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Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 26: General session Subject The topic of the resource Session 26 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 26 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. 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Title A name given to the resource An interview with Elena Perez - Chair of Session 26: General session Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez Michelle Damian Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource MP4 Language A language of the resource English Asia-Pac Session 26 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6ca29b345c19fb6b2c405fb0045bccf3.pdf c12878d3b2ff2a87af139cad8fbd175b PDF Text Text Religion, Trade and Polity: River Ganga on the Gateway of Bengal Eshan Harit, PhD Research Scholar, Senior Research Fellow (UGC) Department of Humanities and Social Sciences IIT, Guwahati Assam, India Sukanya Sharma, Professor, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences IIT, Guwahati Assam, India ABSTRACT The essay will shed light on River Ganga in the Kahalgaon- Sahibganj region. In the Historic Period (c.600 BCE- 400 CE) the banks and rocky islands of the river was a liminal space on the border of state societies ideal for ascetics. The riverscape as a mystical and sacred space has been testified by the writings of Xuan Zang in the 7th Century CE. This tradition continued in the following century as evidenced by the establishment of the Vikramashila Mahavihara. The riverscape is marred by rocky outcrops of the Rajmahal and Chotanagpur hills which were a source of minerals like iron, precious stones like agate, timber and fine alluvial soil for terracotta material. The presence of these raw minerals within the riverscape allowed for a robust trade. Evidence of such exchange could be found through a study of inland ports. The 6th Century CE was a period of state formation in Bengal. In the concurrent centuries Bengal emerged as a dominant political and cultural zone in the eastern part of South Asia. Ganga was the boundary between the ancient settlements of Champa (Bhagalpur) and the early medieval (c.600 CE- 1200CE) political centre at Pundravardhana (MaldaDinajpur). The river became a contested boundary and a crucial link between Bengal and northern India. The river and its surrounding landscape have lived through these multiple narratives in/of time and space. It was a liminal space, a site of production and exchange and a site of conflict and control. The riverscape is littered with evidence of these activities from the past. Archaeological evidence of religious activities can be seen etched on the walls and excavated cave sites on the rocky islands of Kahalgaon and the port site of Bateshwar (literally, god of travellers). Evidence of trade too can be found on the ports and in the surrounding landscape with evidence of iron smelting in settlements near the port. Fortifications on the hills besides the river at sites like Teliagarhi and Sakrigali present evidence of political history of the river in this region. INTRODUCTION This paper is concerned with the development of a riverscape. In one of its pockets, river Ganga flows along the Rajmahal Plateau. The silt deposition in the region has led to formation of alluvial tracts in the last five thousand years. The area gradually developed into a preferred site of human settlement. The site evolved from a liminal space in the Early Historic period to a well developed trading center and cultural zone by the early medieval period. The shared perception of the river Ganga is that it is a uniform body with emanates from a signified spot (Gangotri), converges with its tributaries in the upper and the middle valley (Devprayāg & Prayāgraj), descents towards the lower valley creating deltaic formation and eventually merging into the sea. In essence the river is a complex and dynamic body eroding hilly terrains and forming new geological zones. The speed and depth of the river also depends on the terrain, nearby drainages, rainfall and a plethora of varied factors. In the context of the Gangetic basin this leads to a heterogeneity of the riverscapes formed in different pockets throughout the river system. One such riverscape is the area where the river Ganga enters Bengal. The Rajmahal hills along with river ganga forms the boundary between the cultural zone of Bengali and Hindi speaking populace. This cultural phenomenon is a product of the geological formations. The western boundary of the distinct riverscape begins at Kahalgaon. Kahalgaon is a sub-division of Bhagalpur district located approximately 50 km east of the district headquarters. Kahalgaon has a series of small hillocks. The voluminous river Ganga at the mouth of its lower plains collides with the Kahalgaon hills. A few of the rocky outcrops of the hills get submerged into the river. The collision diverts the movement of the river. From its origin river Ganga has a south-eastern trajectory however the collision at Kahalgaon leads to the river flowing in the north-western direction. The main stream leaps in the north-western direction bound by the ranges of the Patharghata hills. At Bateshwar, on the edge of the southern hills, river ganga receives the voluminous discharge of one of its largest tributaries, river Kosi, often referred as the sorrow of Bihar. Charged with the waters of east-central Himalayas and terai, the river returns to its south-eastward trajectory. 1 �The silt collected by river Kosi on its path from Himalayas creates a new alluvial landform all along the area north of the hills. The few river channels from the Rajmahal and its allied ranges also deposit silt in this region. These depositions date to the Holocene period between 7000-5000 years ago. The areas of the Diara formation in the northernmost part of the landform is characterized as a “soft unconsolidated sediments mostly inundated in the rainy season, bank erosion and deposition” by the Geological survey. This described the dynamic nature of this landform which has formed and continues to form in the last few seven thousand years. The transforming landform was home to the Gharials (Gavialis gangeticus) an endemic species of fish-eating crocodile in the Indian subcontinent. The Gharials thrived in this region along with the river dolphins. This stretch of the river is declared as the ‘Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary’ by the government. The marshy and silty terrain of the region, while ideal for wildlife, was by no means the most ideal space for human settlement. The dynamic river too disrupted the region through annual floods. The area was probably marshy in the early historic period and only gradually did the region experience dense human settlement. The archaeological record suggests that the earliest settlements evolved in the region along the hilly outcrops at sites like Kahalgaon and Bateshwar. Settlement and agriculture in the newly forming alluvial zone probably started by the early medieval period. This paper will study the development of the three sites, Kahalgaon, Bateshwar and Vikramshila along with their hinterland from the early historic period till modern times. These settlements began as liminal space, outposts and a small port town in the early historic period. It was a sacred liminal space outside the purview of the Nagara, an urban center. Some trade could have occurred along the Kahalgaon-Bateshawer bank, however archaeological evidence of the trade is scanty. Trial excavations could shed further light on the issue. The area primarily seems to be a sacred-liminal space as suggested by literary records. By the early medieval period the terrain surrounding these settlements became habitable and the area experienced a spur of architectural development. The period also saw the establishment of the Vikramshila Mahavihara. Vikramshila was established around the eastern border of the river bank site of Bateshwar, which had a monastery and cave dwellings from the Gupta period (end of early historic period). The dynamic relationship between these three sites will be at the core of this paper. The architectural spur is coupled with evidence of Iron production and other raw material trade in this region. Its political significance as the doorway to Bengal was aided by the emergence of state formation in Bengal. The settlements experienced the expansion of Buddhism primarily patronized by the Pala rulers of Bengal. The production of minerals including iron, kaolinite, lime coupled with agriculture in the newly formed riverine tracts evolved a sustainable settlement in the region. While the Buddhist influence in the region declined, these areas continued to expand. Trade in Iron and other objects continued to thrive. Medieval sites present evidence of fine Kaolin ware, otherwise found in royal centers in Delhi or Gaud (Verma 2011). The area became politically much more significant with the formation of the Bengal Sultanate. The area acted as a borderland between two kingdoms as a key strategic zone. The area also experienced various conflicts often mentioned in medieval records. The modern period experienced depopulation in this area. By 1812 CE when Buchanan surveyed the area, iron production had greatly reduced. He had to traverse inland to observe iron production, while the banks too had earlier evidence of iron production. The author feels that a large portion of land was wasted in the region, devoid of agriculture. The British developed large indigo farms in a plantation type zamindari settlement in the area. The marshy terrain provided for the required humidity in the soil for the cultivation of this cash crop in the nineteenth century. Archaeological evidence of English settlers along with infrastructure required for indigo production and shipment survive as remnants. The dynamic riverscape, settled beside the Rajmahal hills and its surrounding plateau has a complex history of settlement formation and destruction. Different phases experienced varied events which contributed to changes within the landscape. These changes were aided by natural factors coupled with other historical factors. These changes have been studied through the archaeological record from these sites. This essay will discuss these three sites in some detail before concluding with a discussion on the relationship between these sites. 2 �Figure 1 Kahalgaon (25°15'52.74"N, 87°13'57.12"E) Kahalgaon is settled on the rocky outcrop of the Rajmahal Plateau. Descending in the south-eastern direction, the river collides with the plateau. A small portion of the plateau gets submerged under the voluminous river Ganga in its lower valley. Hilly rivers from the Rajmahal hills also drain into the river right before the settlement of Kahalgaon, charging the river hydrological system near Kahalgaon. Charged with the seasonal waters from River Koa, the river is quite deep around Kahalgaon. The depth is also aided by the undulating rocky terrain which has created uneven depth within the stream. The terrain is not suitable for silt deposition and hence the bank of the river has been the same since the area experienced human settlements. The terrain does not allow the city to flood, despite being at the bank of this mighty river. In the seventh century of the common era, Buddhist traveler Xuan Zang crossed the riverine islands at Kahalgaon on his route from Champa to Kajangala.1 On visiting these riverine islands he writes “On top of a peak is a deva temple, where a deity often gives spiritual responses to prayers. Caves are excavated in the cliffs and water flows into ponds. There are flowery woods and exotic trees. With its huge rocks and perilous peaks this islet is the abode of wise and benign dwellers. It is so attractive that visitors sometimes forget to go home.” (Li 1990). The rock-cut Deva temple still survives to this day and is protected by the Archaeological Survey of India. Xuan Zang’s encounter with the site presents it to be a mystical space in contrast from the larger urbanized settlements he had crossed earlier. He also mentions “there are thousands of wild elephants and other fierce animals roaming about in packs in the mountains and jungles in the southern region of the country.” This means Kahalgaon’s hinterland is still sparsely populated and under the cover of wilderness. The reference paints a picture of the site as a liminal space, wooded and beyond the purview of civilization in the seventh century of the common era. His record also mentions the wilderness which amongst other things was a great source of timber, an item of economic significance in all of human history. Figure 2 Rock cut Deva temple at Islet in Kahalgaon 1 Champa was located in modern day Bhagalpur and Kajangala in the Rajmahal Region 3 �Xuan Zang refers to the presence of Deva temple, probably referring to a temple of Surya or Vishnu. He does not refer to the presence of Buddhism in the area. In the centuries after his travels, Kahalgaon developed a Buddhist influence in its settlements. This is evident from the iconographic finds from the top of the Kahalgaon hill in the SSB college campus. The college has many idols kept safely in a shed within the campus. The sculptures include two Avlokiteshwara images along with architectural members with pillar motifs. Buddhist sculptures also include large Votive stupa sculptures. These are, in all probability, the remains of a Chaitya on the hill top. Broken pedestal of a large Surya sculpture is also present on the site. Another hilltop located further inland at Kahalgaon has remains of an early structure. The bricks visible on the surface of the destroyed mounds can be dated to the early medieval period. Two parallel walls of the surviving base structure survive. This site requires urgent care to survive. Figure 3: Sculptures at SSB College, Surya Pedestal and Avlokiteshwara Figure 4: Two Parallel Walls of a buried structure;Stone and brick base of the structure The liminal space of the early historic period became a bustling market and center of trade during the early medieval period. The survey of the town hints towards a denser settlement in the core areas of the settlement. Artifacts suggesting a growth of the settlement, are littered all throughout the settlement area presented on the map. These artifacts include sculptural artifacts and archaeological mounds. Along with timber the region might have also traded in Iron. The city was the juncture of trade with the Koa river valley. In the south of the main settlement of Kahalgaon, river Koa merges with river Ganga. River Koa in its lower valley deposits large quantities of silt. This creates a fertile zone fit for human settlement. The early medieval phase in this region was also one of political intervention. The region between Kahalgaon and Sahibganj was often a contested space between the rulers of North India and the Rulers of Bengal. The influence of the Pala rulers is visible in this area. This region was the staging point of various battles between the rulers of Delhi and those of Bengal. The most famous of such incidents is the encampment of Humayun at Kahalgaon in his campaigns in the east against Sher Shah Suri. The boundary of the pre-modern settlement of Kahalgaon and its hinterland can be identified by the congregated tombs of warriors fakirs. The graveyard was probably in the eastern part of the settlement in the medieval period. The city of Kahalgaon continued to be a market center even during the modern period. In 1866, the main line connecting Howrah-Delhi passed through Kahalgaon. The region lost its significance with the gradual integration of Bengal into as a province in India during the colonial rule. 4 �Bateshwar (25°19’28.7” N 87°16’06.5 E) Bateshwar-sthan is a port site around 10 kilometers north of Kahalgaon. A Gupta period monastery and cave site survives on the bank of the river here. A few of the ornate caves at the site survive under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India. The cave structure has Gupta period sculptures carved into the rocks. Their carvings are dated to Gupta, post-Gupta period. Two of the four carvings could be identified as being influenced by the Vaishnava group. The first carving represents the beheading of Rahu and Ketu, the two demigods by Vishnu sitting on Garuda. The second carving depicts the scene of Krishna holding up the Govardhana hill on his little finger. The third carving depicts a Malla Yudda, or a fight between two wrestlers. The story behind the fourth carving is yet to be deciphered. Figure 5: Vaishnava carvings on the wall of the caves of Bateshwar Hill (2 top); Carving of a wrestling match between two people (left bottom) and a person sitting in a court setting (right bottom) Bateshwar and Oriup are strewn with Saiva, Vaishnava and Buddhist sculptures belonging to the early medieval period. During this period, this was also a site of sculpture production. This can be argued with the help of an incomplete sculpture of Avlokiteshwara, a Buddhist deity with chisel marks. The site of Oriup beside Bateshwar has presented evidence of settlement dating to the Early Historic and even the Chalcolithic period. Along with Kahalgaon, Bateshwar too is an old port site which had survived from the early historic period. The significance of the hill continued in the medieval period as it became a significant Saiva site. Influence of tantric worship continues on the site. An annual fair is held in this region on the full moon nights in the month of February. The Bateshwar hill has vast quantities of Kaolinite deposits. This has been in use historically on the site. During the British Raj, the site was quarried. The Bateshwar hill has tunnels from one its sides. Figure 6: Chisel Market Sculpture 5 �Figure 7 Vikramshila (25°19'26.20"N, 87°17'4.25"E) Vikramshila was constructed besides the settlement of Oriup in the eighth century. The monastery was constructed under the patronage of Pala ruler Dharmapala. The monastery was constructed on the edge of the Rajmahal plateau. One advantage of this location was the minimal chance of flooding. The alluvial tracts to the north of the site provided the agrarian surplus required for the functioning of the monastery. The riverine tracts to the North of the monastery has presented evidence of multiple settlements dating back to the early medieval period. Settlements continued in the medieval phase as well. A dominant activity visible in the red soil plateau region of the study area was the smelting of Iron. The Patharghata and Gangeldai hill rocks were used to extract Iron from magnetite ores. The soil in the villages south of the monastery is littered with slag along with chunks of burned furnace. While a lot of this activity might have occurred in the late medieval phase, further research including excavations and the carbon dating of slag might aid in the research on trade in the early medieval period in this region. It can be suggested that the monastery would have been involved in agrarian as well as trading activity in the region. The comparison between the market site of Kahalgaon and the monastic site in the Bateshwar-Vikramshila region. Both the clusters of sites present different types of activity. It is quite visible that Vikramshila emerged in the early medieval period, probably to cater to the demands of the market for iron products. Kahalgaon was an older market settlement. The monastery might have played a greater role in the expansion of the trade economy in the region. BIBLIOGRAPHY Archaeology, I., A Review (IAR). 1966–67, Excavation at Chaṃpā, District Bhagalpur. Delhi, Archaeological Survey of India. Li, R., 1996. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. Oldham, C.E.A.W., 1930. Journal of Francis Buchanan Kept During the Survey of the District of Bhagalpur in 1810-1811. Verma, B.S., 2011. Antichak Excavations-2: 1971-1981. Archaeological Survey of India. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 26: General session Subject The topic of the resource Session 26 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 26 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Religion, Trade and Polity: River Ganga on the Gateway of Bengal Description An account of the resource The essay will shed light on River Ganga in the Kahalgaon- Sahibganj region. In the Historic Period (c.600 BCE- 400 CE) the banks and rocky islands of the river was a liminal space on the border of state societies ideal for ascetics. The riverscape as a mystical and sacred space has been testified by the writings of Xuan Zang in the 7th Century CE. This tradition continued in the following century as evidenced by the establishment of the Vikramashila Mahavihara. The riverscape is marred by rocky outcrops of the Rajmahal and Chotanagpur hills which were a source of minerals like iron, precious stones like agate, timber and fine alluvial soil for terracotta material. The presence of these raw minerals within the riverscape allowed for a robust trade. Evidence of such exchange could be found through a study of inland ports. The 6th Century CE was a period of state formation in Bengal. In the concurrent centuries Bengal emerged as a dominant political and cultural zone in the eastern part of South Asia. Ganga was the boundary between the ancient settlements of Champa (Bhagalpur) and the early medieval (c.600 CE- 1200CE) political centre at Pundravardhana (MaldaDinajpur). The river became a contested boundary and a crucial link between Bengal and northern India. The river and its surrounding landscape have lived through these multiple narratives in/of time and space. It was a liminal space, a site of production and exchange and a site of conflict and control. The riverscape is littered with evidence of these activities from the past. Archaeological evidence of religious activities can be seen etched on the walls and excavated cave sites on the rocky islands of Kahalgaon and the port site of Bateshwar (literally, god of travellers). Evidence of trade too can be found on the ports and in the surrounding landscape with evidence of iron smelting in settlements near the port. Fortifications on the hills besides the river at sites like Teliagarhi and Sakrigali present evidence of political history of the river in this region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Eshan Harit Sukanya Sharma Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Hari, Eshan . 2023. “Religion, Trade and Polity: River Ganga on the Gateway of Benga.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Carlota Pérez Reverte. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2003 Asia-Pac Session 26 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3a67a2822e1acc9e0d3c395f6bf90098.pdf 48eaaaf4477d1ce744ca0757ca144287 PDF Text Text A Non-State Party’s Experience Implementing the UCH Convention: Taiwan’s Perspective Pei-Fu Wu1 (Adjunct Assistant Professor, Graduate Institute of Marine Affairs, National Sun Yat-sen University (NSYSU), Taiwan (R.O.C.), and Post-doctoral Research Fellow, The Center for Marine Policy Studies, NSYSU) ABSTRACT This paper pertains to Session 26 and aims to provide an account of regime complex concerning underwater cultural heritage protection beyond the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. The study involves some case studies, including Taiwan’s incorporation of the Convention, surveys of shipwrecks in Taiwan’s waters, and the author’s research findings. Given that Taiwan is not a State Party to the Convention, this investigation seeks to determine whether non-States Parties can engage in pragmatic collaborations with adjacent or other States to enhance UCH protection. The author proposes that a regime complex comprising different international regimes with overlapping objectives, anchored by the Convention as the core instrument and complemented by various international, regional, and bilateral instruments, mechanisms, and arrangements, could be employed to strengthen UCH protection in conjunction with the Convention. Moreover, diverse stakeholders, including States, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations, institutions, and individuals, may have a significant role to play in facilitating international cooperation to safeguard UCH. Keywords: Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, international regime, regime complex, underwater cultural heritage, Taiwan List of figures Figure 1. The international regime complex for UCH protection 1. INTRODUCTION This paper is most appropriately categorized within Session 26 (General session), as it aims to introduce the intellectual developments on international cooperation for the protection of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Taiwan from the perspective of regime complex. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH Convention) is widely recognized as the core legally binding international convention for UCH governance. Its expressed norms on international cooperation, encompassing diverse areas, including the Coordinating State mechanism, sanctions, protection of State vessels and aircraft, training, and bilateral, regional, or multilateral agreements (UNESCO, accessed 25 Dec. 2022). Its Preamble explicitly emphasizes the crucial role of cooperation among States, international organizations, scientific institutions, professional organizations, archaeologists, divers, other stakeholders, and the general public (UNESCO, accessed 25 Dec. 2022). Despite the significant contribution of the UCH Convention, certain intrinsic and extrinsic factors limit its efficacy. Notably, the precondition of UCH being under water for 100 years, a limited number of States Parties, and persistent challenges in ocean governance may compromise the Convention’s influence. While efforts should be made to reinforce the UCH Convention, exploring alternative regimes that are widely recognized and endorsed beyond it may offer a more flexible approach to safeguarding UCH. In scenarios where sunken ships originating from States Parties sink in non-States Parties’ waters, or 1 Since 2005, Dr. Wu has participated in the incorporation of the 2001 UCH Convention into Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act (UCHPA) as well as its nine subordinate regulations. He had served as a legal consultant to the Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture. This paper is founded on research commissioned by the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) entitled “A National Ocean Governance Geared towards International Regimes.” 1 �sunken ships originating from non-States Parties sink in States Parties’ waters, the application of the UCH Convention may not be straightforward. Thus, the identification of supplementary policy or legal instruments beyond could serve to bridge these gaps and complement the UCH Convention. Non-States Parties to the UCH Convention are not bound by its provisions. Nevertheless, they may serve as resource States, transit States, or market States in the trade of looted UCH. Hence, it is significant to identify alternative policy or legal tools to complement the UCH Convention in combating transboundary crimes. In recent decades, some States of origin have claimed sovereign immunity over their military vessels that sank in coastal States’ waters by entering into bilateral agreements, even if some of them are not States Parties to the UCH Convention. The engagement of a wide range of stakeholders is paramount to safeguarding UCH against both natural and anthropogenic disturbances. While UCH is often vulnerable to these threats, it can also provide valuable information on marine scientific research (MSR), such as climate change. UCH may pose a threat to the marine environment and navigational safety. Thus, the identification of stakeholders and tools beyond the UCH Convention is necessary to address these protection gaps. Despite not being a State Party to the UCH Convention, Taiwan’s role in UCH protection in East Asia should not be overlooked. Numerous shipwrecks of foreign origin, including those of the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, have been discovered or suggested in Taiwan’s waters or located on land (BOCH, accessed 10 Nov. 2022). This shared heritage presents opportunities for mutual interests to be pursued. Nevertheless, with the exception of Cambodia and Micronesia, no other East Asian countries have ratified, accepted, approved or acceded to the UCH Convention (UNESCO, accessed 20 Apr. 2023), leaving the rich legacy of UCH in the region vulnerable to clandestine excavation, looting, or trafficking. The objective of this paper is to discern alternative policy and legal mechanisms, as well as stakeholders beyond the purview of the UCH Convention, to complement the existing legal framework and enhance the protection of UCH. 2. CASE STUDIES In the context of underwater archaeological surveys, the Taiwanese government has commissioned Professor Cheng-hwa Tsang to conduct UCH surveys in the surrounding waters for an extended period. A considerable number of sites or shipwrecks have been discovered or are yet to be discovered. Notable among these are the S.S. Bokhara and Sobraon from the UK, SS President Hoover from the US, Warship Guang Bing, Yamafuji Maru, Nanshin Maru 23, Gotsugetsu Maru, Asaka Maru, and Mansei Maru from Japan (BOCH, accessed 10 Nov. 2022). Of particular significance is the fact that some of the States of origin, such as Japan and the United States, are not States Parties to the UCH Convention, which underscores the need for international cooperation beyond the framework of that Convention. With regards to domestic legislation, UCH was initially subject to the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act (CHPA). Due to its limitations, Taiwan incorporated the UCH Convention into domestic law through the enactment of the 2015 Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act (UCHPA). The author of this article has been extensively involved in the research, drafting, and consultation pertaining to the UCHPA over the last decade. The incorporation was motivated by Taiwan’s commitment to fulfill its international responsibility in safeguarding UCH, particularly in light of the rich legacy of UCH in the surrounding waters of Taiwan. As such, Taiwan is the first non-State Party to incorporate the UCH Convention into domestic legislation in the region. 2 �3. RESOURCES The resources utilized in this study were mainly obtained from a four-year research project commissioned by the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) of Taiwan. The author conducted a preliminary examination of international regimes concerning UCH protection beyond the UCH Convention. This study represents part of the intellectual efforts in Taiwan. 4. FRAMEWORK The research question addressed is whether there exist international regimes concerning UCH protection beyond the UCH Convention that can be implemented alongside it. Raustiala and Victor (2004, 279) introduced the concept of regime complex as “an array of partially overlapping and nonhierarchical institutions governing a particular issue-area.” Generally, the primary features of a regime complex are as follows: first, the overlapping aspects of regimes can be diverse, covering various aspects such as scope, subjects, and targets. Second, there is no clear hierarchical relationship among the regimes involved. Third, the regimes may include formal and informal, as well as legally and non-legally binding mechanisms. Fourth, functional overlapping is addressed in addition to the names of these regimes. Finally, diverse public or private entities should also be considered (Gehring & Faude 2013, 471-498; Orsini 2013, 35-42; Green & Auld 2017, 259-284). In brief, the regime complex concerning UCH beyond the UCH Convention can be characterized including but not limited to cultural heritage, ocean governance, and human rights. Figure 1. The international regime complex for UCH protection (1) Soft laws concerning UCH protection Prior to the adoption of the UCH Convention, the 1956 Recommendation on International Principles Applicable to Archaeological Excavations and the 1978 Recommendation for the Protection of Movable Cultural Property adopted by the UNESCO encompass cultural heritage under water. Thus, the pertinent components of the two Recommendations could be employed as complementary tools for UCH protection. 3 �(2) The World Heritage Convention (WHC) Although the definition of sites in the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (WHC) does not explicitly refer to UCH, UCH is implied in the WHC because the Preamble of the UCH Convention refers to the WHC. Furthermore, four of the fifty Marine World Heritage Sites on the World Heritage List on UNESCO's website are mixed cultural and natural World Heritage sites. The General Assembly of the UCH Convention adopted a resolution to encourage States to apply the Rules of the Annex of the UCH Convention as best practice for any activities directed at submerged parts of World Heritage. A joint mission group consisting of experts of the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (STAB) of the UCH Convention and the ICOMOS visited Bulgaria to examine the conservation of Nessebar and its underwater remains. The World Heritage Committee also recommends the inclusion of UCH in many of its reviews of proposals or projects pertaining to UCH (UNESCO, accessed 30 Dec. 2022). Overall, the WHC encompasses UCH both normatively and practically. (3) Cultural heritage crimes and protection in peacetime and in the event of armed conflict The UCH Convention does not provide explicit provisions for protecting UCH in the context of armed conflicts. The 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1970 Convention) does not regulate UCH explicitly. Nonetheless, these norms do not preclude UCH protection. Mr. Alejandro Palma Cerna (UNESCO, 2016), President of the Conference of the States Parties to the UCH Convention, has addressed that “conflict, political turmoil, adverse geopolitical and economic situations, and rapid and unsustainable urban development in coastal areas, damage underwater cultural heritage...[e]choing the call to encourage the exchange of information and synergies among the Culture Conventions,...called for greater cooperation and monitoring to prevent the pillaging and illicit trafficking of underwater cultural heritage.” The STAB of the UCH Convention (UNESCO, 2018) has recommended that the States Parties monitor the involvement of their nationals or vessels in plundering shipwrecks that originated from non-States Parties and has called for cooperation with the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL). The INTERPOL (INTERPOL, accessed 3 Jan. 2023) has expressed concerns about such crimes and cooperates with UNESCO to discuss best practices in response to such issues. Therefore, the instruments referred to by the aforementioned developments can be interpreted to implied to UCH protection, including the 1995 International Institute for the Unification of Private Law Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects, the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the United Nations Convention against Corruption, and the Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage. Furthermore, the Sixth General Assembly of the States Parties to the UCH Convention (UNESCO 2017) lists UCH in emergency situations as one of its themes and found that such emergency situations include conflicts and natural or human-made disasters. The Assembly determined that the Strategy for Reinforcing UNESCO’s Action for the Protection of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural Diversity in Armed Conflict should be incorporated into the implementation of the UCH Convention. UNESCO (UNESCO 2015) suggested that the large-scale, systematic destruction and plundering of cultural heritage is an indicator of the strong links between the cultural, humanitarian, and security dimensions of conflict and terrorism and that an attack on cultural heritage constitutes an attack on people’s race, rights, and security. The destruction of cultural heritage is considered a war crime. The Policy on Cultural Heritage issued by the International Criminal Court states that the policy area of the instrument includes UCH such as shipwrecks and underwater archaeological sites (ICC 2021). Therefore, any unlawful destruction of cultural heritage, including UCH, may constitute a war crime in accordance with Article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Meanwhile, the UNESCO (UNESCO 2015) suggested that new and more effective measures be developed, in particular under the framework of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954 Hague Convention) and the 1970 Convention. 4 �The 1954 Hague Convention provides a definition of cultural property that applies to both terrestrial and underwater environments. If a warship is conducting a mission in water, any UCH must be identified. If anti-submarine warfare is conducted close to UCH and torpedoes are used, precautions must be taken, such as managing the torpedo depth. In the event of armed conflict, the occupying party must prohibit, avoid, or take measures to prevent the theft, depredation, or destruction of any UCH in the occupied area (O’Keefe et al. 2016, 35, 40, 55-56). These instruments all complement the UCH Convention. (4) Ocean governance: UNCLOS-centered international cooperation Articles 149 and 303 of the UNCLOS explicitly mention UCH. This suggests that UCH protection is no longer a matter of cultural heritage but also a concern of marine affairs. This differs from the protection of terrestrial cultural heritage, which is typically undertaken within national jurisdiction. International regimes for ocean governance may be partially or fully applicable to UCH protection. Distinct approaches can be considered in this regard. Natural disturbance on UCH Marine environment protection regimes may be applied to UCH protection. Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs) designated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO, accessed 30 December 2022) include some cultural and natural heritage sites in marine environments. Article 4(d) of the 1995 Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean reads that “[t]he objective of specially protected areas is: ...(d) to safeguard sites of particular importance because of their scientific, aesthetic, cultural or educational interest.” Human disturbance on UCH: activities directed at UCH Such activities may warrant the application of marine environment regimes, as they could disturb UCH and its surrounding environment. The UNESCO (UNESCO, accessed 23 Oct. 2022) is currently working with the Ocean Decade Heritage Network under the framework of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) initiative to promote the integration and coordination of archaeology, cultural heritage management, and marine science and to strengthen communication among diverse stakeholders. Human disturbance on UCH: activities incidentally affecting UCH To address such impacts, international regimes governing these activities may be invoked for the protection of UCH. A prospector or contractor shall immediately notify the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) regarding any archaeological or historical artifacts and their locations, and the Secretary-General in turn shall transmit such information to the Director-General of the UNESCO in accordance with ISA regulations (ISA, 2002). Such requirements indicate that international instruments that do not pertain to UCH may still be applicable to UCH protection under certain circumstances. Human disturbance on UCH: looting or commercial exploitation of UCH The activities are deemed as having a detrimental impact on UCH, endanger navigational safety, and constitute marine crimes that infringe upon the maritime jurisdiction of coastal States. Diverse legal claims can be employed. For instance, the right of hot pursuit stipulated in the UNCLOS can be invoked. International information exchange regarding maritime domain awareness (MDA) can be utilized to protect UCH. 5 �UCH disturbance on the marine environment and/or human beings In the context of sunken military crafts from World War II, unexploded ordnances or leaking oil can pose a significant threat to the environment and human safety. Certain regimes, such as the Nairobi International Convention on the Removal of Wrecks, may be applicable to UCH protection. In conclusion, UCH protection can be achieved through various ocean governance regimes beyond the UCH Convention, such as marine environmental protection, marine spatial planning (MSP), marine scientific research, blue economy, navigation safety, and the exploration, exploitation, conservation, and management of living and non-living natural resources. Multiple stakeholders can be involved in this effort, such as the IMO, the ISA, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, the UN Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (ICOMOS, accessed 1 Jan. 2023), the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) (UNESCO 2019), the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (UNESCO 2019). (5) Human rights Right to work and property right The principles of archaeology are not explicitly addressed in international human rights instruments. Nevertheless, those principles influence archaeological work, especially with respect to property rights and cultural rights. Take the Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples for example, O’Keefe (1999, 190) suggested that archaeology affects the property rights of indigenous peoples, such as the rights over sacred sites, native land, and native artifacts and the restitution of cultural, intellectual, religious, and spiritual property. Activities directed at UCH are usually subject to the discretion of cultural authorities. The decisions may impact the work of underwater archaeologists, divers, and those involved in tourism. Governments must also weigh the protection of UCH against the rights of those who inadvertently impact it, including their right to work and property. In such instances, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) can aid in the interpretation and implementation of the UCH Convention. Cultural right The resolution of the United Nations Human Rights Council (OHCHR, 2016) states that “...damage to cultural heritage, ...of any people constitutes damage to the cultural heritage of humanity as a whole...the destruction of or damage to cultural heritage may have a detrimental and irreversible impact on the enjoyment of cultural rights, in particular the right of everyone to take part in cultural life, including the ability to access and enjoy cultural heritage.” It is suggested that Article 27(1) of the UDHR is the basis for the cultural right and “States should recognize the right of everyone to...[t]he right to participate in cultural life” in accordance with Article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and that cultural life is “to benefit from the cultural heritage.” (O’Keefe 1999, 187-188) Hence, it is imperative to include UCH within the norm of cultural heritage. Cultural rights regimes can provide guidance in the interpretation and application of the UCH Convention. 5. RESULTS UNESCO is actively promoting global ratification and engagement of the UCH Convention. Despite the significant contribution of the Convention, certain intrinsic and extrinsic factors limit its efficacy. It is pragmatic to identify diverse regimes indirectly contributing to UCH protection beyond the UCH Convention, as well as the roles diverse stakeholders can play. 6 �This article advocates for the adoption of a regime complex perspective to examine Taiwan’s recent observations. The approach posits that multiple regimes with overlapping objectives exist simultaneously, forming a complex network of policy/legal frameworks that complement and reinforce one another. The UCH Convention serves as the core instrument, while other regimes addressing issues can contribute to UCH protection indirectly. Meanwhile, diverse stakeholders, such as States, international organizations, NGOs, multinational corporations, institutions, and individuals within and beyond the UCH Convention can be identified and play significant roles respectively in the international cooperation of UCH protection. Bibliography Bureau of Cultural Heritage. “Underwater Cultural Heritage Network”. Underwater Cultural Heritage Network. https://uch.boch.gov.tw/Eng/Sitemap (accessed Nov. 10, 2022). Gehring, Thomas, & Faude, Benjamin. “A theory of emerging order within institutional complexes: How competition among regulatory international institutions leads to institutional adaptation and division of labor.” The Review of International Organizations, 9 (2014), 471-498. Green, Jessica F., & Auld, Graeme. “Unbundling the Regime Complex: The Effects of Private Authority.” Transnational Environmental Law, 6:2 (2017), 259-284. International Criminal Court. “Policy on Cultural Heritage.” https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/itemsDocuments/20210614-otp-policy-cultural-heritage-eng.pdf (accessed Dec. 20, 2022). International Criminal Police Organization. “The issues-cultural property.” https://www.interpol.int/Crimes/Cultural-heritage-crime/The-issues-cultural-property (accessed Jan. 3, 2023). --. “How we fight cultural heritage crime.” https://www.interpol.int/Crimes/Cultural-heritage-crime/How-we-fight-cultural-heritage-crime (accessed Jan. 3, 2023). International Seabed Authority. Report of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority under article 166, paragraph 4, of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, ISBA/8/A/5 (5-16 August 2002). --. Regulation 8 and 34 of the ISA Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area. Orsini, Amandine. “Multi-Forum Non-State Actors: Navigating the Regime Complexes for Forestry and Genetic Resources.” Global Environmental Politics, 13:3 (August 2013), 35-42. O’Keefe, Patrick. “Archaeology and human rights.” Public Archaeology, 1, (1999): 181-194. Raustiala, Kal, & Victor, David G. “The Regime Complex for Plant Genetic Resources.” International Organization 58 (2): 277–310. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. “UNESCO’s Culture Conventions are more important than ever.” https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1562 (accessed Dec. 15, 2022). --. “Summary of the Second Meeting of the Chairpersons of the Committees of UNESCO Culture Convention (Paris, UNESCO Headquarters, 26 September 2016, 10:30-12:30).” https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1562 (accessed Dec. 30, 2022). --. Res. 8/STAB 9, in UCH/18/9.STAB/10 adopted on 24 April 2018 in the Ninth Meeting of the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. --. Res. 8/MSP6 in UCH/17/6.MSP/12REV, adopted in the Sixth Session of the Meeting of States Parties of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 30-31 May 2017. --. “Strategy for Reinforcing UNESCO’s Action for the Protection of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural Pluralism in the Event of Armed Conflict.” https://en.unesco.org/heritage-at-risk/strategy-culture-armed-conflict (accessed Jan. 1, 2023). --. Res. 4/MSP7, in UCH/19/7.MSP/14, Seventh Session of the Meeting of States Parties to the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 20-21 June 2019. United Nations General Assembly. A/RES/55/25, adopted on 15 November 2000. United Nations Human Rights Council. A/HRC/RES/33/20, adopted on 30 September 2016. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 26: General session Subject The topic of the resource Session 26 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 26 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Non-State Party’s Experience Implementing the UCH Convention: Taiwan’s Perspective Description An account of the resource This paper pertains to Session 26 and aims to provide an account of regime complex concerning underwater cultural heritage protection beyond the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. The study involves some case studies, including Taiwan’s incorporation of the Convention, surveys of shipwrecks in Taiwan’s waters, and the author’s research findings. Given that Taiwan is not a State Party to the Convention, this investigation seeks to determine whether non-States Parties can engage in pragmatic collaborations with adjacent or other States to enhance UCH protection. The author proposes that a regime complex comprising different international regimes with overlapping objectives, anchored by the Convention as the core instrument and complemented by various international, regional, and bilateral instruments, mechanisms, and arrangements, could be employed to strengthen UCH protection in conjunction with the Convention. Moreover, diverse stakeholders, including States, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations, institutions, and individuals, may have a significant role to play in facilitating international cooperation to safeguard UCH. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pei-Fu Wu Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wu, Pei-Fu. 2023. “Non-Party State’s Experience Implementing the UCH Convention: Taiwan’s Perspective.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Pérez Álvaro. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2004 Asia-Pac Session 26 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/292b6ac489ef5a56d541f8b989d40fcc.pdf 3e2766957882237c92ff326ae8a7165e PDF Text Text Early Coins from Kerala: Situating the trade networks with special reference to Pattanam Hari Sankar B (Research Scholar, Tamil University) Dinesh Krishnan (Research Officer, Kerala Council for Historical Research) ABSTRACT The paper is intended for session 26, titled "Early Coins from Kerala: Situating the trade networks with special reference to Pattanam.” The research problem of the paper is to understand the distribution of coins and their role in understanding the trade network. The study would be based on the catalogue of coins from Kerala. Kerala, being known for its spices from ancient times, was not a secret to the world. Merchants from different parts of Europe, Arab countries, and Pacific regions came here for commercial activities, which resulted in exchanges of ideologies and material culture. Pattanam, an early historic port site on Kerala's coast close to the Arabian Sea, has produced evidence of commercial activities with foreign countries, indicated by the presence of ceramics and other material remains in large volume. According to early literary evidence, the Cheras controlled the region, and the presence of their coins from Pattanam also supports this. Apart from these Chera coins, the surrounding regions of the Pattanam site have been reported with Roman Gold and Silver coins and early Indian silver punch-marked coins in hoards. Interestingly, these coins were found in the sites connecting the Pattanam region to the neighbouring early historic sites like Kodumanal, Keeladi, and Azhagankulam. Hence, these sites can be considered part of the hinterland trade networks that connect the region with other early historic port towns in southern India. This paper tries to discuss the hinterland trade network of the Pattanam site and how these coins can be used to trace the early economic condition of the region and its monetary exchanges. Keywords: Coins, Trade, Hinterland, burials List of Figures Figure 1 Chera coins from Pattanam excavations Figure 2 Location of coins Figure 3 The coin hoard sites along with burials 1. INTRODUCTION The passages connecting the settlements, territories, and landscapes are the pathways that are known as trade routes, and they have been an important landscape feature in cultural interactions. Polities and states were keen on developing and controlling trade routes or highways to improve connectivity and interactions for their advantage (Selvakumar 2018, 3). South India emerged as a prominent trade and exchange centre during the Early historical period, evident by the literary evidence and material remains. The geographical location, long stretching sea coast, backwaters and rivers, and various spices were the main reasons for developing trade and ports in Kerala. Ports like Nelcynda, Bacare, Naura, Eli, and Muziris are mentioned in the Greco-Roman records. As part of the trade, monetary exchanges became an inevitable factor. Pattanam was such a port that became prominent during the Early historical period because of the overall favourable conditions. This can be ascertained from the rich cultural deposits at the site, which include ceramics. 2. BACKGROUND Pattanam is an archaeological site (N 10°09.434' E 76°12.587') in Vadakkekara village in Chittatukara Panchayat in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. Archaeological investigations at the site revealed an enormous amount of material and structural remains which are indicators of past economy and other culture-related activities. The site, which is close to the Arabian Sea, falls within the Periyar river delta, which provides an insight into the early history of Kerala, its economy, and its maritime activities. The Arabian Sea is about 4 km west of the site; in between the sea and the western 1 �boundary of the site is located the Tattapally River or Munambam backwaters that run parallel to the Arabian Sea (Cherian et al. 2015, 11-12). The port was under the control of Cheras during the early historic period. Roman Empire and Kerala had commercial links established through literary evidence of Pliny and Ptolemy and artefacts such as ceramics and coins. Pattanam had the presence of Roman Amphora, Arretine ware, Rouletted ware, which are Roman potteries, and other material remains, including cameos, intaglios, and gaming pieces. There was no evidence of Roman coins from the site but had the presence of Chera coins. The periplus and other literary evidence clearly showed that the spice trade, mainly pepper, was considered a precious spice. The seven and a half kg black pepper found in the famous Early Historic port town of Berenike in Egypt in an Indian storage jar with first-century CE context (Tomber 2008, 76-77) attests to the pepper trade from the region. It is stated that the western ships arrived in India comparatively light in weight and that a substantial bulk of Indian commodities were exchanged for Roman coins (Romanis 2020, 138). This indicates how large the pepper trade was. The presence of beryl beads from the site indicated the internal trade. Beryl mines are found in the Kodumanal region, which is the closest source of raw material. All these factors indicate the internal and external trade networks of Pattanam. The present study focuses on identifying and understanding the trade routes by locating the coins. The study also looks at the hinterland sites which could be present along the routes leading to other contemporary sites of Pattanam, such as Kodumanal, Keezhadi, and Azhagankulam. 3. THE COINS Coins are part of the source material for historical studies, which helps explain the economic, social, and political factors of the past formations. In Kerala, coins belonging to various dynasties from early historic to modern times were found in various places. Their presence can be inferred as part of the monetary exchange resulting from internal and external trade. 3.1 Chera coins The earliest coins of the Sangam period are the Chera, small square copper coins with symbols like an arched hill, elephant, trees, umbrella, river with fishes, swastika, sun, srivatsa, wheel (chakra), garland and bull on the obverse, and bow and arrow, the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse. These coins are die-struck. The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the Sun, square tank, caduceus, and sadacharachakra on the obverse and the dynastic symbol 'bow and arrow' on both sides (Vijayaraghavan 2000, 28-31). Three coins were reported from Alangad near North Paravur in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. These were found in an earthen pot unearthed during digging for agricultural purposes—two of the coins found were semicircular, and one with a square shape. The coins bear a bow and arrow symbol on the obverse and an elephant figure on the obverse (Sreekumar 1999, 162). Copper Chera coins were found from Pattanam during excavations lasting nine seasons from 2007, with a clear legend, bow, and arrow on the obverse and elephant on the reverse. These coins are also found in Tamil Nadu in Coimbatore, Karur, Perur, Vellalur, and Kodumanal. 2 �Figure 1. Chera coins from Pattanam excavations (Courtesy: KCHR coin collection) 3.2 Roman Coins The Roman coins were found in various places within Kerala and outside, mainly in the form of hoards. The Roman coin hoard was first found in Nellore in Andhra Pradesh in 1786, with around 40 gold coins (Berghaus 1996, 8). A die made of bronze from emperor Hadrian was reported from Karur in Tamil Nadu, which shows the demand for Roman coins in exchange for goods (Krishnamurthy 1996, 43-48). These coins are found buried in many sites in Kerala, like Kottayam (Aurei of Augustus Nero), Eyyal, and Poonjar (Aurei of Augustus) (Gupta 1965, 47). Eyyal - Eyyal was the first Roman coin hoard discovered in Kerala in 1945. Located about 15 km southeast of Kunnamkulam in Tallappalli taluk of Thrissur district in Kerala, the site is located on the Highway between the ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris. The hoard contains about 117 coins, of these, 71 were Gold, 12 were silver, and the rest of the 34 were punch marked coins. The coins of this hoard cover a period of about 123 BCE to 117 CE. This hoard has Denarii of Octavian, Claudius, and Tiberius found in highly worn condition and Aurei of Tiberius, Claudius Nero, and Trajan in a well-preserved condition (Gupta 1965, 48). Valluvally- The site is Located 6 km south of North Paravur in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. The hoard was discovered by local people while digging for agricultural purposes in 1983. The hoard contained thousands of coins, but only 252 were recovered by the local police (Sathyamurty 2011, 14). Most coins were in good condition with inscriptions. Nedumkandam- Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk of Idukki district in Kerala. The site is located near the Ghat route to Tamil Nadu. Over 50 silver coins were discovered from this hoard in 1992, but the reported coins are few (Berghaus 1996, 31). Poonjar- Poonjar is located along the Ghat route in the Kottayam district of Kerala, and the hoard had about 5 Aurei (Sathyamurthy 1965, 4). Idamaruku- Coins of the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at Idamaruku in the Kottayam district of Kerala. Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar (Turner 1989, 74). Niranam- Another finding has been at Niranam near Tiruvalla in the Pathanamthitta district of Kerala (Turner 1989, 74). Puthankavu- About 50 aurei have been reported from Puthenkavu, located near Chengannur Taluk in Alappuzha District. The exact number of coins is unavailable (Champakalakshmi 1996, 265). Kumbalam- The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district of Kerala has nine aurei (Berghaus 1993, 29-42). 3 �Figure 2. Location of coins (Roman in yellow, pmc in red, Chera in green) (Created with Google Earth) Kothamangalam- The Roman coin from the eighth to tenth centuries was reported from Kothamangalam in Ernakulam District of Kerala (Valath 1991, 68). There are a few other stray finds in the Alappuzha district, Kilaloor in the Kannur district, and Kadakavur in the Trivandrum district. However, the details regarding the coins are not available. 3.3 Punch-Marked coins Punch-marked coins are the earliest coinage of India, and most scholars consider them of indigenous origin. Punch-marked coins are generally known in silver and rarely in copper, with various sizes and weights. The size of the coins varies according to shape and weight. These are made of silver and copper and rectangular or square and sometimes irregular in shape. The term punch-marked comes from the technique used for preparing coins where the symbols are stamped on them with punches. They were in vogue when writing was not current in India and were rarely used (Goyal 1995, 79). Symbols are one most conspicuous features of these coins and do not bear any legend or inscription. Various forms of representations, like hills, birds, trees, animals, human figures, and floral and geometrical patterns, appear on them. However, the exact importance still needs to be clarified and remains as mysterious as ever (Vanaja 1983, 5). Several silver punch-marked coins have been discovered in different parts of Kerala. Three hoards of punch-marked coins were found from the region, which includes the Elikulamkara hoard in the Kottayam district, the Eyyal hoard in Thrissur district and the Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in the Ernakulam district (Department of Archaeology, Administrative Reports 1971-72, 75-76). The coin's origin is considered to be of something other than Kerala origin. However, an interesting fact is the discovery of punch-marked die from Karur, which can be used to mint coins (Murthy 1994, 51-56). A total of 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from the first two hoards, Elikulamkara, and Eyyal, in 1946. Of these, 184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam, and only 162 coins have been classified. Rests of the 34 coins were reported from Eyyal (Gupta 1965, 5). Kodussery- Kodussery is located near Angamaly in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. The coins were found inside an earthen jar discovered while digging the foundation of a house. The hoard containing 4 �783 silver punch-marked coins is now kept in the Numismatics Study Center, State Department of Archaeology, Nedumangad, Thiruvananthapuram (Satyamurthy 1994, 45). 4. TRACING THE HINTERLAND SITES AND TRADE ROUTES The three varieties of coins from the early historic period were found in various places over Kerala. Their distribution pattern will be traced to understand the trade routes and hinterland sites. The Pattanam site has Chera coins, but Roman and punch-marked coins are absent. These coins are found in large numbers outside the site. Foremost, the location of these coins and theIron age- early historic sites can be combined to get further information about hinterland trade and networks. The interesting fact regarding combining the iron age-early historic site data and of the coin hoards is that there is no evidence of well-recognised settlements identified, or even large mounds which are found in many parts of India in the region except at Pattanam and a few sites like Anakkara and Nachivayal. However, megalithic burials are found all over the area. (Krishnan 2017, 111). An important point highlighted here is that a burial cannot exist without the settlements. So naturally, nearby the burial sites, settlements must have existed. However, the issue is that we cannot recognise them because of the topographic features, continuous habitation, landscape modification, habitation remains, and the environmental conditions of Kerala, mainly seasonal floods. Therefore, we can assume that each burial site refers to a habitation. However, people definitely lived nearby since the vast material culture represented in the burials cannot come from nowhere.  Secondly, the traded materials, mainly pepper, can also be used in this context to understand the hinterland sites. As noted in Sangam and Classical texts, black pepper was one of the important products shipped out in vast quantities. It is possible to produce such a large amount of pepper only in the high ranges as it requires vast areas for cultivation, geographical conditions, trade, and communication for such large-scale trade. The Tamil inscription of Rajendra Chola found on a megalithic menhir stone near Rajakumari in the upper Periyar valley indicates spice production centres and the trade route passed through the region in the later periods also (Kumar 2017, 78-85). In modern days this region is also known for spice cultivating, especially pepper. Considering this, production of the resources must have taken place in the hinterland settlements and neighbouring regions and then transported to Pattanam for external trade. Furthermore, the port town Azhagankulam on the northern bank of river Vaigai in Tamil Nadu must have trade relations with Pattanam. Both these sites might have connected through the highland area of the Western Ghats and Madurai. Mainly there are two routes connecting these regions, one through the Bodinayakanur pass via Kothamangalam, Adimali, Munnar, Rajakkad, Theni, and Madurai. The second is through Cumbum pass via Kothamangalam, Idukki, Kumly, Cumbum, Theni, and Madurai. The Roman coin hoard found from the Nedumkandam and Poonjar is located in the same region, which indicates that trade and transport prevailed in the region. Another critical aspect being considered here is that in certain burials, there is the presence of carnelian beads where the raw materials are not locally available. Their presence in these burials is a big question unless there is a great trade network or communication. The literature says that the products from South India reached the Ganges. They also mention that export items such as products of semi-precious stones might have come from the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. The region is known for the mines of stones and production centres of various stone objects. The semi-precious stones raw materials, such as carnelian, chalcedony, agate, and beryl from Pattanam, might have come from these regions (Krishnan 2017, 252). 5 �Figure 3. Coin hoard sites along with burials and modern road ways (coins in yellow, burials in red), (created with Google Earth) The Eyyal hoard of coins with Roman and punch-marked coins is also found along the route to Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, an early historic site with Roman contacts glimpsed from the excavations. The Palakkad gap is a natural pass leading to the Coimbatore region and then to Kodumanal, famous for beryl mines. Roman coins from Coimbatore and Palakkad and the beryl beads and raw materials from Pattanam indicate trade and transportation between the sites and Eyyal being on the route. The Roman coin hoards are found in various places of Tamizhakam, such as Pollachi, Karur, Vellalur, Kalayamuttur, Madurai, Coimbatore, Yesvantpur, Pudukkottai, Eyyal, Kottayam, Valluvalli, Panangadu, and Puthenchira indicates the commercial contacts from region to region (Krishnan 2017, 190). 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The Roman coin hoards, the Chera coins, and punch-marked coins belonging to the Early historic period were recovered from various places in Kerala. The discovery of coins, a medium of exchange, means there were internal and external trade contacts. The material from Pattanam also supports this statement. Many artefacts belonging to the Romans, such as different varieties of pottery and beads, were found at the site. No Roman or punch-marked coins have been recovered from the site, which is a matter of question as they were found in surrounding places. The Chera coins were found at the site and from a nearby site, indicating internal trading activities. The Roman coins were found on the route to other contemporary sites in Tamil Nadu, such as Kodumanal, Karur, Azagankulam, and Keeladi. All these sites, along with intermediate sites, have the presence of Roman coins indicating the trade networks. It is clear that the development of the Pattanam site as an urban centre is based on maritime contacts with foreign countries as well as local interactions and development. The Iron Age people, who lived in the interior areas, supported the development of the port town of Pattanam. The commodities exported from the Pattanam site might have come from these interior locations where the local people cultivated or collected them. The coins might be part of this exchange system for goods found in several places. 6 �Considering the factors mentioned above, it can be assumed that the coins were found on the trade routes or nearby hinterland settlements/ burials which supported the port town of Pattanam. The coins came as part of the trade network and communication between these sites and Pattanam. However, the monetary value of the coins cannot be traced with limited literary evidence. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank KCHR for providing coins for the study. We also express our gratitude to Dr Selvakumar V of Tanjavur University and Sarath Chandrababu for their suggestions and kind support. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berghaus, Peter. “Roman Aurei from Kumbalam, Ernakulam District, Kerala”. in Studies in South Indian Coins 3. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. (1994): 29–42. Madras, India: New Era publication. Berghaus, Peter. “Roman coins from south India”. in Studies in South Indian Coins. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. Vol. 6. 7–14. Madras, India: New Era publication, 1996. Champakalakshmi, Radha. Trade, Ideology, and Urbanization: South India 300 BC to AD 1300. Oxford University Press, USA, 1996. Chedambath, Rajan. An Investigation into the Megalithic and Early HistoricPeriod of the Periyar and Ponnani River Basins of Kerala, Unpublished PhD. Dissertation, Pune: Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, 1998. De Romanis, Federico. The Indo-Roman Pepper Trade and the Muziris Papyrus. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. Goyala, S. The Coinage of Ancient India. Jodhpur, India: Kusumanjali Prakashan, 1994. Gupta, Parmeshwari Lal. The Early Coins from Kerala. Thiruvananthapuram, India: Department of Archaeology, Government of Kerala., 1965. Krishnamurthy, R. “A Roman coin die from Karur, Tamilnadu”. in Studies in South Indian Coins. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. Vol. 6. 43-48. Madras, India: New Era publication, 1996. Menon, A. Sreedhara. A Survey of Kerala History. D C Books, 2007. Sathyamurthy, T. Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins. 2nd ed. Department of Archaeology, Thiruvananthapuram, 2011. Sathyamurthy, T. “Nedumkandam hoard of Roman Dinarii”. in Studies in South Indian Coins. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. Vol. 6. 31-42. Madras, India: New Era publication, 1996. Sathyamurthy, T. “Angamali hoard of silver punch marked coins”. in Studies in South Indian Coins. Edited by Narasimha Murthy. Vol. 4. 45-50. Madras, India: New Era publication, 1995. Sathyamurthy, T. Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins in the Collections of Department of Archaeology, Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India: Department of Archaeology, Government of Kerala,1992. Satyamurthy, T. Angamali Hoard of Silver punch-marked coins in Studies on South Indian Coins IV (1994): 45-50, Selvakumar, V. “Ancient trade routes and inscriptions of Tamizhagam” in Epigraphical society of India-XLIII Annual session ( 2018): 3-39. Kozhikode, Kerala. Sidebotham, Steven E., and Willeke Wendrich. Berenike 1999/2000: Report on the Excavations at Berenike, Including Excavations in Wadi Kalalat and Siket, and the Survey of the Mons Smaragdus Region. ISD LLC, 2007. Sreekumar, K.S. Travancore Archaeological Series Vol. 5. Thiruvananthapuram: Department of Cultural Publications, Government of Kerala, 1999. Turner, Paula J. Roman Coins from India. Routledge, 2016. Vanaja, R. Indian Coinage. New Delhi: National Museum, 1983. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 26: General session Subject The topic of the resource Session 26 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 26 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Coins from Kerala: Situating the trade networks with special reference to Pattanam Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hari Sankar B Dinesh Krishnan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Krishnan, Dineesh and Hari Sankar B . 2023. “Early coins from Kerala: Situating the trade networks with special reference to Pattanam.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Pérez Álvaro. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2005 Asia-Pac Session 26 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0a1c7897fd6217d79d7f781987e9fb1b.pdf 08910e429db9ef6fa044c51d36d31139 PDF Text Text In-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan and related issues TSANG Cheng-Hwa and HUANG Han-chang (National Tsing Hua University) ABSTRACT The preservation of underwater cultural heritage is a nascent matter in Taiwan, and it is necessary to accumulate experience from trial and error in order to establish appropriate and feasible practice. As far as the in-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage is concerned, in accordance with the ‘UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage’, the domestic ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ stipulates that ‘underwater cultural heritage should be preserved in-situ as a principle’, and thus the competent authority imposes strict restrictions on the practices of preservation and excavation of underwater cultural heritage. But such actions have caused debates, such as: ‘Is in-situ preservation reasonable in theory or feasible in practice?’ In Taiwan, since 2006, the underwater archeology team of Academia Sinica commissioned by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture has officially launched the archaeological investigation of underwater cultural heritage. It has so far collected more than 700 pieces of documentary records of shipwrecks and underwater cultural relics in the surrounding waters of Taiwan, and 500 of them have been preliminarily investigated and verified as significant underwater targets. Among the 500 targets, 97 were confirmed as the remains of shipwrecks and cultural relics, and 6 of them have already been listed by the competent authority as special underwater cultural heritage in accordance with the ‘Act’ by now. Many more underwater cultural heritages are being prepared for listing. The problem currently arising is that are all listed underwater cultural assets required to be preserved in situ? How can we appropriately preserve them in-situ? Undoubtedly, this is a subject that needs to be carefully evaluated and planned. Keywords：underwater cultural heritage, in-situ preservation, underwater archaeology, protection zone of underwater cultural heritage THE DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY IN TAIWAN Taiwan has a vast sea area. Due to the factors of human history and natural environment, there are rich and diverse underwater cultural heritage, including the remains of human activities in the Paleolithic Age more than 10,000 years ago, the submerged coastal settlement sites, as well as various material remains of human navigation activities from the Neolithic Age to modern times, are an extremely important historical and cultural treasure trove, which not only contains scientific research materials and evidence, but also precious cultural heritage. Underwater archaeological investigations are certainly needed. In the past, the National Museum of History firstly conducted archaeological investigations on the ancient shipwreck of the ‘Jiangjun No. 1’ in the waters of Penghu in 1996, 1999, and 2001 (Luo Shengzong 2011). However, after the completion of this work, the underwater archaeological work in Taiwan died down, and there was no further development. It was not until the end of 1995 when the Council for Cultural Affairs entrusted the underwater archaeological team of Academia Sinica to carry out a research project on ‘the Investigation and Excavation of Ancient Shipwrecks in Magong Port, Penghu, and the Talents Cultivation Program for Underwater Cultural Heritage and Conservation Science ‘, and underwater archeology in Taiwan has sprouted again since then. Afterwards, the work of underwater archaeology, including carrying out general underwater archaeological surveys and doing research on ancient documents, archives and oral history relevant to underwater cultural heritage have been persisting until now. The Underwater Archeology Team has so far collected more than 700 pieces of information about shipwrecks and underwater cultural relics in the surrounding waters of Taiwan, and about 500 of them have been preliminarily investigated and confirmed as underwater targets with significance. Currently, 97 of these underwater targets have been verified as cultural relics and 20 of them have been identified as historical shipwrecks. Currently, the competent authority has listed 6 shipwrecks as special underwater cultural heritage for management in accordance with the ‘ Underwater Cultural Heritage 1 �Protection Act’ (hereafter as ‘Act’) (Cheng-hwa Tsang 2003, (Cheng-hwa Tsang et al 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020). LEGISLATIONS AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR THE PROTECTION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN TAIWAN The ‘ Act ‘ is the main law for the protection of underwater cultural heritage in my country. Article 1 of the ‘Act’ states that ‘In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage, to establish the link between nationals and history, to promote the characteristics of this ocean Nation, and to value the spirit of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage of the United Nations and relevant international agreements, this Act is hereby enacted.’ The competent authority of the ‘Act’ is the Ministry of Culture. Following the coming into effect of the ‘Act ‘ in 2015, 13 sub-laws or regulations related to the preservation of underwater cultural heritage have promulgated one after another. The most important ones among them are: 1. ‘Rules for the Implementation of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ (2016), 2. ‘Regulations for Notification and Management of Activities Involving Seabed or Subsoil ‘(2016), 3. ‘Regulations for the Investigation and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage before the Development and Utilization of waters’ (2016), ‘Regulations for Cultivating Professionals of Underwater Cultural Heritage’ (2016), 4. ‘Regulations for the Administration of Activities directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage’ (2016), 5. ‘Regulations for the Designation and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Zones’ (2016), and 6. ‘Guidance on the Operations of Underwater Cultural Heritage Survey and the Technology of Instrument Detection ‘(2017). Therefore, the legal system concerning the protection of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan covers most of the relevant aspects of protection and management. It seems to be quite complete, and should be able to provide a good foundation for the implementation and development of underwater archaeology. However, after many years of implementation, there are still some problems in the practice and enforceability with these regulations. In the following, I will focus my discussion on three practical issues of preservation in-situ. PRACTICAL ISSUES ARISING FROM IN-SITU PRESERVATION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN TAIWAN As mentioned above, there are a large number of sunken ships in the waters around Taiwan, and currently 6 of them have been listed by the competent authority as special underwater cultural heritage in accordance with the ‘Act’. Many more underwater cultural heritages are being prepared for listing. The problem currently arising is that are all listed underwater cultural assets required to be preserved in situ? How can we appropriately preserve them in-situ? Undoubtedly, this is a subject that needs to 2 �be carefully evaluated and planned. As far as the current situation is concerned, at least three relevant issues are worthy of discussion: (1) The issue of taking cultural relics out of water. (2) Problems in the supervision and protection of listed shipwrecks. (3) The dilemma of establishing protection zones for underwater cultural heritage. 1. The issue of taking cultural relics out of the water Article 2, paragraph 5, of the UNESCO UCH Convention: ‘ The preservation in situ of underwater cultural heritage shall be considered as the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage.’ This has become one of the most important provisions of this Convention. Correspondingly, my country's ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ has a similar provision. Article 27 stipulates that The preservation in-situ of underwater cultural heritage shall be the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage. The proper means for in situ preservation referred to in the preceding paragraph may include recordation management, protection zone, or other proper preservation measures. Therefore, preservation in-situ is one of the most important criteria for the preservation of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan. Its legislative intention is probably even stronger than that of the Convention. Therefore, the fifth chapter of the ‘Act’ has a special chapter on ‘Excavating Out of the Water’, in which there are very strict regulations for the excavation of underwater cultural heritage: ‘Underwater cultural heritage shall not be excavated out of the water except for the following situations: 1. the underwater cultural heritage related to historical status or recognition of the nation. 2. The absence of such underwater cultural heritage could be detrimental to a full understanding of human history. 3. The underwater cultural heritage is of substantial commercial value that cannot be protected without excavating it out of the water. 4. Excavation is necessary for the investigation and research of underwater cultural heritage. 5. The underwater cultural heritage cannot be sufficiently preserved, protected or managed without excavating it out of the water due to an emergency or the change of the existing environment. 6. Other situations in which the competent authority deems necessary to excavate out of the water. Based on these provisions, the competent authority has become very cautious about the underwater cultural heritage being taken out of the water. Even for approved underwater archaeological investigations, any action of taking underwater cultural relics must be reported for approval in advance. Even if there is an urgency for research or even maintenance, it must first be reported to the competent authority for deliberation and approval. This administrative rule that sticks to the law may 3 �not be appropriate. Not only may it hinder the research needs and understanding of underwater cultural heritage, but also increases the risk of underwater cultural heritage preservation. This is because cultural relics preserved in water may not be absolutely safe, and they are often destroyed or vanished due to various human or natural factors. Therefore, whether cultural relics should be or not should be out of the water should be based on whether the measures of in-situ preservation can be better protected and maximize their benefits. And it should be evaluated and judged based on professional knowledge, not just a rigid legal clause. 2. Issues on the supervision and protection of underwater cultural heritage Article 27(2) of the ‘ Act ‘ stipulates that The proper means for in situ preservation referred to in the preceding paragraph may include recordation management, protection zone, or other proper preservation measures. In my country, there is so far no underwater cultural heritage protection zone that has yet been established so far. The only way to protect the 6 listed special underwater cultural heritage is recordation management, which consists of monitoring and recording. The monitoring work is an attempt to observe the preservation state of the shipwrecks and to observe any change caused by either natural or human factors. The recording work aims to collect basic environmental data related to the preservation of the shipwrecks, mainly including: (1) sea area hydrology: current velocity, flow direction, tide, water temperature. (2) sea water quality: salinity, pH value. (3) sea organisms: planktons and benthic organisms. (4) sediment and topography of the sea bed: sediment morphology, water depth, seabed topography, and slope. Based on years of experience, it seems that there are still some deficiencies that need to be improved in the future. For example, in-situ preservation is not only necessary to avoid intrusion and interference by human and natural factors, but more importantly, to conserve the underwater cultural heritage on site. Professional understanding of the state of the in-situ preserved underwater cultural heritage, such as the decaying condition of the wooden relics, the degree of corrosion and decomposition of the metal objects, etc., will provide valuable information for taking appropriate maintenance measures. This kind of work is undoubtedly a very important part of in-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage. Every underwater archaeological operation should be joined by professionally trained conservation personnel. It can assist underwater archaeologists to take immediate protection measures and provide suggestions for further actions to improve them. However, there is a complete shortage of personnel in this area and there is an urgent need to train them in my country. 3. The dilemma of establishing protected area for underwater cultural heritage Article 28 of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Act stipulates that When the review committees make a decision that it is necessary to designate a specific underwater cultural heritage protection zone, the competent authority should consult with relevant authorities to designate and publicize an underwater cultural heritage protection zone within such a water area to preserve the underwater heritage in situ. In order to implement the establishment of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Zones, the ‘Regulations for the Designation and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Zones’ (hereafter as’ Protection Zones’ coming into effect in 2016. Article 2 of this regulations stipulates that The criteria for designating underwater cultural heritage protection zones are as follows: （1） It has important historical, cultural, archaeological, artistic or scientific value and must be preserved on site in the form of a protected area. 4 �（2） The texture of the underwater cultural heritage is fragile and prone to man-made or natural damage. In order to ensure the safety of the underwater cultural heritages, they must be preserved on site in the form of protected areas. （3） The remains of underwater cultural heritage are widely distributed or are closely related to the surrounding environment. It is not enough to present a complete context unless preserved underwater, and must be preserved on site in the form of protected areas. （4）Other needs for the preservation, protection or management of underwater cultural heritage. Although the government has established comprehensive regulations for the establishment of underwater cultural heritage protection zones, no protection zone has been able to achieve so far due to many difficulties. According to Article 14 of the’ Protection Zones’, the competent authorities may designate protection zones and make public announcements in accordance with the provisions of Article 28 (1), of the ‘Act’. In addition, according to Article 30 of the ‘Act’, after the announcement of the protection zone, the competent authority should formulate to set up a management and protection plan, and may designate the following zones as appropriate: 1. core zone; 2. buffer zone. However, these provisions seem to be over idealized. I herewith just mention three cases which show the difficulties of establishing a protection zone. Case 1: The Green Island No. 1 was an important mid-19th century European trading vessel, the wreck of which is located in the water near the southeast coast of the offshore Island of Green Island in Southeastern Taiwan, and it is necessary indeed to designate it as a protection zone because of its underwater cultural heritage value. However, since its location is near the main port of Green Island and close to a recreational diving spot, it has immediately encountered resistance from local residents and tourism operators when a protection zone is proposed to set up there. Case 2: The British steamship SS Sobraon wrecked near the northern coast of the Dongyin Island of the Mazu archipelago in 1901, the site of which is located in the military artillery shooting range. Although it can produce the effect of protecting underwater cultural heritage if a protection zone is set up there, the security of national defense must also be taken into consideration. Because Article 31 of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act states: Activity undertaken for the needs of national security or emergency may not be subject to the restrictions……, Any activity undertaken thereafter should be reported to the competent authority, except that a military or national defense secret involved. Case 3: The underwater archaeological team has discovered a large number of sunken ships within and surrounding Dongsha Atoll in the South China Sea. This atoll is located in the South China Sea and is a very isolated island group, which seems to be a very ideal place for being designated as an underwater cultural heritage protection zone. But, it is exactly due to its remote and isolated geographical location, which makes supervision and management extremely difficult. Even if the protection zone is designated, it is difficult to achieve the effect of protection. Even today, fishermen from different countries sometimes come here to dismantle iron shipwrecks and salvage underwater cultural relics. It is clear that the designation of an underwater cultural heritage protection zone requires consideration of many factors and is not an easy task. As Article 13(2) of the ‘ Protection Zone’ states: When deliberating the management and protection plan of the protection zone, the review committee may consider whether it will have a major impact on the rights and interests of stakeholders as well as underwater cultural heritage and their 5 �context, including economic activities, research, education, tourism, leisure and entertainment that rely on the area, activities and other related rights and interests, fishery rights, aboriginal culture, ceremonies, or self-use behaviors that conform to sustainable use. In 2021, Chapter 5 of the ‘Regulations for the Designation and Management of Underwater Cultural Asset Protection Areas’ was amended to include new regulations on access to underwater cultural heritage protection zones for tourism diving, including the requirements for qualifications for underwater tour guides. For the purpose of enhancing this provision, the competent authority has recently conducted training programs for underwater cultural heritage tour guides and hope to make preparations for opening some of the underwater cultural heritage protection zones in the future. However, If the establishment of the protection zones can finally be realized, sufficient planning must be completed before it is opened for diving tourists, especially for those who want to go underwater for guiding tours, the requirements for professional qualifications and knowledge training must be strengthened. Otherwise, it will be difficult to avoid irreparable harm to underwater cultural heritage. CONCLUDING REMARKS Although the investigation of underwater cultural heritage in my country has not been developed for a long time. A large number of underwater cultural heritage sites have been discovered, and it has aroused the general attention of the state and the people. Finally, the ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ was promulgated in 2015, but since its implementation is still a new matter, it still needs to accumulate experience from trial and error in order to establish appropriate and feasible ethics and norms. Among the many issues currently facing, the implementation of in-situ preservation is the most controversial. This may be due to the fact that the competent authority has been misled by the principle that ‘ The in- situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage should be considered as the first and preferred option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage.’ stated in the ‘Convention’. On the other hand, it may be due to the lack of understanding of the actual immediate hazards faced by underwater cultural heritage and the environment in which they are located. As a result, many strict restrictions have been set for subsequent excavations and removal of cultural relics from the water. Although the current situation has gradually improved after continuous communication between underwater archaeologists and the competent authority. But, the issues of the supervision and protection of the listed shipwrecks and other underwater cultural relics as well as the difficulties faced in designating protection zones for underwater cultural heritage are still important issues to discuss and find solutions. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Luo, Sheng-tzung, “The Story of General No. 1” in “Scientific Development” February, Issue 458, 2011 National Historical Museum, “Report on the Survey of General No. 1 Excavation of the Ancient Shipwreck in Penghu Sea Area”. Taipei: National Historical Museum, 1997 National Historical Museum, “Report on Excavation of the Ancient Shipwreck General No. 1 in the Penghu Sea Area”. Taipei: National Historical Museum, 1999 Tsang, Chen-hwa, Huang Han-chang, et al. “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas Near Taiwan Report Series: The Third Phase Report (3),” Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture. 2019. “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas Near Taiwan Report Series: The Third Phase Report (2),” Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture. 2019. “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas Near Taiwan Report Series (1): The Third Phase Report”, Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture. 2019 “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Seas Near Taiwan: Phase II Report (3)”, Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture.2018 “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Seas Near Taiwan: Phase II Report (2)”, Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture.2018 “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Seas Near Taiwan: Phase II Report (1)”, Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture.2018 “Report of the General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas Near Taiwan: The First Phase Report”, Published by the Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture.2016 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 26: General session Subject The topic of the resource Session 26 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 26 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource In-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan and related issues Description An account of the resource The preservation of underwater cultural heritage is a nascent matter in Taiwan, and it is necessary to accumulate experience from trial and error in order to establish appropriate and feasible practice. As far as the in-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage is concerned, in accordance with the ‘UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage’, the domestic ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ stipulates that ‘underwater cultural heritage should be preserved in-situ as a principle’, and thus the competent authority imposes strict restrictions on the practices of preservation and excavation of underwater cultural heritage. But such actions have caused debates, such as: ‘Is in-situ preservation reasonable in theory or feasible in practice?’ In Taiwan, since 2006, the underwater archeology team of Academia Sinica commissioned by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture has officially launched the archaeological investigation of underwater cultural heritage. It has so far collected more than 700 pieces of documentary records of shipwrecks and underwater cultural relics in the surrounding waters of Taiwan, and 500 of them have been preliminarily investigated and verified as significant underwater targets. Among the 500 targets, 97 were confirmed as the remains of shipwrecks and cultural relics, and 6 of them have already been listed by the competent authority as special underwater cultural heritage in accordance with the ‘Act’ by now. Many more underwater cultural heritages are being prepared for listing. The problem currently arising is that are all listed underwater cultural assets required to be preserved in situ? How can we appropriately preserve them in-situ? Undoubtedly, this is a subject that needs to be carefully evaluated and planned. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tsang Cheng-Hwa Huang Han-chang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Tsang, Cheng-hwa and Han-chang Huang. 2023. “In-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan and related issues.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Pérez Álvaro. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2006 Asia-Pac Session 26 2023