1 10 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a87f2e86f9fd917bc87bc3be80372224.pdf ff2d174625828b66b640412bbbd12ed5 PDF Text Text Regional Identity and Local Variety: Plank Configurations in Lashed-lug Boatbuilding of Southeast Asia Ligaya Lacsina (University of the Philippines) Abhirada Pook Komoot (CSEAS, Kyoto University) ABSTRACT This short paper is suitable for session 6. It is written to report the result of the recent survey of the lashed-lug boatbuilding technology in the Southeast Asian region. In addition to desk-based assessments, investigations were undertaken at Khlong Thom in the south of Thailand, Chau Tan remains in central Vietnam, and Butuan in the south of the Philippines. This project aims to observe the variety of the lashed-lug boatbuilding to better understand meaningful, technical connections. Keywords: lashed-lug boatbuilding, Southeast Asia nautical knowledge, ship comparison List of Figures Figure 1. Distribution of archaeological ship remains in Southeast Asia (illustrated by Abhirada Komoot) Figure 2 Diagram of plank configurations: A) Khlong Thom, B) Punjulharjo, C) Chau Tan and D) Ban Khlong Yuan (illustrated by Abhirada Komoot) Figure 3 Diagram of Butuan boat remains, from top: (A) Butuan 1, (B) Butuan 5, (C) Butuan 2, (D) Butuan 4 (illustrated by Ligaya Lacsina). Figure 4. Conjectural lug-lashing of Butuan 2 and other exclusively doweled planks based on the Punjulharjo boat lashing example that crosses planks (illustrated by Ligaya Lacsina). List of Tables Table 1. Khlong Thom wood ID (UAD report 2019) Table 2. Punjulharjo wood ID (Abbas 2010; Nugroho 2010) Table 3. Ban Khlong Yuan wood ID (UAD report 2019) Table 4. Butuan 1 Wood ID (Lacsina 2016) Table 5. Butuan 5 Wood ID (Lacsina 2016) Table 6. Butuan 2 Wood ID (Lacsina 2016) Table 7. Butuan 2 Wood ID (Lacsina 2016) Table 8. Plank Configurations INTRODUCTION Lashed-lug construction is a distinctive nautical technology that facilitated Southeast Asian regional networks from the early 1st to the late 2nd millennium CE. It refers to a boatbuilding technique in which the planks were cleated with lugs and assembled by individual stitching and/or wooden dowels. The seams of stitches, if any, were only visible inboard. The remains of lashed-lug vessels are distributed over coastal areas linking mainland and island subregions (Figure 1). Yet, each of the vessels reflect the unique personality of the boatbuilders. This paper thus hopes to highlight the techno-cultural diversity and links to realise the complexity that shapes the way our region is today. Plank features are the most prominent attribute for understanding hull assemblage. The details of the keel plank designs are focused and have been previously noted (Lacsina and Mochtar 2019). Regarding plank fastenings, an earlier hypothesis by Adrian Horridge (1982, 1; 32–33; 56–58) posited that the oldest plank-built boats were held by stitching or sewing without the use of edge dowels. He based this on the assumption that dowel holes could not be produced without the aid of metal tools, though it must be noted when he wrote this, no plank boat remnants had been found that predate the use of metals in Southeast Asia. Pierre-Yves Manguin (1993; 2021) and Sean McGrail (2001) surmised that edge dowelling was incorporated to supplement stitching, leading to dowelling supplemented by stitching, until stitching was set aside entirely for exclusive dowel fastening. The reason for shifting to an exclusive reliance on dowelling is unclear, whether this was the result of technological or arbitrary choices. Our observations thus present a review of this aspect by sharing the results of a preliminary 1 �comparison of the fastening methods in several examples. It hopes to contribute to the growing dataset of lashed lug boats and lead to greater insights into their construction. REGIONAL VARIATION OF PLANK CONFIGURATIONS This section provides information gathered from existing research and field survey in Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. Eight examples of lashed-lug remains were selected for this comparison. They are classified into two main categories – those with no edge dowels present and those with edge dowels. The utilisation of dowels is divided into three distinct methods, stitched-dowelling, pinned-dowelling, and exclusive dowelling. Illustrative diagrams are produced to present a schematic configuration of the lashed-lug planking. It should be noted that they are based on approximate measurements and authors’ observations (Figures 2 and 3). No Edge Dowels Khlong Thom (KT) The remains studied in this paper are based on the report written by the Thai Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD) during the 2019 investigation (Piromrak 2019). The timber fragments were removed from the sandy-clay bed of Khlong Thom, near Kuan Luk Pad archaeological site in Krabi Province, Thailand. Khlong Thom is a waterway giving access to the inner land from the Andaman Sea. Figure 2A illustrates how the planks feature a narrow face of about 20 centimetres in width and a thickness of about three centimetres. Lugs are almost the same width but double in thickness. The total thickness of plank ranges from 9 to 12 centimetres, including lug. Lugs were made at about 40 centimetres gap without a link, except for the keel plank of which the centre was carved into a longitudinal, narrow ridge linking with the rectangular ones. On the moulding face of the central ridge, there is an oval-shaped hole. The rectangular shape lugs have a pair of square holes diagonally chiselled near the upper edge. This differs from the lugs on the keel plank with round holes. The row of lugs seems to be carved off-centre. The base of the lug is longer than the plank on one side, suggesting a locking function. On either side of the lugs are a pair of rounded, L-shaped holes, not visible outboard. The cordage remaining in the holes indicates that planks were secured by stitching with a cross and 2 �Figure 1. Distribution of archaeological ship remains in Southeast Asia (illustrated by Abhirada Komoot). wrap pattern. A small wedge was hammered in to ensure the knots were tight. No indication of dowels are seen throughout. Between lugs, the remaining stitching exhibits cordage with a delicate braiding technique tightened by a piece of wedge. Table 1. Khlong Thom wood ID (UAD report 2019) Samples Descriptions 1 Wooden wedge 2 Caulking/ luting 3 Plank Species Mesua ferrea L. Payena acuminate (Blume) Pierre Hopea sp. With Edge Dowels and Stitches Punjulharjo The Punjulharjo boat is located on the northern coast of Rembang District, Central Java. It was accidentally discovered by local villagers during the rehabilitation of the salterns and was investigated archaeologically between 2008 and 2009 by the Yogyakarta Archaeological Center. An open building was built in place with an elevated floor to house the wooden remains after Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) impregnation treatment was done. A comprehensive diagram of plank configuration is drawn following the measurement conducted by Agni Mochtar (2018). Figure 2B demonstrates the hull of the Punjulharjo was assembled mainly by edge dowels and stitching. Tenon and mortise joints also appear in the mix. Mochtar (2018) reports that the keel plank is 15.6 metres long and has a maximum width of 56 centimetres. It was tapered on both 3 �Figure 2. Diagram of approximate plank configurations of: A) Khlong Thom, B) Punjulharjo, C) Chau Tan and D) Ban Khlong Yuan (illustrated by Abhirada Komoot). 4 �ends to receive wing-ends. The lugs are mostly flat and rectangular. The largest lug size is 40 by 25 centimetres at midship. Pairs of the rounded holes appear on lugs and next to lugs. On the edge, there are dowelling holes with uneven intervals. There are sets of several dowelling holes (3-4 holes) alternating with two pairs of stitching holes. There is no report on the length of dowels or dowel holes. For the purpose of this paper, the Punjulharjo’s dowel holes in Figure 2C are based on the finding in CT and BKY, but remain conjectural. Notably, the documented construction of the Punjulharjo boat depicts the lug-lashing that secured frames, stringers, beams, and other parts also fastened two adjacent planks to one another, supplementing the stitching and dowelling (see Manguin 2019, Figure 7a and 7c; Mochtar 2018, Figure 5-10). Table 2. Punjulharjo wood ID (Abbas 2010; Nugroho 2010) Samples 1 2 3 Descriptions Wooden dowels Plank Stringer Species Melaleuca leucadendron Palaquium gutta Scorodocarpus borneensis Chau Tan (CT) The Chau Tan ship remains were found by local fishermen off the coast of Quang Ngai, Central Vietnam. The remains were discovered by accident during a fishing activity in 2011 and are now kept in a shed at the house of a local collector, Mr. Lam. There is no scientific documentation of the original context of the site. A team of Japanese researchers processed post-salvage documentation of the recovered timbers and published their findings in 2017 and 2018 reports (Noriko et al. 2017). The reports reveal the ship date to be between 663 and 715 CE. This paper adds to existing information based on the authors’ survey in January 2023. The Chau Tan planks are relatively large, as seen in Figure 2C, and long. The keel plank measures 41 centimetres at the maximum width and about 22 metres in length. The width of the lugs is almost the same as the plank width, although the size of the lugs was carved with tapering ends. All holes are round and about 2.5 to 3 centimetres in diameter. The lug interval is about 40 centimetres, except for the midsection, where the break is about 150 centimetres. Lugs on the keel plank were connected to a narrow ridge of 14 centimetres maximum width. A pair of through holes are on the ridge at the interval of lugs. The fastening technique of the Chau Tan boat is stitching and dowelling. A pair of stitching holes appear on the sides of lugs, alternating with a row of dowels. Ban Khlong Yuan (BKY) Ban Khlong Yuan is located east of the peninsula, facing the Gulf of Thailand. It is under the administration of Chaiya District, Surat Thani Province. The boat remains were found buried in the terrestrial area, away from the sea. There are 84 pieces of boat remains that were recovered by the landowners during the reservoir construction in 2002. They are now transferred to the UAD office in Chantaburi for further analysis. The ship was reported with an approximate dating between 768 and 890 Cal CE (Rahotan 2019). The diagram (Figure 2D) shows that the broadest part of the keel plank measures about 30 centimetres. Lug thickness is about 2 centimetres, while the overall thickness of the plank is about 5-6 centimetres. Lugs were carved along the length with regular intervals of about 35 centimetres and linked by a 10centimetre wide ridge in the middle. Ligature and dowelling holes are round and about 1.5-2 centimetres in diameter. A pair of ligature holes present next to lugs alternating with rows of dowelling holes. Some dowels are still intact in the holes. 5 �Table 3. Ban Khlong Yuan wood ID (UAD report 2019) Samples 1 2 Descriptions Wooden dowels Plank Species Terminalia mucronata Craib & Hutch. Hopea sp. Pinned-dowelling Butuan 1 The Butuan boat 1 was the first of several lashed-lug boats found in Butuan City, north-eastern Mindanao, Philippines. It was discovered by salvagers in 1976. A site museum was constructed to house Butuan Boat 1 in 1980, where it remains to this day. A report states that the wood received Wolmanized treatment, a pressure treatment used for commercial lumber. The lugs of Butuan 1 are unique in known lashed lug boats to date. Figure 3A illustrates that they have three pairs of L-shaped lashing holes on relatively wide lugs. On the keel plank are also three pairs of lashing holes but on three sets of lugs. Plank fastening was by dowels, with roughly every alternate dowel locked in place with a wooden pin. The boat remains were measured at a maximum of 10.2 meters in length. The longest piece is the keel plank at 9.74 meters. Table 4. Butuan 1 Wood ID (Lacsina 2016) Samples Descriptions 1 Wooden dowel 2 Plank 3 Wing end Species Vatica sp. Petersianthus quadrielatus, Shorea sp., Vatica sp. Shorea sp. Butuan 5 Butuan 5 was first unearthed in 1985, and then recovered in 1986 as part of a regional training course on archaeological conservation organised by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN 1986). The final ASEAN report describes Boat 5 timbers as being so fragile that they could not be lifted in one piece. They were cut into fragments, which were reportedly labelled and soaked in a tank of fresh water in Butuan until PEG could be acquired. Unfortunately, when researchers visited to examine Boat 5’s timbers, they found the water had dried and the wood was warped and dissociated from their labels. Boat 5 also seems to have unique features, particularly in the lashing holes on the lugs, which run through the breadth of the lugs (Figure 3B). Its keel plank is also unique in that it does not have individual lugs, only a continuous ridge that runs the length of the keel plank through which lashing holes are also bored breadthwise. The hull parts are badly degraded and warped. When Butuan 5 was excavated, the remains measured 11.5 metres in length, the same as its keel plank. It was found with eight strakes on one side and seven strakes on the other. Like Butuan 1, some of Butuan 5’s dowels are locked with wooden pins driven from the inboard of the plank. Table 5. Butuan 5 wood ID (Lacsina 2016) Samples Descriptions 1 All hull parts 2 Frames 3 Wing ends 4 Dowel Species Pistacia chinensis Dimocarpus sp., Vitex parviflora Pterocarpus indicus Dimocarpus sp. Exclusive Dowelling Butuan 2 The Butuan 2 remains were found by pot hunters in 1977, several months after Butuan 1 was unearthed. The excavation was carried out by the National Museum of the Philippines in 1977. Butuan 2 was found 6 �Figure 3. Diagram of approximate plank configurations of: (A) Butuan 1, (B) Butuan 5, (C) Butuan 2, (D) Butuan 4 (illustrated by Ligaya Lacsina). within several metres of Boats 4 and 9, and reportedly Boat 3, though this has yet to be confirmed. It is currently in storage at the National Museum in Manila, where it was previously on display before the gallery that contained it was dismantled. The planks of Butuan 2 only show evidence of dowelling and no apparent locking feature to keep the planks from separating. Lacsina (2016, 208) has suggested that lashed lugs, as they were applied in the Punjulharjo Boat, might have also been used here to compress planks together, though this cannot be 7 �Figure 4. Conjectural lug-lashing of Butuan 2 and other exclusively doweled planks based on the Punjulharjo boat lashing example that crosses planks (illustrated by Ligaya Lacsina). confirmed due to limited evidence of ligatures in Butuan. The keel plank is the longest piece and measures 11.3 metres. It has two sets of lugs and two pairs of L-shaped holes (Figure 3C). Individual lugs on the planks also have two sets of L-shaped holes. Table 6. Wood ID of Butuan 2 (Lacsina 2016) Samples Descriptions 1 All hull parts 2 Wing ends Species Hopea sp. Pterocarpus indicus Butuan 4 Butuan 4 was found several meters from Butuan 2. A looter’s pit was extended by archaeologists in 2012 to find the remains of this Boat, half of which appear to be missing; the keel plank is sawn cleanly at this point. So far, the planks of Butuan 4 appear to only use dowels. There are two pairs of L-shaped lashing holes on the individual lugs. The keel plank lugs are connected by a continuous ridge running the length of it Figure 3D. Table 7. Wood ID of Butuan 4 Samples Descriptions 1 All hull parts Species Vatica sp. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION While its prominent feature is the protruding lug on the inboard planks, arranged in traversal rows for fitting and locking frames, our investigation conducts a comprehensive review of the characteristics of plank modification and assembling methods in several examples in Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Philippines. In closely observing lashed-lug boat remains of the currently documented examples, the result demonstrates a variety of planking techniques and configurations (Table 8). Keel plank configurations are notable as they are generally carved in different designs than the other planks (Lacsina and Mochtar 2019). The most common variation is an individual lug joined by a raised ridge. The greatest variation can be seen in the Butuan assemblage which include two and three sets of lugs, a raised edge with no lugs, and the aforementioned lugs joined by a ridge. No raised ridge is presented in the Punjulharjo’s keel plank. The size of keel planks range between 20 and nearly 40 centimetres. As presented, the Butuan boats’ planks and lugs are narrower compared to others. The keel 8 �plank on the KT is also narrow but lugs were uniquely carved to lock with adjacent planks. All holes were predrilled and mostly round, except for the KT remains. Lashing holes on the KT lugs feature square but ligature holes for stitching on the planks, are round. Lugs were transversely aligned to fasten the full frames. Manguin (2021) provides a technical proposition that lug lashing on frames, the increased edge dowels and pinning could be a compensation for plank stitching that disappeared completely from the lashed-lug vessels at the beginning of the 2nd millennium CE. Figure 4 presents a hypothetical illustration of the lug lashing based on a key surviving example. The evidence from the Punjularjo boat reveals cross-plank lashing, in contrast to ethnographic examples that show lug-lashing is isolated to individual lugs and planks (Horridge 1982, 15, 16). This fastening technique is believed to have assisted to strengthen the hull and would provide especially significant reinforcement to exclusively dowelled vessels. This paper also found that the lashed-lug vessels had the most configurative variation during the late 1st millennium CE. Exclusive stitching was used in the 1st century (KT), even as dowels were used to supplement stitching in other vessels (Manguin, 2019). An increased use of dowels as a main fastening occurred toward the second half of the 1st millennium. The use of dowelling appeared in the CT and Pubjulharjo in the 8th century and the BKY of the 9th century. Only the boats found in Butuan did not have stitching, only dowelling throughout the 8th and 10th centuries. This finding brings a question of regional variation: what could be a driving force for these differences? More inclusive approach to consider materials (i.e., type of wood) and plank modification (i.e., different lug shapes and size of plank) is necessary. The variations observed here need further study to learn about the technical performance and effectiveness of each. A closer observation of the elements of hull construction, scrutinising their characteristics for previously unnoticed qualities and, if possible, understanding the efficiency of each fastening technique should follow. In the future, it is hoped to better understand how the technical variety contributes to the understanding of technological development. Table 8. Plank Configurations Dates Sites Central ridge on keel plank 85-229 CE Khlong Thom Vertical ridge, standing up right Lugs/ligature holes Ligature holes on planks Narrow/square and Round round 660-780 CE Punjulharjo No ridge Round 663-715 CE Chau Tan Flat with 2 lashing Broad/round holes on every interval Round 715-940 CE Butuan 2 No. 2 sets of lugs Round - 768-890 CE Ban Khlong Yuan Flat with no lashing holes Broad/round Round 775-973 CE Butuan 4 777-971 CE Butuan 5 777-988 CE Butuan 1 Yes, with Round individual lugs Yes, no individual Round lugs No. 3 sets of lugs Round Round - 9 Plank assembling Special features 2 pairs of stitching holes and wedgedstitching 2 pairs of stitching holes alternated by a row of dowels 2 pairs of stitching holes alternated by a row of dowels Exclusively dowelled -Locking lugs - visible wedges Tenon and mortise 2 pairs of stitching holes alternated by a row of dowels Exclusively dowelled Pinneddowelling Pinneddowelling - Tenon and mortise (wing end) - - �ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Our sincere gratitude is extended to Suvarnabhumi Studies Center under the auspices of the Thai Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation for funding this project. Our partners at the National Museum of the Philippines, and local authority in Vietnam and Indonesia are appreciated for their assistance. BIBLIOGRAPGHY ASEAN. Report on the third intra-ASEAN Archaeological Excavation and Conservation Butuan City, Philippines 16 November–10 December 1986. Manila: ASEAN, 1986. Horridge, Adrian. The lashed-lug boat of the eastern archipelagoes, the Alcina MS and the Lomblen whaling boats. Maritime Monographs and Reports. Greenwich: Trustees of the National Maritime Museum, 1982 Lacsina, Ligaya. "Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques." PhD diss., Flinders University, School of Humanities and Creative Arts, 2016. Lacsina, Ligaya, and Agni Sesaria Mochtar. ‘The Lashed-Lug Tradition Beyond the Commonalities: A Closer Examination of Variations in Keel Design within Southeast Asian Shipbuilding Tradition’. In Advancing Southeast Asian Archaeology 2019: Selected Papers from the Second SEAMEO SPAFA International Conference on Southeast Asian Archaeology, Bangkok, Thailand 2019, edited by Noel Hidalgo Tan. Seameo-Spafa, 2020.https://www.spafajournal.org/index.php/spafapub/issue/ view/136. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Trading ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding techniques and their role in the history of the development of Asian trade networks.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 36, no.3 (1993): 253–280. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: The Stitched-Plank and Lashed-Lug Tradition. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 48(2), 2019, 400-415. doi:10.1111/1095-9270.12367 Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “The assembly of hulls in Southeast Asian shipbuilding traditions: from lashings to treenails”, in Giulia Boetto, Patrice Pomey & Pierre Poveda (Eds), Open Sea / Closed Sea: Local and Inter-Regional Traditions in Shipbuilding (Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, Marseille 2018, ISBSA 15), Archaeonautica, 21, 2021, pp. 135–138. Mcgrail, Sean. Boats of the world. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Mochtar, Agni Sesaria. "The Seventh-Century Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: A study of the early Southeast Asian lashedlug boatbuilding tradition." PhD diss., Flinders University, College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 2018. Noriko, Nishino, Toru Aoyama, Jun Kimura, Nokami Takenori, and Le Thi Lien. Nishimura Masanari’s Study of the Earliest Known Shipwreck Found in Vietnam. Asian Review of World Histories, 5, no. 2 (2017): 106-122. Piromrak, Napat. Report on the Survey of Lashed-Lug Remians in Khlong Thom Tai Subdistrict, Khlong Thom District, Krabi Province 2019, Research Unit, Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, 2019 (in Thai and unpublished). Rahotan, Wongsakorn. Preliminary Report on the Survey of Lashed-Lug Remains in Ban Klong Yuan, Surathani Province 2019, Research Unit, Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, 2019, (in Thai and unpublished). 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Regional Identity and Local Variety: Plank Configurations in Lashed-lug Boatbuilding of Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource This short paper is suitable for session 6. It is written to report the result of the recent survey of the lashed-lug boatbuilding technology in the Southeast Asian region. In addition to desk-based assessments, investigations were undertaken at Khlong Thom in the south of Thailand, Chau Tan remains in central Vietnam, and Butuan in the south of the Philippines. This project aims to observe the variety of the lashed-lug boatbuilding to better understand meaningful, technical connections. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ligaya Lacsina Abhirada Pook Komoot Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Lacsina, Ligaya and Abhirada Pook Komoot. 2023. “Regional identity and local variety: Plank Fastening Techniques in Lashed-lug Boatbuilding of Southeast Asia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1939 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c01b5a5b578214036c7f1565e002f2fe.pdf 827bea5e6819d8acc079c1313324a457 PDF Text Text “Winged” stem and stern in Southeast Asian lashed-lug vessels: from ethnography to archaeology Pierre-Yves Manguin (EFEO/French School of Asian Studies, Emeritus Professor) ABSTRACT So-called “winged” bows were among the first boat characteristics that were used to identify the expansion of shipping technologies of the Austronesian speaking people across both the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Pioneers Haddon and Hornell were the first to recognize that small outrigger dugouts observed in East Africa shared a “winged” stem (and stern) construction with comparable boats from Insular Southeast Asia. Starting with the Butuan archaeological excavations in the 1980s, a number of much larger plank-built vessels of the first and second millennia CE have been brought to light in Southeast Asian waters that clearly belong to this “winged” technical tradition. They all belong to the lashed-lug shipbuilding tradition which is specific to Southeast Asia. This presentation will bring together the presently available evidence on such matters, with detailed observations, and a first attempt at building up a typology of such vessels. Keywords: lashed-lug, Southeast Asian archaeology, Southeast Asian ethnography, winged stem List of figures Figure 1. Butuan 2 “winged” stem (from Clark et al. 1993). Figure 2. The Punjulharjo ship Figure 3. Rope fastenings of stem and/or stern. Lamalera; biduk of the Upper Batang Hari, Jambi Figure 4. “Winged” Paya Pasir; Stepped keel piece, to which “winged” stem or stern blocks fastened INTRODUCTION Pioneers Alfred C. Haddon and James Hornell were the first to recognize that small outrigger dugouts observed in East Africa and Madagascar shared structural characteristics with comparable boats from Insular Southeast Asia. They thus brought material evidence of early maritime contacts between the two shores of the Indian Ocean (linguistic and anthropological affinities with Madagascar had by then be recognised). They first examined the design of outriggers (Haddon 1918; 1920; Hornell 1919). Hornell, however, soon shifted his attention to what he termed the “winged” stem and stern pieces of these small boats, a possibly more stable common characteristic of crafts, built thousands of miles apart (Hornell 1920; 1928; 1934; 1944). On such small dugouts with only one or two raised side-planks, both dugout extremities are raised by attaching to them one or more blocks of wood carved out in the shape of a “winged“ stem or stern pieces. In such boats, there is no need for a stem post, the extremities of the planks being fastened to these “winged” blocks of wood —at some distance from the acute-angled ends Figure 1. Butuan 2 “winged” stem (from Clark et al. 1993). 1 �of the hull, and therefore without the need to impose a strong curvature, difficult to achieve, on the planks. We know by now that such a design is not limited to small dugout craft but may also be found in larger plank-built boats in which the dugout has evolved into a true keel piece. Solid ethnographic work by Nick Burningham (1990) recognised and discussed such features in what he calls the “stemless craft” of Ende or the “seven- part craft” of the Bajau of Tawi-Tawi (Burningham 1990; 1992; on the Bajau lepa, see also Nimmo 1990). A close observation of the boats built by the Moken sea nomads living along the upper northwest coast of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, on the other side of Southeast Asia, show distinct similarities with those of the Sama Bajau of the Philippines (Ivanoff 1999). It is clear from these superficial remarks that, on ethnographic evidence alone, a considerable amount of comparative work remains to be done on such matters. WINGED STEMS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Starting with the Butuan archaeological excavations in the 1980s, several large plank-built vessels of the first and second millennia CE were brought to light in Southeast Asian waters, which also clearly belong to this “winged stem and stern” technical tradition. This point was raised in one of the first systematic descriptions of one of the Butuan boats (Clark, Green, Santiago et al. 1993; see Figure 1), and discussed in much detail, after additional data was brought to light during further excavations of the Butuan boats by Ligaya Lacsina (2016). This raises the possibility of connecting this particular boatbuilding technology with one other design that has now been firmly associated by nautical archaeologists to Southeast Asian shipbuilding, i.e. the “lashed-lug” technology. One essential task that nautical archaeologists working in Southeast Asia had assigned themselves was to identify technical characteristics that defined a local shipbuilding tradition different from those of neighbouring areas. In the early phases of nautical archaeology in the region, this was essential as most recoveries of ship timbers were brought to light as broken and dissociated fragments, after looting or during rescue operations of damaged sites (and this still happens too often). The “lashed-lug” technique is not exclusive to Southeast Asia, as already noted by Hornell (1935), but it is unique within Asia, and it has been one key identifier of the Southeast Asian origin of archaeological finds. If it is proved to be usually associated with winged stem and stern pieces, such identifications of archaeological finds (or of ambiguous textual sources) of Southeast Asian craft will be more secure, and a more reliable typology will be built up. This brief presentation only purports to bring together new evidence presently available on such matters, mostly from Indonesia, as one assembled and many fragmented ship remains have been found in the past years, many of which could be studied at leisure. They all clearly belong to the lashed-lug tradition, and all can be associated with winged designs for stem and/or stern. One major discovery by Indonesian archaeologists was that in Rembang (north coast of Central Java), on the beach ridge site of Punjulharjo, of a 16 m long, remarkably well preserved lashed-lug and stitchedplank boat dated to the 7th to 8th century CE (Abbas 2010; Mochtar 2018; Manguin 2019) (Figure 2). The fastenings with ijok ropes of the planks together and that of lugs to frames, stringers and vertical stanchions are particularly well preserved, as are the stem and the stern pieces, up to the third strake, as depicted in the following drawings. The stern and the less well- preserved stem are not symmetrical, but are clearly built following the same design. The “winged” blocks of wood are fastened not only by treenails inserted into theirs seams, but also by two kinds of ijok lashings: one passes outside of the hull, and fastens the extremity of the keel piece and the first block; the other is inside the hull, and must have been made taught by hammering in a rounded, bevelled wedge. 2 �Figure 2. The Punjulharjo ship: 3D image (by Ipso Facto and P.-Y. Manguin) Stern (left) and stem of the Punjulharjo ship (drawing by P.-Y. Manguin). Such rope fastenings of stemless stem and stern pieces have survived to this day under different guises in a few small boats (in Lamalera, Lembata, or in Jambi, Sumatra (Figure 3) (Barnes 1985; Dwyer and Ackerman 1998). Daniel G. Dwyer recently remarked that some boat depictions of Dong Son drums and of archaeological remains in Vietnam may have also used a comparable fastening (Dwyer 2015a, 2015b). Such lashings are no longer used in the Butuan boats, in line with the fact that, being younger by a few centuries, their planks are no longer stitched together with ijok as are those of Punjulharjo. Only treenails and tenons and mortises have by then remained in use to assemble the hull (Manguin 2022). One rescue operation carried out in 1989-1990 by Indonesian archaeologists and the present author at Paya Pasir, which turned up to be the heavily disturbed harbour site of the 11th to 14th century CE neighbouring site of Kota Cina (North Sumatra). Only broken timbers belonging to a variety of small to large boats and ships were recovered, all of them of the lashed-lug tradition, and all dated to the period of activity of the Kota Cina site (Manguin 1989; in press). One major find belonging to a middle-sized vessel (some 15 to 25 m) was that of a well-preserved stepped stem or stern (Figure 4, left). Contrary to what we have seen so far, it was elaborately carved out from one single block of wood that was fastened, as usual, to the extremity of a keel (now broken off). The end parts of the planks would have been fastened to the stepped wing sides by way of dowels (one or two dowel holes are still preserved on each step). Other damaged pieces from different craft may be identified as the tapering extremities of now broken off keels, to which separate “winged” stem or stern pieces would have been attached. The twin bevelled surfaces starting after the stem or stern end are bored with dowel holes that would have maintained the garboard strakes in place (Figure 4, right). It appears that, as in the Butuan boats, no rope lashings were used to fasten the stem/stern piece to the keel (here again, in line with the late dating of these boats, none of which were of the earlier “stitched-plank” type). 3 �Figure 3. Rope fastenings of stem and/or stern. (top): model of a whaling boat of Lamalera (ph. Nick Burningham) / (bottom): a biduk of the Upper Batang Hari, Jambi (as drawn by van Hasselt 1882, pl. XCIV). Other sites of Sumatra have in the past years delivered comparable remains of broken off keel pieces, all unfortunately from disturbed sites, along the shore of the Kota Kapur site (Bangka-Belitung), or at Margomulyo (Air Sugihan site complex, South Sumatra). All appear to have been fastened to similar stem/stern pieces. They have not been dated by C14, but both sites were in activity during the 1st millenium CE. DISCUSSION Scholars of the early 20th century, with the limited evidence they had at hand regarding the ancient shipbuilding traditions of Southeast Asian people, only considered the small boats they could then observe (dugouts with only a few raised planks). We know by now that large ocean sailing ships were built by Southeast Asians as early as the first few centuries CE, and that the boat builders of the Maldives —roughly half way on one possible route between Indonesia and Madagascar— kept building their midsized plank-built fishing craft in ways that clearly derive from former Southeast Asian lashed-lug technologies (Manguin 2011). It is therefore logical to conclude that those Austronesian speaking people who settled in Madagascar during the 1st millennium CE has sailed there in large plank- built vessels (Manguin 2012; 2016). This will have to remain in the realm of informed speculation, pending a systematic study of textual sources that would tell us if some of the Malagasy larger ships would show Figure 4. “Winged” stem or stern of a medium sized boat from Paya Pasir (photograph and drawing by P.- Y. Manguin; from Manguin, in press) / (right) Stepped design of the extremity of a keel piece, to which “winged” stem or stern blocks would have been fastened. 4 �traces of Southeast Asian shipbuilding traditions, or the discovery of a relevant shipwreck in the Indian Ocean. On more secure, if limited grounds, it now appears that the shape and the mode of assemblage stem and stern pieces following the ubiquitous “winged” design can vary considerably from craft to craft, and in different periods. It may well also have differed from region to region within Southeast Asian waters, but boats and ships being essentially mobile, it is rarely possible to ascertain from archaeological finds if the craft are locally produced of came from overseas). BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbas, Novida. "Perahu Kuna Punjulharjo: Sebuah Hasil Penelitian." Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi, 6 (2010): 42–56. Akerman, Kim and Dan Dwyer. "The Senabi: External stern-lashings on Austronesian water-craft", Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 24 (2000): 85–88. Barnes, Robert H. “Whaling vessels of Indonesia.” In Sewn Plank Boats, edited by Sean McGrail and Eric Kentley, 345–366. Greenwich: British Archaeological Reports International Series 276, National Maritime Museum, 1985. Burningham, Nick. "Stemless boats of Ende Bay." The Beagle, records of the Northern Territory Museum of Arts and Sciences 7, no. 1 (1990): 105–119. Burningham, Nick. "Bajau lepa and sope: A 'seven-part canoe' building tradition in Indonesia", The Beagle (Records of the Northern Territory Museum of Arts and Sciences), 10, no. 1 (1992): 193–222. Clark, Paul, Jeremy Green, Rey Santiago, et al. 1993, "The Butuan Two boat known as balangay in the National Museum, Manila, Philippines", International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 22, no. 2 (1993): 143–159. Dwyer, Daniel. "Value Adding to Maritime Archaeology with Two Case Studies from Vietnam: Possible External Stern-Lashing on 9th Century Hoi an Watercraft and a Re-Examination of Some Maritime Technologies Recorded on Dong Son Drums", in Mark Staniforth and Lê Thi Liên (Eds.), Underwater Archaeology in Vietnam and Southeast Asia: Co-operation for development, Quang Ngai 2014. Quang Ngai: Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, pp. 117–124, 2015a Dwyer, Daniel. "External stern-lashings on Southeast Asian Watercraft: New evidence for Early Technological Regionality in Boat Construction.", in Aldemar Ossowski (ed.), Book of Abstracts, ISBSA 14. International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology: Baltic and beyond Change and continuity in shipbuilding National Maritime Museum in Gdańsk, 43. Gdansk: The National Maritime Museum, 2015b. Dwyer, Daniel and Kim Akerman. 1998, "The pelédang. The lashed-lug whaling craft of Lamalera, Lomblen (Lembata), Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia ", The Beagle, Records of the Museums and Art Galleries of the Northern Territory, 14 (1998): 123– 147. Gibson-Hill, Carl Alexander. “Further notes on the old boat from Pontian”, Journal of the Malayan Branch, Royal Asiatic Society 25, no. 1 (1952): 111–133. Haddon, Alfred Court. "The Outrigger Canoe of East Africa", Man, 18, no. 29 (1918): 49–54. Haddon, Alfred Court. 1920, "The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes", Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 50 (1920): 63-134. van Hasselt, A. L. Ethnographische atlas van Midden-Sumatra, met verklarenden tekst, in Pieter J. Veth (ed.), Midden-Sumatra 1877-1879: Reizen en onderzoekingen der Sumatra-expeditie. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 3, no. 1 (1882): 2. Hornell, James. "The Affinities of East African Canoes", Man 55 (1919): 97–100. Hornell, James. "The Common Origin of the Outrigger Canoes of Madagascar and East Africa", Man 20, no. 67 (1920), pp. 134– 139. Hornell, James. "Indonesian Cultures in East Africa", Man 28 (1928): 1–4. Hornell, James. "Indonesian Influence on East African Culture", Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 54 (1934): 305– 332. 5 �Hornell, James. "Constructional Parallels in Scandinavian and Oceanic Boat Construction", Mariner's Mirror, 21 (1935): 411– 427. Hornell, James. "The Outrigger Canoes of Madagascar, East Africa and the Comoro Islands", Mariner's Mirror 30 (1944): 3–18, 170–185. Ivanoff, Jacques. The Moken Boat. Symbolic Technology. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1999. Lacsina, Ligaya. “Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques.” PhD thesis, Flinders University, 2016. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Sewn-plank craft of South-East Asia.” In Sewn Plank Boats, edited by Sean McGrail and Eric Kentley, 319-343. BAR International Series 276, Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1985. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. "The trading ships of Insular Southeast Asia : New evidence from Indonesian archaeological sites", in Proceedings, Pertemuan Ilmiah Arkeologi V, Yogyakarta 1989. [Jakarta]: Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia 1 (1989): 200–220. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. "Les techniques de construction navale aux Maldives originaires d’Asie du Sud-Est", Techniques & Culture 35-36 (2001): 21–47. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. "The Maldives connection: pre-modern Malay World shipping across the Indian Ocean", in Chantal Radimilahy and Narivelo Rajaonarimanana (eds.), Civilisations des mondes insulaires. Mélanges en l'honneur du Professeur Claude Allibert, 261–284. Paris: Éditions Karthala, 2011. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Late Mediaeval Asian Shipbuilding in the Indian Ocean: A Reappraisal”, in Om Prakash (ed.), The Trading World of the Indian Ocean, 1500-1800, 597–629. Calcutta: Centre for Studies in Civilisations, 2012. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships”, in Gwyn Campbell (ed.), Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World, 51–76. Basingstoke, Hampshire: PalgraveMacmillan, 2016. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. "Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: the stitched-plank and lashed-lug tradition", International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 48, no. 2 (2019): 400–415. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. 2021, “The assembly of hulls in Southeast Asian shipbuilding traditions: from lashings to treenails”, in Giulia Boetto, Patrice Pomey & Pierre Poveda (Eds), Open Sea / Closed Sea: Local and Inter-Regional Traditions in Shipbuilding (Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, Marseille 2018, ISBSA 15), Archaeonautica, 21 (2021): 135–138. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Ship timbers at Paya Pasir: the 1988-89 rescue excavation”, in Daniel Perret and Henny Surachman (eds.), The archaeology of Kota Cina, Paris- Jakarta: EFEO, BRIN. In press. Mochtar, Agni Sesaria, “The Seventh-Century Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: A study of the early Southeast Asian lashed-lug boatbuilding tradition.” Master’s thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide, (2018). Nimmo, H. Arlo. "The boats of the Tawi-Tawi Bajau, Sulu Archipelago, Philippines", Asian Perspectives, 29, no. 1 (1990): pp. 51–88. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource “Winged” stem and stern in Southeast Asian lashed-lug vessels: from ethnography to archaeology Description An account of the resource So-called “winged” bows were among the first boat characteristics that were used to identify the expansion of shipping technologies of the Austronesian speaking people across both the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Pioneers Haddon and Hornell were the first to recognize that small outrigger dugouts observed in East Africa shared a “winged” stem (and stern) construction with comparable boats from Insular Southeast Asia. Starting with the Butuan archaeological excavations in the 1980s, a number of much larger plank-built vessels of the first and second millennia CE have been brought to light in Southeast Asian waters that clearly belong to this “winged” technical tradition. They all belong to the lashed-lug shipbuilding tradition which is specific to Southeast Asia. This presentation will bring together the presently available evidence on such matters, with detailed observations, and a first attempt at building up a typology of such vessels. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pierre-Yves Manguin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Mangiun, Pierre-Yves. 2023. “‘Winged’ stem and stern in Southeast Asian lashed-lug vessels: from ethnography to archaeology.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology.URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1940 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d57ed3d4a256bb16fcf29a276d4c89c9.pdf dd21585de62507eb045b9432dc382821 PDF Text Text The Lashings and Knots of the Chau Tan Shipwreck Ian McCann ABSTRACT The Chau Tan shipwreck is the oldest ocean-going cargo ship yet found in Vietnam dating from around the 8th9th century CE. It provides a unique opportunity to study the construction methods of a lashed- lug ship from that period. Over 40 of the ship’s timbers were retrieved but unfortunately all the lashings connecting the lugs were severed during the salvage and no record was made of the salvage. There was still enough in situ ropes to start to build a small list of the types of simple knots and complicated flat braided lashings that were used in its construction. For this paper ropes were made using simple technology that may have been available at the time the ship was built. The two knots used on the Chau Tan ship are widely used, even today. The braided lashings are a different matter, they do not appear in any maritime archaeology or sailing literature that the author could access. First the author had to work out how the lashing was tied. It was then tested for strength to try and further understand it's utility. The results were surprising and emphasised the value of experimental archaeology. Keywords: Lashed-lug, rope strength, experimental archaeology List of figures Figure 1. Lashings on timber CT-T3 Figure 2. Lashing loops Figure 3. Lashing model of some of the Punjulharo lashings and Chau Tan Figure 4. Lashing after the stringer was removed and after the lashing was removed from the through holes. INTRODUCTION The Chau Tan vessel was carrying a cargo of mainly ceramics from Changsha, Ding and Yue kiln sites in Hunan province, China (Kimura 2015:3; Kimura 2016:51, Giang 2016:74). The shipwreck was discovered close to the village of Binh Chau in the province of Quang Ngai in Central Vietnam in the early 2000’s. Severe weather had stripped metres of sand from the seabed, allowing the salvage of its cargo. Over 40 of the ship’s timbers were also recovered and sold to a local collector, Lam Du Xenh. THE LASHINGS When found, the wreck was in a remarkable state of preservation with nearly all the lashings that held the vessel together intact. Later, the salvors cut the lashings to facilitate the removal of the timbers. The boat’s internal structure, such as the frames, thwarts etc. had been removed during salvage operations and not saved. The few intact lashings were of one type, a woven lashing that may have held longitudinal round battens with a flattened face that may have held some form of caulking in direct contact with and along the join of the hull planks. This lashing has also been found in Thailand on the Bueng Kum shipwreck inspected and recorded in early 2023 by Wongsakorn Rahothan and Naphat Piromrak (2023, 8). These lashings and their position on the timbers can be seen in Figure 1. Most of the lashings are located within 70mm of the corner of each lug. On top of the lashings are overhand knots and a single fisherman’s knot (Figure 1 lower right). These helped determine how the lashings were tied. 1 �Figure 1. Lashings on timber CT-T3 circled in red and two intact lashings. (Photo Kevin Edward and Author). Each of the hull timbers have through holes drilled in the face and the side with matching holes on adjacent timbers. During Vietnam Maritime Archaeology Projects (VMAP) fieldwork in 2017 the author selected 26 through holes where the quantity and diameter of ropes that were threaded through the holes were measured. Each of the matched holes has a rope of two strands threaded through them and this rope appears to be one continuous length that is wrapped around from between 18 to 26 times. The difference in the number of wraps is due to the variation in the thickness of the rope, being from between 3.2 mm to 5.49 mm. This variation may indicate that the strands were crudely made by hand or with simple tools. ROPE HISTORY Rope has been a staple technology for humans for millennia and rope making techniques, through trial and error, have resulted in different cultures constructing rope in similar ways. The longevity of techniques used in rope making is demonstrated by a painting on a wall in the tomb of Nefer at Saqqara, Egypt, circa 2465–2323 BCE. It shows a method of making ropes using a rope spinner to twist the ropes (Wendrich 2008, 1909). A photograph taken in Egypt before 1916 shows the same process (Mackay 1916, 126). In both illustrations the person making the strands is using a rope spinner. This illustrates an unchanged method of rope making spanning over 4000 years. It is likely that this long use of an unknown rope making methodology has been repeated in the Indo Pacific region. This rope spinner method was chosen by the author to make the ropes due to its longevity of use, not that it may have been a method of rope production used in the Indo Pacific region. 2 �Early rope making in Asia is shown in two photographs from the Bristol Historical Photographs of China website, pictures pa01-24 from the W. Palmer Collection and picture ba05-120 from the Bannister Family Collection. These two photographs show rope being woven by hand from a stiff fibre, possibly bamboo. A 1960s photograph of a Vietnamese rope factory in Qui Nhon in the (Dalby and Thede 1962, A11-18) shows two rope makers extending the length of a thick coiled rope, each working from opposite ends. Again, the material used is a stiff fibre and again the twisting is done by hand. What these three photographs demonstrate is that ropes can be made with basic tools and wherever flora with suitable fibres are found. ROPE FIBRES One of the complications of studying flora used to make rope is the lack of a database of identified waterlogged material (Haw 2019, 510). Allied with this is the variety of plant species in each genus. Palm trees are a common source of natural fibre for making ropes but there are between 2400 (Eiserhardt 2011, 1392) to 2600 known species (Baker and Dransfield 2016, 209). Fibres from the palm tree Arenga pinnata have been identified by archaeologists as being used on the construction of Southeast Asian boats, (Lacsina 2016, 9; Mochtar 2018, 15). We need to differentiate between palm species as this may help narrow down the geographic region of where the ropes were made and help to determine where the boats using those ropes may have been constructed or repaired. It must also be a consideration that rope may have been traded. Multiple types of rope fibre have been used, and still used, on boats. Different parts of a palm tree, such as the upper trunk and leaves, will produce a fibre of different colour, the latter being dark and the former being lighter, as well as of different texture and strength. This further complicates species identification. During a visit in 2016 to the island of Taumako in the Duff Island group, the author recorded a recently built Vaka, a large ocean voyaging outrigger canoe. Four different types of rope were used in its construction: two from palm trees, the leaves and upper trunk; one coconut fibre rope and the third, bamboo. After the Vakas first sea trial some palm fibre rope lashings were strengthened using strips of bamboo, indicating that different materials from possibly different locations may be used on any given vessel. MAKING THE ROPE In attempting to make rope the author constructed a rope spinner similar to the example seen on the Egyptian tomb and photograph and a simultaneously rotating three-hook system were the rope making ‘machines’ used. The only fibres that could be sourced were sisal (Agave saliana) and hemp (Cannibis sativa). Both rope makers worked well with around 10 metres of 3.5mm two strand rope being made in 45 minutes and 30 minutes respectively and with a little practice, a uniform rope could be made. Two of the most important things learnt by making rope is that a tightly spun, uniform diameter rope will produce a better-quality lashing, and when tightly spun, a rope will expand in diameter and tangle once the rope is released of any tension. If the tension is maintained on the rope for several hours by stretching it between two fixed points, the rope maintains the same diameter, does not tangle and is a stiffer, denser rope. When discussing the modern rope manufacturing process with Kent Mills from WA Ropes and Hardware, he explained that the diameter of a natural fibre rope will expand after manufacture. A 14 mm diameter hemp rope could measure up to16mm when on a spool, as the diameter of the rope is measured during manufacture when it is still under tension. 3 �LOAD TESTING THE ROPE A device was set up to measure the breaking strain of the rope. A 5,000 lb capacity analogue Dillion dynamometer to measure the load, and a high ratio yachting winch or a 1,500 kg lever block to apply the load, were used. Ten samples from each batch of two strand rope were tested for their breaking strain. Next the ropes’ breaking strain was tested first with an overhand knot and secondly a single fisherman’s knot. The figures were rounded to the nearest kilogram. The average breaking strain for the sisal rope was 24kg and for the manila rope, 29 kg. The overhand knot in both the sisal and manila reduced the strength of the rope by an average of 33 per cent, the single fisherman’s knot by 21 per cent. Commercially produced rope made from sisal, manila, jute, bamboo, nettle, seagrass, raffia, Egyptian flax and an artisanal coir rope from Vietnam were also tested. All these ropes had a similar percentage reduction in breaking strains when knotted. Comparing the breaking strains of different ropes made from different materials is problematic. Fibre strength, length and the aging process are a few of the factors that can affect the results. One of the main factors observed during these tests that impacted the breaking strain of the rope is the manufacturing process. Refined rope with a consistent density and diameter, such as the Egyptian flax, nettle and bamboo broke just outside the knot. The Vietnamese coir, handmade sisal and hemp often broke where there was a visible defect in the rope, such as a point where the diameter of the rope was noticeably thinner or where coarser fibres could be seen. To help set some meaningful benchmark strength for the different fibres, the weight of a given section of rope in relation to its diameter was recorded. A 100 mm length of rope from each test was weighed and this provided a strength, diameter and weight ratio. For example, the two-strand spinner made rope, when held under stress after making, would be between 15-30 per cent thinner than when the same type of rope was immediately released from any tension. With the tension released, the rope would tangle and expand in diameter. REPRODUCING THE LASHING A wooden model was made by reproducing a section of the hull, the model was made using short timbers and were joined by wooden dowls or treenails with through holes for the lashing. The hull planks were made from a hardwood and the stringer from a softwood. The intact lashings on the Chau Tan wreck had an internal diameter of approximately 47 mm which indicates the diameter of the wooden stringer that it held. A piece of wooden pole representing a stringer was carved to this size for the lashing to be woven around (Figure 2). The rope made from sisal and made using the rope spinner was chosen to make the lashing. Two 3800 mm lengths of rope were wound around the stringer and through each of the through holes 24 times, creating a continuous bundle of loops that were secured with an overhand knot, (Figure 2 bottom left). Two wooden wedges were placed between the round wooden stringer and the hull planks creating a gap of approximately 10 mm. This gap was needed to allow the binding rope to be fed around the bundles of loops. As the weaving of the lashing progressed, this gap would be gradually reduced to where the lashing had drawn the stringer tight onto the hull planks. Two 1,200 mm lengths of rope were secured to the top of the looped bundles on top of the stringer (12 o’clock) and secured with an overhand knot (A). These ropes were then woven around the bundles as figure two lower left and right. One of the 120 mm ropes is passed on the inside of the bundles, between the bundles and the stringer (B), over the top of the bundles (C) and fed under itself (D), in effect making an overhand knot (E). The knotted rope is pushed up to the top of bundles (F) then pulled tight. The same process is repeated on the opposite bundle with the same rope. This sequence is repeated until the lashing is formed a quarter of the way around the wooden stringer. Then the second 1200 mm rope is woven from the top down on the opposite side of the stringer until it formed a quarter of the way around the other side of the stringer. Now both 120 mm ropes are at the maximum diameter of the stringer (three and nine o’clock) and the bundles of loops now are vertically above the through holes. The ropes can be threaded through and 4 �pushed up the lashing as there is a growing gap between the round stringer and the vertical ropes of the loops. The remainder of the 1200 mm ropes are used in the same fashion until the stringer is held tight against the hull timbers. Once the lashing was completed, (Figure 2 top right), the stringer was held fast. A total of 10 metres of rope was needed to make the lashing. Figure 2. Above left. the lashing loops set up, right the lashing completed, and lower right and left the sequence used to make the lashing. PURPOSE OF THE LASHING This lashing appears to perform two functions; it pulls the stringer hard against the hull planks and at the same time, pulls the two planks together. This is a unique feature of the Chau Tan vessel; other lash lugged vessels have longitudinal stringers sitting on top of the ribs or frames leaving a gap between the stringer and the hull planks. As an intact internal structure from the Chau Tan shipwreck does not exist it is not known if the timbers were stringers or if they serve different functions. Figure 3 is a photograph of a model with a combination of lashings from the Punjulharo boat (1 and 2) with the large frame sitting across lugs and the stringers on top of one of the large frames (Lacsina 2016, 130; Mochtar 2018, 52). The small lashing (1) is securing a small batten that is at 90 degrees to the joins of the hull planks (Manguin 2019, Figure 7, Mochtar 5 �2018, 58). Three and four show how the Chau Tan stringers might have been placed under the frames, between the lugs and in direct contact with the hull planks seams. Figure 3. Lashing model of some of the Punjulharo lashings (1 and 2) and how the Chau Tan stringer or batten may have been lashed (3 and 4). (Model and photo by the author). The small lashing (Figure 3, 1) has some of the same physical characteristics as the Chau Tan lashing. Two bundles of loops are threaded through opposite holes on opposing planks. These bundles are then bound together with another rope that passes over a small batten with a continuous loop. The batten is sitting across the hull plank seam and its purpose is to provide a physical link between the two hull timbers and hold them tightly together at that point. The Chau Tan lashing and stringers also join the two hull planks tightly together, adding strength to the internal frame from the sizable stringer and helping to distribute loads across the internal structure. They could also be used as another system of caulking if the bottom of the round stringer was flattened. There are examples of battens lashed along the seam lines of a boats hull timbers as part of the caulking system. The bronze age Ferriby boat has a wooden batten or capping lath lashed with yew along the joins of the hull planks, (Wright 2104,16), with caulking moss between the batten and the hull planks. These thin battens would not provide much additional strength to the vessel. LOAD TESTING THE LASHING When weaving the lashing four 2,200 kg sewn slings were placed between the stringer and the hull timbers. Two of the tapes were attached to the 1,500 kg lever block and anchor point, the other two to the dynamometer and a second anchor point. This set up was used for the static load test of the lashing. A load was gradually applied until a measurement of 1,160 kg was reached, there was no movement of the lashing and no gap between the stringer and the hull timbers. The test was stopped at this stage due to the lever block starting to malfunction and concern in case the lashing failed as the author had to be close to the test rig to apply the load. 6 �With the testing model intact and with no visible damage a second load test was set up, this time applying a dynamic load. A peak load of 1,270 kg was reached. The lashing was still intact but both sides of the lashing had stretched; the left by 4mm the right by 18mm. None of the fibres had broken; however, where the strands passed over the edge of the wooden holes, a slight flattening of the fibres could be seen. This is the point where the lashing would most probably fail if the lashing was tested to destruction. The stringer could now be slid out from the lashing, (Figure 4 left) and by cutting two of the bundles of loops the whole knot could be removed from the model (Figure 4 right). This allows the structure of the knot to be clearly seen. Figure 4. Figure 4. Lashing after the stringer was removed and after the lashing was removed from the through holes. CONCLUSION The Chau Tan lashing has been proven to be a very strong lashing and simple to make. The gap between the curve of the stringer and the lashing would allow a rope to be bound around the looped bundles to tighten the lashing if it stretched. If damaged at sea it would be possible to completely replace the lashing whilst underway. Making rope using simple technology is straight forward and surprisingly quick. By following a few basic principles, a uniform rope of good quality can be made. Making rope can be as simple as rolling fibres in the hands to form strands and then twisting those strands to form rope. Alternatively, a simple wooden device, such as a wooden rope spinner, could be used. What this shows is that rope can be made almost anywhere, even on board a sailing vessel, if suitable material is at hand. More research is needed on identifying the species of plant used to make ropes particularly those that have been waterlogged. A comprehensive comparison of the strength of the different lashings systems in relation to the internal structural configurations of strakes, thwarts, stringers, knees and frames that have been used to construct lash lugged vessels is needed. This will give us a better understanding of the strengths, weaknesses, and flexibility of the lash lugged tradition of boat building. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Baker, William J., and John Dransfield. "Beyond Genera Palmarum: progress and prospects in palm systematics." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 182, no. 2 (2016): 207-233. Conard, Nicholas J., and Maria Malina. "Außergewöhnliche neue Funde aus den aurignacienzeitlichen Schichten vom Hohle Fels bei Schelklingen." Archäologische Ausgrabungen in Baden-Württemberg 2015 (2016): 60-66. Dalby, M., and W. Thede. "The Junk Blue Book." A Handbook of Junks of South Vietnam (1962). Eiserhardt, Wolf L., Jens-Christian Svenning, W. Daniel Kissling, and Henrik Balslev. "Geographical ecology of the palms (Arecaceae): determinants of diversity and distributions across spatial scales." Annals of Botany 108, no. 8 (2011): 1391-1416. Giang, Do Truong. "Diplomacy, trade and networks: Champa in the Asian commercial context (7th-10th Centuries)." Moussons. Recherche en sciences humaines sur l’Asie du Sud-Est 27 (2016): 59-82. Haw, S.G., “The genus Afzelia and the Belitung ship.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 29, no. 3 (2019):505-518. https://hpcbristol.net/ Historic Photographs of China, Bannister Family Collection ba05-120 and W. Palmer Collection pa0124. Last accessed 22/3/23. Kimura, J. Shipwrecked? New developments in Southeast Asian maritime archaeology and the safeguard of shipwrecks in the region. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 44 no. 1(15), pp. 1–4. Kimura, Jun. "Maritime archaeological perspectives on seaborne trade in the South China Sea and East China Sea between the seventh and thirteenth Centuries." Crossroads: Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World 11 (2016): 47-61. Lacsina, Ligaya. "Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques." PhD diss., Flinders University, School of Humanities and Creative Arts., 2016.Mackay, E., 1916. Note on a new tomb (No. 260) at Drah Abu'l Naga, Thebes. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 3(1), pp.125-126. Lacsina, Ligaya. "Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques." PhD diss., Flinders University, School of Humanities and Creative Arts., 2016. Manguin, Pierre Yves. "Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: the stitched-plank and lashed-lug tradition." International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 48 no. 2 (2019): 400-415. Mackay, E., 1916. Note on a new tomb (No. 260) at Drah Abu'l Naga, Thebes. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 3(1), pp.125-126. Mochtar, Agni Sesaria. "The Seventh-Century Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: A study of the early Southeast Asian lashedlug boatbuilding tradition." PhD diss., Flinders University, College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences., 2018. Wendrich, Willemina. "Ancient Egyptian Rope and Knots”. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. pp 1908-1909. 2008. Rahothan, Wongsakorn and Piromrak, Naphat. Bueng Kum Ancient Shipwreck. Unpublished report Division of the Thai Fine Arts Department, 2023. Wright, E.The Ferriby Boats: seacraft of the Bronze Age”. City: Routledge, 2014. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Lashings and Knots of the Chau Tan Shipwreck Description An account of the resource The Chau Tan shipwreck is the oldest ocean-going cargo ship yet found in Vietnam dating from around the 8th9th century CE. It provides a unique opportunity to study the construction methods of a lashed- lug ship from that period. Over 40 of the ship’s timbers were retrieved but unfortunately all the lashings connecting the lugs were severed during the salvage and no record was made of the salvage. There was still enough in situ ropes to start to build a small list of the types of simple knots and complicated flat braided lashings that were used in its construction. For this paper ropes were made using simple technology that may have been available at the time the ship was built. The two knots used on the Chau Tan ship are widely used, even today. The braided lashings are a different matter, they do not appear in any maritime archaeology or sailing literature that the author could access. First the author had to work out how the lashing was tied. It was then tested for strength to try and further understand it's utility. The results were surprising and emphasised the value of experimental archaeology. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ian McCann Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. McCann, Ian. 2023. “The Lashings and Knots of the Chau Tan Shipwrecks.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1941 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d6d06c5cd308ee2d0b0d10a3e719bced.pdf 9a6bbf05e603344fc0dff7ad07f302e2 PDF Text Text Lashing the loose planks: Making sense of the understudied “new” lashed-lug sites in Sumatra, Indonesia Agni Mochtar (Università di Napoli “L’Orientale”, Italy; National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Indonesia) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 6 Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific because it presents new information about the understudied and/or unpublished lashed-lug boats/ships found within the last decade in the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. The case studies under consideration are the lashed-lug boat remains from sites in the provinces of North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and Jambi. The resources available to conduct the work include boat/ship timbers consisted of hull planks, wing ends, and other hull component, as well as rudders, kept in the artefact storages and museums. The research questions of this project are what new information can be obtained from a close examination of the boat/ship planks and other timbers, and how such information would contribute to the advancement of the knowledge about the lashed-lug boatbuilding. The result of the detailed documentation of the boat/ship remains is a comprehensive dataset which covers many variables including ones overlooked in previous research. This project is a part of the author’s doctoral research which expected result is the insights of variations within this particular boatbuilding and the factors causing the variations. Keywords: shipwreck analysis, hull catalogues, boat remains, and environmental context List of figures and tables Figure 1. Distribution map of the sites studied in the project. Figure 2. Plank fastening on a hull plank from Bongal site, North Sumatra Figure 3. Rudder from Cengal site, South Sumatra Table 1. Recapitulation of timbers documented in 2022–2023. Table 2. Preliminary grouping of hull timbers from Bongal site. INTRODUCTION The study of archaeological remains of the Southeast Asian lashed-lug boatbuilding tradition was initiated in the 1980s (Manguin 1989) and developed rather slowly in the following three decades. Fortunately, the last decade witnessed a more promising progress of this topic with new findings and more sites were being investigated closely. In Indonesia, archaeological missions to shipwreck or boat remains sites had been fluctuating throughout decades, with most missions conducted in response to accidental findings by local communities. Other times, the ship/boat timbers were discovered during excavation in areas not intended to investigate nautical archaeology, which resulted in preliminary documentation without further analysis. After the initial studies of general characteristics of the lashed-lug ship/boatbuilding, close examinations of artefactual data had provided essential information about the details of the construction and other related aspects such as raw materials and associated cargo. In the last decade, many findings were reported in Indonesia, especially in Sumatra (Akbar 2019; Indradjaja 2012; Intan 2017; Purnawibowo and Restiyadi 2020), but only limited detailed recording and in-depth analysis was performed. Sumatra had been one of the most important places in the history of maritime network within Indonesia, in Southeast Asia, as well as the Indian Ocean. However, it was unfortunate that ship/boatbuilding study was many times overlooked in the archaeological investigation of the region. This project attempts to closely examine the new findings of lashed-lug boat remains in Sumatra as well as to re-examine previous findings not analysed. The aim is to learn about how they can contribute to 1 �the discussion of the study of lashed-lug tradition. Emphasis is on the variations in the construction, to further the knowledge about the past seafaring in the region. CASE STUDIES The project presented in this paper investigated archaeological remains of lashed-lug watercrafts in three provinces in Sumatra, namely North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and Jambi (Figure 1). South Sumatra and Jambi were on the east coast of Sumatra and famous for their rich archaeological remains, especially the Buddhist artefacts and monuments, many associated to Sriwijaya Kingdoms, one of the largest kingdoms of pre-modern Indonesia (Degroot, Griffiths, and Manguin 2014; Utomo 2010). Major rivers, Musi and Batanghari, run as the vein of people’s activities since early times. Unsurprisingly, many lashed-lug sites were found along the riverbank of the two rivers and their tributaries (Sadzali 2019), also near the coastal lines (Rangkuti 2017). There are also sites located underwater, such as Tanjung Renggung (Adhityatama and Sulistyarto 2018) and Lingga (Flecker 2019), proof that the lashed-lug watercrafts were used in both inland and marine waters. The case study site in North Sumatra is located on the west coast, in Central Tapanuli Regency. In terms of archaeological remains, the regency was considered as one of the most important places in the history of Islam in Indonesia. The Barus site is the first point where Muslims came to Nusantara (modern Indonesia) in the ninth century CE (Guillot et al. 2008). However, the evidence of the initial landing, old harbour, or coastal settlement was almost non-existent. That was until the report in 2019 of archaeological findings from Bongal site, around 95km south of Barus. Surveys and excavations in the Bongal site reveal a likely harbour and settlement close to the Lumut river estuary. Artefacts from this site include ship and boat components, ceramics, beads, coins, and inscriptions. Radiocarbon dating results of one sample of timber and one sample of rope indicate the site was in use as early as the seventh century CE. Two centuries earlier than Barus (Purnawibowo and Mochtar 2021). Since the first report, the locals found more ship/boat timbers but, unfortunately, they were taken from the location without any documentation. RESOURCES Documentation for this project up to early 2023, included ship and boat timbers kept in different types of storage in three provinces. The storage varied from semi-permanent shed built near the site, a local government office, museum display rooms, museum storages, and an artefact storage building. Boat timbers in North Sumatra came from Bongal site, located in the western coast of Sumatra, on the rim of the Indian Ocean. Meanwhile, those in both South Sumatra and Jambi came from several sites in the province. South Sumatra East coast 2 �Bongal Tulung Selapan Cengal Lambur Margomulyo Air Sugihan Figure 1. Distribution map of the sites studied in the project. In the last decade the national archaeological research centre in Indonesia, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional (Puslit Arkenas) and the regional agency for archaeological research in South Sumatra, Balai Arkeologi Sumatera Selatan (Balar Sumsel) conducted surveys and excavations on the east coast of South Sumatra to study the wetland settlements in the area. During the missions the teams found components of lashed-lugs vessels which varied from keel planks, hull planks, rudders, to oars. According to the project reports and personal communication with the team members, larger timbers were left close to the site locations while some small to medium timbers were collected and kept in the offices for further analysis. During the author’s data collection in 2023, site visits were not possible due to the weather constraint thus the documentation of the ship/boat timbers from the east coast was conducted on those kept in the artefact storage in Balar Sumsel office. The recorded timbers include fragments of a keel plank, hull planks, a wing end, a rudder, and some paddles from Tulung Selapan site, Cengal site, and Margomulyo site. Inland Other boat timbers recorded during the data collection were found on the riverbank of Lematang River, a tributary of the Musi River, far inland around 200km from the coast. The locals who accidentally found the boat dismantled one of the extremities due to curiosity. The authorities then came and brought 3 �the timbers, which consisted of hull planks and a frame, to the artefact storage/display building of the Bumiayu temple complex. Jambi The timbers recorded during the data collection early this year were kept in Museum Siginjei, the regional museum of Jambi. Two fragments of hull planks, a wing end, and some rig components were displayed for the public. The museum storage housed one small vessel, possibly a canoe, with apparent lugs on the keel plank. According to the information from the museum employees, the canoe was found in Lambur Village, probably close to the recently excavated intact lashed-lug boat. Unlike the canoe, the provenance of the boat timbers being displayed was, unfortunately, unknown. North Sumatra The lashed-lug boat timbers from the Bongal site were kept in three locations namely, the semipermanent artefact storage building near the site, the local government office, and the Museum Abad 1 Hijriah in Surakarta, Central Java. The timbers in the storage and the office were documented in the 2023 data collection while those in the museum were documented last year. The timbers in the office were from the initial survey after the first report from the locals, they are generally small to medium fragments. Meanwhile, the timbers in the storage were mostly hull planks, the longest at over two meters and some planks were heavy with almost eight centimetres total thickness. FRAMEWORK The project presented in this paper was part of the author’s ongoing doctoral research project. It started last year and is expected to be finished by the end of 2024, titled ‘A technological study of lashedlugged, plank-built boats and vernacular boat building practices in Indonesia’. The project aims to investigate variations within the lashed-lug boatbuilding tradition through a close examination of archaeological remains found in Indonesia, with the aid of other data including ethnography and iconography. Variations within the lashed-lug boatbuilding were addressed previously (Manguin 2019; Lacsina 2019; Lacsina and Mochtar 2020) but with minimal investigation of possible influences. This project used a nautical archaeology approach to understand the correlation of attributes within one artefact, of one artefact to others, and of artefacts to other data. From such correlations the author synthesises aspects of the boatbuilding technology. Emphasis is on technique variations used in, among others, fastening systems, plank-shaping, bow and stern assembly, as well as to identify the possible variation influences. Due to the current non-intact stage, of the majority of the ship/boat timbers, the analysis was conducted by identification of the artefact attributes and their function and recorded in a database. RESULTS Documentation of timbers During data collection in 2022–2023 the author recorded 50 lashed-lug ship/boat components in various sizes and conditions (see Table 1). All the recorded timbers were first grouped into six types of components, namely keel plank, hull plank, bow/stern assembly, rudder, rig, and unidentified. The last category was to accommodate the timbers, which until this article was written, were still unidentified in 4 �terms of their position or function. The hull planks were, by far, the most oft recorded component. This was expected because in a complete boat or ship the number of hull planks are highest, compared to other components. Besides the verbal description, the author made manual drawings and/or photogrammetry of the timbers. The combination of recording methods was chosen to handle the different conditions of the data. Some timbers were waterlogged, and due to the time constraints, it was difficult to obtain detailed data. For example, the photogrammetry failed to record minor details such as the depth of the holes and the connections between lashing holes. In addition, close-up pictures were taken to record details, such as a fragment of rope inside a lashing hole. The author also recorded before and after photographs of all samples taken for radiocarbon dating and species identification. Table 1. Recapitulation of timbers documented in 2022–2023. No Ship/boat component 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Total Keel plank Hull plank Bow/stern assembly Rudder Rig Unidentified Qty 2 31 6 5 1 3 50 Keel plank and hull planks, preliminary analysis The initial stage of analysis was conducted on hull planks because they held many attributes related to the construction of the vessel. Macroscopic observation was performed on surfaces and the seams of planks to identify the dowel holes, lashing holes, and/or peg holes. Observation was also performed to see variables such as degree of degradation, shape of lugs, type of plank fastening, and type of joinery. Whenever possible, tool marks and other technological traces were observed and analysed. Every attribute on each plank was recorded in a database, which was further elaboration on the extensive database published by Manguin (2019). Whilst his database included both lashed-lug and non-lashedlug vessels found in Southeast Asia, the author’s database only covered lashed-lug vessels in Indonesia, with emphasis on the new and/or unrecorded findings. The database helped the author to identify the similarities and dissimilarities in the construction of the lashed-lug vessels represented by the hull planks. Plank fastenings The hull planks showed variations of the plank fastening. The majority was the combination of dowels and plank lashings. A particular case was found in the planks from Bongal site (Figure 2) where four types of fastening holes were identified: dowel holes, lashing holes, peg holes, and go-through holes. The last type of hole was possibly drilled for a long dowel that went through three parallel planks. A keel plank showed the use of only lashings for plank fastening, even though they were rather thick and heavy. 5 �Figure 2. Plank fastening on a hull plank from Bongal site, North Sumatra. Lugs In general, the lugs are rectangular with two pairs of lashing holes. Some variations were noted on some planks with ridges, but the number of lashing holes was always the same. Apparent distinction is found on the canoe from Lambur, which had smaller lugs with one large hole through the width of the lug. Correlation between attributes The Bongal site had further in-depth analysis to understand the assemblage of hull planks, which attributes were varied and without information of the provenience. The grouping of the planks based on their attributes revealed a possibility of multiple vessels in one site. At this stage, the author put the planks into four groups based on the difference between the plank fastening system, the dimension of the plank, and the character of the wood such as the weight and the level of degradation (see Table 2). The last two variables might indicate different species, which were a weak evidence to support a possibility of different vessels, like those examples in the Butuan boat that used several different types of wood (Lacsina 2016) or in case of a repairment. However, combined with a significant difference in the plank thickness and the use of different plank fastening, it was difficult to imagine them to be from the same vessel. Table 2. Preliminary grouping of hull timbers from Bongal site. GROUP DESCRIPTION A Plank with scarf joints, 3cm thick Heavily degraded, 5cm thick Flat, heavy plank, rectangular cut joints, 3cm thick Thick plank, 7cm thick B C D LUGS DOWELS PLANK LASHINGS PEGS QTY Rectangle, 2 pairs of lashing holes Rectangle, 2 pairs of lashing holes Rectangle, 2 pairs of lashing holes yes no yes 2 yes yes no 2 yes yes no 4 Rectangle, 2 pairs of lashing holes yes yes yes 1 TOTAL 9 6 �Rudder The rudders documented during the data collection were found by local people without clear information of their finding process. Although they were different in dimension, all rudders due to their similar features could be easily identified as belonging to same tradition. The whole rudder, the stock and the blade, made from one solid wood. The stock was cylindrical and gradually flattens towards the mid part to form the blade. The interpretation of this type of rudder as one used in lashed-lug vessels was based on the rudders found in Bongal site and from the Cengal site. Despite the missing information about the actual location, the rudder from Bongal site was found in the same area with the hull planks and other ship/boat timbers and, to date, all the ship/boat timbers unearthed from the site belong to the lashed-lug tradition. Similarly, the rudder from Cengal site (Figure 3) was found during a survey where local people report the rudder with other lashed-lug hull planks. Further, during the excavation in Air Sugihan area in South Sumatra, the team unearthed some lashed-lug planks and a rudder in one context (Indradjaja 2012; Intan 2017). Further analysis During the data collection, wood samples were taken from selected timbers for radiocarbon dating and species identification. The author proposes the results from the analysis will correlate the variation within the construction with different periods and/or with different raw materials. Secondary sources about lashed-lug ship/boats from other places in the region would also be consulted to investigate whether the variations were due to the production of vessels in different workshops. CONCLUSION After the success of a previous study in synthesizing the general characters of the lashed-lug ship/boatbuilding traditions (see Session 6_Lacsina and Mochtar in this APConf 5 Proceedings), we now need the investigation of archaeological remains in detail, and to update the record of new findings throughout Southeast Asia. Indonesia played a significant role in the early days of this study because many lashed-lug archaeological remains were found. This became the primary data to understand the tradition, which previously was only in historic ethnographic research. However, the work of the author’s project was conducted to further the knowledge of the ship/boatbuilding tradition by closely examining details in the more recently discovered and/or understudied ship/boat timbers. The result from the preliminary analysis of the timbers highlights the variations of techniques used in the lashed-lug construction, even on the planks from one site. Such variations were noted in previous research but further study to understand them and the influencing factor behind such variations were scarcely done. As it progressed with the analysis on more timbers, as the radiocarbon dating and species identification results return, hopefully this project would provide more detailed insight. Meanwhile, from observations during data collection and preliminary post-fieldwork analysis, this project has documented new information regarding the lashed-lug ship/boatbuilding, such as propulsion of the vessels and the identification of a harbour site on the eastern rim of the Indian Ocean. 7 �Figure 3. Rudder from Cengal site, South Sumatra. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to express gratitude to the institutions, who authorise all the data documented in this project, for the permit to access their collection: BRIN Sumatera Selatan, BRIN Sumatera Utara, BPK Wilayah V Jambi, BPK Wilayah VI Sumatera Selatan, Dinas Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata Tapanuli Tengah, Museum Abad 1 Hijriah Surakarta, Museum Siginjei Jambi, as well as Museum Balaputeradewa and Museum Sriwijaya Palembang. The author would also like to thank Prof Chiara Zazzaro at Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” as the author’s tutor for this research for all the supports and supervisions. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adhityatama, Shinatria, and Priyatno Hadi Sulistyarto. ‘Bukti Langsung Interaksi Perdagangan di Kepulauan Riau: Studi Pada Situs Arkeologi Bawah Air di Pulau Natuna dan Pulau Bintan’. Jurnal Segara 14, no. 3 (6 December 2018): 127–35. https://doi.org/10.15578/SEGARA.V14I3.7348. Akbar, Ali. ‘Laporan Akhir Pelaksanaan Kegiatan Penelitian Situs Perahu Kuno di Desa Lambur, Kecamatan Muara Sabak Timur’, 2019. Degroot, Véronique, Arlo Griffiths, and P.-Y. Manguin, eds. Kedatuan Sriwijaya: Kajian Sumber Prasasti dan Arkeologi. 2nd ed. Depok, Indonesia: Komunitas Bambu, 2014. Flecker, Michael. ‘Sister Ships: Three Early 12th Century CE Shipwrecks in Southeast Asia’. Current Science 10 (2019): 1654–63. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27138527. Guillot, Claude, M. -F. Dupoizat, U Sumaryo, D Perret, and H Surachman. Barus Seribu Tahun Yang Lalu. Jakarta: KPG & Ecole française d’Extrême‐Orient, 2008. Indradjaja, Agustijanto. ‘The Pre-Srivijaya Period on the Eastern Coast of Sumatra: Preliminary Research at the Air Sugihan Site’. In Connecting Empires and States: Selected Papers from the 13th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, 32–42, 2012. Intan, M. Fadlan S. Air Sugihan: Jejak Sungai Lama di Lahan Basah. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak, 2017. Lacsina, Ligaya. ‘Examining Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian Boatbuilding: An Archaeological Study of the Butuan Boats and the Use of Edge-Joined Planking in Local and Regional Construction Techniques’. Flinders University, 2016. https://www.academia.edu/download/54800536/ThesisLacsina2016.pdf. ———. ‘The Same-Same Boatbuilding Tradition? Looking at Different Examples of Lashed-Lug Boats from the Southeast Asia Region’. In Past, Present, and Future of ASEAN Maritime Heritage, 38–53, 2019. Lacsina, Ligaya, and Agni Sesaria Mochtar. ‘The Lashed-Lug Tradition Beyond the Commonalities: A Closer Examination of Variations in Keel Design within Southeast Asian Shipbuilding Tradition’. In Advancing Southeast Asian Archaeology 2019: Selected Papers from the Second SEAMEO SPAFA International Conference on Southeast Asian Archaeology, Bangkok, Thailand 2019, edited by Noel Hidalgo Tan. Seameo-Spafa, 2020. https://www.spafajournal.org/index.php/spafapub/issue/view/136. 8 �Manguin, P.-Y. ‘Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: The Stitched-Plank and Lashed-Lug Tradition’. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 48, no. 2 (2019): 400–415. https://doi.org/10.1111/1095-9270.12367. ———. ‘The Trading Ships of Insular Southeast Asia: New Evidence from Indonesian Archaeological Sites.’ In Proceedings of Pertemuan Ilmiah Arkeologi in Yogyakarta, 4 – 7 Juli 1989. Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia, 1989. Purnawibowo, Stanov, and Agni Sesaria Mochtar. ‘Boatbuilding Technology Analysis of the Seventh Century Boat Remains from Bongal Site on the West Coast of North Sumatera’. KALPATARU 30, no. 2 (30 November 2021): 99–112. https://doi.org/10.24832/kpt.v30i2.821. Purnawibowo, Stanov, and Andri Restiyadi. ‘Identifikasi Tinggalan Arkeologi Maritim di Situs Bukit Bongal, Tapanuli Tengah, Sumatera Utara’. Medan, 2020. Rangkuti, Nurhadi. ‘Teluk Cengal: Lokasi Pelabuhan Sriwijaya?’ Berkala Arkeologi 37, no. 2 (11 December 2017): 125–40. https://doi.org/10.30883/jba.v37i2.206. Sadzali, Asyhadi Mufsi. ‘Hulu ke Hilir: Jaringan dan Sistem Perniagaan Sungai Kerajaan Srivijaya’. Paradigma, Jurnal Kajian Budaya 9, no. 1 (2019): 61. https://doi.org/10.17510/paradigma.v9i1.276. Utomo, Bambang Budi, ed. Ekspedisi Sriwijaya: Mencari Jalur yang Hilang. Palembang: Balai Arkeologi Palembang, 2010. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lashing the loose planks: Making sense of the understudied “new” lashed-lug sites in Sumatra, Indonesia Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 6 Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific because it presents new information about the understudied and/or unpublished lashed-lug boats/ships found within the last decade in the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. The case studies under consideration are the lashed-lug boat remains from sites in the provinces of North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and Jambi. The resources available to conduct the work include boat/ship timbers consisted of hull planks, wing ends, and other hull component, as well as rudders, kept in the artefact storages and museums. The research questions of this project are what new information can be obtained from a close examination of the boat/ship planks and other timbers, and how such information would contribute to the advancement of the knowledge about the lashed-lug boatbuilding. The result of the detailed documentation of the boat/ship remains is a comprehensive dataset which covers many variables including ones overlooked in previous research. This project is a part of the author’s doctoral research which expected result is the insights of variations within this particular boatbuilding and the factors causing the variations. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Agni Mochtar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Mochtar, Agni. 2023. “Lashing the loose planks: Making sense of the understudied “new” lashed-lug sites in Sumatra, Indonesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1942 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b7d2bcb398eb8f1e870c846e7d27df50.pdf 4e8852abbc53cfdaedca4650a3f964d9 PDF Text Text Discussion on the Traces of an Early Phase Lashed-Lug Boats of Southeast Asia Mr. Napat Piromrak (Underwater Archaeology Division, Thailand) ABSTRACT Lashed-lug boat-building techniques played a significant role in Southeast Asian trading networks. The previous studies reported that approximately 20 boats in this category have been found. Indeed, an archaeological survey in Thailand during the 1990s had reported the existence of several boats of this type, but the information was scarce and no excavation had been conducted. Not until 2019, a team of Thai underwater archaeologists carried out a survey along the Andaman Coast, the resources available to conduct the work including the discovery of boat remnants which were assumed to be lashed-lug type. The first was a boat plank found at Khlong Thom, the early port site in Krabi province, likely dating back to c. 1st – 5th century CE. The second was a boat plank found at Pak-Klong Kluai beach, Ranong province, located in the area of Phukao-Thong archaeological site. Therefore, research on the boat planks is needed in order to find out the technique of the boat-building and its age. The main purpose of the research is to present an insightful analysis of the boat remnants. The analysis of boat-building techniques, a sample collection for AMS dating, and a comparative studmanguiny were carried on. The result of the study reveals a significant aspect of an early phase lashed-lug boats: planks were carved into protruding lugs with hollowed holes, the hull was secured using a palm rope and wooden wedge, and no trace of a dowel hole are found. The AMS dating of a wooden sample from both sites provided a date of 1,856 ±25 BP and 2,303 ±29 BP. Comparatively, the boat structure is similar to the lashed-lug boat of Pontian (3rd – 5th century CE). However, the hull of these boats bears a different technique of making from other boats (e.g. Butuan and Ban Khlong Yuan boats, 9 th century CE). The discovery of the boat remnants in Thailand has shed new light on the early technique of constructing lashed-lug boats in Southeast Asia, confirmed by the AMS dating. Furthermore, information on boat-building development is provided. Keywords: Lashed-lug Boat, Mortise and Tenon Boat, Shell-based Boat, Sewn Plank Boat List of figures Figure 1. Map showing the shipwreck remains of Pak Khlong Kluai site between 2016-2019 : Courtesy of Decha Pornthai. Figure 2. Evidence of lashed lug plank no. 20 from Test Pit three. Figure 3. Lashed lug plank no. 4 (on top) and no. 5 (long piece) with ropes residue attached to each lug. Figure 4. Lashed lug plank with a frame piece attached to it by ligature. INTRODUCTION “Lashed lug” is specifically used to describe a traditional boat-building technique that spread and was used throughout Southeast Asia’s region. The technique consisted of a shell-based construction, in which the hull planking is constructed first to create an outer shell by edge joining method using wooden dowels and lacing ligatures to the pre-drill holes on the plank, sometimes only dowels are used. After the hull is assembled, frames are added to strengthen the overall construction by lashing to the lugs carved on the interior of the hull. Undoubtedly, the name “lashed lug” comes from the last procedure. Recent studies showed over 20 vessels that were identified as lashed lug boats (Manguin 2019; McGrail 2001), all of them were discovered both underwater and inland near the waterway of Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, and also Thailand. As a result, all have been dated between the fifth to the sixteenth centuries CE (Lacsina 2019, 40). Previous studies by several scholars have suggested a similar theory that early Southeast Asian boats might have been joined exclusively by lacing (Horridge 1982, 1, 32–33, 56-58), or at least lacing as a primary fastening and supplement with doweling (Manguin 1993, 260; McGrail 2001, 297). As Horridge (1982) asserted the need for metal technology in order to drill the dowel holes on the plank edge, which the lacing holes on the lug did not. Furthermore, Manguin (2019, 5) suggested the chronology of the development of plank fastening vessels, he stated that lashed lug boats in the early first millennium relied more on lacing than doweling. Then, during the second half of the first millennium, boatbuilders began to rely on dowelling than lacing, and toward the end of the millennium lacing were completely disappear. However, it is uncertain to conclude whether lashed lug plank fastening is evolving from exclusive lacing to exclusive doweling, without additional evidence on a much earlier plank-built boat (Lacsina 2016, 38). 1 �The earliest well-known evidence of watercraft assembled with lashed lug is the remains of Pontian boat found in Peninsular Malaysia, dating between 260 – 430 CE (Manguin 1993, 256). Traces on the plank show sign of lacing with a small number of doweling. Moreover, in 1985, Pierre-Yves Manguin (1993, 257) investigated a similar boat’s plank construction to the one at Pontian, which had been recovered and displayed at Wat Khlong Thom Museum, Krabi, Thailand. The planks are badly damaged and had no radiocarbon dating, however, relative dating suggested the age of the planks is between the fifth to the seventh centuries CE. Interestingly, the plank showed an identical lug design to its relative, the Pontian boat. Although, there is no sign of supplementing dowels, as the planks are badly degraded and were found in such a small length. The discovery of the Pontian boat and its relative, Khlong Thom plank could represent, what assume to be an early-stage lashed lug boat. However, the available evidence is scarce and incomplete. Nonetheless, a recent survey along the coastal port sites of Khlong Thom, Krabi and Phukao Thong, Ranong, located in the Southwestern coast of Thailand had discovered a few boat remnants that can reveal a new example of an early-stage lashed lug boat. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF LASHED-LUG BOATS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Archaeological evidence of vessels that were built using lashed lug technique number more than 20 throughout the region (Manguin 2019; McGrail 2001; Lacsina 2019). Despite the main concept of lashed lug construction, there is a distinctive difference in each construction. The major difference is the way planks are fastened, lashed lug vessels in the early period showed that plank stitching or lacing was a primary fastening method and supplemented with a dowel, this included the archaeological evidence of the Pontian Boat(3rd-5th CE), the Kolam Pinisi Boat (5th-7th CE), the Sambirejo Boat (7th-8th CE), the Punjulharjo Boat (7th-8th CE), and Ban Khlong Yuan Boat(early 9th CE). Later period vessels such as the five Butuan Boats (8th-10th CE), the Chau Tan shipwreck(9th CE), the Cirebon shipwreck(10th CE), the Paya Pasir timbers (12th-14th CE), the Sha Tsui Boat (13th-15th CE), the Gujangang shipwreck (15th-16th CE), and the San Isidro shipwreck (16th CE), only show evidence of doweling, discarded the practice of lacing (Manguin 1993; McGrail 2001; Liebner 2014; Lacsina 2016, 2019; Mochtar 2020). Archaeological finds supported that lashed lug technique evolved from primary plank lacing and gradually adapted to doweling (Manguin 2019; McGrail 2001). HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS There are very few historical accounts describing boats in Southeast Asia. As Southeast Asian most likely pass their knowledge through oral tradition (Lacsina 2016: 23). Most of the accounts are written by nonSoutheast Asian. Indeed, only a few describe insight detail of ship construction. A fourth-century Chinese book on Southeast Asian floral describes that sugar palm bark (Arenga pinnata) can be made into rope, which is used by Southeast Asian boatbuilders to bind timber together (Manguin 1993, 261). Another Chinese record from an eighth-century source describes the large ship of kunlun people (people beyond the barrier which refer to Southeast Asians) which they called “bo”. The source stated that this ship can reach 60 meters and can transport up to 1,000 passengers. The ship is bound together using the bark of coconut trees with no use of iron nails or clamps. There are several planks and sails (Manguin 1993, 262). A smaller size vessel was recorded by Wang Ta Yuan, a Chinese traveler that visit Madura during the fourteenth century. He stated that the boat was made using split rattan and plug the seam with cotton wadding (Scott 1982, 340, as cited in Lacsina 2016). 2 �More detailed accounts were produced during the arrival of the Europeans in the region beginning in the sixteenth century CE. The first Portuguese source described the Sumatra trading ship as junco, the word is derived from the Malay and Javanese word jong (Manguin 1993, 266), which appeared in Javanese inscription as early as the eleventh century (Manguin 1993, 266; Brandes 1889). The jong is large ship comparable in size to the Portuguese, which can carry between 350-500 tons deadweight (Manguin 1993, 266). The plank and frame were exclusively fastened with dowels and assembled multiple layers of planking. The jong used at least two masts and used two lateral rudders (Manguin 1993, 266–267). Another Portuguese account written by Gabriel Rebello described a boat building in Moluccas Sea in 1569. He described that the planks are drilled at the seam and were assembled using a mallet. The construction is so tight that the seam is barely visible. Then, the boatbuilders tied the interior (component) to the lug or cleat with ropes made from root (Manguin 2019). Indeed, the first-hand account of lashed-lug boat building is the record by Francisco Alcina, a Spanish priest who recorded step-by-step boat-building techniques in the Philippines during the seventeenth century CE. He wrote that after the keel was attached to the stem and stern post, the suitable length of wood was chosen for the planks. Only two planks can be produced from a single tree, the boat-builders reduces the thickness of the plank using adzes and left a series of lug or tambuku (Alcina 2005 [1668], 169, as cited in Lacsina 2016; 2019). STUDY OF EARLY LASHED LUG BOATS IN THAILAND Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site In 2016, a local fisherman discovered a large scale of wood remnants and pottery on the beach of Pak Khlong Kluai, Ranong province (Figure 1). The site is exposed during low tide, fortunately after the found he contact the authorities, which finally led to the Thai Fine Art Department conducting a slow process of unearthing and conserving the remains. The Fine Arts Department including the 15th Regional Archaeology Office (Phuket) and the Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD) conducted several archaeological surveys and site mappings from August to November of 2016. The remnant was identified as a shipwreck, due to a large amount of what was assumed to be wooden planks with a mortise and tenon fastening technique, the evidence also showed many scarf joints. The individual plank has an estimated dimension of 500 centimeters in length, 30-40 centimeters in width, and 10 cm in thickness. The overall structure was 20 meters long and eight meters wide. The plank analysis from the laboratory reveals that it is Terminalia nigrovenulosa Pierre which is commonly found in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand. The tenon was made of Dialium cochinchinese Pierre and the dowel was made of Cassia sp. AMS dating of the plank sample came out between BC 170-180 (Cal BP 2120±30, BP 2140±30) (The FAD 2017) The site location is near Bang Kluai Canal which is linked to an early coastal archaeological site of Phukao Thong, a site that play an important role as a port, stone, and glass ornament production dating around 2,000 years ago. Unfortunately, the wooden structure was in poor condition, and an attempt to reduce the deterioration using Geotextiles and sandbags did not work. As a re-examination show the structures couldn’t withstand the wave. So, the recovery excavation was planned in order to recover the main part of the wreck. 3 �Figure 1. Map showing the shipwreck remains of Pak Khlong Kluai site between 2016-2019: Courtesy of Decha Pornthai. The excavation was conducted in 2019, and the GPR (ground penetrating radar) was used in order to detect underground anomalies across 800 m². Test pits and trenches were planned based on this information to cover the study area. Due to the condition of the site as the wreck is exposed during low tide, the excavation process needs to be finished in one day. So, the trenches were divided into 17 long, narrow trenches and five test pits. As a result, the main wooden structure of 60m² (the volume of the structure reduced significantly based on the 2016 report) is identified as a ship plank, the length varies, the width is between 30-40 cm, and has 10 cm thickness. It was joined edge to edge and used mortise and tenon fastening techniques and supplemented with dowels to lock the joint. Wood identification was carried out for the second time, planks were made from Terminalia nigrovenulosa Pierre, tenons were made of Dialium cochinchinese Pierre and dowels were made of Tectona grandis L.f. (the fifteenth Regional Office of Archaeology 2016) Traces on the plank show at least six scarf joints and two rectangular shape holes. During the recovery process, various sizes of logs are found under the structure, some showed signs of rough-cut marks and were assumed not relevant to the ship’s parts, which could suggest the wrecks were likely abandoned. 80 percent of the pottery excavated from the site are orange-brown jar-shaped earthenware, decorated with cord marks. The rest of the potteries are bowl-shaped and has a variety of decoration such as impressing and polishing inside with black ash. All of them have a similar style to pottery found in Phukao Thong early historic site nearby. The AMS dating of the plank came out to be 200-140 BCE (Ploymukda 2020, 54), which is relative to artifacts found at Phukao Thong site. The remnant of mortise and tenon planks found at Pak Khlong Kluai site represent a few of these techniques that are found in Southeast Asia. However, it still remains unclear if it is part of a hull or other part, since, no further evidence of a keel or frame is found. Surprisingly, the excavation on test pit three (including the adjoined area of trench one, and trench three) revealed different ship construction to the main wreck. The test pit is 10 meters Southwest of the wreck. Timbers lying on test pit three show clear evidence of lashed lug construction, in addition, the lug design is relatively similar to the Khlong Thom boat plank and Pontian Boat which will be discussed more in detail. A total of three distinctive timbers were found in test pit three. They were all identified as a hull plank of a lashed lug-type vessel, as the timber is carved to create a protruding lug (Figure 2). Even though they were 4 �Figure 2. Evidence of lashed-lug plank no. 20 from Test Pit thee. found in the same area, planks were lying separated from one another. It was hard to consider if they were an adjacent plank or even came from the same vessel. The most complete one is plank number 20, which is 230 cm in length, and 40 cm in width, it has six cm of plank thickness and the same lug thickness. The lug shape is relative to Pontian and Khlong Thom Boat as it shows favorable use of a rectangular design, in which lugs are almost wide as a plank and are aligned to one side, leaving an edge protruding out about three cm, hence overlapping with the adjacent plank, overlapped part is made slightly slope down to the edge. However, there are some distinctive features that appear on this broken plank, there seems to be no sign of doweling or lacing hole on the seam as appeared on other plank-lacing vessels and the lug pattern is also quite different, the evidence on this plank shows only one rectangle-shaped hole on each lug and a combination of wide and narrow lugs with a continuous ridge connected between them, though, there are some holes on the seam of this ridge, but it seems not enough. AMS dating of this plank (D-AMS 034770) was dated to 2,303 BP ±29 or 408-357 cal BCE (Piromrak 2020, 41). This is considered the oldest lashed lug-type vessel in Thailand and probably in Southeast Asia. The longest piece is plank number 19, which is 320 cm in length, and 60 cm in width, the thickness of the plank is four cm, the same as the lug. The condition of this piece was badly degraded; however, the evidence showed the favorable design of a rectangular lug with a single hole. On the other hand, wide lugs (dimension of 60 cm) only appear with a spacing of 60 cm, and no traces of continuous ridge, doweling holes, or plank lacing holes were found. The last piece is plank number 17, which is the smallest 120 cm in length, 25 cm in width, and eight cm in thickness. The plank showed evidence of a center ridge lug with two holes bored through the width, however, one end has a slightly protruded lug roughly the width of the plank with six holes bored to the 5 �surface of the lug, these holes were not drilled through the plank but bored one and a half cm deep. There was also no sign of plank-fastening methods. This timber part was unidentified which part of the vessel it was, as no evidence of this kind has ever been found before. Evidence found at Pak Khlong Kluai site is rare and significant. The wreck’s identification suggested that at least two vessels were found, one favored a mortise and tenon technique, and another favored a lashed lug technique. The dating of both wrecks suggests that both boat-building techniques existed in the same period and also related to Phukao Thong site, which played a major role as an early port site, artifacts found at this site were Indo-Roman merchandise such as granulated gold beads, precious stone carved to a lionshape, ring carved into Roman figure and rouletted wares. The wood identification also indicated the use of Southeast Asia region woods, both vessels could be built in the region. Furthermore, sediment analysis from test pits one and four indicates that the geology of the site might be a shore instead of a sea bed (Ploymukda and Piromrak 2019, 197). Khlong Thom Archaeological Site In 1985, Pierre Manguin investigated boat planks displayed at Wat Khlong Thom Museum, the planks were found by a local and had been given to the museum. It was identified as lashed lug type, and features on the plank are relatively similar to Pontian boat, though no traces of dowel holes are found. The planks were relatively dated between the fifth to the seventh century CE as it is associated with the early port and beads production site of Khlong Thom (Manguin 1993, 257). Although Khlong Thom’s timbers are remarkably rare, they have been overlooked for decades. In 2019, Thai UAD conducted a survey along the canal where the plank was found in order to find more evidence about this vessel. The area along the canal is known as Khlong Thom Site (Kuan Luk-pad), an early port site on the Andaman coast that indicates an intensive overseas connection. The survey focused mainly on the canal where they were reported. As a result, the survey team found 12 damaged planks slightly buried under the sediment, the alignment was scattered and presumed not in situ. However, several planks were also found intact on the canal bank, they were assumed to have more archaeological context, however, no excavation had been conducted, but it is highly recommended in the future. Timbers recovered from the site are identified as lashed lug type. As it was submerged in a water-logged condition, which helps preserve the organic material very well, all still have ropes residue intact (Figures 3 and 4). All of the planks were classified into two main parts, hull plank, and keel plank (Piromrak 2020, 35–41). The hull plank The longest piece that was recovered is 150 centimeters in length, the width is around 25 centimeters, and ten centimeters in thickness (including the plank body and the lug). Features on the plank consist of rectangle lugs measured around 40x20 centimeters, each lug has two sets of trapezoid holes (five centimeters wide) bore through the edge. These holes are lashing points for the frame as one sample of plank still has what assume to be a broken piece of frame intact and several pieces still have rope residues loosely bonded. Each lug is 40 centimeters apart, though, one sample has a ridge connected to the others. The design of the lugs shows the intention for plank overlapping as one edge of the lug protrudes out from the plank body. In addition, the cross-section view of the lug also indicates inclination from the overlapped section to the other, which is assumed to follow the curvature of the hull. Furthermore, each corner of the lug appears to have two sets of L-shaped holes drilled through the seam of the plank, these holes acted as a plank fastening 6 �Figure 3. Lashed lug plank no. 4 (on top) and no. 5 (long piece) with ropes residue attached to each lug. point with ligatures, as ligature is passed through each hole on the adjacent plank to create a tensioned knot, and then supplemented with a wooden wedge bored into the knot space to create a tighter fit. However, no traces of plank doweling are found, which puts into question the strength of this vessel. The keel planks Two planks were identified as keel planks, as the design of the lug is distinct from the others. Lugs are placed in a fairly central position as opposed to hull planks that are adjacent to one edge. Evidence on plank #004 indicates a center ridge lug with large two holes bored through, on one end of the lug also showed Lshape lacing holes. The dimension of the fragment is 53 cm long, 28 cm wide, and 10 cm thick. This design is similar to Pontian’s keel plank (Gibson-Hill 1952, 114) and Butuan 5 keel plank which were referred as carinate or ridged keel (Green et al. 1995, 185–186; Lacsina 2016, 116–117). Another one is plank #003, the fragment piece is 49 cm long, 27 cm wide, and nine cm thick. The feature on this plank has a rectangle lug with a continued ridge. Unlike other planks, this one has L-shaped holes drilled through one side of the lug and a large hole bored through the ridge. Though the piece is very small in dimension and wasn’t showed continuous evidence, the lug pattern is relatively similar to Ban Khlong Yuan Boat and Butuan Boat 4 (Lacsina 2016, 190). Unlike the Pontian Boat, an investigation showed that the Khlong Thom plank has no evidence of doweling, the only method used for plank fastening is lacing the plank through L-shaped holes along the edge and supplementing with a wooden wedge. The use of wooden wedges is common in this vessel, as it is found in all spots that consisted of knot tightening, the relatively similar evidence of wedges was also found at Punjulharjo Boat, Indonesia. 7 �Figure 4. Lashed-lug plank with a frame piece attached to it by ligature. AMS dating by Direct AMS, USA, was conducted not long after the recovery of the plank. A sample of the wooden wedge (D-AMS 034772) was dated to 1,856 BP or 85-229 cal CE (calibrated with Oxcal 4.3) (Piromrak 2020, 41). Timbers used in building Khlong Thom boat were identified into three species. The hull plank is made from Hopea species, the frame and wedge are made from Mesua ferrea L., and the seam wadding was identified as Payena acuminate (Blume) Pierre. Moreover, ropes used for frame lashing and plank lacing were identified as Arenga Pinnata. As a result, all identified timbers are commonly grown in a wet tropical area and are of Southeast Asia origin. Other sites Previous reports between the 1990s-2000s recorded the discovery of several lashed lug vessels found in the Southern and up to the Central part of Thailand, unfortunately, most of them were brief and lost their archaeological context due to the unwitting recovery of the locals. The first one is remnants of boat timbers discovered at Ban Kok Yang, Trang province. The evidence showed a well-preserved early lashed lug boat recovered from an alluvial deposit. The report noted the existence of planks with integrated rectangle lugs, frames, and bulkheads, with the practice of plank lacing by ropes. No dating was ever conducted, the examination from photographs shows the relation to the Pontian boat and Khlong Thom timbers. Unfortunately, the remnants were demolished (Vatcharangkul 2001, 47). The second one is lashed lug planks found in Khlong Ta-Noo canal, Ban Koh-Takien, Chanthaburi. The report by Thai UAD in 1997 recorded that two planks were found buried under the canal bed, and being covered by bamboo branches. Due to the bad visibility, the diver found only two planks with no associated artifacts (Parnfuk 1997, 3-5). No radiocarbon dating or wood identification was conducted, however, planks are relatively similar to the Panjulharjo and Ban Khlong Yuan Boat, with evidence of laced holes and dowel 8 �holes. The plank is 250 cm in length, 30 cm in width, and 10 cm in thickness. It was identified as a hull plank of a lashed lug boat and shows the uses of a scarf joint. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Recent studies of early watercraft in Thailand have revealed interesting evidence of lashed lug vessels with their planks exclusively laced together and with no traces of dowel holes. They support the theory which suggested that lashed lug boats in the early period are primarily laced together. These features are associated with the absolute dating of the plank which came out to be earlier than the Pontian Boat, lashed lug watercraft which represent a transitional phase between exclusively lacing to a combination of both methods. Indeed, the site of Pak Khlong Kluai indicated an association between mortise and tenon ship construction and lashed lug vessels, a more intensive study should address this relation. Therefore, the discovery of exclusive plank-laced vessels has inspired more curiosity about their appearance and construction, whether they are raft-type vessels or hull-plank vessels. BIBLIOGRAPHY Evan, Ivor Hugh Norman. “Notes on the Remains of an Old Boat Found at Pontian.” Journal of the Federated Malay States Museum 12, (1927): 93-96. Fine Arts Department. 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Maritime Monographs and Reports. Trustees of the National Maritime Museum, 1982. Lacsina, Ligaya. “The Butuan Boats of the Philippines: Southeast Asian Edge-Joined and Lashed-Lug the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 39, (2015): 126-132. Watercraft.” Bulletin of Lacsina, Ligaya. “The Same-Same Boatbuilding Tradition? Looking at the Different Examples of Lashed-lug Boats from the Southeast Asian Region.” In Past Present and Future of ASEAN Maritime Heritage, Proceeding of International Symposium 15 th16th June 2017, 38-53. The Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, 2019. Lacsina, Ligaya. Examining Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian Boatbuilding: An Archaeological Study of the Butuan Boats and the Use of Edge-Joined Planking in Local and Regional Construction Techniques, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, Adelaide, 2016. Liebner, Horst. The Siren of Cirebon, University of Leeds, 2014. 9 �Manguin Y. Pierre. “Asian Ship-Building Tradition in the Indian Ocean at the Dawn of European Expansion.” In The Trading World of the Indian Ocean 1500-1800, Volume 3 Part 7, edited by Om Prakash, 597-629. Delhi: Pearson India, 2001. Manguin, Y. Pierre. “The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 5, no. 2 (1980): 266276. Manguin, Y. Pierre. “Trading Ship of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of the Trade Networks.” Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 36, no. 3 (1993): 253-280. Manguin, P.‐Y. “Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: The stitched‐plank and lashed‐lug tradition.” International Journal of Nautical Aarchaeology 48 (2019): 400–415. McGrail, Sean. Boats of the World From the Stone Age to the Medieval Time. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Mochtar, S. Agni. “Recommendations on Cultural Heritage Site Management Plan for the Punjulharjo Boat in Rembang, Central Java.” Berkala Arkeologi, Volume 40, no. 2, (2020):243-266. Parnfuk, Veera. Rai Ngan Kan Samruat Bueang Ton Ruea Koh Khwang, Klum Ngan Boranna Khadi Tai Nam, Prachinburi, (The Archaeological Survey of Koh Khwang Wreck Site), Prachinburi, The Underwater Archaeology Office, 1997, In Thai. Piromrak, Napat. “Sak Ruea Jom Khlong Thom: Lak Than Ruea Phuk Yuk Raek Roem Thi Phop Nai Prathet Thai.” (Khlong Thom Wreck: Evidence of Early Lashed-Lug Boat Found in Thailand). Silpakorn Journal 63, no. 5 (2020): 30-41, In Thai. Ploymukda, Sira and Piromrak Napat. Rai Ngan Kan Kud Khon Tang Boranna Khadi Laeng Ruea Jom Pak Khlong Kluai Amphoe Suk Samran Jangwad Ranong, (The Excavation of Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site), The Underwater Archaeology Office, 2019, In Thai. Ploymukda, Sira. “Laeng Ruea Jom Pak Khlong Kluai Lak Than Choeng Prachak Dan Theknoloyi Kan To Ruea Lae Patisamphan Thang Thale Chai Fang Samai Raek Roem Prawat Sat. ” (Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site: Evidence-Based Shipbuilding Technology and Marine Interaction Across the Andaman Coast in Early History Period). Silpakorn Journal 63, no. 5 (2020): 4257, In Thai. Vatcharangkul, Erbprem. Prawat Sat Kan Panitnavy Thai Samnak Boranna Khadi Lae Phiphittaphantha Sathan Haeng Chat, Krom Silpakorn, (History of Thai Maritime Trading), The Fine Arts Department, 2001, In Thai. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Discussion on the Traces of an Early Phase Lashed-Lug Boats of Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Lashed-lug boat-building techniques played a significant role in Southeast Asian trading networks. The previous studies reported that approximately 20 boats in this category have been found. Indeed, an archaeological survey in Thailand during the 1990s had reported the existence of several boats of this type, but the information was scarce and no excavation had been conducted. Not until 2019, a team of Thai underwater archaeologists carried out a survey along the Andaman Coast, the resources available to conduct the work including the discovery of boat remnants which were assumed to be lashed-lug type. The first was a boat plank found at Khlong Thom, the early port site in Krabi province, likely dating back to c. 1st – 5 th century CE. The second was a boat plank found at Pak-Klong Kluai beach, Ranong province, located in the area of Phukao-Thong archaeological site. Therefore, research on the boat planks is needed in order to find out the technique of the boat-building and its age. The main purpose of the research is to present an insightful analysis of the boat remnants. The analysis of boat-building techniques, a sample collection for AMS dating, and a comparative studmanguiny were carried on. The result of the study reveals a significant aspect of an early phase lashed-lug boats: planks were carved into protruding lugs with hollowed holes, the hull was secured using a palm rope and wooden wedge, and no trace of a dowel hole are found. The AMS dating of a wooden sample from both sites provided a date of 1,856 ±25 BP and 2,303 ±29 BP. Comparatively, the boat structure is similar to the lashed-lug boat of Pontian (3rd – 5 th century CE). However, the hull of these boats bears a different technique of making from other boats (e.g. Butuan and Ban Khlong Yuan boats, 9th century CE). The discovery of the boat remnants in Thailand has shed new light on the early technique of constructing lashed Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Napat Piromrak Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Piromrak, Napat . 2023. “Discussion on the Traces of an Early Phase Lashed-Lug Boats of Southeast Asia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1943 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/114ebf151676569cb80a84ff884b7f44.pdf 1a72028a879ec98ebb971ae731962644 PDF Text Text The Early Ninth-Century ‘Ban Khlong Yuan’ Lashed-Lug Boat of Chaiya, Peninsular Thailand: comparisons, contrasts and capabilities Wongsakorn Rahothan (Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, Thailand) Dr Tom Vosmer (University of Western Australia, and Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Museum) ABSTRACT The Underwater Archaeology Division of Thailand conducted an archaeological expedition in 2019 to trace the wreck sites in the southern peninsula. As a result, the Ban Khlong Yuan boat (BKY) was found in Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand. The area supported an urban town and seaport of the Srivijaya Kingdom between the seventh and twelfth centuries. The remains of the BKY boat were recently re-articulated. The focus of this paper is to present a brief overview of the reconstruction process, highlight analytical materials found in the wreck, and make comparisons of the BKY boat with other lashed-lug vessels of the region. A lines plan will be derived from the reconstruction of the BKY boat and the basic naval architectural data presented. AMS dating and identification of shipbuilding materials demonstrate that the BKY boat is an early ninth-century lashed-lug boat built of genus Hopea timber, with boatbuilding techniques comparable to the Punjulharjo boat (Central Java, Indonesia), the Chau Tân boat (Quang Ngai Province, Central Vietnam), and the Butuan boats (Northern Mindanao, Philippines). Comparisons of lashedlug designs and boatbuilding techniques among these vessels will be explored. The sophisticated boat represents a boatwright’s intellect of indigenous people in Peninsular Thailand during the ninth century. The widespread lashedlug boats found across Southeast Asian waters reflect skilled local boat-builders, mariners and middlemen who effectively engaged in transoceanic trade between the east and west at the ports of the dominant polity. Keywords: lashed-lug boat, maritime archaeology, Chaiya List of figures and table Figure 1. (a) Location of BKY boat and archaeological and ethnographic lashed-lug sites (after Manguin 2019). (b) BKY planks re-aligned. (c & d) BKY planks re-articulated. (e) Preliminary outline of BKY hull. Figure 2. (a) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of Butuan 1 and 5. P. quadrialatus (Philippine rosewood) is confined to the southern Philippines. (b) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Intan and Cirebon ships. (c) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Punjulharjo boat. (d) The Ban Khlong Yuan boat was discovered near the centre of the ranges of its timbers. Figure 3. (a) Boats with continuous plank ridges. (b) Lug configurations of four Butuan boats (after Lacsina 2016). (c) Scan of Ban Khlong Yuan keel plank showing dowel and lashing holes. Figure 4. (a) Remains of a composite anchor on the Belitung shipwreck site. Courtesy Michael Flecker. (b) Two of the Binh Chau anchors from Vietnam. Courtesy Ian McCann. (c) Reconstruction of a Binh Chau composite anchor. (d) Edge-drilled timber on the Phanom-Surin site in Thailand. (e) Close-up of an edge-drilled timber from the Phanom Surin vessel. (f) Process of converting a lashed-lug plank into timbers suitable for use as stringers, such as on the Phanom-Surin ship. Table 1. AMS radiocarbon dating results of BKY boat samples INTRODUCTION Southeast Asian maritime and underwater archaeology is still developing and in-depth watercraft studies have until recently been somewhat neglected, research criteria not always rigorously applied. For a relatively new area of enquiry an emphasis on data collection and classification is crucial (Bass 1983, 97). 1 �Boats which feature a ‘lashed-lug’ construction technique are firmly considered to be an archetype of Southeast Asia (Miksic 2017, 566, Manguin 2019, 408; 2021, 137; Staples and Blue 2019, 275). Even though the form of the lugs among the boat remains vary, the lugs of the eponymous ‘lashed-lug’ boats are their primary defining feature. Structural features of lashed-lug boats follow an easily recognizable paradigm, but there are features that differ among vessels. This may be due to their date, region of construction, religious, spiritual or cultural traditions, regional sea and weather conditions, their intended purpose, the specific species of timbers or bindings used or even the personal preference of builders. The Ban Khlong Yuan boat conforms to the general model of lashed-lug vessels: double-ended (i.e. pointed at each end in plan view), a keel plank rather than a standard keel, carved planks with lugs spaced at regular intervals, left proud on the inside surface, to which frames are lashed, planks edge-joined with blind dowels and (sometimes) individual discrete lashings binding planks together, no stem or stern posts but the ends of strakes connecting to carved V-shaped ‘wings’ at bow and stern, and longitudinal stringers lashed to the inside of frames. The lugs are spaced at regular intervals except in about amidships, where the keel and two planks on either side are lacking lugs. Ethnographic examples and the remains of the seventh century Punjulharjo ship (Mochtar 2018) suggest that beams or thwarts were fitted to which temporary decking could be lashed. Manguin has done an admirable job of decerning and describing the evolutionary path of lashed-lug boats over a period of centuries from those stitched together without the use of dowels through a gradual transition to a few dowels, to more dowels and less stitching, and finally to dowels only, the discrete stitching having completely disappeared (Manguin 2019, 2021). The Ban Khlong Yuan boat lies in the middle of this evolution, displaying a pair of L-shaped holes for individual lashings on either side of the lugs and four dowels in way of the lugs and four dowels in the space between the lugs. DISCOVERY OF THE BAN KHLONG YUAN BOAT The Ban Khlong Yuan (BKY) boat was first discovered in 2002 in Khlong Yuan village, Chaiya District, Surat Thani Province, located on the east coast of Peninsular Thailand. The unexpected find occurred when the owner of a plantation was excavating a reservoir and stumbled upon the boat's timbers. This significant discovery was later mentioned in a field survey report included in Plengmetha Khawnuna's Master's thesis (Khawnuna 2014, 183-4). In March 2019, the Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, Thailand, visited the boat timbers kept by villagers in a palm plantation. The wood-crafting techniques demonstrated by the preserved wood remains showed that the archaeological remains were from an ancient lashed-lug boat.These planks represent part of a group of about forty lashed-lug boat and ship remains in Southeast Asia dating from the 1st millennium through the first half of the 2nd millennium CE (Figure 1). Relatively few of these regional lashed-lug boat remains were found underwater—most were in waterlogged terrestrial sites, which in some cases led to relatively well-preserved remains. Unfortunately, much of the information on some of these remains is incomplete and a few of the sites have been destroyed or are inaccessible. The Punjulharjo boat from Indonesia is the most well-preserved and accessible and a classic example. Protected by mud, at least two of the Butuan boats in the Philippines are also fairly well preserved. The Ban Khlong Yuan boat tends toward the other end of the spectrum. After the planks were 2 �Table 1. AMS radiocarbon dating results of BKY boat samples. Conventional Calibrated Age Radiocarbon Age (IntCal 13 datasheet using OxCal 4.4) 86.75 ± 0.32 1260 ± 30 BP 668 – 779 CE 724 CE dowel 86.45 ± 0.32 1170 ± 30 BP 771 – 918 CE 845 CE shell plank 86.12 ± 0.26 1200 ± 24 BP 768 – 890 CE 829 CE Site Sample Type Submitter ID Percentage Modern Carbon BKY Organic cord BKY Wood BKY Wood Median Age recovered by villagers they were not conserved, but stored outside and allowed to dry, leading to some shrinkage, deterioration and possible distortion. Three samples were sent for AMS radiocarbon dating, the results demonstrating manufacture during the eight to ninth century CE (Table 1). One plank was identified as (Hopea sp), a dowel as Terminalia mucronata. BKY PLANKS The BKY remains comprise the lower portions of both wing-ends and nine planks—the keel plank, with five planks on one side of the keel plank and three on the other—extending from one of the preserved wingends over a distance of about 8.5 metres. Additionally, smaller plank fragments were collected, making a total of eighty-four disarticulated timbers. CHALLENGES IN RECONSTRUCTING THE BAN KHLONG YUAN BOAT The process of reconstructing the Ban Khlong Yuan boat presented significant challenges due to the degraded and disarticulated state of the timbers. For clues, the lugs on the adjacent strakes must align transversely across the planks. Secondly, dowel and stitching, holes in adjacent planks must match holes. Thirdly, the keel plank and two planks each side were missing lugs in one place. A gap without lugs, or a wider spacing of lugs at one point is a common feature of lashed-lug construction, designating midships, they would need to be aligned. Following this process, we successfully aligned all the planks and one of the wing-ends (Figure 1). The next step involved assembling the timbers into the appropriate shape, using sandbags to support the structure. After the reconstruction, a recording of the boat was taken, revealing that nearly half of the original remains were missing, making it challenging to determine the boat's full length. With the planks reassembled sections spaced at one-metre intervals were derived from direct measurement to the inside of the planking and refined to smooth anomalies. 3 �LINES PLAN Part of our investigation was aimed at creating a Lines Plan from the existing remains, then running the resulting hull form through a number of naval architectural analyses to determine basic hydrostatics. The lines plan requires a number of assumptions to be made and reference to other extant lashed-lug boats. Figure 1. (a) Location of BKY boat and archaeological and ethnographic lashed-lug sites (after Manguin 2019). (b) BKY planks re-aligned. (c & d) BKY planks re-articulated. (e) Preliminary outline of BKY hull. Lashed-lug boats are double-ended and roughly symmetrical in plan, so if the form of the existing hull remains could be determined, a mirror image could be created, paired with the existing hull form and integrated to the shape of the remaining isolated wing-end, which had a sharply-raked profile. The greatest height of the extant planking was estimated to be at about the presumed waterline. With upper planking missing, the topside sectional form, the height and shape of the sheerline, as well as the maximum length and beam could only be estimated, based on boats of similar size and shape. The wings-ends provided reliable information on the form of each end. As remarked earlier, a gap in the lug spacing near amidships is typical. The midline of this gap was about 6.87 metres from the preserved end, which suggested a keel length of about 13.74 metres. However, Lacsina states “The boatbuilders also fashioned one end of the boat on either side of the midships gap to be longer than the other side.” (Lacsina 2016, 224). Midships on Butuan 2 is 53 percent of its length from the bow, on the ship 54 percent from the bow end of the keel (Liebner 2014), on the Punjulharjo boat 55 percent of the overall length from the bow. We therefore assumed that the likely distance from amidships to the bow 4 �end of the keel on BKY was approximately 54 percent of the overall length. Since the distance from stern end of the keel to the ‘midships’ point was 6.87, the length ahead of that point on the keel would be: 6.87 46% = X 54% X = 8.06m ∴ keel length = 6.87 +8.06 = 14.93m Knowing the angle of the isolated wing-end which attaches to keel, we can then estimate the overall length of the boat. Here we have to take some guidance from ethnographic and archaeological examples as well as naval architecture. Work toward a final hypothetical hull form is ongoing but a number of general observations can be made. BKY has a relatively flat bottom, with little deadrise and a gently curving bilge, not unlike Butuan Boat 2 in the Philippines. The ends are fine and hollow. The keel profile is relatively flat through much of its length, with bow end slightly higher. Integrating the angled wing end into the form of the Ban Khlong Yuan hull produced a vessel about 17 metres long. The overall length of the BKY boat is nearly the same as Punjulharjo but given that about two metres of the length of BKY is in the raked bow, and the ends of Punjulharjo are essentially vertical, BKY could be proportionally a 15-metre vessel, 94 per cent of the length of Punjulharjo. Our preliminary reconstruction produced a maximum beam of 3.34, waterline beam of 2.93 metres, depth from gunwale of 1.4 metres and waterline length of 15.46 metres on an estimated draft of .77 metres. These dimensions are very preliminary but refinement of the Lines Plan will enable hydrostatic calculations to be done with naval architecture software. However, a rough estimate of the displacement can be made on the basis of the hull form we have so far. The rule of thumb for vessels with moderately fine ends is: displacement equals waterline length times waterline beam times draft times 0.5 (Flecker 2002, 138). Applying this formula to our dimensions: Displacement = 15.46 X 2.93 X 0.77 X 0.5 = 17.44 tonnes These dimensions and calculations are very preliminary but refinement of the Lines Plan is continuing and will enable hydrostatic calculations to be done with naval architecture software. RELATIONSHIPS TO OTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Our research has attempted to draw relationships among the many lashed-lug boat remains in the region and how they may relate to the BKY boat, based on specific structural features or materials used but faced a lack of detailed information as most sites have not been examined or reported in detail, their materials not identified; nor structure accurately reported, dating information lacking. That most of the timber and fibre species are widespread in Southeast Asia and were widely traded in antiquity colours the analysis. A comprehensive project to revisit sites and record data on a granular level is needed. However, there are some species whose range is more limited, which could perhaps narrow regions of origin of some craft. Butuan 1 and 5 used timbers that, among other species, grow exclusively in the Philippines (Lacsina 2016, 196) (Figure 2). The native range of Durio species, identified in the Intan shipwreck, was native to Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, as were Punjulharjo timbers Palaquium gutta 5 �and Scorodocarpus borneensis. The Ban Khlong Yuan boat used a Hopea species ranging over Southeast Asia, but a dowel was identified as Terminalia mucronata. STRUCTURAL ANALYSES Specific features such as dowel and lug spacing, presence or absence of plank lashings, configuration of lugs, or a ridge connecting lugs might provide clues to origin, technological transfer or developmental paths. Figure 2. (a) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of Butuan 1 and 5. P. quadrialatus (Philippine rosewood) is confined to the southern Philippines. (b) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Intan and Cirebon ships. (c) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Punjulharjo boat. (d) The Ban Khlong Yuan boat was discovered near the centre of the ranges of its timbers. The keel plank of the BKY boat possesses rectangular carved lugs with a continuous raised ridge running through the centre of the plank, a feature shared with other lashed-lug vessels such as Butuan 4 & 5 (Lacsina 2016), Chau Tân (McCann 2019, 52), the San Isidro wreck (Goddio et al. 1996, Lacsina 2016, 140), the Kolam Pinisi boat (Manguin 2019, 407), the Flying Fish wreck (Flecker and Tai 2020) and the Sungai Limau Manis boat remains (Yahya 2005, 8). The large Cirebon wreck had two planks on each side at the turn of the bilge displaying the continuous ridge (Liebner 2014, 383). Strakes above that have individual lugs, while all of the strakes below the turn of the bilge had a continuous wide ridge. 6 �It is speculated that boatbuilders may have incorporated the ridge to increase resistance to bending. Lacsina (2016, 213) suggests that the ridge could provide structure for lashing holes drilled all the way through its width, evident on Butuan 4 and 5, and some Cirebon planks. The keel ridge could also serve as a convenient baseline from which to measure the distance from side to side as building progressed, thereby maintaining symmetry. Lamalera boatbuilders explained that the ridge protected the hull from being worn thin when bailing water (Barnes 1985, 347; 1996, 206) but does not explain the ridge over the entire length of planks. All these keel and plank ridges appear in widespread geographical locations and bear widely separated dates (Figure 3), lending little to illuminating any direct relationship. LUG CONFIGURATION The shape and spacing of lugs may reveal some relationships among boats. The rectangular lug, such as on the BKY boat is the most common. That four Butuan boats display four different keel plank lug patterns (Lacsina 2016, 211) (see Figure 3) is unexpected, especially in watercraft of the same technical tradition, built at approximately the same time, and discovered in the same area. Boats 1 and 2 have multiple narrow lugs at each lug position, while Boats 4 and 5 (and possibly Boat 3) utilised a continuous raised ridge. The earliest lashed-lug boat discovered, the Pontian boat in Malaysia, had rounded and conical-section lugs. Pairs of discrete lashings held planks together, with a single dowel fitted between them (Manguin 2019, 402, 409). Pontian shares this style of lug with the Kuan Luk Pad and Khok Yang boat remains in Thailand. FRAME LASHING Ethnographic examples show frames lashings on individual lugs but the Punjulharjo and Flying Fish show frame lashings crossing from one plank to another (Flecker and Tai 2020, 9; Mochtar 2018). Structurally, this would make sense, as such a lashing would bind the planks more tightly together. Unfortunately, lashing of frames on the BKY boat have not survived so there is no basis for comparison. DOWEL SPACING AND NUMBER Dowel spacing or number could offer clues to origin, dating and cross-cultural exchange. Maguin has documented an evolutionary path over centuries from the use of lashing only, to the sparse use of dowels coupled with plank lashings, to increasing use of dowels and the eventual disappearance of plank lashings (Manguin 2019, 402; 2021, 138). The fifth to sixth century Kuan Luk Pad timbers and Khok Yang timbers in Thailand (undated) show no evidence of dowels, while the Pontian boat (third to fifth centuries) displays only a single dowel between lashings. The seventh to eighth century Sambirejo and Punjulharjo boats show dowel numbers increasing. The BKY boat dos not have locking pins but boasts a huge number of dowels, generally four in way of each lug and four between lugs. This number of dowels seems to be a relatively late development linked with the gradual disappearance of lashings fastening the planks. The BKY boat demonstrates perhaps the height of dowel fastening prior to the abandonment of plank lashing (see Figure 3). 7 �COUNTER-PEGGING In the 9-10th c. Butuan boats plank lashings have disappeared, replaced with dowels only, sometimes secured with locking pins. Locking pins are evident on Butuan 1 and 5, a plank from Sambirejo, the Cirebon ship, Paya Pasi. The practice exists today, such as with the Lamalera whaling boats of Indonesia. All are widely spaced geographically and temporally. MARITIME CULTURAL EXCHANGE Examples of interaction can be highlighted which unexpectedly involve lashed-lug vessels and rare sewnplank ‘Indian Ocean style’ vessels in Southeast Asia: the 9th-century Belitung shipwreck and the 8-9thcentury Phanom-Surin shipwreck (Komoot 2021). Both show design and construction features associated with western Indian Ocean tradition. The two raise questions about the development of boat-building in Southeast Asia as well as the patterns and intensity of Indian Ocean trade and cultural exchange. Figure 3. (a) Boats with continuous plank ridges. (b) Lug configurations of four Butuan boats (after Lacsina 2016). (c) Scan of Ban Khlong Yuan keel plank showing dowel and lashing holes. On board the Belitung ship was a peculiar composite anchor, a type never before seen (Flecker 2001, 344) comprising a long wooden shank, iron arms and an iron or lead collar sandwiched between them (Figure 8 �4a-c). More recently, remains of anchors of this type, the Binh Chau and Chau Tân anchors, apparently associated with 1st millennium lashed-lug vessels were recovered in Vietnam. McCann states that there is enough evidence to conclude that these anchors and the Belitung anchor are of the same type (McCann 2019: 53). Materials used in the Phanom-Surin sewn-plank ship are indigenous to Southeast Asia (Jumprom 2019, 243). Intriguingly, there appears to be a direct connection between the Phanom-Surin ship and lashed-lug vessels. Rectangular-section timbers have been noted on Phanom-Surin, drilled with blind and diagonal holes (Figure 4d-f) resembling lashed-lug planks. Cutting out the centre where the lugs are, one is left with long rectangular-section timbers suitable for use as stringers, pre-drilled for lashing to frames or for securing cargo. That Phanom-Surin shipwrights were aware of the lashed-lug tradition is clear. What is puzzling is that, while edge dowels were such a significant feature of lashed-lug construction, dowels are totally absent in Phanom-Surin and Belitung. Figure 4. (a) Remains of a composite anchor on the Belitung shipwreck site. Courtesy Michael Flecker. (b) Two of the Binh Chau anchors from Vietnam. Courtesy Ian McCann. (c) Reconstruction of a Binh Chau composite anchor. (d) Edge-drilled timber on the Phanom Surin vessel. (f) Process of converting a lashed-lug plank into timbers suitable for use as stringers, such as on the Phanom-Surin ship. CONCLUSION Despite there now being many lashed-lug remains in the region, we still do not have the detailed information required to discern meaningful technological interactions or local developments. Despite detailed reports by scholars such as Horridge (1978, 1981, 1982) Liebner (2014), Lacsina (2011, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2022) Manguin (1985, 2009, 2012, 2019, 2021), Mochtar (2018) and Purnawibowo and Mochtar (2021) which 9 �have greatly advanced our understanding, until we amass a body of more detailed data it is difficult to define relationships or pinpoint the BKY boat’s place in the milieu. The BKY boat represents a regional trading vessel that thrived during the prosperous maritime activity of Southeast Asia in the eighth to ninth centuries and is a key illustration of the structural features marking the transition from lashed and doweled construction to boats with dowels-only near the end of the first millennium CE. The sophisticated boatbuilding techniques observed on the BKY boat are comparable to those found in other lashed-lug boats across the region, indicating the intellectual prowess of in Southeast Asian boatwrights, reflecting keen interest in experimentation and in developing technical solutions to the challenges of producing viable sea-going watercraft. These techniques represent a shared knowledge among the ancient peoples of Southeast Asia. Lashed-lug boats are thus not solely the cultural heritage of one nation but a shared cultural heritage of Southeast Asia. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to acknowledge the Underwater Archaeology Division of the Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture in Thailand for their support, cooperation and encouragement in the Ban Khlong Yuan boat reconstruction project. We also thank the Archaeology Department of the University of Western Australia and the Department of Maritime Archaeology of the Western Australian Museum. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnes, Robert H. “Whaling vessels of Indonesia.” In Sewn Plank Boats, edited by Sean McGrail and Eric Kentley, 345-366. Greenwich: British Archaeological Reports International Series 276, National Maritime Museum, 1985. Barnes, Robert H. “Sea hunters of Indonesia: Fishers and weavers of Lamalera.” Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. Bass, George F. “A plea for historical particularism.” In Shipwreck anthropology, edited by Richard A. Gould, 91–104. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983. Flecker, Michael. “A Ninth-Century AD Arab or Indian Shipwreck in Indonesia: First Evidence for Direct Trade with China.” World Archaeology 32 no. 3, (2001): 335- 354. Flecker, Michael and Yew Seng Tai, “The Flying Fish Wreck: An Early 12th Century Southeast Asian Ship with a Chinese Cargo.” Sabah Museum Journal 3, (2019): 1-42. Goddio, Franck, Monique Crick and Patrice Sandin. San Isidro wreck '96: Excavation's preliminary report and ceramic cargo's study. Manila: National Museum, 1996. Horridge, Adrian. The design of planked boats of the Moluccas. Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1978. Horridge, Adrian. “The ancient planked boats of the islands east of Asia.” In Five hundred years of nautical science 1500-1900, Proceedings of the Third International Reunion for the History of Nautical Science and Hydrography, edited by Derek Howse. Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, (1981): 241-258. Horridge, Adrian. “The lashed-lug boat of the eastern archipelagoes, the Alcina MS and the Lomblen whaling boats.” Greenwich: Maritime Monographs and Reports. Trustees of the National Maritime Museum, 1982. Jumprom, Preeyanuch. “Recovery of a lost Arab-styled ship at Phanom-Surin the wetland excavation site in central Thailand.” In Ancient maritime cross-cultural exchanges: archaeological research in Thailand, edited by Amara Srisuchat and Wilfried Giessler. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, (2019): 226-247. 10 �Khawnuna, Plengmetha. The Cultural Development of the Ancient Communities in Chaiya District, Surat Thani Province. Master's Thesis, Department of Archaeology, Graduate School, Silpakorn University, 2014. Komoot, Abhirada. “Maritime connections in the Indian Ocean world during the late first Millennium CE through an archaeological study of Phanom-Surin ship in Thailand.” PhD thesis, University of Western Australia, 2021. Lacsina, Ligaya. “Traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft in Philippine archaeological sites.” (2011). https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216561888 Lacsina, Ligaya. “The Butuan Boats of the Philippines: Southeast Asian edge-joined and lashed-lug watercraft.” Bulletin of the Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology 39, (2015): 126–132. Lacsina, Ligaya. “Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques.” PhD thesis, Flinders University, 2016. Lacsina, Ligaya. “The same-same boatbuilding tradition? Looking at different examples of lashed-lug boats from the Southeast Asian region.” Proceedings of the International Symposium (15th–16th June 2017). (2019): 38-53. Lacsina, Ligaya. “From the Site to the Museum: archaeologically excavated Butuan boat remains displayed in the National Museum of the Philippines.” Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology 47 no. 1 (2022): 63-85. Liebner, Horst Hubertus. “The Siren of Cirebon, a tenth-century trading vessel lost in the Java Sea.” PhD thesis, The University of Leeds, 2014. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Sewn-plank craft of South-East Asia.” In Sewn Plank Boats, edited by Sean McGrail and Eric Kentley, 319-343. BAR International Series 276, Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1985. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “The boat remains of Punjulharjo: A preliminary report.” Paris: École française d'Extrême-Orient, 3-4, 2009. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Asian ship-building traditions in the Indian Ocean at the dawn of European expansion.” In: The Trading World of the Indian Ocean, 1500-1800, edited by Om Prakash, in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Volume Ill, Part 7, edited by Debi Prasad Chattopadhyaya, 597-629. Delhi: Pearson, 2012. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: the stitched-plank and lashed-lug tradition.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 48 no. 2, 2019: 400–415. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “The assembly of hulls in Southeast Asian shipbuilding traditions: from lashings to treenails,” Archaeonautica 21 (2021): 137–140. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4000/archaeonautica.2397 McCann, Ian. “The Binh Chau anchors: a 7th-8th CE Composite Conundrum: Master’s thesis, University of New England, 2019. Miksic, John. “Ships, Sailors and Kingdoms of Ancient Southeast Asia.” In The Sea in History – The Ancient World, edited by Christian Buchet, Pascal Arnaud, and Philip de Souza, 560–572 Martlesham: Boydell & Brewer, 2017. Mochtar, Agni Sesaria. “The Seventh-Century Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: A study of the early Southeast Asian lashed-lug boatbuilding tradition.” Master’s thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide, (2018). Purnawibowo, Stanov. and Mochtar, Agni Sesaria. “Analisis teknologi pembuatan perahu pada temuan sisa perahu kuno dari abad VII M situs Bongal, pantai barat Sumatera Utara.” (“Boatbuilding Technology Analysis of the Seventh Century Boat Remains from Bongal Site on the West Coast of North Sumatera”), Majalah Arkeologi 30 no. 2 (2021): 99-112. Staples, Eric. and Blue, Lucy. “Archaeological, historical and ethnographic approaches to the study of sewn boats-past, present and future.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 48, no. 2, (2019): 269–285. Yahya, Matzin bin Haji) The Boats of Brunei Darussalam, Brunei: Brunei Museums Department, 2005. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Early Ninth-Century ‘Ban Khlong Yuan’ Lashed-Lug Boat of Chaiya, Peninsular Thailand: comparisons, contrasts and capabilities Description An account of the resource The Underwater Archaeology Division of Thailand conducted an archaeological expedition in 2019 to trace the wreck sites in the southern peninsula. As a result, the Ban Khlong Yuan boat (BKY) was found in Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand. The area supported an urban town and seaport of the Srivijaya Kingdom between the seventh and twelfth centuries. The remains of the BKY boat were recently re-articulated. The focus of this paper is to present a brief overview of the reconstruction process, highlight analytical materials found in the wreck, and make comparisons of the BKY boat with other lashed-lug vessels of the region. A lines plan will be derived from the reconstruction of the BKY boat and the basic naval architectural data presented. AMS dating and identification of shipbuilding materials demonstrate that the BKY boat is an early ninth-century lashed-lug boat built of genus Hopea timber, with boatbuilding techniques comparable to the Punjulharjo boat (Central Java, Indonesia), the Chau Tân boat (Quang Ngai Province, Central Vietnam), and the Butuan boats (Northern Mindanao, Philippines). Comparisons of lashedlug designs and boatbuilding techniques among these vessels will be explored. The sophisticated boat represents a boatwright’s intellect of indigenous people in Peninsular Thailand during the ninth century. The widespread lashedlug boats found across Southeast Asian waters reflect skilled local boat-builders, mariners and middlemen who effectively engaged in transoceanic trade between the east and west at the ports of the dominant polity. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wongsakorn Rahothan Dr Tom Vosmer Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rahothan, Wongsakorn and Tom Vosmer. 2023. “The Early Ninth-Century ‘Ban Khlong Yuan’ Lashed-Lug Boat of Chaiya, Peninsular Thailand: comparisons, contrasts and capabilities.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1944 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/99fa28cddc8bac103ef9f04b52d265c8.pdf ae2468f942b018da26c628be8e87d652 PDF Text Text The experimental reconstructions of the Punjulharjo boat from Indonesia: New insights for understanding the lashed-lug boatbuilding techniques. Chiara Zazzaro (Università di Napoli L’Orientale, Italy) Agni Mochtar (Università di Napoli L’Orientale, Italy; National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Indonesia) Luigi Ombrato (Università di Napoli Federico II, Italy) ABSTRACT The article presents the methodology applied for the re-investigation and for the experimental reconstruction of the Punjulharjo boat, the most complete Southeast Asian lashed-lug boat found to date. This work, based on archaeological data, ethnographic, and iconographic sources, brought better understanding of the boat and of the lashed-lug system. Archaeological data were gathered through direct observation of the Punjulharjo boat remains displayed on the original finding location and examination of photos taken during the excavation. The reconstruction approach was engineering and experimental, it consisted in producing hypothetical representations of the Punjulharjo boat, in digital, virtual and 3D print form. As a result, the team identified different lashing systems, hypothesized diverse uses of the lugs within the planking joinery and vertical structures, illustrated the complexity of the planking pattern and hypothesized the aspect and location (or relocation) of the beams, rudders, mast, and other superstructures. Keywords: photogrammetry, 3D modelling, hypothetical restitution, and land shipwreck List of figures Figure 1. Map showing the distribution of boat remains with lashed-lug joints, found in Southeast Asia. (Photo Agni Mochtar). Figure 2. Photo showing the location of the Punjulharjo boat exhibit hall. (Photo: Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa). Figure 3. Adze mark (a). Saw mark (b). (Photo: Chiara Zazzaro). Figure 4. Agni Mochtar taking wood samples from the Punjulharjo boat. (Photo: Chiara Zazzaro). Figure 5. Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa doing the photogrammetry of the Punjulharjo boat. (Photo: Chiara Zazzaro). INTRODUCTION The Punjulharjo boat belongs to the shell-first, lashed-lug construction, one of the boat building traditions in Southeast Asia. To date, over twenty sites with boat remains showing lashed-lug construction have been found in Southeast Asia, unfortunately, unless the Punjulharjo boat, most of them are fragmentary (Figure 1) (Manguin 2019; Shinatria 2018). The most prominent feature of this tradition is the protruding lugs carved out on the edge-joined hull planks, where the frames were placed on to and were lashed with ropes (usually Arenga pinnata, sugar palm). Plank fastening consists of ligatures, dowels, or a combination of both. Another characteristic of this type of construction is the use of a keel plank and wing ends, two or more overlapped wooden blocks on each extremity. The shell-first wooden construction and the use of the edge-joint dowels is still employed today in some boatyards in Indonesia, while the lashed-lug construction is more rarely attested (see Lamalera, East Nusa Tenggara, Barnes 1996). Comparable quarter rudders fittings, wing ends, and further construction 1 �Figure 1. Map showing the distribution of boat remains with lashed-lug joints, found in Southeast Asia. (Photo Agni Mochtar). features are attested in contemporary Indonesian boats, therefore the ethnographic method has been largely applied together with archaeological and iconographic comparisons for the reconstruction of the possible original aspect of the boat. After presenting the previous and current state of our knowledge on the Punjulharjo boat, the authors will discuss the methodology applied for the study of the environmental context and of the boat architecture, as well as methods and procedures employed for the analysis of the hull (distortions and species analysis), to understand the use and function of the boat and to achieve a preliminary hypothetical reconstructions of the original aspect of the boat. The final results will be presented in a comprehensive forthcoming publication. CASE STUDY The Punjulharjo boat is the most ancient complete wooden vessel known to date in Southeast Asia, found in the village of Punjulharjo, District of Rembang in 2008. The boat was buried below ca. 2 meters of intertidal soil, 500 meters from the actual shoreline, in an area today occupied by salters. Today, the boat is displayed in a semi-open building in its original finding location (Figure 2). After the initial finding, an excavation was conducted by Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta in 2009. The excavation team found that the hull was still intact from the bow to the stern with only a few upper strakes missing, many internal strengthening components were also still intact. The team reported that 2 �Figure 2. Photo showing the location of the Punjulharjo boat exhibit hall. (Photo: Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa). the boat was 15.6m in length, 4.6m in width amidship. The planks were fastened by dowels and lashings, while frames, stringers, and stanchions were fastened exclusively by lashings. The reports from the 2009 excavation provided us with remarkable information about the boat (Siswanto 2010). However, at that time the boat was not analyzed using nautical archaeological approach and thus, many technological aspects of the boat were overlooked. One example is that the drawing of the plan view is missing important information about the plank fastening, resulting in inconsistency. After the excavation, the boat was handed over to the heritage preservation office and later was subjected to a lengthy conservation treatment using Polyethylene Glycol 400/4000. For conservation purposes, the hull was dismantled. Upon the completion of the treatment, the timbers were re-assembled, and the final result is what we can see now in the exhibition hall. Unfortunately, aside from a few floor timbers, all the internal strengthening components were broken down into small pieces and could not be reassembled. During the last phase of the conservation, Agni Mochtar visited the site and re-examined the boat remains with a new perspective, using nautical archaeological approach for her master degree thesis (Mochtar 2018). The re-examination of the boat provided a better understanding of the building technique of the boat. Correction and addition were made to the previous drawings to offer a better representation of the actual boat. Mochtar has added all the ligature holes on the planks to show how the hull was fastened, she also notices that there is a pattern in the dowel and ligature holes on the seam of the planks: one set consists of a pair of ligature holes flanked by one dowel hole on each side, and in between two sets there is an additional dowel hole. From this analysis, it was concluded that even though the boat was rather medium in size, the hull was robust with sufficient fastenings and internal strengthening. The thickness of the plank and the rigid bow and stern assembly also contributed to this. Ligatures were the primary fastening, supported by dowels in the planks seam, and with an addition of mortise and tenon on the extremities. The ligatures provided strong fastening, but at the same time gave enough flexibility to make the hull more durable. 3 �Mochtar’s master thesis also recorded a different measurement of the boat from the survey and excavation reports, especially the width of the beam. However, a closer investigation of the reason behind this was beyond the scope of her thesis, other than merely suspecting an incorrect postconservation reconstruction process (Mochtar 2018). In February and December 2020, a team of the Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” and Universitas Indonesia including Ginanjar Purnawibawa, visited the site of Punjulharjo with the aim to integrate the current state of knowledge of the boat with new observations and surveys. This team conducted a close inspection of the hull and a photogrammetry survey to provide a permanent record of the current state of conservation of the boat and for further study aimed at the analysis and reconstruction of the original aspect of the boat. The team also took over 300 detail photographs of the boat, aimed at detecting/showing tool marks, details of the joinery, plank distortions etc., and photographed the materials associated with the shipwreck kept in the site storage, including jars and bowl fragments, and bones. In January 2022 a team of Puslit Arkenas, Balai Arkeologi D.I. Yogyakarta, now BRIN, Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” and Universitas Indonesia visited the site, once again, to take systematic sampling of the wood species and to sample the sediments associated to the context of finding of the boat for geoarchaeological analysis. METHODS AND PROCEDURES OF THE 2020 AND 2022 FIELD SEASONS The study of the environmental context Boats found in land context usually share similar issues related to their study and interpretative process, so as similar approaches to survey methods; they are either been intentionally buried, or stranded / beached, or have been buried for environmental changing (Delgado 2013). For the Punjulharjo boat the first case can be excluded, as there is no evidence of rituals or related findings, therefore the second two options can be considered. Preliminary geomorphological and geoarchaeological investigations about the area were conducted by Carlo Donadio and Andri Purnomo with assistance of the team on the field. Considering that the boat was moved from its original context and that the boat’s exhibit hall has been built exactly in the same place where the boat was found, the team had to examine the environment in the area around and select a suitable spot where to sample the sediments for sedimentary analysis. The area selected for stratigraphic sampling was 47 meters south of the boat’s current position, this was estimated not to be contaminated or disturbed by modern activities. Soil samples were taken from sediment layers which were estimated to have come from the same stratigraphy of the site at the time of the discovery of the Punjulharjo boat, based on photographic documentation of excavation activities carried out by Balai Arkeologi D.I. Yogyakarta in 2009. The position of the sampling area was recorded by GPS and a stratigraphic section was excavated using simple tools (trowel, meter). Three soil samples were then taken from three different layers, each sample contained ± 500 g of soil. The sediments were then analyzed in the laboratories of the University of Napoli Federico II. The results of the analyses, together with a comprehensive interpretation, will be presented later in the final report of this project. Further observation on construction features Main observations on the construction features of the Punjulharjo boats were already conducted by Agni Mochtar for her master degree thesis (Mochtar 2018). Further observations conducted on the site in 4 �2020 included an inventory of tool marks, and systematic dowels and lugs distance measurements. Despite almost all the original dowels were substituted with new one during the restoration process, it was still possible to measure their original location either on the site using a meter or on the digital 3D model in areas that were not physically reachable. The patterns of the dowels distribution is confirmed as described by Mochtar (2018), the distance of the dowels from center to center is ca. 9-11cm in average with larger gaps in proximity of the stitches. As for the lugs, the lugs size is slightly variable, distances among lugs are pretty regular: ca. 83-88 cm from center to center and wider, up to 1 m in between the VII and the VIII frame from the stern, therefore in the aft part of the boat (see also Mochtar 2018). A portion of the planking with the lugs was 3D print in scale in order to experiment the lashing and stitching system manually. As for the tool marks: it was not always easy to detect them, considering the conservation treatment which may have affected the aspect of the wood surface or marks that may have been due to postexcavation manipulations. Despite that, adze marks were detected on the planking outer surface and on the rudder beam. Some are deep and almost perpendicular to the wood surface, others are tangent to the surface, both belonging to a tool bearing a blade ca. 4cm wide. Saw marks were detected in correspondence of all the lugs on the sides facing stern and the stem (Figure 3a). Possible chisel marks were also observed to finish the fittings of the rudder beam (Figure 3b). Wood sampling The 2009 report on the excavation of the Punjulharjo boat reported the identification of wood species only from three different parts of the boat, namely from a hull plank, a dowel, and a frame. The aim of the new research was to obtain a comprehensive information on the boat’s construction materials based on a greater number of samples and a more controlled collection and analysis process (Figure 4a). Wood samples were taken from all hull planks, the beam, stanchions, and frames. They were carefully taken using a knife and/or drill in non-visible areas. For each sampled area of the boat, photographic documentation of the conditions before and after the sampling was carried out. The sampling position was then recorded and mapped on the orthophoto extrapolated from the three-dimensional survey of the boat. The following samples were collected: 26 samples from the hull planks, 7 samples from the frames, 1 sample of the rudder beam, 3 samples from the dowels. Wood samples are in course of analyses by the Anatomy and Quality of Lignocellulose Materials laboratory (http://xylarium.pustekolah.org), at the Forest Products Research and Development Center of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Indonesia (http://hasilhutan.litbang.menlhk.go.id/). The photogrammetry survey and further analysis Previous survey methods on the Punjulharjo boat were conducted for the first time during the excavation in 2009, before the boat was dismantled for conservative purpose. The result was a series of drawings including a plan view, a longitudinal section and 17 cross sections corresponding to each lug alignment (Siswanto 2010). Plans and sections were drawn entirely by hand, an automatic level was used to determine the z coordinates of a number of points noted on the plan. These drawings lack descriptive details about the aspect of the wood, actual shape and size of the different elements, and dowels pattern. This may have been partially due to the high number of difficult areas to reach, to the intrinsic complexity of the boat construction, the high number of corners, and the in situ condition. The difficulties to represent the details in the previous drawings, due to the high number of corners for the presence of the lugs, and the difficult areas to reach, brought the team to choose a detailed photogrammetry as the best survey method. 5 �Figure 3. Adze mark (a, left). Saw mark (b, right). (Photo: Chiara Zazzaro). For the photogrammetry the team used two types of cameras, a Canon M100, taking up to 712 photos and a Sony RX100 II, taking up to 1021 photos, and a Drone DJI Mavic 2 Pro, taking up to 72 photographs. This latter was used to survey both the site around the museum and to obtain orthophotos of the plan view of the boat, to have more details of the inner hull, otherwise difficult to reach (Figure 4b). A close-range photogrammetry of a beam element was also conducted. The beam was found near the stern of the ship and was interpreted as a beam for positioning the rudders. Photographs were then processed using the software PhotoScan Pro, to produce point cloud, mesh, a 3D model of the boat and orthophotos. The 3D model was used as a basis to understand and correct the distortion and to integrate the missing parts of the hull. Observations made on the site were combined and completed with those made on the digital model. By reflecting and overlapping a series of sections, the team could better estimate the level of asymmetry, distortions and anomalies among port and starboard side of the hull which is too much for being proper of the boat: it could be due to the wreckage or to the depositional process, or to the reconstruction process after the restoration. Sheer fractures and sheer stress, due to rotation, were also noticed. In this case, the team tried to estimate the flexions of the sheer and mediate the asymmetry among the two sides. The corrected sections were used to extrapolate naval lines, the hypothetical original shape of the boat. As an example, the team suggested a correction of the width at amidship from 3.50m, as measured on the site, to ca. 3.37m, after correction. From the 3D model the team could also extrapolate a shell expansion plan, in this, length and width of the planks are respected, and their original shape is reconstructed mediating among the gaps and worn parts. These parts were carefully observed and measured on the field in 2020, in order to distinguish traces of decay and/or distortions and to integrate them in the most accurate way. Rotation inboard or outboard and angles of distortion in the planks seams were also recorded. The planking pattern shows that the central planks are much longer than those at fore and aft. Here, planks have joggled edges and hook scarfs: an intricate system to fit planks together preventing longitudinal slippage. Boatbuilders were forced to use shorter planks at fore and aft, but at the same time they had to prevent longitudinal slippage, considering that all the fastening elements, ligatures/stitches, dowels and lashings run transversally and there is nothing else to ensure longitudinal strength/compactness. Concerning the beam, originally found near the stern, this was interpreted as possible rudder beam and it was relocated on the stern, although it was difficult to decide at which height of the hull it should be relocated. At this scope the team had to try different fittings manipulating the beam digitally and rotating 6 �Figure 4. Agni Mochtar taking wood samples from the Punjulharjo boat (a, left). Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa doing the photogrammetry of the Punjulharjo boat (b, right). (Photos: Chiara Zazzaro). it according to the visible features, such as grooves, holes and cavities, until it could fit in the hypothetical right place on the hull. The reconstruction process The reconstruction process consisted in integrating data collected from the in-depth study of the boat and from the 3D photogrammetric model with the evidence from other archaeological remains and from iconographic and ethnographic evidence. The internal strengthening, the lashing and stitching system were modeled based on previous excavation photos, ethnographic comparisons, such as the lashed-lug system employed in contemporary boats from Lamalera (Barnes 1996; Dwyer and Akerman 1996), and using an experimental approach. This consisted in printing three 3D digital models of hull portions to experiment the characteristics of the internal construction and the various options and combinations of the lashing and stitching systems recorded. The last step of the reconstruction process consisted in integrating not attested parts of the boat, such the mast, the sail and the rudder. These parts were reconstructed using ethnographic data from Lamalera and from ethnographic accounts, but also using iconographic comparisons, e.g. the representations of ships in the Borbudur temple. The result is a hypothetic 3D virtual reconstruction of the Punjulharjo boat. Acknowledgements Tri Subekso (Dinas Kebudayaan, Kepemudaan, dan Olahraga Kabupaten Semarang) and Retna Dyah Radityawati (Dinas Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata Rembang) accompanied during the visit. The fieldwork was conducted under the auspicious of the Indonesian Ministry of Research and Technology and of the Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional (Arkenas), and it was conducted in the context of a long-term joint research project of the Università di Napoli “L’Orientale”, Universitas Indonesia and Arkenas titled: Indonesian Endangered Boatbuilding Knowledge, started in 2019. This interdisciplinary project aims at investigating Indonesian ancient and contemporary boatbuilding practices documenting the archaeological, ethnographic and linguistic evidence in selected areas of the country. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnes, R. H. Sea Hunters of Indonesia: Fishers and Weavers of Lamalera. Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1996. Burningham, Nick. “Indonesian quarter-rudder mountings.” IJNA 29, no 1 (1996): 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1006/ijna.2000. 0271. Delgado, J. P. “Ships on Land.” In The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, edited by Ben Ford, Donny L. Hamilton, and Alexis Catsambis, 182–191. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Dwyer, D., and K. Akerman. “The Pelédang: The lashed-lug whaling craft of Lamalera, Lomblen (Lembata), Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia.” The Beagle: Records of the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory 14 (1996): 123–147. Horridge, G. A. “The Lashed‐lug Boat of the Eastern Archipelagoes, the Alcina MS and the Lomblen Whaling Boats.” Maritime Monographs and Reports 54. London: National Maritime Museum, 1982. Lacsina, L. “Examining Pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan boats and the Use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques.” Phd diss., Flinders University, 2016. https://www.academia.edu/download/54-800536/ThesisLacsina2016.pdf Manguin, P.-Y. The Boat Remains of Punjulharjo: A preliminary report. EFEO, 2009. Manguin, P.‐Y. “Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: The stitched‐plank and lashed‐lug tradition.” IJNA 48 (2019): 400–415. Mochtar, A. S. “The Seventh-century Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: A study of the early Southeast Asian lashed-lug boatbuilding tradition.” Master diss., Flinders University, 2018. https://flex.flinders.edu.au/file/5b8a6d45-1c8d-4a109647e24526ef1714/1/ThesisMochtar2018.pdf Nishino, N., T. Aoyama, J. Kimura, T. Nogami, and T. L. Le. “Nishimura Masanari’s Study of the Earliest Known Shipwreck Found in Vietnam.” Asian Review of World Histories 5 (2017): 106–122. Priyanto, Waluyo Agus. “Conservation Research and Treatment Programs: Case Study of Ancient Boat Site in Rembang Regency.” The MUA Collection, 2020. Accessed September 23, 2020. http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1263. Purnawibowo, S., and A. Restiyadi. Identifikasi Tinggalan Arkeologi Maritim di Situs Bukit Bongal, Tapanuli Tengah, Sumatera Utara. Balai Arkeologi Provinsi Sumatera Utara, 2020. Siswanto, and N. Abbas. “Ringkasan Hasil Penelitian Situs Perahu Punjulharjo, Kabupaten Rembang.” Varuna Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, 2010. Suranto, Y. “Sumbangan Pemikiran Bagi Penanganan Perahu Kuna Punjulharjo Rembang.” Varuna Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, 2010. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Experimental Reconstructions of the Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: New Insights for Understanding the Lashed-lug Boatbuilding Techniques. Description An account of the resource The article presents the methodology applied for the re-investigation and for the experimental reconstruction of the Punjulharjo boat, the most complete Southeast Asian lashed-lug boat found to date. This work, based on archaeological data, ethnographic, and iconographic sources, brought better understanding of the boat and of the lashed-lug system. Archaeological data were gathered through direct observation of the Punjulharjo boat remains displayed on the original finding location and examination of photos taken during the excavation. The reconstruction approach was engineering and experimental, it consisted in producing hypothetical representations of the Punjulharjo boat, in digital, virtual and 3D print form. As a result, the team identified different lashing systems, hypothesized diverse uses of the lugs within the planking joinery and vertical structures, illustrated the complexity of the planking pattern and hypothesized the aspect and location (or relocation) of the beams, rudders, mast, and other superstructures. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chiara Zazzaro Agni Mochtar Luigi Ombrato Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Zazzaro, Chiara. 2023. “The experimental reconstructions of the Punjulharjo boat: New insights for understanding the lashed-lug boatbuilding techniques.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1945 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023