information is as important for UCH managers to learn as how to photograph, measure and map these wrecks. Marine Exploitation Marine exploitation, such as fishing, collecting shellfish, or harvesting seaweed, is an ongoing activity throughout the Pacific. Traditional fishing methods are often not easy to detect in the archaeological record, but that is not a reason for UCH managers to discount this essential component of life on the islands. Knowing the importance of primary, seasonal, sacred or taboo fishing grounds, and current fishing practices offer the potential for discovering significant tangible cultural sites in these areas. In a recent article for the Hawaiian Airlines magazine, Michael Shapiro describes efforts to preserve traditional fishing knowledge in a small village on the Big Island of Hawaii (2013). This information could be the starting point for an investigation of the coastline and underwater environment for evidence of underwater historic or archaeological sites related to fishing. In 1996 the University of Hawaii sponsored a maritime archaeology field school that looked at ancient fishing sites off Waikiki on Oahu, where they documented some artifacts that supported the Hawaiian stories of fishing in the area (NOAA n/d). It would be useful for those involved with UCH to develop working relationships with those involved in the promotion of traditional skills such as fishing in order to acquire information on where likely underwater sites might be located. The transmission of knowledge across generations on a variety of marine and maritime contexts can provide excellent information that leads to developments in underwater cultural heritage. Conclusion There is a very clear distinction between UCH and ICH within UNESCO, and this paper does not recommend that this division be altered. However, practical considerations such as budget, staff and time constraints argue for the development of projects that can serve more than one purpose, to collect information on underwater sites, and preserve the knowledge and skills of local populations, or to collect oral histories to 5 �prepare for the survey of underwater sites, integrating tangible and intangible aspects of underwater heritage. UCH has traditionally focused on tangible or material remains, but there is nothing inherent in the concept that should cause us to limit our inquiry to only the tangible aspects of UCH. Within the broader context of UCH, documentation and research should include all evidence, including the intangible. The management of underwater cultural heritage calls for a holistic approach to collecting information, and those who are engaged in UCH should be willing to “think outside the box” or the shipwreck, or the fish trap, and explore ways in which ICH can increase our knowledge of the underwater environment. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the organizers of this conference for the opportunity to present the paper. I would also thank Professor Noelani Arista of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, who provided suggestions and I am grateful for her input. Endnote 1 For example the Watertight-bulkhead technology of Chinese junks (China), or Sanké mon, collective fishing rite of the Sanké (Mali). See www.unesco.org/culture/ich for the full list. 2 See http://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/about/name.html for information about this name and how it was chosen for the monument. 3 See Chaffin 2006, Finney and Graves 2002 for more information about this incident. References Chaffin, T., 2006. Sea of Gray: The Around-the-World Odyssey of the Confederate Raider Shenandoah. Hill and Wang, New York. Finney, S. S., 2007. Phase Two Survey and Inventory of Submerged Cultural Resources in Portions of Maloelap Lagoon, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Report submitted to the Historic Preservation Office, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Finney, S. S., and Graves, M. W., 2002. Site investigation and documentation of a Civil War shipwreck thought to be sunk by the C.S.S. Shenandoah, April 1865. Report for the American Battlefield Protection Program, U.S. National Park Service, Washington, D.C. NOAA, http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/maritime/maritime_history.html, accessed on 29 December 2013. 6 �Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 2011. Maritime Heritage Research, Education, and Management Plan: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Honolulu. Raupp, J., Finney, S. S., and Gleason, K., 2011. Multidisciplinary Research Potential of Whaling Heritage in the Pacific Region. In Mark Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the AsiaPacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila: 1029-1040. Shapiro, M., 2013. Go Fish!HanaHou. The Magazine of Hawaiian Airlines, Vol. 16 (6), December 2013 - January 2014, accessed at the website http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=1270&Ma gazineID=78&Page=1 (29 December 2013). UNESCO, 2003. Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage Media Kit, www.unesco.org/culture/ich/doc/src/18440-EN.pdf, accessed on 27 December 2013, p. 3. Woodrom-Rudrud, R., Kroeker, J. W., Leslie, H. Y., and Finney, S. S., 2007. The Sea Turtle Wars: Culture, War, and Sea Turtles in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin, Vol. 21: 3-29. Biography Suzanne Finney is an archaeologist specializing in maritime archaeology. She received her Ph.D. in Anthropology from the University of Hawaii at Manoa and has been involved in fieldwork and projects throughout the Pacific, including Hawaii, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Republic of Palau. Suzanne is President of the Maritime Archaeology and History of the Hawaiian Islands Foundation (MAHHI), a non-profit organization chiefly concerned with research, training, and education in maritime elements of submerged cultural resources in Hawaii and the Pacific. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Intangible Underwater: Integrating Intangible Cultural Heritage into the Study of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites Description An account of the resource Intangible cultural heritage (henceforth ICH) is an integral component to the understanding of many cultural heritage sites worldwide. While the collection of stories, oral histories and other intangible information to interpret terrestrial sites is increasingly practiced, less so is the collection of this information to identify underwater cultural heritage sites, in particular those sites without material remains. The focus for intangible cultural heritage often seems to end at the shore, and not extend into the waters, for many nations. This presentation discusses the application of ICH for underwater cultural heritage, using examples from the Pacific to illustrate the importance of recording all information for underwater areas in order to ensure adequate protection and interpretation of the significant cultural heritage of many coastal, islands, and other submerged sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Suzanne S. Finney, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c0ad6b5f6dcd7ceca973467b768d82f3.pdf 1af71639c6dffb615eb99711239f3cc7 PDF Text Text Underwater Survey at the Ruins of Nan Madol, Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia Tomo Ishimura Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara 630-8577, Japan Email: tomoishi@nabunken.go.jp Kyushu Institute for Technology, Fukuoka 804-8550, Japan E-mail: ura@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp Akira Asada University of Tokyo, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan Email: asada@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp Fumitaka Maeda Toyo Corporation, Tokyo 103-8284, Japan Email: maedaf@toyo.co.jp Ken’ichi Sugimoto Windy Network, Tokyo 108-0073, Japan Email: sugimoto@windy-net.co.jp Toshihiro Ogawa, Akio Hikoyama, Yoshinori Matsumoto, Yusuke Sugimoto Windy Network, Tokyo 108-0073, Japan Email: ogawa@windy-net.co.jp; Email: hikoyama@windy-net.co.jp Email: y-matsumoto@windy-net.co.jp; Email: y-sugimoto@windy-net.co.jp Charles Brennan R2 SONIC, Austin, Texas 78735, USA Email: cbrennan@r2sonic.com Tomomi Haramoto TokyoNational Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo 110-8713, Japan Email: haramoto@tobunken.go.jp Augustine Kohler Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, FSM National Government, Pohnpei, The Federated States of Micronesia, FM 96941 Email: kusgoose@hotmail.com Abstract In this paper we demonstrate the results of underwater survey at Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia. Nan Madol are the ruins of a megalithic civilization composed of 95 small to large artificial islets made mostly of basalt, situated on a shallow water of Pohnpei Island. The site is now on the Tentative List of the UNESCO World Heritage Site submitted by Federated States of Micronesia. Protection of the site is comprised of both these basaltic islets and the water surrounding them. In addition, there is an oral tradition that a sunken city named Kahnihmweiso is located underwater near the site. The goal of our investigation is to make a map of underwater topography that is 1 �expected to be utilized for the site documentation and the setting of core and buffer zones. The investigation was carried out by using multi-beam sonar and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), as well as manual survey by scuba diving gears. Research has revealed that there is no clear evidence of artificial constructions under the water; however, a detailed map of underwater topography around the site was obtained. Our research also stresses the significance of the sea area as a resource of legends and a component of the intangible cultural heritage of Nan Madol. Key words: Oceania; Federated States of Micronesia; Nan Madol; Multi-beam sonar; Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) Background Heritage Management and Underwater Cultural Heritage in Federated States of Micronesia The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a grouping of 607 small islands in the Western Pacific just north of the equator. They are spread over an area of 2,700 km 2. They consist of four States: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae (from west to east). Their land area is quite small, amounting to approximately 700 km 2. The capital is Palikir, and the largest city is Kolonia; both are located on the island of Pohnpei. All land area is the result of volcanic activity occurred millions of years ago resulting in islands and atolls of incredible variety. Each of the four States constitute one or more main high islands, and all but Kosrae include numerous outlying atolls. Each of them has its own culture and traditions, nevertheless, common cultural and economic bonds are centuries old. Together with the Republic of Palau, the FSM forms the group known as the Caroline Islands and in association with the Mariana Islands, the Marshall Islands and Kiribati they form the group today known as Micronesia. The maritime history of Micronesia spans nearly 4,000 years and is inextricably linked with the wider cultural region. Initial settlement of the area is approximated at 3,500 years based on linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological evidence (Rainbird, 2004). It suggests that the area was first inhabited by groups of Austronesian-speakers who arrived in ocean-going canoes. The inhabitants of each island group developed their own variations of watercraft based on their needs for procuring food and inter-island travel. The people of Micronesia are known to have been some of the most knowledgeable and skilled navigators of the Pacific, a tradition which continues today. 2 �The people of the FSM have a strong bond with their land, sea and reefs. This is evident through the wealth of heritage sites that entail a spiritual association with the sea, which encompasses stories and the determined ownership of the land and water. Many sea and landscape features provide deep-seated connections to history, mythology and settlement of the islands, submerged heritage sites being a powerful and tangible part of society. The variety of submerged cultural heritage also reflects the broad range of activity which occurred in these island states. Shipwrecks from many time periods are known to lie in its waters, as do the remains of maritime infrastructure such as piers, wharves and landings. To date only a few submerged sites have been investigated historically and archaeologically such as the Yap fish weirs (aech) and the World War II relics of Chuuk Lagoon. Among the most exciting and culturally significant partially submerged sites are the indigenous ruins of Nan Madol in Pohnpei (Mckinnon, 2010: 37-42). The ruins of Nan Madol, which belong to a megalithic culture, are composed of 95 small to large artificial islets made of basalt and spread over a rectangular area approximately 1.5 km by 0.7 km. Its construction is said to have begun around 500 AD and continued to around 1600 AD, with royal palaces, temples, royal tombs, and residential districts integrally forming a city complex (Fig. 1). As the largest cultural heritage site in FSM, it is also a precious tourist resource. However, notwithstanding its extremely high significance in terms of academic value and as a tourism resource, no full-scale initiatives have been implemented to date to protect the ruins. Within the Pacific island countries (except New Zealand), there are only five UNESCO cultural heritage sites as of 2013. Even among the countries in the region, FSM is particularly eager to have Nan Madol inscribed on the World Heritage List, as it Fig. 1 Artificial islets of Nan Madol. (T. Ishimura) has no sites on the list at present. The UNESCO Office for the Pacific Region (Apia, Samoa), acknowledging that international support is needed to protect and inscribe the site on the World Heritage List, approached the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural 3 �Heritage (henceforth JCIC-Heritage) regarding the possibility of its cooperation in sending a Japanese survey team to assess the present state of the Nan Madol, as no surveys have so far been conducted regarding its condition and the framework required for its protection. In response to this request, JCIC-Heritage sent a survey team to Micronesia to conduct a survey of Nan Madol in 2011. The team of JCIC-Heritage carried out a survey to assess the present state of Nan Madol, including its preservation condition and the status of policy framework in February 2011 (Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, 2012). Based on this survey, we have presented an overview of the present state of the Nan Madol ruins, and have discussed the framework of the FSM for preserving the site, as well as the results of interviews with relevant stakeholders. When considering the ruins as cultural heritage that is intimately associated with the history and traditional culture of the island of Pohnpei, it is extremely important to avoid development for the sake of tourism, but to promote measures for maintaining this heritage in a sustainable manner while respecting the living culture of the local residents. At JCIC-Heritage, we have continued our cooperation in response to the request of FSM, based on proposals derived from the results of this survey. As a result, certain achievements have been made, and local initiatives for protection of Nan Madol have made steady progress. As a supplement, we introduce the cooperation we have extended based on the results of the 2011 survey. As proposed in light of the survey results, the formulation of a management plan based on a consensus of all local stakeholders is of foremost importance in the effort to protect Nan Madol. To help the stakeholders achieve consensus, a workshop was held in November, 2011 in Kolonia, Pohnpei (Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, 2012: 41). It focused on three main objectives: (1) to gather all stakeholders; (2) to share information on the present state of protection of Nan Madol among all stakeholders, and (3) to provide an understanding of future efforts that need to be made by each stakeholder. In addition to JCIC-Heritage, a Japanese experts team (funded by the Japan Foundation), the FSM HPO and UNESCO (UNESCO/Japan Funds-in-Trust) cosponsored the workshop and fulfilled their respective tasks. The workshop was extremely meaningful in the sense that by bringing together all stakeholders, it allowed 4 �everyone to share information, gain proper understanding of proposals put forth by experts from in and outside FSM as well as tasks needed in future activities, and to mutually verify their concurrent commitment to move forward their initiatives for protection of Nan Madol. However, now that a consensus has been achieved, activities for protection of the ruins and inscription of the site on the World Heritage List are expected to advance steadily. Subsequently, the State Party of FSM submitted a Tentative List including the ruins of Nan Madol to the World Heritage Centre in February 2012, and launched its nomination process for its inscription on the List of UNESCO World Heritage. Through the survey and workshop above, it has been stressed that the establishment of zoning (core/buffer zones) based upon an accurate site map is needed in order to protect the site and implement site management. Following this recommendation, the Japanese team organized a technical consultation workshop for capacity building on site documentation of Nan Madol in Kolonia, Pohnpei in September, 2012, funded by the Japan Foundation (Ishimura, 2013). In this consultation meeting, it has been pointed out that the sea area around the site of Nan Madol should be protected properly and the potential of neglected underwater cultural heritage existence must be scientifically confirmed. Since the artificial islets of Nan Madol were constructed in the inter-tidal zone of a reef flat along the shores of Temwen Island located in the southeastern part of Pohnpei, the gradually submerging monuments, the sea and its landscape are essential components to the sites’ protected heritage. In addition, there is a legend of an underwater city named Kahnihmweiso, sunken in the harbor of Nahkapw, a deep area approximately 50m in depth Fig. 2 Aerial photo of Nan Madol and surrounding area. (T. Ishimura, based on the images from GoogleEarth). in the northeast of Nan Madol (Fig. 2). 5 �Legendary Underwater City in Nan Madol According to the local legend, below Nahkapw Harbor there is the secret “City of the Gods” built before the people of Pohnpei arrived. Nan Madol, the city above water, is actually quite recent, built by two legendary brothers that came from across the sea from the southeast region. One day, “the brothers climbed the mountain to get a view of the country to find a suitable site for their capital city. When they looked into Madolenihmw Bay, they saw the ancient city of the gods, Kahnihmweiso. Here was an important sign to the two brothers.” The brothers then decided to build the city nearest to the one below the harbor in order to be nearer to the gods. Ancient Pohnpeian legend says the builders of Nan Madol selected the site because they saw the submerged ruins of Kahnihmweiso from a high cliff above Madolenihmw Bay, which is between Temwen Island and Nakapw Island. To the east of Nahkapw Island, in about 60m of water, are the ruins of the castle of KahnihmwNankhet, well known to the natives of Pohnpei, but none of the submerged ruins are talked about for fear of spirits who would punish them. For decades divers have reported submerged megalithic ruins of the legendary cities Kahnihmweiso and KahnihmwNankhet, such as some of the megalithic columns and pillars which still stand erect, rising up to 9 m above the sloping sea floor. The possibility of underwater construction at Nahkapw Harbor was first explored by the team of Dr. Arthur Saxe in 1978 (Saxe et al., 1980). Conducting a series of diving surveys, they reported that there were a number of tall stone pillars covered in coral growth which stand some 6 m tall, 0.9-1.2 m wide, at depths of over 25 m and one that even supposedly stood on a "pedestal." The presence of stone pillars is a style of construction which only appears below water surrounding the city in the harbor, and not within any part of the city above. Saxe also wrote about the many legends on the island of two sacred underwater cities believed to exist in the harbor, one called Kahnihmweiso, and the other KahnihmwNamkhet which exists somewhere further east of the reef (Saxe et al., 1980: 47-55). In this report Saxe also explained the mechanism why the city of Kahnihmweiso had been sunken in the sea, referring to the “Blue Hole” hypothesis (Saxe et al., 1980: 126-129). A “Blue Hole” is basically a limestone cavern whose roof has fallen in. The name comes from the fact that deep tropical waters 6 �appear as a darker blue than the shallower waters. In the Atlantic, where they have been studied, such as in the coral reef off Belize, the processes which result in their formation are as follows: A coral reef forms along a shore. During a glacial advance the sea levels drop due to the great amount of fresh water locked up in glaciers. The coral reef, now above sea level, becomes subject to the same processes of erosion and redeposition by fresh water that any land deposit of calcium carbonate is subject to. Rain, falling on the surface, runs underground and gradually dissolves away pockets of calcium carbonate, which is soluble in water. If this goes on long enough, huge limestone caverns can be formed. Water dripping from the roof of the cavern, containing the lime in solution, evaporates forming stalactites. The same water falling to the floor of the cavern evaporates forming stalagmites. Sometimes these meet forming continuous columns from floor to roof, sometimes not. If the process continues long enough, the roof of the cavern may collapse because of inadequate support or the deposition of added weight above the roof of the cavern. This collapse may occur before or after the sea levels rise at the end of the glacial maximum. In any case, once the sea levels are once more above the level of the coral reef, the collapsed limestone cavern appears as a “Blue Hole” from the surface. Blue holes are also characterized by numerous passages or tunnels which tended to link the various “rooms” of the cave when it was a cave. These, when re-submerged, can be subjected to strong current flows when tides are going in or out. Saxe (1980) pointed out the possibility that an earlier Nan Madol Central was built on the reef on what is now Nahkapw Harbor and that its weight caused the cavern roof to collapse. This explanation allows for both a blue hole and underwater columns. It suggests the “first city” as perhaps being Kahnihmweiso. In 1988 and 1989, the team of the University of Oregon conducted underwater investigations around Nan Madol (Ayres, 1993). They carried out an underwater survey at the location in front of Nan Mwoluhsei, a massive wall approximately 275 m long, 8 m wide and 4 to 6 m high that forms an L-shaped configuration south and east of Nan Douwas tomb. They observed that a number of basalt columns were located seaward of the standing portion of the wall. It is likely that these are lost, discarded or fallen building materials, now underwater, of the artificial islets. They also examined underwater pillars reported by Saxe. While no complex features were discovered during this survey, two 7 �clusters of columns were located. They reported that directly east of Nan Mwoluhsei the reef drops off twice, the first at approximately 2 m below the surface and the second at 7 to 10 m below the surface. After the second shelf the bottom falls away rapidly to the depths of Nahkapw Harbor which reach as much as 50 m. The first level of the reef is generally covered with columnar basalt and coral; however, this is replaced on the deeper shelf by a sandier bottom with a much sparser growth of coral. It is on this second shelf that the first of the upright columnar objects was encountered, at approximately 19 m from the north side of Nan Mwoluhsei. This object is roughly rectangular, stands 2.2 m high, and its sides 1.5 m by 0.8 m. Two other columns were located nearby. These appear to be solid coral and lie between six and nine meters below the surface. The second column, 0.9 m high with sides 0.2 m by 0.75 m, was 3.7 m from the first. The third column, 2.3 m high with sides 1 m by 1 m, was 20.3 m from the first. None of the objects had any obvious prismatic shape as would be expected from the basalt building materials of Nan Madol; however, it was possible that this feature was hidden by extensive coral growth. They used a steel bar to drill into the first and second columns in hopes of going through any coral encrustation covering stone. A penetration, approximately 20 cm deep, was made in both without striking stone. Finally, it was decided to raise the small column to the surface for detail inspection. The object was entirely of coral and therefore was not a purposefully positioned stone column. They implied that coral growth and submerged columnar basalt building material may have been interpreted and incorporated into Pohnpeian mythology, and these may have been perceived by the Pohnpeians as evidence for the presence of underwater structures inhabited by spirits. However, the surveyed areas by the team of University of Oregon were limited and their results have not fully refuted the hypothesis of “Blue Hole” proposed by Saxe. Since the legendary underwater city of Kahnihmweiso is believed to be located in the center of Nahkapw Harbor, a detail underwater topography map covering entire part of the harbor must be needed to evaluate the existence of potential underwater cultural heritage, as recommended in the 2012 technical consultation workshop. Following the recommendation, in cooperation with the Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, FSM National Government, we at JCIC-Heritage experts’ team conducted an underwater survey at 8 �Nahkapw Harbor for reconnaissance of potential underwater cultural heritage in February 2013. Research Objective The main objective of our research is to produce the entire map of underwater topography in Nahkapw Harbor, in order to assess the possibility of existence of underwater cultural heritage in this location. In addition, to examine the possible anthropogenic underwater features is also an important task. Research Method First, we used multi-beam sonar (Sonic 2024) to produce an underwater topography map. The multi-beam sonar was equipped to a 25’ boat (Fig. 3). Second, we used a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) (Mini ROV LBV300-5) to investigate underwater features and to carry out video recording. The ROV was controlled and monitored by another 23’ boat (Fig. 4). Third, we conducted a scuba diving survey to examine underwater features by eye observation. Fig. 3 (left) Multibeam sonar (SeaBat 8125) equipped with boat. (Y. Matsumoto) Fig. 4 (right) ROV (Mini ROV LBV300-5) in the sea. (Y. Matsumoto) Research Team Field survey was conducted by Tomo Ishimura (Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties), Tamaki Ura (University of Tokyo, at the time of field survey), Fumitaka Maeda (University of Tokyo, at the time of field survey), Ken’ichi Sugimoto, Toshihiro Ogawa, Akio Hikoyama, Yoshinori Matsumoto, Yusuke Sugimoto (Windy Network), Charles Brennan (R2 SONIC) and Tomomi Haramoto (National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo). Akira Asada (University of Tokyo) and 9 �Augustine Kohler (Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, FSM National Government) contributed to the arrangement and logistics for the survey. The data obtained was processed in a laboratory by Ura, Asada, Maeda, and the team of Windy Network. The multibeam sonar was provided by Brennan and the ROV was provided by the team of Windy Network. The boats, their operators and the scuba diving gear was arranged by the Village Hotel. Period of Research The field research was carried out in the period from 12th to 16th February, 2013. Results By using the multi-beam sonar, we produced an underwater topography map in the entire part of Nahkapw Harbor, except just in front of the Nan Mwoluhsei, the massive wall and entrance to the inside of the Nan Madol complex, due to strong winds and waves. The map indicates that the bottom of the harbor is flat in a depth of approximately 40 to 50 m, and there is no noteworthy complex topography such as stalagmites, passages or tunnels, as the “Blue Hole” hypothesis had expected. In the meanwhile, occasional distributions of block-shaped features are observed along the drop-off between the reef flat and the bottom, in the depth of 20 to 30 m (Fig. 5). Afterward we used the ROV to examine the features of the block-shaped features. Monitoring by the video camera equipped with the ROV, it was clarified that most of these objects are columnar in shape, a couple of meters high with sides of approximately 1m, covered by coral encrustation. By the observation using the ROV, it was not clear whether these columns were coral or basalt, and whether anthropogenic or natural. Then we selected some locations of the clusters of the columnar objects, and carried out scuba diving survey to examine them in detail by eye observation (Fig. 6). We observed that the columnar objects were fully covered by coral encrustation and no exposed surface of basalt was noted. In this survey, no evidence of anthropogenic pillar made by basalt column was obtained. It seems that these objects are equal to the counterparts investigated by the team of the University of Oregon (Ayres, 1993). 10 �Fig. 5 (left) A part of the underwater topography map in Nahkapw Harbor, showing some clusters of features along the drop-off. (University of Tokyo and Windy Network) Fig. 6 (right) An erect, columnar object at a depth of approximately 30m. (T. Ogawa) Conclusion The results of our research do not support the “Blue Hole” hypothesis proposed by Saxe, so it is not probable that the “first city” was built on the former cavern in Nahkapw Harbor and which then sunk in the sea due to the collapse of the cavern roof by its weight. Neither does our research provide any evidence that the underwater columns are man-made structures. However, the results of our research do not necessarily deny the possibility of the existence of the legendary sunken city. The people of Pohnpei may have seen the bizarre feature under the sea and interpreted it as remains of a sunken city, and created a legend of the “City of Gods” inhabited by spirits. As a cultural heritage, the value of Nan Madol is not only limited to its tangible aspects such as architecture and archaeological remains but also in its intangible aspects such as legends and oral traditions associated with it (Hadley, 1987). The legend of Kahnihmweiso, including the story of the establishment of Nan Madol, is also an important component of the cultural heritage of Nan Madol, and the site of Nahkapw Harbor is closely associated with the legend. Therefore, the legendary site of Kahnihmweiso must also be protected as a component of intangible heritage of Nan Madol. We recommend that the sea area of Nahkapw Harbor should be included in the 11 �zoning (core/buffer zones) plans for protection and management of the ruins of Nan Madol. Acknowledgements The field research was funded by the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage. Ken’ichi Sugimoto, the president of Windy Network and his team, and Charles Brennan from R2 SONIC, voluntarily participated the research and kindly provided their equipment. The Embassy of Japan in FSM, JICA Micronesia Office, H.E. Dr. Rufino Mauricio (Secretary, Ministry of Education, FSM National Government), and His Majesty WasalapalapaIsipahuKerpetHebel (NahnmwarkiMadolenihmw) kindly understood and supported our research. References Ayres, W. S., 1993. Nan Madol Archaeological Fieldwork. Final Report. A Research and Historic Preservation Project 1987-1990: 1-108. Mckinnon, J., 2010. Federated States of Micronesia. In U. Guérin, B. Egger and V. Penalva (Eds.), Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania, UNESCO, Paris: 37-42. Hadley, M., 1987. Nan Madol: Spaces on the Reef of Heaven. (Ed. & Tr.), Paul M. Ehrich.Nan Madol Foundation, Pohnpei: 1-126. Ishimura, T., 2013. Report of the Technical Consultation Workshop for Capacity Building on Site Documentation of Nan Madol (in Japanese). Unpublished Report, The Japan Foundation: Tokyo. 1-12. Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, 2012. Survey Report on the Present State of Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia. 2010 Survey for International Cooperation Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, Tokyo: 1-50. Rainbird, P., 2004. The Archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1-314. Saxe, A. A., Allenson, R. A., and Loughridge, S. R., 1980. The Nan Madol Area of Ponape: Researches into Bounding and Stabilizing an Ancient Administrative Center. The Trust Territory Historic Preservation Office, Saipan: 1-145. Tomo Ishimura, the first author, is a Researcher at the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Japan. His specialty is archaeology in Oceania. He graduated from the Department of Archaeology, the Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto 12 �University in 2004. He completed Ph.D. degree in 2009. He has been in his present position since 2006 and is engaged in international cooperation projects for cultural properties in several countries including Afghanistan, Cambodia, Federated States of Micronesia, Myanmar, and Viet Nam. Tamaki Ura is a Professor of Kyushu Institute for Technology and an Emeritus Professor of the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo. His specialty is marine engineering, especially remotely operated vehicle (ROV). He graduated from the Graduate School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo and completed doctoral degree in 1977. He held a position in the University of Tokyo from 1977 to 2013, and was a former Director of Underwater Technology Research Centre, the University of Tokyo. He moved toKyushu Institute for Technology in 2013. Akira Asada is a Professor of the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo. His specialty is marine engineering and marine acoustics. He graduated from the Faculty of Engineering, Waseda University in 1977 and had worked for Japan Coast Guard as an Investigator from 1979 to 2000. He completed doctoral degree in the University of Tokyo in 1995. He has been in his present position in the University of Tokyo since 2000. Fumitaka Maeda is a Sales Engineer of Marine and Ocean Measurement Department, Toyo Corporation, and former Assistant Professor of the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo. His specialty is marine engineering and marine acoustics. He completed MA degree in the Graduate School of Science, Osaka University in 2004, and completed doctoral degree in the University of Tokyo in 2010. He was in a position of the University of Tokyo from 2006 to 2014, then moved to present position in 2014. Ken’ichi Sugimoto is the President of Windy Network; a private company specialized in surveying, 3D scanning and underwater topography. He graduated from the Faculty of Law, Aoyama Gakuin University in 1971. His company has been engaged in a variety of UCH research, including surveys on a sunken transport craft of stones for the Edo citadel in the 17th century in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan, and on underwater aircraft in WW2 at the Towada Lake in Akita Prefecture, Japan. Toshihiro Ogawa is a Senior Managing Director and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from Hamamatsu Technical Institute for Civil Engineering in 1974. His specialty is marine engineering, especially hydrography, underwater photography and ultrasonic wave analysis. Akio Hikoyama is an Executive Director and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from Shimoda-Kita High School in 1982. His specialty is information and communication technology. Yoshinori Matsumoto is a Manager and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Chuo Kogakko Institute in 1994. His specialty is marine engineering, hydrography and technical diving. 13 �Yusuke Sugimoto is a Manager and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from the Faculty of International Information, Shizuoka University in 2002. His specialty is marine engineering and hydrography. Charles Brennan is a Chief Hydrographic Engineer of R2 SONIC, a production company of equipment for marine engineering. His specialty is hydrography, especially a creation and development of hydrographic equipment such as multi-beam sonar. He graduated from the Department of Geology, the University of South Florida, and has worked for several companies as a surveyor and hydrographic engineer since 1972. Tomomi Haramoto is a Research Fellow, Center for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, Tokyo National Research Institute for Cultural Properties. Her specialty is international relations and safeguarding cultural heritage. She completed MA degree of the Graduated School of International Public Policy, Osaka University in 2004. She has been in her present position since 2009. Augustine Kohler is a National FSM Historic Preservation Officer at the Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, National Government of the Federated States of Micronesia. His specialty is archaeology. He completed BA of Anthropology and Pacific Studies, the University of Auckland in 2005. He formerly worked for the Pohnpei State Historic Preservation Office, then shifted to the present position in 2011. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Survey at the Ruins of Nan Madol, Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource In this paper we demonstrate the results of underwater survey at Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia. Nan Madol are the ruins of a megalithic civilization composed of 95 small to large artificial islets made mostly of basalt, situated on a shallow water of Pohnpei Island. The site is now on the Tentative List of the UNESCO World Heritage Site submitted by Federated States of Micronesia. Protection of the site is comprised of both these basaltic islets and the water surrounding them. In addition, there is an oral tradition that a sunken city named Kahnihmweiso is located underwater near the site. The goal of our investigation is to make a map of underwater topography that is expected to be utilized for the site documentation and the setting of core and buffer zones. The investigation was carried out by using multi-beam sonar and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), as well as manual survey by scuba diving gears. Research has revealed that there is no clear evidence of artificial constructions under the water; however, a detailed map of underwater topography around the site was obtained. Our research also stresses the significance of the sea area as a resource of legends and a component of the intangible cultural heritage of Nan Madol. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tomo Ishimura Akira Asada Fumitaka Maeda Ken’ichi Sugimoto Toshihiro Ogawa Akio Hikoyama Yoshinori Matsumoto Yusuke Sugimoto Charles Brennan Tomomi Haramoto Augustine Kohler, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5d54c49c94b4eaf859c5d005ee1b042a.pdf f197e10839385a7748049588499783ca PDF Text Text The underwater cultural heritage of the Federated States of Micronesia Bill Jeffery Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, South Australia Email: billfjeffery@gmail.com Abstract Of all the United Nation member states, the Federated States of Micronesia’s (FSM) total land area is one of the smallest (191st out of 193 UN member states), yet the length of its coastline connecting its 607 islands ranks 21st in the world - after India and Chile. The people from the FSMare world-renown navigators and boat builders and they have developed and maintain many cultural practices, customs and legends associated with the sea. The FSM contains a variety of tangible heritage related to their traditional use of the sea and coast, material remains of foreign traders, pirates, colonial powers, and from World War II. This presentation will provide details about this significant heritage related to the sea and the FSM’s recording and training programs, in context with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001, and the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003. Key words: Federated States of Micronesia, Pohnpei State, Underwater cultural heritage, UNESCO Background The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a recently formed nation - formally recognized by the United Nations in 1990 - comprising the island states of Yap (9º30’N; 138ºE) in the west, Chuuk (formerly Truk), Pohnpei (comprising the FSM capital, Palikir), and Kosrae (5º20’N; 163ºE) in the east. It covers an area in the Western Pacific of over three million sq km, of which only 702 sq km is land and is home to about 110,000 people (Fig. 1). ‘Micronesia’ is a recent (c.200 years old) European term given to some of the many tiny islands in the western Pacific Ocean to differentiate them from Melanesia and Polynesia (Meller, 1998: 1). The Micronesian region includes the group of islands known as the Caroline Islands (the FSM and the Republic of Palau), the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Republic of Nauru and the Republic of Kiribati. These islands have been occupied at various times dating back to about 3,500 years ago (Dixon et al., 2013: 351). Starting with the Spanish, Micronesia has had a succession of colonial rulers 1 �Fig. 1 Location of the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae. (Magellan arrived in Guam in 1521). From 1919, Micronesia was formally recognized as a mandated territory of Japan by the League of Nations. Following World War II, the US was granted a strategic trusteeship of the region by the United Nations (UN), and the region became known as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI). Over the next 40 years, the Marshalls, Palau and the North Mariana Islands left the federation, leaving Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae to form the FSM, accepting a Constitution in 1979 and entering into a Compact of Free Association with the US in 1986. Tangible and Intangible Underwater Cultural Heritage Many of the initial inhabitants of the FSM were coastal dwellers living in stilt houses (Rainbird, 1993). They have been building and using canoes for short and long distance voyaging for a long time, providing Micronesians with a ‘certain cohesiveness’ (Kiste, 1999: 434). The FSM coral atoll dwellers are some of the most renowned Pacific Island navigators and many cultural practices, customs and legends are associated with building and sailing canoes. They include the early settling of places such as Chuuk, which is reputed to have been settled from either Pohnpei or Kosrae, ‘from whence the 2 �first woman arrived pregnant, sailing on a coconut frond’ (Gladwin, 1970: 4). Dances, chants and storyboards convey information of these many Micronesian legends and customs (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Dancing is carried out in all the FSM states - this one is of Yapese dancing and chanting near a (Faluw) men’s meeting house/stone money bank. (Bill Jeffery, 2009) Tangible UCH in the FSM range from c. 2,000 year old indigenous habitation sites; sacred, cultural sites; fish weirs; seventeenth century Spanish ships; 19th century trading and whaling vessels; and Japanese and American World War II remains (aircraft, naval and merchant ships) (Bailey, 2000; Carrell, 1991; Hezel and Graham, 1997; Jeffery, 2012a) (Fig. 3). Some of the oldest underwater cultural heritage sites (stone tools) have been found off Fefan (an island in Chuuk Lagoon, which Rainbird (2004: 89) dated between 2350 and 1650 years ago, and Craib (1997: 13) argues that they are the oldest pottery-bearing sites in central and eastern Micronesia. Pacific Island countries have pointed out that their UCH is extensive and argued for international recognition and protection of this wide remit of UCH at a UNESCO Meeting in Vanuatu in 1999: "Protection of Underwater Heritage", within the Pacific, at the moment seems to refer more often to underwater wrecks from World War II, despite the existence of other underwater sites such as sacred cultural sites existing in many areas of the 3 �Pacific. The meeting urged the protection of these sites as well as those on land that may be protected by the World Heritage Convention (UNESCO 1999) (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 World War II Japanese aircraft in the hold of the Fujikawa Maru. (Bill Jeffery, 2004) FSM Underwater Cultural Heritage programs and legislation The FSM states are committed to maintaining their traditions and customs, in addition to using them to preserve terrestrial and underwater cultural heritage sites and they have enshrined relevant provisions in their Constitutions and state codes. Some examples of these aspects can be found in Pohnpei State where the Government of Pohnpei respects and protects the customs and traditions of Pohnpei1. In Yap, two councils made up of traditional chiefs, the Council of Pilung and Council of Tamol, have been established to advise the governor and legislature, and to promote and preserve the traditions and customs of the people of the state in a manner consistent with the Constitution of the FSM and the Constitution of the State of Yap2. The Kosrae State Code 1997 (Title 11: Land and Environment, Chapter 14: Antiquities) provides for impact assessments on ‘antiquities and traditional culture’ located on land and in state waters to be reported to the governor3. In Chuuk, in addition to the protection of local customs and traditions and the roles of traditional leaders,’ the Chuuk 4 �State Constitution recognizes all traditional rights and ownership over all reefs, tidelands, and other submerged lands subject to legislative regulation of their reasonable use4’. The only specific UCH law in the FSM is found in Chuuk. It forms part of the Chuuk State Code and is known as Title 25: Maritime and Marine Resources, Chapter 8: Chuuk Lagoon Monument5. This law applies only to Japanese World War II sites located underwater, whereas the other FSM state laws are generic ones that cover the identification, protection and preservation of indigenous and non-indigenous sites and traditions on land and underwater. To assist the FSM in implementing UCH activities, the US Submerged Resources Unit spent some time in Micronesia and the FSM during the 1980s and early 1990s primarily conducting site surveys and developing a catalogue of sites and strategic plans for site management in association with the National and State Historic Preservation Offices (HPO) (Carrell, 1991). More recent UCH programs including capacity building programs have been carried out by the authorin Guam from 2006 to 2012 (Jeffery 2012b). Additional UCH surveys have been implemented (see Applegate-Palmer this volume), by the author (Jeffery and Drew, 2007; Jeffery and Moran, 2007) and a number of other types of UCH surveys and research have been implemented such as that on fishing and the associated intangible and tangible heritage (Dixon et al., 2013; Jennison-Nolan, 1979). Building and using traditional Guamanian and Micronesian boats is being maintained by a Traditional Seafaring Society in Guam (Cunningham et al., 2006). In Chuuk, through the FSM National Historic Preservation Office a program of documenting Chuuk’s UCH has been implemented by Jeffery (2006, 2007). This has included the development of tourism/community awareness raising through production of signs and a booklet, as well as building the capacity of staff at the Chuuk HPO although the office has now been closed (Jeffery, 2003, 2004b). Staff from Pohnpei, Kosrae and Yap HPO also participated in this training which included development of a document in recording and monitoring the natural and cultural heritage values of UCH sites as well as the corrosion/conservation aspects, and all four offices gained equipment to assist in implementing these activities (Jeffery et al., 2007). From 20062008, an Earthwatch Institute funded project was implemented in Chuuk to assess the values and health of the submerged World War II sites and to assist the Chuuk 5 �government in their management (Emslie et al., 2007; Jeffery, 2012a: 25-28). This included discovery of oil leaking from one of the shipwrecks, an issue the President of the Federated States of Micronesia, H.E. Emanuel Mori raised at the 66th United Nations General Assembly in New York on 23 September 201 (Jeffery, 2012a: 27-28). As a result of this work in Chuuk, three television documentaries have been produced and shown world-wide about the values and issues associated with the World War II sites (Prospero’s ‘Shipwreck Detectives’; the French television series ‘Thalassa’ and the Australian Broadcasting Commission’s series ‘Foreign Correspondent’). In recent times, canoes built in the traditional manner, and a traditional canoe house have been built in Chuuk (pers. comm., Meter, T., 2011). In Pohnpei, reconnaissance surveys have been carried out on some its fish weirs and the remains of whaling activities (Jeffery, 2013), and extensive research and surveys have been implemented at Nan Madol. Covering an area of about 100 ha, located in the inter-tidal area on the eastern coast of Pohnpei, the complex of 90+ enclosures (islets) built of massive column-shaped basalt rocks, is considered to be an important political, residential and ritual center that dates back about 1,000 years BP (Ayers, 1983) (Fig. 4). The site is being documented for World Heritage listing together with the Lelu ruins on Kosrae. Traditional canoe building is also being revived in Pohnpei. In Yap, in association with the HPO, a comprehensive survey has been implemented on its extensive fish weirs (aech), a program that was directed by HPO and aimed at reviving their construction, use, maintenance and associated cultural practices (Jeffery and Pitmag, 2010; Jeffery, 2013) (Fig. 5). Maintaining Yap’s traditional boatbuilding, navigation and sailing heritage is being supported by groups and are a feature of annual event ‘Yap Day’, and the Yap Traditional Navigation Society hold an annual two-day celebration of building and sailing traditional canoes (Fig. 6). Yap and Palau HPO are working together on a World Heritage nomination of the Yapese stone money quarries (in Palau), and banks (on Yap, and underwater between the two islands which are still greatly valued by people in Yap). In Kosrae, where 19th century whaling and trading era shipwrecks form the majority of the shipwrecks, the SRU implemented a survey of ‘pirate’ Bully Hayes’s vessel Leonora to confirm its identity and recommend a management strategy. Kosrae also contains Lelu, a basalt built rock settlement similar 6 �to Nan Madol located in the inter-tidal area and consisting of about 100 enclosures (islets) that were used by the chiefs, as mortuary compounds, and for commoners from about 800 BP. There are still strong known oral history connections with this site, although as with Nan Madol, the construction techniques used are not known. Fig. 4 One of the dominant enclosures at Nan Madol. (Bill Jeffery, 2004) Fig. 5 Fish Weir (Aech) Daqoloch in Gagil, Yap. (Bill Jeffery, 2008) Issues arising from FSM programs in context with UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 The FSM’s Historic Preservation Offices, supported by the US National Park Service’s Micronesia and American Samoa Historic Preservation Program implement a range of historic preservation activities, including UCH, archaeological and anthropological research and surveys, which have been published with the assistance of a Micronesian NGO6. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 (2001 UCH Convention) at March 2014 has been ratified by 46 countries and is aimed at preserving ‘”Underwater cultural heritage” [being] all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years…’ Some of the main aims of the UNESCO Convention 2001 are to preserve sites in situ, as a first option; to stop commercial exploitation of sites and artifacts; facilitate international collaboration; encourage public access; maintain sovereign rights; and to ensure that - where excavation is permitted - it is carried out in accordance with international best practice, i.e. the Rules contained in the Convention’s Annex. These 7 �aims are consistent with how sites in the FSM and particularly the World War II sites in Chuuk should be managed given dive tourism is an important industry in the economy of the region. In fact, it could interpreted that the management of shipwrecks is the overriding aim of the 2001 UCH Convention, even though the term ‘shipwrecks’ is not used in it. ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage’ is used in an attempt to have the 2001 UCH Convention cover all types of UCH although many of its aims do not seem appropriate to non-shipwreck sites. There are a number of other issues in how potentially inappropriate the 2001 UCH Convention is to the FSM, greater Micronesia, in fact many other countries that value traditional sites over colonial shipwrecks (see Jeffery 2004a, 2006, 2011), although this needs to be considered on a case by case or country by country basis. For example in Chuuk the Japanese World War II shipwrecks are not valued historically by local residents - there is no sense of place or belonging to these sites. They are valued economically through dive tourism, souveniring, and through the fish that can be caught using dynamite - causing considerable damage to the shipwrecks and the environment. Souveniring has contributed to many artifacts being removed from Fig. 6 Drawing of Yapese transporting stone money from Palau to Yap using a traditional canoe. (Unknown Yapese artist) the shipwrecks and the Chuuk government, even with their legislation, seem powerless to control it. In Palau, souveniring of the Japanese World War II shipwrecks has brought swift legal action and two individuals were fined and imprisoned for this activity in 20067. The government of Palau regards these sites as an important part of their history and heritage and warrant protection. Neither the FSM nor any other Pacific Island nation has ratified the 2001 UCH Convention. The FSM ratified the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003 ICH Convention) on the 13 February 2013, and the Republic of Palau, ratified it on 2 November 20118. In the 2003 ICH Convention, the definition of intangible cultural heritage is seen as ‘the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, 8 �skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage’ (emphasis by the author)9. Some of the main aims of the 2003 ICH Convention are to: safeguard the intangible cultural heritage through ‘the identification, documentation, research, preservation, protection, promotion. This heritage is ‘constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity’ (emphasis by the author). On its own, the 2001 UCH Convention would not appear to be an answer in terms of managing FSM’s diverse UCH given much of what FSM and other Pacific Islanders value is intangible heritage associated with the sea and UCH. Even some tangible sites which have strong intangible aspects, such as fish weirs, if they are in use, may not be ‘protected’ under the 2001 UCH Convention (pers. comm. Azner-Gómez, M.J., 2013). Western constructs of heritage and the separation of intangible and tangible heritage in research and management, much like the separation of natural and cultural heritage is not appropriate with Pacific Island nations. A way forward for UCH management in FSM Effective management of UCH in the FSM should be implemented in context with the broad tangible and intangible heritage of FSM. This would give relevance to all the different types of UCH and assist in their management. Development of a strategic management plan outlining how this could all come together and be implemented would be a good first step. Given the doubts about intangible cultural heritage and the associated objects of UCH being covered under the 2001 UCH Convention (such as fish weirs), but their appropriateness under the 2003 ICH Convention, the strategic management plan should outline the most pragmatic approach to managing UCH incorporating the most appropriate laws and agreements. The World War II shipwrecks and aircraft located throughout the FSM, particularly in Chuuk Lagoon, should be promoted and managed in context with the broad history of the region, in addition to their management as dive tourism sites, something which is catered for in the 2001 UCH Convention. This could mean the FSM developing agreements with Japan and the 9 �US about the best way to manage the sites, which should mean gaining a better understanding of all the different values from the three stakeholder perspectives. In 1989, the US National Park Service implemented the Truk (Chuuk) Lagoon Historical Park Study and made a number of recommendations about the future management of the shipwrecks (USNPS, 1989) which I believe are still relevant today. This report appears to be the first document which discusses any social values of the submerged World War II sites and the war in general from a Chuukese perspective. It concluded that Chuukese had been overlooked in commemorating their losses from the war: ‘unfortunately nothing tangible remains of this aspect [how the war affected Micronesians] of World War II except the graves of the Nauruans on Tol. The establishment of an historical park provides a means to preserve these intangibles and, through interpretation, pass them on to others’ (USNPS, 1989: 64). An aim of the study was to consider if the Chuuk Lagoon sites would meet the criteria for designation as a Historical Park within the USNPS system, and it found a number of management issues that needed to be addressed. It was concluded that the submerged WWII sites ‘are utterly unique’ and ‘for the sunken wrecks, the establishment of a historical park or reserve seems to be particularly appropriate in light of the long-standing concerns over looting and vandalism’ (USNPS, 1989: 61). The report recommended that a national park management agency and approach at a FSM national level be adopted given the significance of the submerged WWII sites. This could mean establishing a group of FSM employees to manage the park in the same manner as the Conservation Rangers of the Palau Rock Islands Southern Lagoon World Heritage area, a system that appears to be working very well. The idea of World Heritage listing of the Chuuk Lagoon World War II shipwrecks is an issue that the author and the Chuuk government have considered (Jeffery, 2004a, 2012: 28).Combining aspects of the 2003 ICH Convention that is community focused, takes a holistic perspective (natural and cultural heritage), and assists in providing a sense of identity, with aspects of the 2001 UCH Convention, would help to develop a relevant and beneficial underwater cultural heritage program for the FSM. 10 �Acknowledgement I would like to thank the people of Chuuk, Yap and Pohnpei for their assistance in this study and the staff of the Historic Preservation Offices in Chuuk, Yap, Pohnpei and Palikir. Endnote 1 Constitution, Article 5, Section 2: see http://www.fsmlaw.org/pohnpei/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 2 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/yap/code/index.htm Chapter 4 of Title 5 of the Yap State Code, known as "State Historic Preservation Act of 1989" (accessed 12 January 2014). 3 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/kosrae/code/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 4 Nimeisa v. Department of Public Works, 6 FSM Intrm. 205, 209 (Chk. S. Ct. Tr. 1993) (accessed 12 January 2014). 5 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/chuuk/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 6 See http://www.mehp.org/(accessed 12 January 2014). 7 See http://pidp.org/archive/2006/May/05-24-12.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 8 No other northern Pacific Island country has ratified the 2003 ICH Convention, although the Philippines, Indonesia, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, Vanuatu, and Papua New Guinea have ratified it. 9 See http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00006 (accessed 7 January 2014). References Ayers, W., 1983. Archaeology at Nan Madol, Ponape. Bulletin of Indo- Pacific Prehistory Association, Vol. 4:135-142. Bailey, D.E., 2000. World War II Wrecks of the Truk Lagoon. North Valley Diver Publications, Redding. Craib, J. L., 1997. Truk Archaeology: An Intensive Archeological Survey of Pwené Village, Dublon, Truk State, Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesian Resources Study, United States National Park Service, San Francisco. Carrell, T., 1991. Micronesia: Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment. Submerged Cultural Resource Unit, National Park Service. Santa Fe. Cunningham, L., Kranz, W., and Sikau, M., 2006. Restoring Traditional Seafaring and Navigation in Guam. Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 5(1-2): 314-319, accessed at http://marshall.csu.edu.au/MJHSS/Issue2006/MJHSS2006_119.pdf on 7 January 2014. 11 �Dixon, B., Gilda, L., and Mangieri, T., 2013. Archaeological Identification of Stone Fishweirs mentioned to Freycinet in 1819 on the island of Guam. Journal of Pacific History, Vol.48 (4): 349-368. Emslie, M., Jeffery, B., MacLeod, I., and Maynard, J., 2007.Chuuk Lagoon World War II submerged sites: Earthwatch project report, July 30 to August 11 2007. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Gladwin, T., 1970. East Is a Big Bird: Navigation and Logic on Puluwat Atoll. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Hezel, F., and Graham, C., 1997.Truk Underwater Archaeology. Micronesia Resources Study. United States National Park Service, San Francisco Jeffery, B., 2003. War in Paradise: World War II sites in Truk Lagoon. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Jeffery, B., 2004a. World War II underwater cultural heritage sites in Truk Lagoon: Considering a case for World Heritage Listing. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 33 (1): 106-121. Jeffery, B., 2004b. World War II sites in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia: A survey of underwater and terrestrial sites. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Jeffery, B., 2006. Federated States of Micronesia. In S. Dromgoole (Ed.), The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: National Perspectives in light of the UNESCO Convention 2001, MartinusNijh off Publishers, Leiden: 145-159. Jeffery, W.F., 2007. War graves, munition dumps and pleasure grounds: A post-colonial perspective of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II sites. Doctoral dissertation, James Cook University, Townsville, http://eprints.jcu.edu.au/2068/ Jeffery, B., 2011. Rocks wrecks and relevance: values and benefits in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. In M. Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings of the inaugural Asia-Pacific regional conference on underwater cultural heritage, Asian Academy for Heritage Management, Manila: 527-539. Jeffery, B., 2012a. The future of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II sites. Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 36: 15-30. Jeffery, B., 2012b. Report on Guam’s Maritime Archaeology Field Schools, 2009-2012. Guam Preservation Trust, Guam. 12 �Jeffery, B., 2013. Reviving community spirits: furthering the Sustainable, Historical and Economic role of fish weirs and traps. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 8 (1): 2957. Jeffery, B., Beger, M., MacLeod, I., Richards, V., Hengeveld, M., and Carpenter, J., 2007.Guidelines in recording and monitoring the natural and cultural attributes of submerged historic sites in the Federated States of Micronesia. National Historic Preservation Office, Pohnpei. Jeffery, B., and Drew, T., 2007.Report on Surveys of Submerged and Maritime Archaeology Sites in Guam. Report for Guam Historic Preservation Office, Agana. Jeffery, B., and Moran, V., 2007.Report on the development of Guam’s Submerged and Maritime Archaeology sites databases. Guam Historic Preservation Office. Agana. Jeffery, B., and Pitmag, W., 2010.The aech of Yap: A survey of sites and their histories. Yap State Historic Preservation Office. Yap, Federated States of Micronesia. Jennison-Nolan, J., 1979. Land and lagoon use in prewar Guam: Agat, Piti and Asan. MARC Working Paper No. 15. Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam. Kiste, R.C., 1999. A Half Century in Retrospect. In R. C. Kiste, and Mac Marshall (Eds.), American Anthropology in Micronesia. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: 433-467. Meller, N., 1998.‘The Congress of Micronesia’ in D. Hanlon Remaking Micronesia. University of Hawaii Press. Rainbird, P., 1993. Report on the Cultural Resource Management in the Coastal Area of Chuuk Lagoon. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Rainbird, P., 2004. The Archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. UNESCO, 1999.Second World Heritage Global Strategy for the Pacific Islands Region, Port Vila, Vanuatu (24 to 27 August 1999). United States National Park Service (USNPS), 1989. Truk Lagoon Historical Park Study. Draft Report for Federated States of Micronesia, State of Truk. Photocopy from Micronesian Seminar, Pohnpei. 13 �Biography Bill Jeffery has been working as a maritime archaeologist for over 30 years. Bill formulated and coordinated a maritime heritage program for a state government agency, Heritage South Australia from 1981-2001. He went onto working with the Federated States of Micronesia National Historic Preservation Office and completing a PhD in maritime archaeology at James Cook University. He is a consulting maritime archaeologist to ERM Hong Kong, the CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities and the Hong Kong Maritime Museum and has implemented various types of archaeological and heritage management programs in Australia, the Pacific Islands, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka and various countries in Africa. He has conducted maritime archaeology field schools with the Flinders University, University of Guam and James Cook University in addition to teaching Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training programs in nine different countries. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The underwater cultural heritage of the Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource Of all the United Nation member states, the Federated States of Micronesia’s (FSM) total land area is one of the smallest (191st out of 193 UN member states), yet the length of its coastline connecting its 607 islands ranks 21st in the world - after India and Chile. The people from the FSMare world-renown navigators and boat builders and they have developed and maintain many cultural practices, customs and legends associated with the sea. The FSM contains a variety of tangible heritage related to their traditional use of the sea and coast, material remains of foreign traders, pirates, colonial powers, and from World War II. This presentation will provide details about this significant heritage related to the sea and the FSM’s recording and training programs, in context with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001, and the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/072a5e0b00325c6e4e9b54b795e2905d.pdf d7e89693e1ac7883c5cf34d5fea83127 PDF Text Text Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: A Case Study in Developing a Program of Protecting Underwater Cultural Heritage Jennifer F. McKinnon East Carolina University, Program in Maritime Studies, Greenville, 27858, USA Email: mckinnonje@ecu.edu Abstract This paper outlines a specific example, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and its effort to create and maintain a program for identifying, protecting and interpreting underwater cultural heritage (UCH). This paper suggests the process of developing such a program is most successful when it occurs in cooperation with all branches of the government that deal with marine/water resources and the local community who are stakeholders in the protection of their heritage. Key words: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Underwater Cultural Heritage, Shipwrecks, Saipan, Sustainable Introduction The Mariana archipelago is located east of the Philippines and south-southeast of Japan. Saipan, the capital of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) and the largest and most populated island, is 19 km long by 9 km wide and is fringed by a barrier reef on its western side which creates a large, shallow lagoon (Fig. 1). On the eastern side of the island the water is much deeper, although Lau Lau Bay offers some shallower water. The clarity and consistently warm temperatures of the water make SCUBA diving in the waters of Saipan possible year-round. Historic shipwrecks and submerged underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the CNMI are protected by both Commonwealth and US federal laws. Several UCH surveys and assessments have been conducted in the waters surrounding Saipan from 1979 to the present which provide invaluable baseline data for identifying and conducting further research on UCH sites in the Marianas. More recently in 2008, remote sensing and diver identification surveys in Saipan were conducted by Southeastern Archaeological Research (SEARCH) (SEARCH, 2008a; SEARCH, 2008b). The remote sensing surveys, including magnetometry and side scan sonar, were broad in nature; however the focus of the 1 �historical research and diver identification was on WWII heritage. The surveys were intended to be a baseline inventory for future investigations to build upon and were funded through a historic preservation grant provided to the Historic Preservation Office (HPO) and administered by the National Park Service (NPS). A total of 1,543 anomalies were located and, “The majority of identified anomalies represents material culture from WWII and offers a unique opportunity for Saipan to interpret its history through maritime heritage and dive trails” (SEARCH, Inc. 2008b: i). In 2009, a comprehensive overview of the maritime history and Fig. 1 The Mariana Islands. (Perry-Castañeda was Library) completed by Ships of Discovery archaeology of the CNMI (SHIPS) (Carrell, 2009). The project was undertaken as part of the CNMI’s on-going efforts to meet its historic preservation and inventory mandates and also was funded through a historic preservation grant administered by the NPS. The maritime context document provided an in-depth discussion of the history of the CNMI from the prehistoric period to the present, and pulled together currently available information on UCH sites in the islands. Together these two projects provided the background information and emphasis for the development of a more intensive archaeological investigation and a public interpretation program for UCH in Saipan. In fact, at the same time that SEARCH, Inc. was conducting survey in 2008, staff and students from Flinders University were on the island working with the HPO to create a plan for developing a “maritime unit” within their existing program. In an earlier trip to Saipan in 2007, the 2 �HPO voiced concerns about their lack of ability to manage UCH (due to a lack of training in underwater archaeological techniques), and the pressing need due to the amount of tourist divers visiting the WWII sites. They also were interested in developing a maritime heritage trail which would provide two favorable outcomes: 1) developing a presence on the water as the agency charged with managing the resources and 2) developing a heritage tourism product that could promote sustainable use of the already heavily visited sites. Thus the idea was formulated to develop a plan to accomplish a number of objectives that would assist HPO in better managing their UCH. These objectives included:  Training staff in underwater archaeological methods in order to create a team of diving archaeologists  Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites  Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism All of the objectives have been achieved and even more developments have taken place. Below are some of the projects and initiatives that were instigated and a discussion on some of the obstacles encountered and ways forward. Training staff in underwater archaeological methods The first objective of developing a training opportunity was accomplished in January 2009 when Flinders University and HPO supported archaeological technician John Castro to travel to Australia and participate in the Flinders University Maritime Archaeological Field School in South Australia. Castro’s extensive diving and archaeological background allowed him to participate as a supervisor in the two-week field school where he gained additional underwater archaeology experience. A new training was developed by Flinders University specifically for the Mariana Islands context and was held in July 2009 on Saipan for staff from several government agencies, including HPO, Coastal Resources Management (CRM), the NMI Museum of Culture and History, and Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ), as well as local interested divers. A total of 20 diving and non-diving participants took part in the twoday course. Based on the Flinders University’s Underwater Archaeology Methods topic, 3 �it included classroom lectures, practical terrestrial exercises, a diving exercise and an intertidal exercise for those not SCUBA certified (Fig. 2). The training was a great success and provided participants with information about the importance of preserving UCH. Fig. 2 Herman Tudela and John Starmer drafting during UCH training. (J. McKinnon) Another type of training was offered later when two Heritage Awareness Diving Seminars (HADS) were run in April 2011. HADS is a specialty course run through the three largest diver certification agencies in the world, NAUI, PADI and SSI, and is training intended for course directors, instructor trainers, instructors, dive masters, boat captains and dive shop owners. It was developed to provide diving industry professionals with a greater knowledge of how to proactively protect shipwrecks and other UCH sites (Scott-Ireton, 2008). The goal of HADS is to increase awareness of the fragility of UCH, teach proper anchoring, mooring and diving behaviour on such sites, as well as demonstrate the need for preservation of such resources for future generations and the economic benefits of heritage diving tourism. A total of 16 participants took part in the HADS training, including dive shop owners, the president of a local dive professional organization, boat captains, dive instructors and dive masters, U.S. Coast Guard staff, and a staff member from the NMI Humanities Council. This training was 4 �funded through a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Region Grants Cooperative grant awarded to Pacific Marine Resources, a local non-profit organisation concerned with environmental and historical research and sustainability. HPO and CRM staff presented lectures during this training. The training was seen as a crucial element to the development of the heritage trail and its sustainability. It aimed at educating the end users to protect the sites and educate their students and clients about using the sites appropriately. Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites In January 2009 SHIPS applied for an American Battlefield Protection Program (ABPP) grant for the archaeological and historical investigation of submerged WWII heritage and the collection of data for the development of a proposed maritime heritage trail. Funding was announced for $ 49,900 in August 2009 and the project quickly took shape. HPO, CRM, and DEQ provided an invaluable amount of in-kind assistance during the project including: staff support both on and off the water, boats and vehicles, equipment and fuel. Their support was instrumental to the success and completion of the project. To date, nearly 50 UCH sites have been recorded or investigated and several of these sites are included in the heritage trail that was developed. Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism The planning for a maritime heritage trail began in 2007-2008 and included a great deal of local consultation. Public lectures were given to gauge local interest, and meetings were held with several stakeholders including local divers and dive clubs, HPO, CRM, DEQ, NMI Humanities Council, and the Marianas Visitors Authority (MVA). This consultation centred on the needs and wants of the community and government in terms of their heritage and a heritage tourism product. As a result, three agencies (HPO, CRM, and DEQ) pledged their assistance to the project. The demographics of diving tourists were also sought from the MVA. Several leading experts in the field of heritage trail development were sought to provide input. More discussions were had with the agencies charged with managing environmental and biological resources; particularly useful were relationships with CRM and DEQ. These agencies provided research 5 �permits and worked alongside the project staff to develop a program for placing moorings on all the sites for use by boaters and tour operators – a necessity for reducing anchor impacts to sites. This trail was conceptualized as part of a plan to aid in the preservation and protection of UCH sites that were already being impacted through tourist visitation. By providing interpretive literature which outlined each site’s history and importance, legal protection and proper etiquette for visiting such heritage sites, it was hoped that divers, snorkelers, and swimmers would be better educated and develop a greater appreciation for the heritage, thus avoiding impacting or harming the sites further. In total nine sites were chosen for the trail including aircraft, landing vehicles, amphibious assault vehicles and shipwrecks of both Japanese and US forces. Printed waterproof dive guides were produced as well as four color posters, a website and an eighteen-minute interpretive video to be shown at the NPS American Memorial Park (Fig. 3). Management plan and in situ conservation survey The need to develop a management plan for submerged WWII maritime heritage in Saipan’s waters was identified during the implementation of the trail. Throughout the archaeological survey and subsequent development of the trail, it was noted by archaeologists that certain UCH sites were being negatively impacted by both natural and cultural factors (for a full review see Fig. 3 Japanese aircraft poster for heritage McKinnon and Carrell, 2011). trail. (SHIPS) These impacts were identified as contributing to an overall loss of archaeological and historical context and affecting the structural integrity of the sites and their long-term survival. While some of these impacts were recorded during the archaeological survey for the development of the trail in 2010, they 6 �were not the primary focus of the project and were treated cursorily. Upon completion of the trail it was deemed important to revisit selected sites and record baseline data to develop a plan to monitor, mitigate and manage the sites into the future. A plan to conduct further archaeological survey and initiate in situ conservation surveys was developed and supported by a follow up ABPP grant for $ 72,000 in 2011. In situ conservation surveys are different from standard archaeological surveys because they include the collection of data related to the natural environment (chemical and physical), which can allow for a better understanding of the destructive forces affecting sites and artifacts (MacLeod and Richards, 2011). They also record modern cultural impacts that can be used in the management of sites, including allowing or restricting access to sites and controls for altering behaviors of visitors. Finally, they often collect specific cultural information including data on material composition of objects. This data is vital to understanding the construction of these sites from an archaeological or cultural perspective, but also contributes to understanding the longevity of sites with relation to the material composition of metals and organics, how they react to and survive within the environment, and their overall structural integrity. In situ surveys and studies are critical to regions such as the Pacific because there are limited resources (i.e. funding, staff, and facilities) to conduct recovery and conservation of submerged objects and sites. While the CNMI does benefit from grant funds distributed by the NPS, this funding is limited and often only covers a small portion of the compliance needs of the HPO (Ronnie Rodgers personal communication, 2010). This means that the conservation and management of the resources must be done in situ. Further, understanding the condition of the resources through in situ and archaeological surveys is an important step in the management process. An agency cannot manage a site if they have no knowledge of its condition. The HPO needs information about the condition of the sites in order to make informed decisions about their management. Additional archaeological survey was conducted alongside the conservation survey in order to locate, record and identify new “control” sites not on the trail that could be monitored long-term for comparison purposes. Baseline data collected on new sites is useful because they can help managers understand the differential impacts of site visitation on those included in the trail. Currently the in situ conservation 7 �survey report and management plan is under review by the granting agency and cannot be discussed until approval is sought. Indigenous seascapes and intangible heritage The idea for a project to record Indigenous maritime sites began during discussions in 2008 about the development of the WWII maritime heritage trail, when community members expressed their desire to further investigate their own “maritime-related” heritage. Thus, a conversation began with local historian Genevieve Cabrera (Chamorro and Carolinian descent) and Herman Tudela (a traditional fisher and archaeological technician of Chamorro and Carolinian descent), who is, about the possibility of recording sites that are significant to their maritime past and present. Flinders University graduate student Julie Mushynsky used the idea and project as part of her thesis research and worked directly with Cabrera, Tudela and others to record selected sites. The result was a community archaeology project to record the tangible and intangible “seascape” of the island of Saipan in the Mariana Islands (McKinnon et al., In Press). The project recorded archaeological sites, oral histories, lived experiences and contemporary understandings of maritime-related heritage and life ways in community Rock art, conjunction members (Fig. potential with 4). fish procurement sites, access points, oral histories and other heritage, both tangible and intangible, were recorded and investigated as a result of this project. This type of Fig. 4 Colleague Genevieve Cabrera (center) leading project is critical to ensuring that site visit. (John Carpenter) colonial maritime history is not privileged over Indigenous maritime heritage and provides a balance to previous research conducted on the island. 8 �Obstacles and moving forward While the CNMI has the ability to utilize and enact any and all of the legislation outlined above and they do so effectively on terrestrial sites, the island is in need of a review of the possible ways that this legislation can be made most effective for UCH. This is not a call for harsher restrictions but a reference to applying the legislation most effectively. It is also important to investigate complementary forms of protection. This means recognizing the location of the sites within, for example, a Conservation Area or National Landmark, both of which exist. Further, it would be ideal if the Rules contained in the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 were used as a model in formulating this process. An obstacle in the effectiveness of the laws listed above is that at present there are no effective means by which the sites can be protected due to a lack of trained staff and equipment. Unfortunately, while there were three staff members at HPO who had the dive qualifications and training to conduct underwater archaeological survey (took training in 2009), today there is only one, and that person is no longer physically able to dive. Further the HPO does not own a boat or diving equipment for accessing the sites. This situation is contradictory to Part II, Guideline 5 of the Abandoned Shipwreck Act 1987 which states “The agencies responsible for the management of State-Owned waters should have (or have access to) adequate professional staff, office and laboratory facilities, vessels, diving and underwater survey equipment to carry out assigned responsibilities.” As a result, the community currently relies on off-island resources and expertise to assist them with the management of their submerged archaeological heritage through monies and projects such as those described in this paper, which is not an ideal situation. More archaeologists and archaeological technicians (a minimum of three) need to be hired, or existing staff needs to be trained in SCUBA and the ability to conduct archaeological assessments underwater. Further the HPO would be better equipped if they hired or purchased SCUBA gear and a boat for the purpose of conducting monitoring and assessment of underwater sites and investigating infractions. An alternative approach through interagency cooperation may provide a quicker solution as outlined below. 9 �Interagency Cooperation The involvement of other government bodies in the management of UCH is critical in the Pacific where resources and funding can be limited. In Saipan many UCH sites are located within the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area. The management plan for this conservation area could include provisions for the protection and management of UCH. To accomplish the legislative purpose of the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Act, the CNMI Department of Lands and Natural Resources (DLNR) was delegated the exclusive authority to manage the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area, as well as other marine conservation areas in the CNMI (Section 6 of PL 12-12). The role of the DLNR in regard to the management of UCH is to promote public access to the sites while protecting the physical remains. The 2005 management plan for the conservation area outlines DLNR has a role in providing logistic and financial support for placing moorings on sites to reduce impacts by anchoring. CRM was established on 11 February 1983, with the implementation of Public Law 3-47 within the Office of the Governor. The CRM program was established in order to promote the conservation and sustainable development of coastal resources. CRM is responsible for general permitting activities which impact coastal resources in Saipan and in particular permits for dive boats and dive tour operations. As a result the agency should develop language for permits that supports the protection of UCH. An effective way to increase enforcement of heritage laws is to train and enlist other agency staff whose job description includes enforcement of natural or environmental legislation. Agencies such as CRM, DLNR, DFW, and DEQ, which already operate boats and conduct regular inspections on water-related activities, could be trained in identifying infractions of cultural heritage law. Alternatively intra-agency agreements in which HPO staff accompany other agency enforcement officers during inspections would allow for increased regulation. Section 6 of Public Law 12-12 states that “...the Department [of Lands and Natural Resources] may coordinate and assist other Commonwealth or Federal agencies in performing their emergency or other agency functions within marine conservation areas, if the exercise of such functions is deemed prudent or necessary by the Department, or the performance of such functions is clearly permitted by law within marine conservation areas”. Thus there is a precedent set in law 10 �that allows for collaborative efforts in management of marine resources. The local natural environment in which a wreck is located and the assemblages that make a wreck have direct impact on the marine environment. A wreck can create a unique local environment for fauna and flora to thrive, and this has a bearing on defining the site's significance and issues of research and interpretation. Therefore there is a need for further understanding of UCH sites’ local marine environment and the habitat they create for marine life. Recent biological researcher was conducted in conjunction with the development of the heritage trail by a research from Sydney University. Fowler conducted two years of fish assemblage studies on the sites included within the trail. His research determined that “well- established vessel-reefs are capable of approximating fish abundances and assemblage parameters on natural coral reefs” (Fowler and Booth, 2012). This research indicates that UCH sites are of natural and environmental significance and should be protected as such. There are no provisions within Public Law 12-12, which regulates the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area, to identify UCH as aquatic reserves or equivalent. However access to the sites, if they are environmentally sensitive, maybe be controlled under provisions of the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area management plan. Community Traditionally there has been little communication between local divers and CNMI HPO. Local divers report being frustrated when trying to report new sites to HPO and receive information about their history or significance. This disconnect is a result of HPO’s inability through training, equipment and funding to be involved in the management of submerged sites. However, the HPO could benefit from partnering or working with local divers, dive groups and dives shops in the location and identification of new sites. Those who know the waters best are those who use it regularly. It would be beneficial if HPO developed a public profile and engaged with divers, dives shops and dive groups. Education programs, meetings, information sessions and the development of a sitereporting program are all options for increasing communication. Conclusion In concluding this paper, it is pertinent to re‐state that the CNMI, and the Pacific region in general, has its own unique set of challenges and issues that are quite different from 11 �other parts of the world. Therefore, it is important when developing a UCH management program that other “models” or “programs” are not applied wholesale to this region. An approach that considers the challenges and difficulties CNMI is facing and a program that is suited to deal with these challenges and resolve them into the future is the most likely successful long-term management approach. This paper was written with the intention of outlining some of the successes of CNMI’s HPO and exploring ways in which they may move forward. The option of involving other interested agencies in managing UCH is likely the best immediate solution, but a long-term approach of hiring staff, increase funding and additional training will need to be undertaken. The information in this paper is meant to empower and encourage the local community to continue the positive steps they have made in protecting their UCH and to move forward. While much of the work on UCH has been on WWII UCH, it is important to remember that there are many more sites from previous and later periods that are significant to the history of the island. It is hoped that the HPO can continue to develop a program for managing those sites as well. Inclusive and collaborative efforts should be made with all regulatory agencies that deal with the marine environment, as well as other stakeholders such as tourism companies and divers. Further, it is important to understand that not only the interests of the U.S. and Japanese government are at the core of this heritage, but a local perspective that incorporates Chamorro, Carolinian, Filipino and Korean values should be considered (McKinnon 2013). Acknowledgments Thank you to the CNMI community for their interest and support in protecting your underwater cultural heritage. Thank you also to the colleagues and students who have been a huge part of the projects described within, particularly Toni Carrell and Jason Raupp. References Carrell, T. L., 2009. Maritime History and Archaeology of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, SHIPS, Corpus Christi, Texas. 12 �Fowler, A. M., and Booth, D. J., 2012. How well do sunken vessels approximate fish assemblages on coral reefs? Conservation implications of vessel-reef deployments. Marine Biology, Vol. 159: 2787-2796. MacLeod, I. D., and Richards, V., 2011. In-situ conservation surveys of iron shipwrecks in Chuuk Lagoon and the impact of human intervention. Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material Bulletin, Vol. 32: 106-122. McKinnon, J. F., and Carrell, T., 2011. Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail. SHIPS, Corpus Christi, Texas. McKinnon, J. F., 2013. Difficult Heritage: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites. In D. Scott-Ireton (Ed.), Meeting Challenges in the Public Interpretation of Maritime Cultural Heritage - Between the Devil and the Deep. Springer Press, New York. McKinnon, J. F., Mushynsky, J., and Cabrera, G., In Press. A Fluid Sea in the Mariana Islands: Mapping the Seascape of Saipan. Journal of Maritime Archaeology. Scott-Ireton, D., 2008. Teaching “Heritage” Awareness” Rather than “Skills” to Sport Diving Community. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 3 (2): 119-120. SEARCH, 2008a. Archaeological Survey of Lagoons of on the West Coast of Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, SEARCH, Pensacola, FL. SEARCH, 2008b. Archaeological Survey of Tanapag Lagoon Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, SEARCH, Pensacola, FL. Thompson, E. N., 1984. National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form. Landing Beaches, Aslito/Isley Field, and Marpi Point, Saipan Island. National Park Service Denver Service Center, Lakewood, CO. Biography Jennifer McKinnon is an Assistant Professor at East Carolina University in the Program in Maritime Studies. Prior to teaching at ECU, she was a Senior Lecturer at Flinders University, South Australia for seven years. Jennifer is a Research Associate of the non-profit organization SHIPS, Corpus Christi. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: A Case Study in Developing a Program of Protecting Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource This paper outlines a specific example, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and its effort to create and maintain a program for identifying, protecting and interpreting underwater cultural heritage (UCH). This paper suggests the process of developing such a program is most successful when it occurs in cooperation with all branches of the government that deal with marine/water resources and the local community who are stakeholders in the protection of their heritage. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/23cb459153f3a69510e47bd7f7d3821b.pdf 5a7c81c64b13144c78287b3eabdb7d1b PDF Text Text Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Sunny O. Ngirmang and Calvin T. Emesiochel Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture, Koror, Republic of Palau 96940 Email: bac_reg@palaunet.com Abstract Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide details of efforts, challenges and goals, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. In addition, give an overview of the latest UCH training, sponsored by UNESCO, which was held in Palau and plans moving forward to increasing the advocacy of UCH in the Pacific Region, particularly Micronesia. Key words: Palau, WWII, Pacific, Micronesia, Yapese Stone Money Introduction Cultural heritage protection by means of public education is an effective medium for the positive awareness at local community level. In addition, it provides enough force for capacity building of key stakeholders or advocates and other leaders to set the stage for community level goals towards cultural resource management mechanisms. This will 1 �promote effective and sustainable resource management, training, public education and awareness, and advocacy that will instigate community based efforts and goals in preserving archaeological heritage sites. Cultural resource management will allocate the awareness of traditional cultural heritage that would embody sustainability and sensitivity towards cultural heritage. Underwater cultural heritage offer a vast selection of heritage wealth for the understanding and interpretation of our past. Underwater archaeology has yet to receive its much-needed recognition and appreciation within the Palauan community since the field is not fully popularized. This report examines the current situation within the Bureau of Arts and Culture (BAC) and its subdivisions particularly the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section of their efforts and goals pertaining to the management of underwater cultural resources. In addition, provide the outcome of the most recent Palau Underwater Archaeology Training in 2013. Palau Island Brief History, Geography and Geology The Palau Island is the westernmost archipelago in the Caroline chain approximately 7 degrees North of the equator, consisting of six island groups totaling more than five hundred high and low islands (only 16 of which are inhabited) including World War II battleground of Peleliu and world-famous mushroom shaped rock islands. The inhabited islands of Palau including from north to south is Kayangel, Babeldaob, Koror, Peleliu, Angaur and the Southwest Island groups. Most of the Islands are encompassed in a barrier reef that stretches for approximately 105 km except for the Southwest Islands. Palau lies on a subduction zone causing Babeldaob, the largest island, to submerge about a half millimeter per year. Consequently, it is hypothesized according to paleoenvironmental studies that the earlier colonization and settlement sites along the coast of Babeldaob are underwater (Dickinson and Stephen, 2007). More archaeological data is needed from other possible sites for examination and identification pending comparative analysis. The possibility to access other sites around Micronesia is needed for a further reexamination to cement together a proposed hypothesis of early settlement and exclude others. Role of Agency: Bureau of Arts and Culture The Bureau of Arts and Culture is a branch of the Palau National Government responsible for identifying, documenting, protecting, preserving and managing all 2 �cultural and historical resources within the Republic. First established in 1978, the Bureau of Arts and Culture - then called the Division of Cultural Affairs - and later renamed under the Executive Order No. 203 since 2001- is a Palau governmental entity under the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs, which mandates a framework for the adequate protection of archaeological sites and tangible cultural resources (Emesiochel, 2008: 4). Additionally, the Bureau implements Section 106 of the US National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended. The Bureau helps in the implementation of acceptable historic preservation laws in the 16 states of the Republic of Palau. The Bureau receives funds from the Palau National Government and the Historic Preservation Funds from the U.S. National Parks Service, Department of the Interior. The Bureau has nine staff members. It operates with the advice and assistance from the 16 members Palau Historical and Cultural Advisory Board, 16 members Society of Historians, and 5 members Technical and Professional Review Committee. The mission of the Bureau is to protect and preserve all the Republic’s cultural and historical resources to enhance, enrich, and foster the Palauan heritage now and into the future. To achieve this mission, the Bureau had four main goals: First, to preserve and foster cultural and historical resources for the benefit of Palauan people; second, to preserve and educate Palauan tradition that are threatened with extinction; third, to protect cultural and historical resources from destruction; and finally, to preserve culture and tradition in the face of inevitable increasing foreign contact and interaction. Historical and Cultural Preservation Act Title 19 PNC § 102. Created in 1974, the Palau Historic Preservation Act (PNC Title 19) is administered by the Bureau of Arts and Culture that is intended to serve as the official inventory of all those historical sites and tangible cultural properties, which are deemed of significance to the Palauan people and culture. Their significance makes them worth preserving, and protecting from destruction and impairment. The Palau Register is the legal instrument to ensure that registered properties or properties that may be eligible, threatened by public or private development will be subject to comment and review in accordance with the procedures prescribed by law. Title 19 PNC § 134: Each state reserves to itself the exclusive right and privilege of ownership and control over historical sites and tangible cultural property located on the lands and waters owned or controlled by the state. 3 �Section 134 allows the state government to create legislations for the protection of their UCH sites not limited to the foreign vessels located within their boundaries. The creation of the legislation is however at the discretion of the state. If the state does not have legislation in place, the state would comply with the procedures outlined in PNC Title19. Sites located underwater that may suffer potential damage or displacement during a development project are subject to and must comply with the rules, regulations, and provisions outlined in the PLM Act of PNC Title 19 through the project review process. Currently, all WWII wreck sites as well as the Yapese stone money disks on the shores of rock islands and the bottom of the sea plus other known or unknown submerged landscapes are not listed on the Palau Register of Historic Places. The BAC Survey and Inventory/Archaeology section has yet to perform a thorough underwater survey of the sites. Survey and Inventory/Archaeology The Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section is the leading responsible body for the identification and inventory of all cultural and historical resources within the Republic. To carry out this responsibility, we have divided our survey into three phases: First, Babeldaob survey; second, rock island survey; then, underwater survey. The basis for determining and prioritizing our survey this way is based on economical, developmental, and policy factors, as well as a lack of staff, training and funding to do both surveys at the same time, especially Underwater Cultural Heritage that requires a more technical set of skills. The issue and plan of GIS in Palau and plan is to centralize a main information office that manages all data. Each relevant government agency should be interconnected to the Information office and have their own GIS program they manage and provide data to the central office. This will allow all agencies to share and upload files from different agencies. But due to lack of funding, only few government offices and NGOs are able to acquire a GIS program. Short-term Goals  Revisit identified underwater archaeological sites/resources for further analysis of site condition, assessment, and verification of information, and inventory  Identify immediate threat (deterioration, looting,) affecting underwater cultural resources 4 � Develop community and local state government interest and collaboration Long-term Goals  Method of conservation and preservation  Establish a database for underwater archaeological sites/resources  Create an underwater cultural resource management plan to be implemented at the state and national level  Continuous management, protection, and preservation of underwater cultural resources This section assist in public education in “disseminating information and educating the public through presentations and site visits, in order to foster awareness and importance of protecting, preserving, and conserving our cultural heritage that is our national identity for our future generations” (Emesiochel, 2008: 8). Palau Lagoon Monument 19 PNC § 306 It is hereby declared that it is a policy of the Republic to preserve foreverhistoric landmarks, structures, and other sites and objects of significance to the Republic of the Trust Territory situated within the jurisdiction of the Republic for the inspiration and benefit of the people of the Republic. All ships, other vessels and aircraft, and any and all parts and contents thereof, which formerly belonged to or were part of the armed forces or commercial fleet of Spain, Germany, Japan, and the United States or any other nation, which were sunk to or otherwise deposited on the bottom of the Palau Lagoon and its territorial waters, subject to applicable salvage laws, shall be and hereby are set apart as monuments which shall be collectively called the “Palau Lagoon Monument”. The administration, protection, and development of the monument shall be exercised under the direction of the President of the Republic or his duly authorized representatives. The strictness of this law, give us enough time to seek assistance and trainings to accomplish the survey and inventory of the underwater cultural heritage of Palau. In order to convict someone for violating the Palau Lagoon Monument, the government must prove that the individual (1) removes, appropriates, damages, or 5 �destroys (2) ships, other vessels or aircraft (or parts thereof), which formally belonged to the armed forces or commercial fleet of any nation and which are at the bottom of the Palau lagoon. Types/Categories of Underwater Cultural Resources The most notable types of UCH sites within the Republic are the WWII wrecks located mostly in the Rock Island Southern Lagoon (World Heritage Site – 2012). There are more than 60 WWII ship and aircraft (see Fig. 1 for sample aircraft) wreck sites in Palau (Bailey, 1991). The wrecks sites are popular tourists dive spots. Tourists who decide to dive the wrecks are educated on the types of ship, ship content, and their components. In the form of myths, locally known UHC sites and folklore for instance is the sunken City of Ngibtal. Fish trapping sites, stone docks/piers, underwater burial sites, and submerged landmarks (Olsudong et al., 1997 and 2000) are known UCH sites that are found in different parts of Palau – all are protected under Title19 PNC Chapter 1. Other known material that is not fully documented is the numerous Yapese stone money disks (Fig. 2) which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport from Palau to Yap. Yapese islanders quarried these large stones or “megaliths” in Palau prior to European contact (Hazell and Scott, 2006: 12). During their oceanic voyage to Yap, which expanded several hundred kilometers, some vessels transporting the money disks capsized, leaving a trail of money disks from several trips on the ocean floor. It is not yet certain where exactly these money disks are located. There has yet to be a full documented, mapping, and surveyed report of the Yapese stone money disks under the waters of Palau. Recent work by Fitzpatrick (2008a, 2008b) in the management and protection of the quarry sites provides the opportunity for the local communities in Palau and Yap to take lead in the preservation of such sites. The proposed management plan covers sites located inland. Sites or money disks underwater are also given the same amount of attention and protection it deserve once the sites have been identified. Francis Toribiong, one of Palau’s local community leaders and a well-known scuba diver, has taken the lead in the advocacy and protection of UCH sites in the Republic. As part of public education and outreach projects, BAC in collaboration with PVA, the Belau National Museum, and local state government aims to promote community awareness 6 �of the types of underwater cultural heritage. From the shipwrecks to sunken city and to the Yapese megaliths, Palau aims to increase the fascination and value into the preservation and conservation of UCH sites. Fig. 1 (left)Jake Seaplane - History: A Japanese - Aichi E13A1-1 Navy Floatplane, built in 1941. The seaplane is a long range and high speed reconnaissance seaplane, 3-seat, single engine, twin float, 15 hr maximum endurance, range of 1,128 nautical miles. Primary role – bombing missions against land and shipping targets, air-sea rescues, staff transport and kamikaze sorties and destroyed in 1944. Today, the seaplane sits upright, mostly intact; artifacts around the site are radios, ammunition – small bomb inside cockpit to the right of the aft seat. Marine life surrounding the site consists of crocodile fish, Batfish, Octopus, Cuttlefish, whitecap Shrimp and Nudi branches. The marine life in surrounding shallow patch reef – Sponges, Staghorn Lettuce, Brain, and Table corals, small sea whips and colorful juvenile tropical fish. (Bailey, 1991; Emesiochel 2013 Palau Underwater Archaeological Training field notes) Fig. 2 (right)The site is Uet el Daob ma Uet el Chutem, a Yapese Quarry site on Orrak Island, Airai state. The Orrak Island site is undergoing UNESCO World Heritage nomination process as a Transboundary site with Mangyol Money Bank in Yap. (Scott M. Fitzpatrick, 2002, Airai, Palau) Tourism, location and accessibility Palau was the headquarters of the Japanese command in Micronesia and was heavily fortified by the Japanese in the years leading up to WWII in the Pacific. Malakal Harbor was a major forward supply base for Japanese shipping. On March 31, 1944 U.S. divebomber strikes from aircraft carriers Yorktown and Bunker Hill, of Carrier Task Force 58 destroyed over 50 warships and airplanes of the Japanese Imperial Forces, making Palau's western lagoon their final resting place (Bailey, 1991). Most of the wreck are located within a few minutes of Sam's Tours dive center and remain in excellent condition for diving. Each year in March, Sam Scott of Sam's Tours hosts Palau Wreck Week to mark the anniversary of the sinking of the Japanese fleet. WWII shipwreck sites are mainly located in Palau’s Southern Lagoon in Koror, the states of Peleliu and 7 �Angaur and other sites around the coast of Babeldaob. Most of Palau’s dive shops offer services, kayak, and dives to these WWII wrecks. Provided in the tour, the dive operator educates the tourist on basic information about the wreck. There are 10 popular wreck dive sites, which Sam’s Tour takes their clients for diving. Accessibility to the sites is not restricted; tour operators can freely access the wreck for photo taking, kayak, and other recreational activities. Most of the Palau tour agencies with the assistance of Palau Visitors Authority (PVA) promote eco-tourism and eco-heritage. Such promotion provides incentive to state legislatures to create or strengthen exciting laws pertaining to UCH sites within their boundaries. Current legislation, Preservation and Management of Underwater cultural resources Aside from PLM, local conservation legislations and regulations pertaining to the protection and management of UCH sites are minimal. The permit or MOA is administered by the office of the President for the stipulations of the management and treatment of UCH sites are only created in the event such salvage and research arises. With the exception of PNC 19 and PLM, the Protected Areas Network Act (PAN) and the Micronesia Challenge established in 2007 aims to protect not only terrestrial area up to 20% but also includes a 30% of marine areas where possible UCH sites are located. Since there is not a definite line where the 30% occupies, it would be logical to deduce that such percentage would be broken accordingly to where high concentrations of UCH sites are found. Included in the 30% there should be space reserved for the protection and preservation of high marine biodiversity areas. To be protected under PAN, local state government has to endorse the PAN Act and agree to the stipulations and guidelines under the Act to ensure full resource safeguarding. In turn, the sites designated by the states as PAN sites are eligible for funding and other opportunities for the effective management of the sites. Local state governments take full responsibility in the protection of the UCH sites located within their municipal boundaries. Such legislation, rules and regulations must address the proper protection, monitoring, and research around the areas. Special cases such as the salvage of a particular vessel or parts thereof will be under the unified consensus and understanding between the 8 �foreign entity, the state government, and the President with the cooperation and guidance from the BAC office. “Public involvement and interest in the underwater cultural heritage is at an all-time high, but, paradoxically, one of the major problems as regards marine-zone development and the historic environment remain that of convincing the government and the general public alike to consider cultural heritage within environmental impact assessments, and to see the protection of cultural heritage as not only a moral, social imperative but also as an economic one” (Flatman, 2009). UCH conservation is relatively new. Nevertheless, Palau is willing to take part in any capacity building opportunities for training to effectively manage underwater heritage. This will provide a foundational guidance to the local stakeholders and state government the necessary tools to build their conservation program to include the proper management of their known (and unknown) UCH sites. Threats The ever changing climatic changes, erosion, and looting are potential yet inevitable threats to marine cultural heritage. Climate change is a slow inevitable threat to semisubmerged sites and other coastal properties as it continues to change the physical characteristics of the area. This either alters the features or displaces them from the site. Unexploded Remnants of War (ERW) that leaks out picric acid, oil, and maybe other harmful elements are increasing threats to the livelihood of wreck divers and local community, environment as well as the heritage itself. There is an ongoing project at the famous Helmet Wreck dive site to remove fused depth charges. There are no thorough survey of all the wrecks to understand the extent of EWR and its impact on marine life. Salvage of particular artifacts, relics, or components of a UCH site when exposed to the elements may oxidize, which damages the objects. This possibility will hinder any salvage attempts but will not impede any foreign entity to reclaim their objects. Available expertise and Current Trainings Currently, there are only two staff members within the Palau HPO with adequate training on maritime archaeology. With the assistance from UNESCO’s Participant Program, Palau through the Bureau of Arts and Culture was able to secure funding to 9 �perform a three-week training course on Underwater Cultural Heritage from November 18 to December 06, 2013. Through this training, we were able to achieve valuable lessons: i. Educate local partners the benefits of the UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage ii. Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training program a. Introduction to Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology b. Part 1, Certificate in Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology c. Part 2, Intermediate Certificate in Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology iii. Study Tours – Peleliu and Koror State Southern Lagoon World Heritage Sites iv. Development of a Palau Underwater Cultural Heritage Team (PUCHT) a. Recording and documentation of UCH in Palau Through the Underwater Archaeology Training program, Dr. William Jeffrey of Flinders University and his associate Luis Cabral from the Guam Department of Education were able to train and certify 10 Palauans and 1 American environmental graduate student from the University of Guam in UCH surveying, conservation and preservation techniques. The UCH training gained a great number of supports from the local state governments, environmental NGO’s in Palau, as well as the Palau National Congress. This amount of support from the Bureau of Arts and Culture partner agencies encourages the Bureau to seek more funding from UNESCO to do more UCH trainings beyond technical skills. More importantly, this would help toward the completion of the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) certificate training program of Part 3 and Part 4. This request came through the Bureau by the state government if there is a possibility to do more training in 2014. The success of the training will be shared during the 2014 Asia-Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Honolulu. It is hoped that more publicity could build solid networking and interest to bring in more training opportunities to Palau. Training outcomes included: i. Trained 10 Palauans who have worked together very effectively in conducting a 3Dimensional survey and two quick 2-D surveys of 3 underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites in Koror and Airai States. 10 �ii. Can now work together on future Palauan UCH projects in combination of further training. iii. Well recorded and documented the Jake Seaplane that with further research could be nominated for the Palau National Register of Historic Places or the US National Register of Historic Places. iv. The cohorts have the capacity to conduct surveys of all types of underwater cultural heritage (tangible and intangible). Conclusion In conclusion, we are a small island nation and still in the process of getting ourselves to improve our capacity building and awareness regarding our UCH. We are hoping that the participants who just finished the UCH training will help the agency on both human resource and public awareness. We are also looking forward to seek any other sources to expand the capacity and awareness to the states so we can assist both working side by side to enhance the protection and preservation of our underwater cultural heritage. Acknowledgement We would like to take this opportunity and to extend our deep appreciation to the organizer of the conference that gave us the opportunity to participate and share the Role of the Agency regarding UCH heritage in the Republic of Palau. We would like to also thank all the participants for their contribution and experiences that will help paved us our way to improve and enhance our approach to our heritage. References Bailey, D. E., 1991 WWII Wrecks of Palau. California: North Valley Diver Publications, California. Dickinson, W. R., and Stephen, A. J., 2007. Holocene Paleoshoreline and Paleoenvironmental History of Palau: Implications for Human Settlement. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Vol. 2 (2): 175-196. Emesiochel, C. T., 2008. Palau County Report: Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection: Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains. ACCU Nara, Japan. 11 �Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2008a. Maritime interregional interaction in Micronesia: Deciphering multi-group contacts and exchange systems through time. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, Vol. 27: 131-147. Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2008b. Preservation and Management for Yapese Stone Money sites in Palau and Yap, Palau HPO. Palau. Flatman, J., 2009. Editorial. Conserving Marine Cultural Heritage: Threats, Risks, and Future Priorities. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, Vol. (11) 1: 58. Hazell, L. C., and Scott, M. F., 2006. The maritime transport of prehistoric megaliths in Micronesia. Archaeology Oceania, Vol. 41: 12-24. Olsudong, R., Calvin T. E., and Errolflynn, T. K., 1997. Draft: Inventory of Cultural Sites and Oral History in Melekeok and Irai, Bureau of Arts and Culture, Palau. Olsudong, R., Calvin, T. E., and Errolflynn, T., K., 2000. Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture, Draft: Inventory of Cultural and Historical Sites and Oral History in Ngarrard State, Vol. I: Inventory of Cultural and Historical sites, Bureau of Arts and Culture, Palau. Biography Sunny O. Ngirmang is currently the Director/HPO of the Bureau of Arts and Culture, also known as Palau Historic Preservation Office of the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs of the Palau National Government. Ever since in her post in the Bureau four years ago, she has attended several trainings, conferences, workshops and other activities related to managing, preserving and protecting historical and cultural heritage both in the state, national, regional and international level. She is passionate about cultural resource management of Palau’s tangible and intangible heritage. Calvin T. Emesiochel is currently the Deputy HPO of the Bureau of Arts and Culture, also known as Palau Historic Preservation Office of the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs of the Palau National Government. Emesiochel has over 12 years of extensive archaeological experience including extensive knowledge in GIS and Access database management, Section 106, surveying, and CRM. He is a certified PADI diver since 2002 with experience in underwater archaeological surveying techniques and also NAS Part 1 and Part 2 certified since 2006. He is passionate about the preservation and protection of the Palauan tangible and intangible heritage. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Description An account of the resource Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide details of efforts, challenges and goals, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. In addition, give an overview of the latest UCH training, sponsored by UNESCO, which was held in Palau and plans moving forward to increasing the advocacy of UCH in the Pacific Region, particularly Micronesia. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sunny O. Ngirmang Calvin T. Emesiochel, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/31c2fe9d646e7d5e9a3658ce7d19ecc3.pdf fe6790592f74783a55e51ba82a8f3abf PDF Text Text Remote Survey of a Near-Coastal Archaeological Alignment at Kualoa, Hawai'i Using Worldview 2 Satellite, LiDAR and UAV Imagery Damion Sailors University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Department of Anthropology Saunders Hall 808-349-9426, USA Email: sailors@hawaii.edu Scott S. Honda University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Department of Geography, Saunders Hall 808-351-3096 USA Email: sshonda@hawaii.edu Abstract By using World View 2 multispectral satellite imagery, LiDAR, and unmanned aerial vehicles, a large submerged archaeological stone alignment, that is likely part of an ancient Hawaiian fishpond, was detected off the coast of Kualoa, Hawai’i during a remote survey of the area. Principal component analysis, ratio indices, and LiDAR interpretation were utilized in a GIS to help detect this archaeological stone feature that is located in shallow coastal waters. Because threats of modern development, sea-level fluctuations, and complications inherent to coastal-maritime environments have generally challenged the survey of cultural resources located within the coastal strand, this method holds promise for future spatial analyses and provides an accessible and cost efficient means of shoreline assessment. This paper aims to show how remote sensing methods can assist in the study of archaeological features that are located within difficult to access coastal and near-coastal areas. Key words: Remote Sensing, Coastal Survey, Fishponds, Archaeology, GIS Introduction On the windward side of the island of O'ahu, an archaeological alignment was detected utilizing remote sensing techniques in the near-shore coastal flats of the northwest section of Kane'ohe Bay near Kualoa Regional Park. Kualoa is a culturally significant ahupua'a (land division) with a rich, traditional prehistory associated with social elites of old Hawai'i and today it is maintained by the City and County of Honolulu. Kualoa is also a pu'uhonua (ceremonial center) that was governed by the kahuna nui (high priests) of Hawai'i who maintained close relationships with the neighboring watersheds of Hakipu'u on the west and Ka'a'awa on the north as seen in (Figs.1-2) (Sterling and Summers, 1962; Gunness, 1987). Traditionally, these land divisions possessed stone-walled 1 �fishponds that were typical of an intensified form of aquaculture practiced in early Hawai'i (Kikuchi, 1976). However, the spatial data that exists on this subject matter is limited. Accordingly, this paper provides an efficient means of surveying submerged, archaeological features located in shallow, coastal waters using satellite, LiDAR and digital camera imagery. Fig. 1 Area on O'ahu, Hawai'i Where Offshore Stone Alignment Was Detected. (Damion Sailors, 2013) The Site Location - Kualoa The first archaeological survey of Kualoa was performed by J. G. McAllister in 1933 and included the documentation of Mōli'i fishpond, 'Āpua Pond, Mokoli'i Pond, Koholālele Pond, and Niuola'a Heiau. McAllister learned through interviews and translations that Kualoa is a pu'uhonua (ceremonial center) where large ceremonies dedicated to Lono (the god of harvest) were performed and that the area was also well-known for its association with ancient Polynesian genealogies. Kualoa is also respected for its 2 �ancient burial caves reserved for social elites and its unique access to palaoa (sperm whale ivory) which, because of its wealth, afforded Kualoa political power in precontact Hawai'i (Gunness, 1987). McAllister also collected a reference from a local informant about an ancient fish pond named Pilihe'e that was destroyed by a tsunami sometime prior to the mid-19th century (Sterling and Summers, 1962). This fishpond was then located and mapped during a student pedestrian survey during the Kualoa Archaeological Research Project (1975-1985) using a rough “tape and compass” method but was not explored further. As a consequence, this fishpond is not well-known in either academic or local communities and management of this archaeological resource has not occurred (Gunness, 1987; Carson and Athens, 2007). Fig. 2 Aerial photograph of Kualoa Beach Park taken from an airplane showing Mōli'i Pond (large pond on left) and 'Āpua Pond (small pond on right), shoreline accretion at south end of Kualoa, and coral reef development in area. (John O’Connor, 2013) There have been other, more recent archaeological studies conducted at Kualoa Park, and to summarize the findings thus far, there have been 44 shoreline burials recovered to date and a large amount of material artifacts consisting of large proportions of basalt tools, kapa (bark cloth) making utensils, and gaming stones. The recovery of these artifacts support the inference that Kualoa was a ceremonial center associated with the Makahiki festivals honoring the god Lono. Interestingly, fishing gear was poorly represented (only 3.62% of total artifacts) as were household items (2.89%) (Barrera, 1974; Gunness, 1987). The survey of this offshore alignment at Kualoa is significant 3 �because of the wall’s probable antiquity and what it might add to the overall anthropological discussion regarding maritime coastal adaptation in an island environment (Kikuchi, 1976). The absolute age of this feature is unknown but because this stone alignment is of substantial size, it can be inferred that an organized social effort was invested in its construction and maintenance (Kirch, 2010). Oral traditions and geomorphological studies also support the idea that Kualoa was not only a sacred land-division with an extensive royal history, but that it was particularly vulnerable to damage from tsunamis that periodically strike the islands (Gunness, 1987; Carson and Athens, 2007). Considering that the coastal zone of this windward part of O'ahu is highly dynamic in terms of its coastal geomorphology, this stone wall may have also served as a type of break-water constructed in an effort to modify the coastline or it may have functioned as an aggregate for fishing (Kikiloi, 2003). Pacific Island Fishponds At the time of Captain Cook’s arrival to Hawai'i in 1778 there were an estimated total of 360 fishponds of varying size and function located throughout the archipelago. On average, these fishponds were each thought to have produced a total of 3000 kg of fish per year (Kikuchi, 1976; Kikiloi, 2003). At first, this may seem rather industrious, but if we consider that the population in old Hawai'i may have conservatively been around 300,000 people, there would have been very little fish to go around (Schmitt, 1971; Wyban and Wyban, 1989). It is estimated that fishpond technology in Hawai'i may be at least seven centuries old after results from analyses made of the Alekoko and Kekupua Ponds on Kaua'i revealed a radiocarbon range from 1140 - 1280 AD (Burney and Burney, 2003). This is the oldest radiometric evidence there is for fishpond use in Hawai'i but it is possible that the origin of this technology extends further back in time. Hawaiian fishpond types can be separated amongst those that are dependent upon freshwater, brackish water, and seawater. The primary fish harvested in Hawaiian fishponds were mullet and milkfish and at least 22 species of edible marine life also flourished in these ponds as secondary domesticates (Kikiloi, 2003). Based on the available evidence, it could be argued that in contrast to the rest of Oceania, the Hawaiian Islands claimed a more sophisticated aquacultural system (Kikuchi, 1976). This argument is bolstered by the apparent large numbers of fishponds in Hawai'i, their 4 �larger acreage, variation in the types of sites, and in the technological complexity of the system. However, there is evidence that other areas such as in the Society Islands, Micronesia, and Western Polynesia, fish pond technologies were just as elaborate and intensified as those found in Hawai'i (Dieudonne, 2002). Remote Sensing methods The advancements in both passive and active sensors used in remote sensing allow for the collection of data or imagery with greater spatial, temporal, spectral, and radiometric resolution. One example of advancements made with passive sensors is the multispectral sensors on board some of today’s satellites (World View 2, Landsat MSS, IKONOS). Multispectral sensors break up the electromagnetic spectrum into multiple bands allowing for a finer analysis of an object’s reflectance value than previous sensors. Hyper-spectral sensors allow for an even finer analysis, breaking up the electromagnetic spectrum into hundreds of spectral bands (Jensen, 2005). Also an active sensor technology that has seen increasing use is LiDAR (short for light and radar). LiDAR is useful in detecting changes in elevation of an area at a relatively high resolution. The Worldview 2 satellite is a commercial satellite that was launched in 2009 and is capable of collecting 8-band multispectral imagery at a high resolution with an average revisit time of 1.1 days. The spatial resolution of the images is 1.85 m for the 8band multispectral images and 0.46 m for the panchromatic image. There are 8-bands that the satellite groups into different parts of wavelengths (nm) within the electromagnetic spectrum. The 8-bands and sections are the coastal band (400 - 450 nm), blue band (450 - 510 nm), green band (510 - 580 nm), yellow band (585 - 625 nm), red band (630 - 690 nm), red edge (705 -745 nm), near-infrared 1 (770 - 895 nm), and near-Infrared (860 - 1040 nm) (Digital Globe, 2013). Since each band collects at different sections of the electromagnetic spectrum, each band can contain different information based on the material an object or feature is made of. Each band also interacts differently with water. The least amount of absorption and scattering takes place in the wavelengths between 400 - 500 nm. Thus the two lowest bands, the coastal band and blue band, are the most suitable bands to detect underwater features. In contrast, the wavelengths represented by the red and near-infrared bands are highly absorbed by water (Jensen, 2007). In passive remote sensing techniques, there are 5 �multiple operations that can be done to multispectral satellite imagery in order to produce analyzable results. Processing The first process tree began by pan-sharpening the satellite imagery. Pan-sharpening was done so the multispectral bands could have a higher resolution of the panchromatic band, which was 0.46 m (Padwick, 2010). The terrestrial areas were then masked out of the image. This was done to ensure that the full range of digital numbers in the imagery belonged to pixels of offshore areas which could then be analyzed with greater detail. An index ratio called the non-homogenous feature difference (NHFD) was then performed. The NHFD takes the red-edge and coastal bands into the following formula: (red-edge - coastal) / (red-edge + coastal) (Wolf, 2010). Index ratios, such as the NHFD, enhance the contrast between two bands (Zeinelabdeina and Albielyb, 2008). The reason why this formula works well in detecting offshore features is because the rededge and coastal bands interact with water very differently. The energy in the spectrum of the red-edge band is highly absorbed by water where the energy in the spectrum of the coastal band is not. When two bands have very different reactions to a phenomenon (e.g. water) the ratio of those two bands will usually have a substantial amount of information (Jensen, 2005). This creates an image that visualizes the contrast between objects closer or above the surface of the water to objects towards the bottom of the sea floor. The second process tree started with the pan-sharpening and masking out of the terrestrial areas of the satellite imagery followed by a principal component analysis (PCA). PCA is an image enhancement technique that transforms the multispectral imagery into principal components (PCs). Each principal component represents the spatially correlated brightness values of each band in the multispectral imagery, while being uncorrelated to other derived principal components. From the 8 multispectral bands, 8 PCs are derived. The first PC will have the most information and the last PC will usually have the least. The goal of PCA is to reduce the amount of spatially repeated data throughout the 8 bands of the multispectral imagery into principal components that are quite easy to interpret (Jensen, 2005). Once PCA was executed, PCs 1 and 2 were visualized in the GIS platform well-known as ArcMap. 6 �LiDAR has the ability to gather elevation data on land and the bathymetry of areas in shallow waters with relatively high accuracy (Jensen, 2007). LiDAR, that was made available through the 2013 National Science Foundation - Research Experience for Undergraduates, was also utilized to help detect the Kualoa fishpond wall. A LiDAR point cloud (0.25 m resolution) was used to create a continuous surface or bathymetric image using Inverse Distance Weighted and Natural Neighbor tools in ArcGIS (Bolstad, 2012). 3D geovisualization in ArcGIS of the LiDAR point cloud readily displayed the shape of the offshore feature. To visualize the point cloud in 3D, graduated colors based on the Z (elevation) value were first given to each point. Then the point cloud was exaggerated to 30 times of its Z value, to best show the variation in depth of the offshore area. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology was also utilized to collect imagery of the offshore feature. Although there are many UAV platforms available, a DJI Phantom Quad-Copter was used as it was made available via the National Science FoundationResearch Experiences for Undergraduates program mentioned previously. A Pentax Optio camera was attached to the Phantom to collect imagery. Due to the weight of the camera, the flying time of the UAV was limited to approximately two minutes. The UAV coupled with the camera allowed for up-to-date imagery within the visible light spectrum of the feature. However, there were some difficulties with the UAV/Pentax combo. The first difficulty was the manipulation of the UAV’s elevation and position to ensure that useful imagery over the correct feature was being acquired. Another difficulty was that the Pentax captures imagery only in the visible light spectrum, so in order for submerged features to be detected, a substantial amount of sunlight is needed (P. Nesbit, Personal Communication 2013). Unfortunately, because the weather was uncooperative, only a limited amount of useful images were acquired in the time allotted. Finally, an underwater pedestrian survey shown in (Fig. 3), using snorkel gear and underwater cameras, was also performed at a high tide in order to visually inspect, measure, and photograph this feature. The wall sections observed on this day were heavily encrusted with coral, algae, and other marine growth, but it was clear that this alignment was indeed a purposefully constructed stone wall of some sort. Its function though remains speculative. 7 �Fig. 3 (left) Underwater survey of offshore alignment at Kualoa Beach Park. Basalt stones used in the wall’s construction are heavily encrusted with marine growth but can be easily discerned as an articulated feature. (Chuck DeVaney, 2012) Fig. 4 (right) Imagery from the steps taken in two “process trees” used to discern the offshore alignment. A) Non-Homogenous Feature Difference (Red-Edge - Coastal) / (Red-Edge + Coastal), B) Principal Component Analysis (Symbolized as PC1: Green and Blue, PC2: Red), C) Inverse Distance Weighted interpolation of LiDAR point cloud, D) Natural Neighbor interpolation of LiDAR point cloud. (Scott Honda, 2013) Results Due to the combination of difficulties in maneuvering the UAV, the varying availability of sunlight, and the changing tides, the number of useful images captured by the UAV/Pentax was limited. Given more flying time, stable conditions, and additional equipment, like a field of view camera mounted to the UAV, more useful imagery could have been attained. However, a mosaic was attempted in PhotoScan and Microsoft ICE of the collected UAV/Pentax imagery. Although PhotoScan is capable of producing an accurate and georeferenced image, it could not produce a mosaic image from the collected UAV/Pentax imagery. Microsoft ICE was able to create a mosaic using some of the images taken via UAV, but the resulting mosaic had no ground control points available in the imagery that were usable for georeferencing. The software used for manipulating and visualizing the data for analysis was ERDAS Imagine and ArcGIS. ERDAS Imagine is image analysis software that has the ability to execute many remote sensing and image analysis techniques (Intergraph, 2013). Principal component analysis, ratio Indices, pan-sharpening, and masking of the satellite multispectral 8 �imagery were done in ERDAS Imagine. ArcGIS has a variety of tools and applications that can be used to analyze, extract, manipulate, and manage geospatial data but was primarily used for interpolating and visualizing the LiDAR point cloud data. The image analysis, as seen in (Fig. 4), of this offshore alignment revealed the remnant articulation of a discrete, walled structure that may be part of the aquacultural complex in this area that includes Mōli'i fishpond, 'Āpua Pond, Mokoli'i Pond, and Koholālele Pond. This alignment may be part of the Pilihe'e fishpond mentioned by local informants in McAllister’s early twentieth century survey. Alternatively, it may be part of some sort of antiquated breakwater or fish aggregation device placed there long ago. Further study is required in order to understand more about this feature’s origin and function. What we do know from this survey is that this alignment is purposefully constructed from basalt boulders, stones, and pebbles, is approximately 550 m in length, three meters wide, and is less than a meter tall on average being exposed at the lowest of tides when it appears to be part of the natural reef formation of the area. It is a large alignment that if proven to be a fishpond wall, would add many hectares to the traditional aquacultural area of Kualoa. Considering the dynamic nature of Kualoa’s shoreline, whether it is due to tsunami, tectonic processes and/or sea-level fluctuations, this feature must have been an important variable in the recent social and geomorphological history of this part of Kane'ohe Bay, O'ahu. Discussion Based on the non-homogenous feature difference, the principal component analysis imagery, and the LiDAR point cloud, the use of remote sensing techniques (both active and passive) to locate the offshore wall were useful in mapping this near-coastal alignment. Because only the contrast of the wall from the surrounding reef was being sought after, the NHFD was utilized here with the digital number values of the two bands (coastal and red-edge) to demonstrate this contrast. If one were attempting to derive the health or biomass of vegetation, the use of radiance would be more appropriate (Jensen, 2005). Although more sophisticated UAV systems are available, the hobbyist grade Phantom Quad-Copter was capable of imaging the offshore alignment. The post processing of the UAV imagery in photogrammetry based software like PhotoScan could be a useful method of finding and surveying coastal features. 9 �However, in this case study, not all images were usable in PhotoScan. This is probably due to distortions introduced by water. Perhaps if a multispectral camera, with bands that could penetrate water (i.e. coastal blue) were used, PhotoScan would be capable of creating an orthophoto and a digital surface model of underwater features. Kualoa is an area of chronic erosion and accretion, and has had frequent and intense coastal modifications occur over the course of human occupation in the area. How the ancient people of Kualoa adapted to, and perhaps influenced these changes can be seen archaeologically, and thus remote sensing and survey at a high resolution can assist anthropological endeavors in this region (Hunt and Lipo, 2008). Knowledge then gained may shed light on issues of sustainability and how limited resources, such as those found in the Pacific islands, are managed by complex societies (Ladefoged and Graves, 2000; Erlandson, 2010). In a contemporary context, threats of inundation causing the potential loss of cultural resources in coastal areas are immediate and severe. These cultural resources, in the form of archaeological features, can be identified within the coastal strand using the methods we have discussed here in this report. For future study, questions regarding the automation of extracting linear features from remote imagery as well as improvements on data management can be readily explored. Maritime adaptations may be more easily understood using these spatial methods and considering the accessibility and efficiency of this type of non-invasive technique, we propose further similar survey in coastal-maritime regions. Acknowledgments Special thanks go to Drs. Carl Lipo, Suzanne Wechsler, Chris Lee, Matt Becker, and teaching assistants of the 2013 NSF-REU G.R.A.M Field Program, at California State University at Long Beach. We would like to thank Dr. Terry Hunt, University of Oregon and Drs. Christian Peterson and Matt McGranahan, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa. Obligations are extended as well to John O’Connor and Chuck DeVaney for photo contributions. And a final mahalo or “thank you” is given to the National Science Foundation (Grant # DGE-1329626) and to those who assisted in reviewing the paper. References Barrera, W., 1974. Preliminary Archaeological Investigations at Kualoa, O'ahu. For Office of Human Resources in City and County of Honolulu: 1-39. 10 �Bolstad, P., 2012. GIS Fundamentals: A first text on geographic information systems. (4th edition), Eider Press, White Bear Lake, USA. Burney, L., and Burney, D., 2003. Charcoal Stratigraphies for Kaua‘i and the Timing of Human Arrival. Pacific Science, April: 211-225. Carson, M. T., and Athens, J. S., 2007. Integration of Coastal Geomorphology, Mythology and Archaeological Evidence at Kualoa Beach, Windward O'ahu, Hawaiian Islands. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Vol. 2 (1): 24 - 43. Dieudonne, F., 2002. The Pacific Islands and the Sea. Neptune House Publications, Honolulu. Digital Globe. Worldview 2. Web. 14 Dec. 2013. PDF file. <http://www.digitalglobe.com/ downloads/WorldView2-DS-WV2-Web.pdf> Erlandson, J. M., 2010. A Deep History for the Pacific: Where Past, Present, and Future Meet. Journal of Pacific Archaeology, Vol. 1 (2): 111-114. Gunness, J. L., 1987. Archaeological Investigations at Kualoa Regional Park. Masters Dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of Hawai’i, Hawaii. Hunt, T., and Lipo, C., 2008. Top-down archaeology: High resolution satellite images of Rapa Nui on Google Earth. Rapa Nui Journal, Vol. 22: 5-13. Intergraph Corporation. ERDAS IMAGINE. Web. 17 Dec. 2013. PDF file. <http://geospatial.intergraph.com/Libraries/Brochures/ERDAS_IMAGINE_2014_Brochur e.sflb.ashx> Jensen, J. R., 2005. Introductory digital image processing: a remote sensing perspective. (3rd edition), Pearson Education, Inc, Upper Saddle River, USA. Jensen, J. R., 2007. Remote sensing of the environment: an earth resource perspective. (2nd Edition), Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, USA. Kikiloi. K., 2003. A new synthesis in oceanic domestication: The Symbiotic Development of Loko I'a Aquaculture in Precontact Oceania. Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge, No.15: 3-10. Kikuchi, W., 1976. Prehistoric Hawaiian Fishponds. Science, Vol. 193 (4250): 295-299. Kirch, P. V., 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings. Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. 11 �Ladefoged, T., and Graves, M., 2000. Evolutionary Theory and the Historical Development of Dry-Land Agriculture in North Kohala, Hawai'i. American Antiquity, Vol. 65 (3): 423-448. Padwick, C., 2010. Worldview- 2 Pan-Sharpening. American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Web. 17 Dec. 2013. Schmitt, R. C., 1971. New Estimates of the Pre-censal Population of Hawai'i. The Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vol. 80 (2): 237-243. Sterling, E.P., and Summers, C. C., 1962. Sites of Oahu. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. Wolf, A., 2010. Using Worldview 2 Vis-NIR MSI Imagery to Support Land Mapping and Feature Extraction Using Normalized Difference Index Ratios. Digital Globe, <http://www.exelisvis.com/portals/0/pdfs/envi/8_bands_Antonio_Wolf.pdf> Wyban, J., and Wyban, A., 1989. Aquaculture in Hawai'i: Past, Present and Future. Advances in Tropical Aquaculture, Vol. 9: 37-43. Zeinelabdeina, K. E., and Albielyb, A. L., 2008. Ratio Image Processing Techniques: A Prospecting Tool for Mineral Deposits, Red Sea Hills, NE Sudan. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. 37 (B8): 1295-1298. Damion Sailors is a graduate student in the Anthropology Department at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa and is focused in archaeology within the Pacific island region. His interest is on the span cultural maritime adaptations in a prehistoric context. Scott Honda is an undergraduate student at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, focusing his studies on geospatial geography; and pursuing a Bachelor of Arts degree in Geography, with a Minor in Information and Computer Sciences. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Remote Survey of a Near-Coastal Archaeological Alignment at Kualoa, Hawai'i Using Worldview 2 Satellite, LiDAR and UAV Imagery Description An account of the resource By using World View 2 multispectral satellite imagery, LiDAR, and unmanned aerial vehicles, a large submerged archaeological stone alignment, that is likely part of an ancient Hawaiian fishpond, was detected off the coast of Kualoa, Hawai’i during a remote survey of the area. Principal component analysis, ratio indices, and LiDAR interpretation were utilized in a GIS to help detect this archaeological stone feature that is located in shallow coastal waters. Because threats of modern development, sea-level fluctuations, and complications inherent to coastal-maritime environments have generally challenged the survey of cultural resources located within the coastal strand, this method holds promise for future spatial analyses and provides an accessible and cost efficient means of shoreline assessment. This paper aims to show how remote sensing methods can assist in the study of archaeological features that are located within difficult to access coastal and near-coastal areas. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Damion Sailors, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Scott S. Honda Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4aa437aae0f4b03e1556034917967a78.pdf d81539f5a6662f3363d36e1fd15e2d3a PDF Text Text The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime heritage resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Hans Van Tilburg NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Honolulu, Hawaii 96825, USA Email: hans.vantilburg@noaa.gov Abstract The systematic investigation of underwater cultural heritage in the islands started in 1989 with the University of Hawai`i’s Marine Option Program. This slowly grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history. Manned submersibles with the Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab contribute to deep water discoveries and site surveys. Today the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries continues heritage resource site assessments in Hawai`i, in collaboration with partner agencies and programs. The underwater cultural heritage in Hawai`i reflects a multicultural diversity of archaeological and historic properties, such as coastal stone fishponds, submerged heiau, 19th century plantation landings, inter island steamships etc. Major events like World War II left behind numerous naval shipwrecks and submerged aircraft. These are the physical elements of maritime cultural landscapes that describe Hawai`i’s maritime past. Key words: Hawaii, World War II, Culture landscapes, Heritage preservation, Maritime archaeology Introduction Hawai'i’s underwater cultural heritage speaks directly to the ancient past, the multicultural historical period, and the forces of modernization and globalization leading to the modern present. It is a testimony to dynamic change. The resources that reflect this diversity lie beneath the warm blue waters of the North Pacific, generally unknown to the public, on the slopes of the tallest mountain on Earth (including the undersea portion). Discovering these resources opens windows on elements of the Islands’ otherwise unseen history. Awareness of the value of this unseen heritage has been increasing steadily over the past two decades. This paper provides an introductory description of the current state of underwater cultural heritage investigations in the main Hawaiian Islands and some of the chief types of heritage resources found in Hawai'i. (Note: the term “UCH” here includes U.S. national criteria, 50-year limit, etc.) 1 �Current State: Surveys in the Context of Education Academic investigation started in 1989 with an in-water workshop and small symposium hosted by the University of Hawai'i’s Marine Option Program. The Marine Option Program (MOP) provides hands-on marine education experiences for students from any field of study, operating across the ten-campus university system. MOP’s maritime archaeology component was initiated partially in response to the passage of the U.S. Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987 (ASA, 1987). Over time the symposium grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history, led by an instructor trained at East Carolina University’s Maritime Studies Program. Between 1996 and 2002 MOP offered annual classroom and field courses in maritime history, anthropology, and a six-week maritime archaeology field class. Numerous students obtained the specialized certificate, and some went on to Masters-level studies at Texas A&M University or East Carolina University (Van Tilburg, 2002). Though the maritime archaeology certificate program no longer exists, a two-week field survey class for university students continues today under a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/University of Hawai'i partnership. The class is known as the Maritime Archaeology Survey Techniques (MAST) course. Taught by NOAA staff, students are introduced to broad aspects of the UCH preservation field in the classroom, prior to beginning the underwater survey. Study sites are selected among the main Hawaiian Islands, and students gain field experience while documenting previously unrecorded heritage resources, thus contributing to the State’s archaeological inventory. Non-diving days are used to explore local heritage among the Hawaiian Islands (e.g. monuments, museums, other archaeological sites) and talk with local divers and Hawaiian cultural practitioners about marine resources and preservation management. NOAA instruction in maritime archaeology also takes the form of public outreach (in addition to formal university education), as Maritime Heritage Program staff have been certified to teach the Nautical Archaeology Society’s (NAS) training curriculum. NAS is a non-profit organization based in the United Kingdom and dedicated to advancing education in nautical archaeology at all levels. To date, NOAA has conducted six NAS Intro and Level One courses in the Pacific (Juneau and Anchorage in Alaska, Seattle in 2 �Washington State, and several courses in the Hawaiian Islands). Maritime archaeology field courses taught at the University of Hawai'i also give the students the opportunity to obtain the NAS training credential. From its early inception until today, the University and now NOAA have also supported the annual Symposium on the Maritime Archaeology and History of Hawai'i and the Pacific. The maritime symposium, now in its 24th year, regularly draws 60-70 professional and avocational participants, as well as local divers and the general public. The three-day event includes presentations, panels, receptions, field trips, and usually an informal back-yard barbeque for the conference “banquet,” local-style grinds. NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program In 2002, NOAA launched its Maritime Heritage Program under its Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. The Maritime Heritage Program is designed to support maritime heritage discovery and resource preservation across the sanctuary system. The sanctuary system serves as the trustee for a national network of 14 marine protected areas encompassing more than 170,000 square miles of marine and Great Lakes federally protected waters (Fig. 1). More than half of these protected areas are in the Pacific: Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (NMS), Cordell Bank NMS, Gulf of the Farallones NMS, Monterey Bay NMS, Channel Islands NMS, National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa, Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale NMS, and the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. With the incorporation of cultural resource management, maritime archaeologists could begin to take existing equipment, capacities advantage of platforms, and diving previously Fig. 1 NOAA map of sanctuary system locations (NOAA ONMS) 3 �dedicated to purely natural resource research missions. More importantly, cultural resources and historic properties within marine protected areas began to gain consideration as unique, significant and worthy of protection. The legal mandate to protect cultural resources was actually already an integral part of the sanctuary systems’ founding legislation, the National Marine Sanctuary Act of 1972, which allowed designation of marine protected areas of special national significance due to their “conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural, archaeological, educational, or aesthetic qualities…” (emphasis added…NMSA, 1972). Today the NMSA is one of the most important pieces of federal legislation in the United States for protecting cultural submerged resources in the oceans and Great Lakes. The Maritime Heritage Program is vital, but not large. With five sanctuary sites on the U.S. West Coast, and three in the island Pacific, there are currently only three NOAA archaeologists in the Pacific region. Deep water surveys (beyond typical scuba depths) are often cost-prohibitive. Fortunately Hawai'i benefits from a unique manned submersible program known as the Hawai'i Undersea Research Lab (HURL). HURL was established in 1980 as a joint NOAA/University of Hawai'i center with the primary responsibility of advancing knowledge of the nation’s deep water resources and marine processes. Simply put, operations director Terry Kerby and his HURL team, with the two three-person submersibles Pisces IV and Pisces V, have located more underwater heritage sites than any single other program in the State. These discoveries have been accomplished through surveys conducted during HURL’s pre-season preparatory dives, (testing/training dives for both subs and pilots), cost-efficient opportunities for target site identifications and assessments. Maritime Cultural Landscapes in Hawai`i To date, there has been no single comprehensive assessment of these resources in the waters around the main Hawaiian Islands. Rather, information comes from different sources: the HURL deep water database; the University of Hawai`i’s collection of student site reports; a desk-based assessment of U.S. Navy properties in Hawaiian waters (Van Tilburg, 2003); and local journalists and avocational researchers combing through historic newspapers. Importantly, trust is slowly being built between 4 �management agencies and the general public, and sport divers are beginning to report their own investigations and discoveries. This has led to a partial resource inventory in the main Hawaiian Islands of some 150 underwater ship and aircraft locations, many of them potential heritage properties. It is impossible here to list all the heritage sites discovered and all the maritime archaeology projects conducted in the Islands, but rather than discussing sites individually, contextual understanding of Hawai`i’s UCH can be gained by considering thematically-organized maritime cultural landscapes, for it is the cultural context of human activity that patterns this resource. This approach also better integrates archaeological data with the existing and broader ecosystem-based marine management approaches. Resources associated with three types of maritime cultural landscapes will be introduced here: 1) ancient aquaculture production; 2) the plantation and ranching era; and 3) the military landscape. Ancient Hawaiian Aquaculture Systems Prior to Western contact, the stone seawalls and gates of coastal fishponds, or lokai'a, were prominent features of the Hawaiian landscape. Hundreds of coastal ponds of various sizes produced protein for a large population by taking advantage of nutrientrich runoff from the highlands through the loʻi or taro fields and the brackish coastal setting. Ocean tides through the seaward gates or makaha created flow through the ponds, while the long seawalls protected juvenile fish populations from marine predators. Each island had a handful of notable and productive ponds, while the island of Moloka'i, with is shallow shoals, featured the greatest number of coastal pond locations. The construction and maintenance of these systems represented an impressive commitment of labor and social structure. Most of the traditional ponds are now in ruins, submerged, orcompletely distroyed. Coastal development and sedimentation, as well as the degradation of upstream runoff, have combined to serious effect. Fishpond sites are vulnerable to these larger-scale processes, rather than to the perhaps more familiar individual impacts of divers on historic resource sites. However, an increasing effort exists today to physically restore some of these fishponds to productivity (Handy et al., 1972). 5 �University of Hawai'i students assisted in mapping the shallow submerged remains of stone fish traps and fishpond wall at Kaloko Honokōhau National Park on Hawai'i Island in 1997 with limited success, and have also pursued surveys of other lithic sites including the ruins of an underwater heiau or temple, and the distribution of stone fishing tools (basalt sinkers, anchors, etc) at specific off shore locations (Fig. 2). Statewide archaeological studies assessing the styles and conditions of the many fishpond locations around the main Hawaiian Islands have been completed, but there has been no other underwater archaeological survey conducted on the structural remnants of this type of coastal cultural resource. Existing archaeological reports are exclusively terrestrial, while the ruins of the fishponds are often totally submerged. The question should be posed: would the type of archaeological survey techniques designed for historic UCH properties like shipwrecks be appropriate or even effective for scattered and broken stone walls often buried in coastal sediments? Fig. 2 (left) University of Hawai`i students mapping submerged fish trap structures at Kaloko Honokōhau National Historic Park, 1997. (J. Kuwabara UH MOP) Fig. 3 (right) Near shore survey work on a plantation-period steamship wreck, Shipwreck Beach, Lanai. (J. Kawabata UH MOP) Hawai`i’s Historic Plantation and Ranching Period The early to mid-19th century saw the skills associated with both sugar plantations and with cattle ranching introduced to the Hawaiian Islands, and subsequently plantations and ranches had an enormous impact on the economy and society of historic Hawai'i. Both ranching and plantation economies relied on maritime transportation to the transshipment port of Honolulu, and from there to continental destinations. Yet, with the few exceptions of Honolulu on O'ahu, Hilo on Hawai'i, and Kahului on Maui, the Islands 6 �lacked protected harbors where ships could lie in safety in all weather. Open roadsteads and narrow passages between fringing reefs were the usual setting, and often the skillful use of surf boats or cliff-side moorings and overhead wire systems were the only way to transport both passengers and products. Historic documents record the losses of hundreds of commercial sailing ships and steamers, generally clustered in the vicinity of historic landing locations (Thomas, 1983). Inter island commerce was hazardous business. The shipwrecks identified with Hawai'i’s early plantation history, some submerged in a high-energy warm-water marine environment for over 100 years, have experienced significant biochemical deterioration and mechanical break-up. Whether wood or iron or steel-hulled, Hawai'i’s known steamship wreck sites generally consist of only the heaviest machinery components (boilers, engines, propeller and shaft, anchors etc.) lying on the sea floor adjacent to scattered cargo, small artifacts, and hull debris. These components are often heavily encrusted in corals and coralline algae (Fig. 3). Some of the shipwreck sites were intentionally disposed hulks already stripped of useful equipment. Notably, rough and remote Shipwreck Beach on the north shore of Lāna'i was used by Hawai'i ship owners for many years to dispose of hardworking steam ships which had outlived their useful service. Lāna'i’s north shore was chosen as wind and water there would force the hulks firmly aground on a relatively uninhabited coast. The reefs along the island’s north shore also presented natural hazards to inter island shipping. The resulting cultural landscape at Shipwreck Beach therefore reflects not only Hawaiian settlements and history, but also at least a dozen accidental losses and intentional disposals of 19th and 20th century schooners, barges, and steamships. Several seasons of maritime archaeology fieldwork (1999, 2001, 2009) have been conducted at Shipwreck Beach (The Lāna'i Project, 2009). Nine wreck sites associated with the plantation and ranching era have been assessed to some level, and four of those (SS Maui survey in 2010, SS Kaua`i in 2012, SS Hornet survey in 2009, and an unidentified steamship in 2001) have been the specific subject of NOAA/UH field class surveys, with historical interpretations and site plans. Steamship landings are also considered as potential historic locations, with the potential to shed light on both land and marine human activities. Landing locations typically include pilings, heavy mooring chains and anchors, cargo handling equipment like 7 �winches and derricks, cable, pilings, and assorted artifacts like bottles, fire extinguishers, etc (Fig. 4). Only two of these landing sites have been surveyed in full by maritime archaeologists: Waimanalo plantation landing in 1999 and industrial Mahukona Harbor, former entry-point to the Kingdom of Hawai'i, in both 1994 and 2012. Fig. 4 The industrial archaeology of landing locations: loading derrick at the Waimanal plantation landing site, in-use circa 1880. (T. Casserley NOAA ONMS) Military Vessels U.S. naval activities in Hawai'i have evolved through a number of distinct phases, beginning with early goodwill visits in the 1820’s, and progressing through the commitment to develop a major naval base at Pearl Harbor by 1900, and beyond. The military construction boom and transfer of forces to the islands accelerated in the 1930’s prior to World War II. Hawai'i soon became home to the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and numerous air stations, naval stations and other facilities. Unprecedented naval activity took place among the Hawaiian Islands during the War, in the skies as well as on and under the sea. To understand the military landscape of heritage resources, though, we need to look beyond combat losses. The Hawaiian Islands only came under actual attack a handful of times: the attack on Pearl Harbor and O'ahu military installations on December 7th 1941; the Battle of Midway June 4-7th 1942; Japanese submarine shelling of Kahului, Nāwiliwili, and Hilo harbors on December 30th 1941; and a Japanese seaplane bombing incident on O'ahu March 3rd 8 �1942 known as Operation K. By far, the many known military properties in Hawai'i’s waters today are testimony to the intensive combat training operations (leading to accidental losses) during the war years, rather than direct attack. The known footprint of the military cultural landscape within the main Hawaiian Islands is significant in size and complexity, and may make up the majority of the underwater heritage resource sites. Thousands of naval aircraft and pilots took part in intensive training activities in preparation for combat operations in the Pacific. Records from 1924-1952 indicate over 1,485 naval aircraft sunk in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands during that period. Many of these submerged aircraft crash sites are also war graves. The submerged aviation landscape is not random, but patterned and island-specific. Often, naval aircraft are found in direct relationship to former naval air station runways. Locating and identifying these aircraft has become a popular pursuit for local sport and technical divers, particularly as closed-circuit re-breather (CCR) technology has advanced and become more available to the specialized public. Some submerged aircraft have become regular destinations for Hawai'i’s recreational diving industry. Several formal surveys have focused on documenting naval aircraft (Catalina PBY-5A in Kaneohe study 1994; Corsair F4U-1 survey in Maunalua Bay 2002; Helldiver SB2C-1 and Hellcat F4F in Mā'alaea Harbor 2011…see Rodgers et al., 1998). Additionally, HURL's research submersibles have located and identified dozens of deep water aircraft sites, including several Keystone PH-1 biplanes from the 1930’s, several Dauntless SBD’s, Avenger TBM’s, and Helldiver SB2C’s…and the giant Martin JRM-1 flying boat (Naval, 2004). Of the many aircraft lost in the islands, over 30 have been located and assessed to some extent. The Hawaiian Islands played a major role in the development of naval aviation in the Pacific (Fig. 5). In a fashion similar to the numerous aircraft, the wreck sites of amphibious landing craft (ramped craft delivering troops onto the beach) and amphibious assault vehicles (tracked vehicles transiting the ocean/beach and moving inland) are also ubiquitous in Hawai`i. Several surveys have focused on documenting the remains of these resources (LVT-3 AMTRACK Maui survey 2011; LVT (A)-4 AMTRACKs Maui survey 2013; LSM O'ahu survey planned for 2014). As with the aircraft, the distribution of these amphibious sites is also patterned and specific. Several areas in the main Hawaiian Islands served as amphibious training beaches 9 �prior to major amphibious operations during WWII (invasions of Saipan, Iwo Jima, etc). These include the shores of North Kohala on Hawai`i Island and the southern corridor of Mā'alaea to Mākena on Maui, both within the NOAA sanctuary (Fig. 6). Maui also featured facilities for the Maui Amphibious Training Center and the Combat Demolition Training Center on Mā`alaea Bay, where the first Underwater Demolition Teams (UDT) were trained in surveying and destroying undersea obstructions and in reconnaissance for shore invasions. (Maui’s WWII Legacy, 2011) Hawai'i proved to be the major combined forces Pacific training area for the innovation of amphibious tactics during World War II. Fig. 5 (left) A WWII dive bomber (SB2C-1 Helldiver) ditched 31 August 1944; now a popular recreational dive site. (H. Van Tilburg NOAA ONMS) Fig. 6 (right) MAST students at the site of an amphibious assault vehicle (LVTA-4 AMTRACK), near the former Maui amphibious training beaches, 2013. (H. Van Tilburg NOAA ONMS) There are many other military vessels in Hawaiian waters. The naval inventory lists over 80 US Navy ships and submarines lost in the vicinity (including inshore patrol vessels, fleet oilers, requisitioned fishing sampans, numerous auxiliaries) and many of these have been located and identified. Unlike the early whaling or plantation periods, the peak of military activity in Hawai'i during World War II occurred only a little over 50 years ago. Modern steel construction, pre-fabrication, and sheer industrial productivity account for the fact that there are many more identified WWII and military-related properties in Hawaiian waters than any older sites. Furthermore, several military sites directly associated with the December 7th, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor and O`ahu military installations have an importance far beyond individual archaeological surveys. 10 �The battleship USS Arizona BB-39, launched from the New York Navy Yard in 1915, was sunk in Pearl Harbor during the December 7th attack with the loss of 1,177 casualties. Much has been written about the USS Arizona, the reverence felt for this site, and the place it occupies in the American national narrative. In 1983 the National Park Service Submerged Resources Center initiated the archaeological survey of the site (Lenihan, 1989), and subsequent field projects took place in 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001, partnering at various times with academic, commercial, and military groups. Follow-up studies on bio-fouling and metals corrosion, as well as a site monitoring program, continue today. Multiple lines of inquiry revolve around questions of structural integrity, the specific processes of deterioration, the amount and location of fuel oil remaining in the ship, and the possibilities for long-term site preservation (Russell and Murphy, 2004). In many ways, these studies are defining the nature of submerged World War II resources and their relationship to the ecosystem. In 2002 Terry Kerby and his HURL team discovered a small two-man submarine sitting upright in over 1,200 feet of water off the south shore of the island of Oahu (Japanese Midget Submarine, 2005). This submarine was one of five secret weapons of the Japanese Imperial Navy involved in the attack on Pearl Harbor, which heralded America’s entrance into World War II in the Pacific. The sub sits upright and intact, in relatively good condition, with a slight list to port. Both torpedoes were still in their tubes, and no extensive exterior damage was visible except for a shell hole at the base of the conning tower’s starboard side, corresponding to the shot which sank the sub. Since then, agencies have collaborated on multiple survey and monitoring missions to the site, and a programmatic agreement for preservation management is currently being reviewed between NOAA, National Park Service, State Historic Preservation Division, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (Van Tilburg, 2007). Also since then, HURL has continued its efforts in deep water maritime inventory, and gone on to discover the fifth and last Japanese two-man submarine from the 1941 attack, and several other advanced and aircraft-carrying Japanese submarines scuttled after the war (I-14; I-201; I-401; I-400…see Kerby, 2013). The society in Hawai`i today was largely influenced by the Pacific conflict; the Islands were almost overwhelmed by the number of servicemen and military activity during the war. The heritage resources 11 �beneath the sea stand as the physical reminders of this period. The echoes of this major national and international event still strongly reverberate for island residents and visitors alike. Looking Towards the Future There is great potential for the investigation of Hawai'i’s submerged heritage resources, and the indigenous aquaculture structures, historic properties related to the plantation and ranching periods, and the extensive military resource base, will remain important additions to the story of Hawai'i’s past. Though there is no longer any academic UCH program in the state, the public agency collaboration between NOAA and the University of Hawai'i continues. The necessary prioritization, which is an inherent part of that effort, must carefully consider public opinion, for public agencies which employ maritime archaeology as a tool for public resource management have that responsibility. The field of underwater cultural heritage is relatively new to Hawai'i and not well understood. Effective education and outreach efforts remain, therefore, equal to or greater than efforts to simply conduct more individual site assessments. How the investigation of underwater cultural heritage resources in the islands can continue to be incorporated into marine planning processes, and how heritage sites can ultimately contribute to increasing ocean awareness and ocean resource stewardship, remains to be seen. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Dr. Cindy Hunter and the UH Marine Option Program, Terry Kerby and the UH Hawai'i Undersea Research Program, and the local divers and colleague scientists in Hawai'i who are sharing in the growing awareness and protection of our underwater cultural resources. References ASA Abandoned Shipwreck Act 1987. 43 USC ss2101-2106 http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/43/ch39.html, accessed 11 November 2013. Handy, E. S. C., and E. G., and M. K. Pukui, 1972. Native Planters in Old Hawaii. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 12 �Japanese Midget Submarine 2005 http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/midget_sub.html, Expedition. accessed 10 September, 2013. Kerby, T., 2013. Discovery of Imperial Japanese Navy Submarine August 1st, 2013. Hawaii Undersea Research Lab unpublished report, Honolulu. The Lāna`i Project. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/lanai/welcome.html, accessed 8 December 2013. Maui’s World War II Legacy. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/maui/ accessed 10 October, 2013. Naval Aviation and Deep http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/mars.html Water Discoveries. accessed 12 December 2013. NMSA National Marine Sanctuaries Act 1972.16 USC s1431 et seq. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/about/legislation/ accessed 10 November 2013. Rodgers, B. A., Coble, W. M., and Van Tilburg, H., 1998. The Lost Flying Boat of Kaneohe Bay: Archaeology of the First U.S. Casualties of Pearl Harbor. Journal of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Vol. 32 (4): 8-19. Russell, M., and Murphy, L., 2004. USS Arizona Preservation Project Research Rationale October 2004. National Park Service Submerged Resources Center, Santa Fe. Thomas, M., 1983. Schooner from Windward: Two Centuries of Hawaiian Inter Island Shipping. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Van Tilburg, H., 2002. Underwater Archaeology Hawaiian Style. In C. V. Ruppe, and J. F. Barstad (Eds.), International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York: 247-266. Van Tilburg, H., 2003. U.S. Navy Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: An Inventory of Submerged Naval Properties. Naval Historical Center report, Washington Navy Yard. Van Tilburg, H., 2007. The Japanese Midget Sub at Pearl Harbor. In J. H. Jameson and D. A. Scott-Ireton (Eds.), Out of the Blue: Public Interpretation of Maritime Cultural Resources, Springer Press, New York: 182-195. 13 �Biography Hans Van Tilburg holds a BA in geography from University of California Berkeley, an MA in maritime archaeology/history from East Carolina University, and a PhD in history from the University of Hawai`i, where he ran the graduate program in maritime archaeology and history. Hans has taught courses in world maritime history and published over 30 articles and book reviews, as well as several books. He has served as a consultant for UNESCO’s cultural heritage program and instructor for UNESCO’s UCH Foundation courses. He is currently the maritime heritage coordinator and unit diving supervisor for NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries in the Pacific. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime heritage resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Description An account of the resource The systematic investigation of underwater cultural heritage in the islands started in 1989 with the University of Hawai`i’s Marine Option Program. This slowly grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history. Manned submersibles with the Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab contribute to deep water discoveries and site surveys. Today the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries continues heritage resource site assessments in Hawai`i, in collaboration with partner agencies and programs. The underwater cultural heritage in Hawai`i reflects a multicultural diversity of archaeological and historic properties, such as coastal stone fishponds, submerged heiau, 19th century plantation landings, inter island steamships etc. Major events like World War II left behind numerous naval shipwrecks and submerged aircraft. These are the physical elements of maritime cultural landscapes that describe Hawai`i’s maritime past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a7a5b8e7d61ddc83df005552f7a25dd7.mp4 35eb083089da8e3da43c40c57f2c5ab4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014