1 10 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a2aa71e25ef45afdfe9fafe8b1111d12.pdf 4afaaea29b06d4c815497cfc407b03c2 PDF Text Text Ceramics and Other Archaeological Finds as Evidence of Ancient Ports Existence and Its Role in Eastern Coast of South Sumatra in Early Centuries Eka Asih Putrina Taim National Research Center of Archaeology University of Indonesia ekaasih_taim@yahoo.com Abstract The East Coast of Sumatra has been often associated with great maritime empire in Southeast Asia, namely Srivijaya. However in this paper does not focus on the presence of that empire, but the traces of settlements and port related maritime activities early centuries AD. Foreign ceramics is one solid indication of their relationship and trade exchange activities between the origin places of ceramics was produced with which it was found on the very site of east coast South Sumatra, the same thing happened to other findings as well. By revealing these sites we might have picture what Southern Sumatra role was in maritime activities of early centuries AD. Key words: Ceramics and Archeological Findings, Southern Sumatra, Ancient Ports Preface The east coast region of Sumatra Island is commonly known for seafaring since ancient times. As a “gate route” to enter the Indonesian Archipelago, its connected or passed by ships with destinations to and from the Yellow Sea in the North. The peak of trade activity in east coast region of Sumatra Island happened during the period of the Maritime Kingdom of Srivijaya. Its vast territory covered almost all of the western part of Indonesian Archipelago and Malay Peninsula (Kedah) up to southern part of Thailand (Ligor). Based on ancient inscriptions and foreign written sources, the period of this enormous kingdom was emerging presumably in 6th until 13th �Centuries. Yet it cannot deny, some of archaeological evidences that found in east coast of Sumatra Island, indicated the contacts activity with foreigner already conducted far before 6th Century. The peak of trading activity in eastern Sumatra through the Malacca Strait at that time appropriated with the period of “silk road” trade routes between East and West from the 8th -11th Centuries (Wolters, 1967). In land route of “silk road”, the traders were assessing the desert land through Central Asia, Eastern Asia to Europe, like wise from Europe to Central Asia. However, the sea routes in “silk routes” were sailing the routes which connected Mesopotamian and Persian Gulf in the West to South of China, through the Melaka strait and the East Coast of Sumatra. Meanwhile the trade network from trade centers in the West also expanded to the South East. The 8th -11th Centuries were expanding period of Muslim trade along coastline of Indian Sea to China. The Ships sailed from Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf or from Egypt and Middle Sea (Mediterranean) to India and Malabar, continued to Srilangka, Indonesia, Indochina, and Southern China territory. They were loaded with commercial goods such as rocks, turtle skin, comb, and metal bars. All of those things were exchanged for elephant trunks, rhinoceros horn, and camphor along the Indian seashore. Whereas in China, the trade goods were exchanged for precious things such as silk and ceramic, all of those were going to sale in Mediterranean markets and the Indian sea became center for the distribution of spices, perfume, aromatic ingredients, and medicines. (Lombard, 1996) The sea trade routes between East and West had went on far before the arrival of the Islamic religion into Indonesian Archipelagos. Traders and seafarers from China, Arabia and Persia had travelled using the advantage of monsoon winds. By assessing the historical records, we �have descriptions of their navigation network and the kind of commodities which were traded. The journey from China to Indonesian Archipelagos and South East Asia, at least had 3 stages period of journeys: The first period was the 5th – 7th Centuries; the journeys were motivated by religious pilgrimages. It is marked by Fa-shien journeying to religious centers in India and Ceylon in 414 AD. In his returned journey to China, he passed and stopped in Yeh Po Tie which located in the East Coast of Sumatra. At this time, the trade commodity was limited only to luxurious or royal goods such as: pearls, turtle skin, and religious effects such as benzoin, perfume and other exceptional things (Wolters, 1967). The second period was in the 7th – 13th Centuries; the sea journeys not only were intended for luxurious and royal goods, but also for spices and medicines. This period was marked by the emerging of maritime kingdoms in Sumatra such as Sriwijaya and Melayu. As we found in ItTsing’s records (677 AD), in his journey to India he stopped in Palembang, he noticed that Palembang had already become an important port. Another record made by another Chinese traveler, Hsu- T’ang –Shu, mentioned that Sriwijaya had at least 14 harbors or ports and Barus were one of its biggest one in the west coast of Sumatra, which produced camphor and had its own administrative rules (Wolters, 1967). The third Period was in the 14th -17th Centuries; it was the summit of Chinese commercial activity in the Ming Dynasty. At that time the Chinese Empire was as its acme in prosperity and leading culture. At the beginning of the 15th century, it was a period where there was an enormous interest from the Chinese Empire to expand its influence to overseas lands, its trade’s become more developed and more diverse, as well as China’s knowledge in geography had became wider and more detailed (Mills, 1969). The famous and legendary trader and envoy at this time was �Admiral Cheng Ho or Ma Huan (1403-1430 AD). Ma Huan or Cheng Ho noted and recorded on his journey in his journal and he wrote a book “ Ying Yai Sheng Lan” ( The Overall Survey of The Ocean’s Shores) (Mills, 1969). Base on its chronology, ports and trade settlements along east coast Sumatra could divide into several periods, 1. Ports which emerged in pre or early Sriwijaya period 4th– 7th C 2. Ports during Sriwijaya Period 7th – 13th C 3. Ports which existed after Sriwijaya period and at the time of emerging of many maritime kingdoms in Sumatra such as Panai, Malayu, and Samudra Pasai, as same period with Majapahit supremacy in East Java in 13th C. 4. Port that was emerged and developed in 18th-19th C From all of the five stages of Chronology, the existing of the ports was the most varied. Some of ports could survive through several periods but there also ports which only existed only in one period and abandoned afterward. Archaeological researches in eastern Sumatra, supported by written sources, is also conducted by field research through either surveys or excavations. The results of this research revealed that most of the sites in this area were dated back to pre- and during the Sriwijaya period in 4th 13th C. The primary indications for the existence of those ports in east coast of Sumatra were an enormous number of ceramics found, mostly along the line of its seashore. As well as the ceramic sherds there’s also traces of ancient settlements remains such as bricks, poles of wooden �house pillars, fragments of ancient ships/vessels, beads, metal and wood relics. Other data that we could use to explain the existence of the ports are the shipwreck cargos, which found in Indonesian Sea, such as shipwreck from Pulau Buaya, Bangka Belitung, and the recent finding from Cirebon Sea. The data from these projects are very important and relevant evidences reveal the ancient trade activity and its commodities for export and import from other places outside of the Indonesia Archipelago. More over with sunken ship sites, which might have same chronological assemblage, contains a high value of large number ceramic data related to other kinds of commodities which were also important. The ceramics we could identified the origin of its dated and place, and from ceramics dating we could confirm the variation of other commodities which came from the same period of the ceramics. This paper tries to decipher which sites have indicated that these activities and how their role in shipping, trade and cultural exchanges of the past by using both written source and artifacts that found in very sites. The Archaeological Findings And Past Ten Years New Reveals In South Sumatra Most of sites that indicated maritime and long distance trade activity in early centuries are located in two provinces in southern part Sumatera, which are South Sumatra province and Jambi province. A. Jambi Province The existence of ancient port in south Sumatra began with toponim of a place called “Muara Sabak”. It’s located in Batanghari estuary. The word Sabak could be refer to Arabian noted in 7th C called Zabag , a place that might be located in Sumatera (L. Damais, 1964). Nowadays Muara Sabak �is in Tanjung Jabung distrik, along with others sites that had reveals later in late 90’s such as Lambur. Nipah Panjang, Siti Hawa, and Koto Kandis. Fig. 1: Tanjung Jabung District in Jambi Province. Tanjung Jabung district lies in a delta at the mouth of the Batang Hari River, the second largest river in southern Sumatra. The lowland region mostly consists of peat swamps. Several rivers flow into this delta, which partly empties into the Berhala Strait, among other rivers; Pemusiran, Lambur Luar, and Simbur Rise. Those sites located in this region are on the banks of the river flow, both of which still exist as well as the flow of an ancient river that has dried up. The most prominent finding on sites in this region is the distribution of foreign ceramics which is quite dense and evenly distributed on every surface of the site. Ceramic findings, especially Chinese ceramics are quite dominant to the sites in the estuary area up to Muara Jambi site in the mid-stream of the River Batanghari. In addition to ceramics, the findings in the estuary of the river, also a variety of other ship findings such as wooden pegs, fiber ropes, ship fragments, metal, pottery, gold, and other findings that show traces of settlement activities and maritime activity of past trade. Mostly �ceramic finds in this area came from the Sung Dynasty era; 11th to 13th Century, and consists of various kinds of white ceramics, caldrons, jars, ewers, which came in quite fine quality. B. South Sumatra Province Other than Batanghari River, the largest river in South Sumatra is Musi River. The maritime site in this province mostly scattered in the bank of this river. South Sumatra province are well-known on its role in trade route either in historical or archeological data. Fig. 2: Air Sugihan Site, South Sumatra Province. The oldest data in this region date came from the early of the 7th century AD, known as the Srivijaya period. The sites located in the estuary of the Musi River facing directly into the Strait of Malacca, among others are the wetlands sites on along the edge of the east coast of South Sumatra, such as the sites in Bayunglincir, Karang Agung to Air Sugihan, and the site of Kota Kapur in Bangka Island. These sites clearly indicate the trace of ancient settlements existence and maritime activities from the beginning of AD (century 3-4 AD). In addition to the findings of ancient settlements, �there are household appliances (grinding), pottery, beads, and metal fragment fragments, as well as Chinese ceramic findings from Tang dynasty by the end of 9th century AD. For the oldest ceramic find in the eastern seaboard South Sumatra is a jug from the 6th Century Sui dynasty found on the site of Air Sugihan. The district of Air Sugihan lies on the south side of the delta of Musi River on an ebb and tide, swamp area. Since 1980 was made for transmigration settlements, canals and bridges were built to reach the villages. Since inhabited, many archaeological findings were reported yet illegal digging occurred around the 1990s. Preliminary surveys were conducted in 1998 and again in 2003 through to 2011, and 2013 by Indonesian National Research Center of Archaeology. The research had identified several sites with surface finds such in Kertamurti, Nusakarta, Banyubiru, and canal 7. Excavations were carried on at 2007 and 2008, 2011 and 2013. Beside the traces of ancient settlement, sites in east coast of South Sumatra also show remains of ancient maritime activities such as; part of the remaining ancient boats, wooden fragments of ships; oars, peg wood, rope fibers, shoe stoves, as well as remnants of an ancient dock. Some others finds in Air Sugihan area which indicated similarity with other sites in South India. China Mainland and South East Asia have various beads made of glass and stone; stamps made of glass/stone; decorated pottery; Chinese ceramics; and metal objects. �Fig. 3 (left):Tthe end of a wooden boat fragment (National Research Center of Archaeology). C. Bangka Island Bangka Island was used to part of South Sumatra Province, now the island namely Bangka and Belitung have became a Province of Bangka Belitung. The Bangka Island it self with its Menumbing hill has been known by sealer in early centuries. The oldest written story written before Sriwijaya about Bangka obtained in India. A Buddhist literature written in century 3 AD (Mahaniddesa) mentions a number of place names in Asia, among others about Swarnnabhūmi, Wangka, and Java. Swarnnabhūmi name can be identified with Sumatra as mentioned also in the book Milindapanca while Wangka may be identified by Bangka. More detailed information about the picture there Bangka Island the Chinese news from the year 1436 AD is Hsing-Ch'a Sheng-lan ( General Reports Journey at Sea) written by Fei Hsin of a place called Ma-yi-tung lying west of Kau-lan (Belitung) in the southern sea (L. . Damais, 1995; Groeneveldt, 1960) Kota kapur, a prominent archaeological site in Bangka island, well known as its inscription about the invasion to Bumijawa. The inscription was originally thought to have come from the 7th century AD, but with the discovery of a statue Vishnu style 4 -5 centuries AD as it is also found in the port of Oc Eo sites in northern Vietnam. With the discovery of these findings, it can be said Kota Kapur site has been going on around the 4th �century AD or the period before the Realm of Srivijaya. The findings from this site not only inscription but also remains of brick temples, with one of it center consist about 20 ceramic bowls dated from North Song Dynasty 10th C arranged in circle row. The island of Bangka has a strait of Bangka that connects with Malacca Strait. In the 7th century AD, the Malacca Strait has become an important shipping lane and crowded with the Indian region. In 2013, National Research Center of Archaeology has revealed remnants of an ancient dock /port on southwest shore of Kota Kapur, facing to the mouth of Musi River, This remnant presumably as an entrance dock to Kota Kapur in early century. In addition to the rest of the pier, around the location are also found the remains of a large wooden boat, pottery shard, and the remains of house poles. Fig. 4 (right): Excavation on ancient dock in Kota Kapur Site of Bangka. (National Research Center of Archaeology) Conclusion Indonesia was presumably greatly involved in the Indian Ocean network trade at very early period. Indonesian products such as camphor, benzoin, cloves, and gold were demand in India and China, moreover to Middle East, Rome and west coast of Africa. Historical evidence however �indicates that the main emporia in western Indonesia were not located near the producing center, but instead were in south east Sumatra (Miksic, 1979) The oldest evidences of long distance trade route, between southern Sumatra’s east coast to elsewhere, are the finding of ceramic jars from the Sui dynasty’s 6t -7th century , the Arikamedu’s pottery shard of 4th 5th century, also some potteries which as the same as found in Oc Eo site (4-5 C). In Air Sugihan site, not only the potteries but also beads, metal works, and also amulet are similar with those found in 4th-5th century site of Oc Eo. From the chronology of ceramic finds, ceramic that found in Tanjung Jabung area of Batanghari estuary are mostly latter than those found South Sumatera east coast. It is indicated that settlements in South Sumatra by the Musi River estuary were older (9th-10th C) than Batanghari’s (11th -13th C). The ceramics and other artifacts such as metal work , glass and others found in Jambi and South Sumatra sites are the same as those found in Pulau Buaya, Intan and Cirebon Shipwreck , which mean all those were came from the same period and the same trade business (Taim, 2016) Some boat fragments found in Air Sugihan or Bangka site shown the use of Southeast Asian tradition of boat making. Southeast Asian boat making techniques that consist of sewn plank technique and lash lug techniques. This technique was flourishing in Southeast Asia so it use to call as Southeast Asian Technique, which starts in early first century (Abas, 2009). The eastern coastal area of southern Sumatra contains several areas that indicate long-distance maritime and trade activities. The region covers �Jambi province, south Sumatra, and Bangka Belitung. Based on the findings of archaeological remains, the Jambi province area relatively younger by archeological findings than the other two regions (southern Sumatra and Bangka). This is in accordance with the chronology of the history of the kingdom of Srivijaya which was mentioned in Sumatra by Coedes (Coedes, Damais, Kulke, & Manguin, 2014). Wolters, an English Historian , also said that Jambi to South Sumatra area are the suitable and strategic location, as enter port while waiting for the best wind that might bring the ship to east (Manguin, Py,. Soeroso MP, 2006) References Abas, N. 2009. Perahu Kuno di Situs Punjulharjo , Rembang. Berita Penelitian Arkeologi, 23, 46–59. Coedes, G., Damais, L.-C., Kulke, H., & Manguin, P.-Y. (2014). Kedatuan Sriwijaya. (A. G. and P. M. Veronique de Groot, Ed.) (2nd ed.). Jakarta: Komunitas Bambu. Damais, L. 1964. "Etudes sino-indonesiennes III. Latrascription chionese, Holloing designation de Java. BEFEO, 52(1), 93–161. Damais, L. . 1995. “Agama Buddha di Indonesia. In Epigrafi dan Sejarah Nusantara: Pilihan karangan Louis-Charles Damais. Jakarta: Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional. Groeneveldt, W. P. 1960. Historical notes on Indonesia and Malaya compiled from Chinese sources. Jakarta: Bhratara. Retrieved from http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/783716 Lombard, D. 1996. Nusa Jawa ; Silang Budaya (3rd ed.). Jakarta: Gramedia. Manguin, Py,. Soeroso MP, M. C. 2006. Daerah Dataran Rendah dan Daerah Pesisir. In Menyelusuri Sungai Merunut Waktu : Penelitian Arkeologi di Sumatera Selatan (pp. 49–62). Jakarta: Enrique Indonesi. �Miksic, J. N. 1979. Archaeology, Trade and Society in Northeast Sumatra. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Cornel University. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/302932664?accountid=13771 Mills, J. 1969. Ying-yai Sheng-lan: “The Overall Survey of the Ocean”s Shores. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Taim, E. A. P. 2016. Keramik Muatan Kapal Karam Cirebon: Sebaran Di Situs-Situs Arkeologi Sumatera Bagian Selatan. Kalpataru, 25 No. 1(Mei 2016),29–44. Retrieved from http://jurnalarkeologi.kemdikbud.go.id/index.php/kalpataru/article/view/81 Wolters, O. W. 1967. Early Indonesian commerce : a study of the origins of ʹSrīvijaya. New York, Ithaca: University Press. About Author Name: Eka Asih Putrina Taim Occupation: Researcher / Doctor Candidate of Indonesian University Affiliation: National Research Center of Archaeology/ University of Indonesia Address: Jln. Raya Condet Pejaten no .4, Jakarta Selatan 12510 Indonesia Email: ekaasih_taim@yahoo.com Specialty in: Ancient Settlement of Hindu Buddha period in Sumatra and Ancient Ceramics � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 3: Ceramic trade and cross-cultural exchange from Asian-Pacific region to the world Description An account of the resource Ceramics are the crucial cultural materials for understanding the cross-cultural exchange from Asian-Pacific region to the world. This session will discuss how interdisciplinary approaches such as archaeology, art, history, geophysics, and material science can broaden our horizons on the study of ceramic trade and cross-cultural exchange. Second, we will discuss the connection of ceramic trade and exchange between the early age of commerce (c.900-1300 C.E.) and the age of commerce (1450-1680 C.E.) in Southeast Asia and other regions. This established some challenges in ceramic trade including the influence for new creativity and production development, such as in Europe where some trademarks were developed under the Chinese influence. Our goal is to deepen our knowledge on the application of interdisciplinary approaches on the study of ceramic trade and cross-cultural exchange across the two historical periods. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sharon Wong Wai-yee Department of Anthropology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T. Hong Kong Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ceramics and Other Archaeological Finds as Evidence of Ancient Ports Existence and Its Role in Eastern Coast of South Sumatra in Early Centuries Description An account of the resource The East Coast of Sumatra has been often associated with great maritime empire in Southeast Asia, namely Srivijaya. However in this paper does not focus on the presence of that empire, but the traces of settlements and port related maritime activities early centuries AD. Foreign ceramics is one solid indication of their relationship and trade exchange activities between the origin places of ceramics was produced with which it was found on the very site of east coast South Sumatra, the same thing happened to other findings as well. By revealing these sites we might have picture what Southern Sumatra role was in maritime activities of early centuries AD. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Eka Asih Putrina Taim Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Eka Asih Putrina Taim Asia-Pac Session 3 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/bec21e9afef5b6a4311e1faeeb70dffe.pdf 7fb9acd932134d309993980df547c6e4 PDF Text Text The Blues of the Santa Cruz: A study of porcelain color and composition Ellen Hsieh Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA ellenhsieh@g.ucla.edu Christian Fischer UCLA/Getty Conservation Interdepartmental Program chrisfischer@ucla.edu Bobby C. Orillaneda National Museum of the Philippines bobbyorillaneda@yahoo.com Abstract For the study of ceramics found in a shipwreck, stylistic and provenance analysis are two approaches that can provide critical information about period and trade route of the vessel. In this paper, we investigate the characteristics of trade ceramics from the well-preserved Santa Cruz shipwreck, which sunk along the west coast of Luzon Island in the Philippines. Underwater excavation has brought to light more than 15,000 ceramics, mainly Chinese Jingdezhen blue-and-white porcelain and Longquan celadon of the Hongzhi period (1488-1505 CE) as well as other wares from Thailand, Vietnam, and Burma. Here, we have focused on the Jingdezhen blue-and-white porcelain and selected twelve dishes with similar decorative patterns, but showing different tones and shades of the blue color. The dishes were most likely produced in the same workshop or within a small region and the primary goal was to investigate production variability. The chemical composition of the ceramics and the characteristics of the blue pigment were studied non-invasively with portable X-ray fluorescence pXRF) and fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS). Results have shown that pXRF data are relatively homogeneous which reflects some constancy in term of raw materials procurement usage. On the other hand, although the blue pigment was as expected a cobalt-based material, FORS spectral profiles present significant differences which might be due to variations in the pigment composition and/or firing conditions, while for others, they could also be �related to weathering. From an archaeometry perspective, this research provides some insight on production standardization in Jingdezhen as well as on subsequent modifications that can affect ceramics found in an underwater archaeological context. Key words: Ceramics, shipwreck, Philippines, blue-and-white, pXRF Introduction Chinese blue-and-white porcelain was one of the most popular commodities during the pre-modern and early modern periods, and it was frequently found along the maritime trade routes. Because the decorative patterns of blue-and-white porcelain changed over time, the artistic style of this type of material is usually the primary research focus for clarifying dating issues. However, the chronology of Chinese blue-and-white porcelain was established based on fine wares made mostly for the court, and the variability of the production was relatively ignored. Regarding the color of the decoration observed with naked eyes, there is a broad range of “blues” on blue-and-white porcelain, ranging from blue, green, purple, gray, and sometimes even black.1 In this research, we have used scientific analysis to investigate the causes of the color difference among a selected set of blue-and-white porcelain from a shipwreck. This archaeological context provides a particular opportunity for this research: loaded in the same boat as merchandise, a same kind of mass-produced cargo was most likely made around the same time and was even from the same or nearby workshops. The artifacts were selected from the cargo of the Santa Cruz shipwreck that sunk about ten nautical miles off the northern Zambales coast on Luzon Island. This shipwreck is one of the representative fifteenth-century vessels in maritime Asia (Fig. 1). The underwater excavation was conducted in 2001 by the National Museum of the Philippines in �collaboration with the Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology. The vessel was about twenty-five meters long and six meters wide and was built following the so-called South China Sea Tradition of shipbuilding. The structure itself is well preserved as 80 percent of the lower hull was discovered and the cargo was still loaded in the 16 transverse bulkheads. A variety of materials were found in the Santa Cruz including ceramics, metal products, glassware, wooden and stone materials. Among these artifacts, more than 15,000 ceramics were recovered during the campaign, including Chinese and Vietnamese blueand-white porcelain, Chinese celadon, as well as Thai and Burmese stoneware (Orillaneda, 2008, 2016). Mainly based on the style analysis of the ceramics, the Santa Cruz shipwreck could be dated to the Hongzhi period in Ming China (1488~1505 CE). The discovery of the Santa Cruz shipwreck and its cargo is an important piece of evidence for the so-called Dongyang (Eastern Sea, from the Chinese perspective) trade route during the “Age of Commerce” in Southeast Asia (Reid, 1988, 1993). Additionally, the vast amount of late fifteen-century CE Jingdezhen blueand-white porcelain on board marked the end of the “Ming Gap” (Brown, 2009) and the revival of the trade of Chinese ceramics in Southeast Asia. This research therefore, not only contributes to the general issue of color variation among blue-and-white porcelain but also sheds light on the production process and trade of Chinese porcelain during this particular period. �Fig. 1: Map of East and Southeast Asia with the location of the Santa Cruz Wreck (left) and images taken during the excavation (right). Materials and methods Blue-and-white porcelain Twelve blue-and-white dishes were analyzed with a particular focus on the different tones and shades of the blue color (Tab.1; Fig. 2). The porcelain ware was loaded in piles mostly at the port side of the boat, and the dishes were distributed in bulkhead 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 (Orillaneda, 2008). The locations of these samples show that those from the same bulkhead did not necessarily share similar appearance or quality (e.g. III-2001-Z2963 and III-2001-Z-3245). The selected dishes are all saucer-shaped and of similar size: diameter of the mouth rims is about 26cm, height is about 4cm, and the diameter of the foot rim is about 13cm. Most of them �are entirely decorated with the same kind of casual-style patterns (e.g., flora and rock, deer and pine tree). The blue decoration was applied on both the interior and exterior of the dishes. To leave the foot rim unglazed, the transparent glaze was applied separately at the bottom of the dishes. In many cases, the glaze applied on the bottom looks different from the glaze in the other parts. While all dishes have been cleaned and desalinated after the excavation, some still show shell encrustations. Methods Two non-invasive technologies were used in this study: portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) and fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS). Previous research has shown that these two techniques are suitable for the compositional analysis of blue-and-white porcelain and details of the settings used here for the two instruments can be found in the corresponding paper (Fischer and Hsieh, 2017). For pXRF, soil mode was used to acquire data on minor and trace elements from both the blue and white areas while mining mode was used for major elements from the transparent glaze. Measurements on the blue areas (glaze + blue pigment) were all taken on the main decoration at the center of the plate. As to the white area, due to the difference of the glaze application mentioned above, measurements were taken on two locations: one on the area next to the blue decoration and another one at the bottom. Depending on the size of the ‘white’ areas, the location of the first measurement was sometimes on the external side of the dishes. Compositional data of the body was collected on the only dish with a bare bottom (i.e. III-2001-Z-7026). Regarding FORS, measurements were taken on the blue decorated areas and on the ‘white’ at the bottom because there was not enough space for the measuring probe in between the blue decor. �Fig. 2: The dishes selected and analyzed in this study, with the color references of the decorations. �Table 1. Characteristics of the selected blue-and-white porcelain dishes Results and discussion Visual observations The selected blue-and-white dishes share general characteristics regarding size, form and decoration styles. The shape of the foot rims and the way of applying the glaze show that the manufacturing process might be similar. In general, the glaze is quite transparent though a bit grayish, but for a few dishes, it shows a milky and opaque appearance that influence the visibility of the blue pigment beneath. Cracks and dewetting features related to shrinkage are also commonly observed. In some cases, these characteristics are only visible on one side of the dish, suggesting that the variations of glaze might be mainly due to firing conditions, such as the temperature of the kilns and where the plates were loaded in kilns. The surfaces of the glaze are weathered to various degrees after staying hundreds of years under the sea. In some cases, it is however hard to tell whether the opaque aspect of the plates is due to �their inferior quality or weathering at first glance. The blue areas are generally dull and look greenish or grayish with the naked eye. The primary motifs are outlined and filled with light colors, whereas the small leave patterns were drawn directly with thicker pigments favoring the formation of darker spots after firing. Sometimes, a brownish material can be observed on the top of those dark blue areas, which is most likely due to weathering. Chemical composition and production kilns Chemical composition data obtained with pXRF on the transparent glaze indicate that the blue-and-white plates were produced in Jingdezhen based on the concentrations of some discriminative elements such as zirconium, thorium and titanium (Tab. 2), a result consistent with the stylistic analysis and historical context. Values for these elements are close to the ones measured in previous studies despite the different time periods (Fischer and Hsieh, 2017; Ma, et al. 2012) and such compositional similarities could correspond to a relative constancy in the procurement of raw materials and processing technologies from the middle to late-Ming period. However, variations in rubidium levels, i.e. the higher values reported in the present study, also found for the Guanyinge and other unspecified late-Ming kiln sites (Rb: 428±78 ppm, Zhu et al. 2016; Rb: 436±84 ppm, Ma et al. 2012) compared to the lower averages measured on Jingdezhen blue-and-white ware from the Nan’ao One shipwreck in China (Rb: 270 ppm, Zhu et al. 2016) and sherds from the Philippines and Indonesia (315±40 ppm, Fischer and Hsieh 2017) dated to the lateMing and early-Qing periods, might reflect some intra-site variability among the numerous kilns in Jingdezhen. Based on the analyzed elements2, the chemistry of the glaze measured in the ‘white’ area, corresponds to an alumino-silicate glassy network �containing calcium and potassium added as fluxing agents and network modifiers. The composition of the glaze is relatively homogeneous, independently of its degree of transparency, making it difficult to identify the origin of the opacity which could be linked to the firing process, underwater weathering, or both. For some dishes, calcium levels are low and such levels, associated with lower firing temperatures in some areas of the kiln, could indeed contribute to opacify the glaze. On the other hand, almost invisible defects in the glaze induced by composition and firing conditions could favor the weathering in an underwater environment as well, and explain the lack of transparency for the glaze of some dishes. Also noticeable are some differences in the composition of the glaze applied to the base which shows lower calcium and higher iron and titanium in comparison to the ‘white’ and decorated areas. Although this trend is not systematic (see e.g. III-2001-Z-3245), it could suggest usage of a slightly different recipe for the glaze applied to the bottom. Finally, it can be mentioned that the desalination process was rather effective as the levels of chlorine and sulfur, not reported here, are generally low, apart may be for the dish with reference III-2001-Z-14679. �Table 2. Compositional data from pXRF and FORS analysis. Major (% oxides) Accession N° Spot CaO K2 O III-2001-Z-256 blue white 4.4 5.2 base 3.9 5.1 III-2001-Z-789 blue white 6.1 4.0 base 5.5 4.0 III-2001-Z-1269 blue white 5.4 5.0 base 3.4 5.0 III-2001-Z-2797 blue white 6.9 4.2 base 5.8 4.3 III-2001-Z-2963 blue white 6.6 3.9 base 5.7 4.0 III-2001-Z-3245 blue white 5.4 4.2 base 5.5 4.3 III-2001-Z-3851 blue white 8.1 4.1 base 6.6 4.1 III-2001-Z-5135 blue white 5.6 4.2 base 5.0 4.7 III-2001-Z-7026 blue white 5.9 4.2 base** 4.1 3.5 III-2001-Z-13671 blue white 5.9 4.8 base 4.4 4.6 III-2001-Z-14679 blue white 5.9 4.3 base 4.9 4.5 III-2001-Z-14878 blue white 5.9 4.6 base 4.9 4.1 Selected Elements from pXRF Analysis Minor and Trace (ppm) Fe Ti Mn Rb Sr Zr Co Cu 2546 -- 7265 408 87 46 1276 47 2104 116 340 412 95 45 -28 84 495 403 71 58 -28 4019 128 3035 385 99 44 279 37 3585 125 348 411 97 50 -27 139 391 406 101 48 -19 2996 103 3038 385 82 57 442 54 2553 251 326 392 87 53 -33 187 254 395 62 63 -28 3375 115 1796 448 109 45 275 51 2697 116 295 408 136 40 -32 228 371 475 122 56 -37 4678 -- 3840 307 100 45 611 45 4591 -440 318 95 53 -37 95 464 326 72 59 -26 3484 -- 2150 322 111 48 343 58 2997 156 262 335 97 54 -33 133 233 334 73 63 -29 3408 -- 8910 333 94 50 1047 112 3194 148 602 331 112 49 -52 229 439 361 78 62 -32 3376 285 2011 417 106 49 186 113 3131 81 229 457 84 53 -47 151 327 492 71 58 -37 2925 105 1305 573 88 39 133 48 2835 202 240 601 92 48 -24 266 310 669 42 57 -19 3884 133 3543 392 92 50 355 56 3061 191 428 394 91 52 -49 117 398 414 66 55 -29 3416 103 2516 400 54 52 356 34 2561 214 438 391 71 50 -35 172 528 415 49 61 -27 4335 129 3169 539 84 45 166 71 3752 142 347 567 85 54 -66 255 607 655 57 66 -43 Th 11 8 17 10 10 9 11 11 12 9 -15 9 10 14 9 12 14 12 12 16 9 10 10 8 -18 12 10 13 10 8 14 21 10 13 FORS Analysis Spectral absorptions (nm)* Co (II) Ni Mn(II) Mn(III) H2O 341 421w 491vw 519w 583s 678s -71 244 422m 491w 517m 582s 673m --206 420m 489vw 521vw 584m 679s +++ 83 57 115 424w 493w 520m 585s 676s 67 77 415 422w 491w 517m 583s 677m 107 83 281 423w 491w 521m 581s 665br ++ -54 237 423w 491w 520m 583s 677s 87 82 164 426w 491vw 522m 585s 675s ++ -86 218 421m 491w 519m 583s 670s ++ --465 421m 492w 520m 581s 672m 111 64 351 421w 490w 518m 584s 671m + 88 -701 422m 492w 522m 586s 655br 93 56 * Absorptions: vw: very weak, w: weak, m:medium, s: strong, br: broad ** body Composition and color variations of the blue decorations The pXRF analysis of the blue decorated areas has shown that the cobaltbased pigment contains high levels of manganese, low iron and significant amounts of nickel as well as traces of copper. After subtraction of the manganese and iron contribution from the transparent glaze (white area), normalized percentages of Mn, Co and Fe are similar to the blue pigment analyzed on other export blue-and-white porcelain produced in Jingdezhen (Fig. 3). This compositional profile is consistent with the results of previous studies (Chen et al., 1978; Cheng et al., 2005; Fischer �and Hsieh, 2017; Wen et al., 2007) and also supports the use of Mn-rich asbolite ores in folk kilns during the Hongzhi period of the Ming dynasty. Fig. 3: Ternary plot showing the blue pigment composition based on the relative proportions of Co, Mn and Fe. FORS analysis provided colorimetric data using the 1964 CIE 10° XYZ standard which were converted to visible references, confirming the variability of the blues based on visual observations (Fig. 2). Spectral profiles obtained with FORS on the blue decorated areas (Fig. 4, left) show the characteristic absorptions of Co2+ in tetrahedral coordination with the triplet located around 520, 580 and 670 nm (Ceglia et al., 2012; Fischer and Hsieh, 2017). For some plates, darker colors translate in an overall lower spectral reflectance in the visible, but the cobalt absorptions are always present though with variable intensities (Tab. 2). However, in these darker areas obvious signs of weathering are often visible (Fig. 4, right) and the associated brownish color is most likely due to an oxidation �of Mn and Fe phases. Moreover, the grayish or blackish hue of the decoration might be correlated with high levels of manganese in the composition of the pigment, combined with redox firing conditions favoring the crystallization of Mn-rich oxide phases (Wen et al., 2007). Some analogy can be made with ‘black’ glasses containing several percent of MnO making the glass appear black to the human eyes (Möncke et al., 2014). Similar dark colors were also found on blue-and-white from the Chenghua period (1465 ~1487 CE) though the amount of manganese in the blue pigment was not analyzed (Qu et al., 2014). In the FORS spectra, the presence of Mn-rich phases might be associated with the absorption of Mn(II) at 420 nm and a broad but weak Mn(III) absorption around 490 nm (Tab. 2), although the latter attribution would need to be confirmed by further research on reference materials. Finally, in the near infrared spectral range, some plates show a strong and asymmetrical combination band around 1910 nm which seems to be correlated to the degree of opacity and can be attributed to the presence of water adsorbed in the glaze and/or in the body that might result from the weathering and/or indirectly reflect a more porous body and lower firing temperatures. �Fig. 4: FORS spectra of the blue decorated area from selected dishes (left) and weathering features of the glaze and dark spots concentrated in blue pigment. (III-2001-Z-14878, right) In this preliminary study, the variability of the blue colors of blue-and-white porcelain from Santa Cruz shipwreck was explored by using pXRF and FORS. Factors associated with composition, recipe and production process as well as underwater conditions can all affect the appearance of the excavated ware, the most critical ones being the recipe of the glaze, the firing conditions and the weathering induced by water. The results of the pXRF data have shown that regardless of the appearance variability, the chemical composition of the selected dishes share the characteristics of middle and late Ming blue-and-white porcelain produced in Jingdezhen. The pXRF data also shed light on some aspects of production processes of the dishes. FORS provided colorimetric data which are well correlated with the visual perception and variability of the ‘blue’ colors. Also, the spectral profiles and related absorptions have given some insight on the potential causes for the darker colors. To further examine the variability of the blue-and-white porcelain loaded in the Santa Cruz, it would be �necessary to investigate a larger set of dishes and if possible, compare dishes from the same pile. Endnotes 1 It is worth noting that the Chinese name of blue-and-white porcelain is “Qinghua,“ meaning “patterns with qing color.” And qing can refer to colors ranging from green, blue and black. 2 For major elements, values for Si and Al are considered qualitative and not reported in Table 2. References Brown, R. M., 2009. The Ming Gap and Shipwreck Ceramics in Southeast Asia: Towards a Chronology of Thai Trade Ware. The Siam Society Under Royal Patronage, Bangkok. Ceglia, A., W. Meulebroeck, K. Baert, H. Wouters, K. Nys, H. Thienpont and H. Terryn, 2012. Cobalt absorption bands for the differentiation of historical Na and Ca/K rich glass. Surface and Interface Analysis, Vol. 44:219-226. Chen, Y.-c. , Y.-y. Kuo and T.-g. Chang, 1978. An investigation on Chinese blue-and-white ware and its blue pigment. Journal of the Chinese Ceramic Society, Vol. 1978(4): 225-241. Cheng, H. S., B. Zhang, D. Zhu, F. J. Yang, X. M. Sun and M. S. Guo, 2005. Some new results of PIXE study on Chinese ancient porcelain. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, Vol. 240(1-2): 527-531. Fischer, C. and E. Hsieh, 2017. Export Chinese blue-and-white porcelain: compositional analysis and sourcing using non-invasive portable XRF and reflectance spectroscopy. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 80:1426. Ma, H. , J. Zhu, J. Henderson and N. Li, 2012. Provenance of Zhangzhou export blue-and-white and its clay source. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 39(2012): 1218-1226. �Möncke, D., M. Papageorgiou, A. Winterstein-Beckmann and N. Zacharias, 2014. Roman glasses coloured by dissolved transition metal ions: redox- reactions, optical spectroscopy and ligand field theory. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 46: 23-36. Orillaneda, B. C., 2008. The Santa Cruz, Zambales Shipwreck Ceramics: Understanding Southeast Asian Ceramic Trade during the Late 15th Century C.E., Archaeological Studies Program, The University of the Philippines, Diliman. Orillaneda, B. C., 2016. Of Ships and Shipping: The maritime archaeology of fifteenth century CE Southeast Asia. In C. Wu (ed.), Early Navigation in the Asia-Pacific Region: A Maritime Archaeological Perspective, Springer, Singapore: 29-57. Qu, Y., J. Xu, X. Xi, C. Huang and J. Yang, 2014. Microstructure characteristics of blue-and-white porcelain from the folk kiln of Ming and Qing dynasties. Ceramics International, Vol. 40: 8783-8790. Reid, A., 1988 Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680, Volume One: The Lands below the Winds. Yale University Press, New Haven and London. Reid, A., 1993 Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680, Volume Two: Expansion and Crisis. Yale University Press, New Haven and London. Wen, R., C. S. Wang, Z. W. Mao, Y. Y. Huang and A. M. Pollard, 2007. The chemical composition of blue pigment on Chinese blue-and-white porcelain of the Yuan and Ming dynasties (AD 1271-1644). Archaeometry, Vol. 49(1): 101-115. Zhu, J., H. Ma, N. Li, J. Henderson and M. D. Glascock, 2016 The provenance of export porcelain from the Nan'ao One shipwreck in the South China Sea. Antiquity, Vol. 90(351): 798-808. Bios Dr. Ellen Hsieh is a research affiliate at National Chengchi University in Taiwan. She started her archaeological career from Neolithic Asia and then switched to concentrate on historical archaeology. She received her PhD degree in archaeology at the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at the �University of California, Los Angeles. Her research interests include maritime archaeology, historical archaeology, global history, archaeometry and cultural heritage. She has worked on archaeological projects in Taiwan, China, the Philippines and Cambodia and has published several articles about trading networks, colonialism, and scientific analysis of trade ceramics. Dr. Christian Fischer received a PhD in Geochemistry and Physical Chemistry from the Louis Pasteur University in Strasbourg. After years of scientific research in the private sector in France and China, he returned to academia in 2001. At UCLA since 2005, he has been teaching on various topics including archaeometry, conservation science and stone conservation as well as spectroscopy for the analysis of archaeological materials. He conducts research on raw materials sourcing and conservation of cultural artifacts, particularly of stone in Cambodia and neighboring countries in collaboration with the École Française d’Extrême-Orient (EFEO), Chinese export blue and white ceramics in Southeast Asia, and is involved in other projects in Cyprus, Chile and Mexico. Dr. Fischer is also the co-director of the Archaeomaterials group and the Molecular and Nano Archaeology Laboratory at UCLA as well as a scientific consultant for UNESCO on the preservation of cultural heritage. Bobby Orillaneda is a Museum Researcher at the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Division, National Museum of the Philippines. He is also finishing his doctoral studies at the Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, University of Oxford in England. He has been involved in maritime archaeology since 1999 and has worked in a number of projects in the Philippines, Egypt, Thailand, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. He was also part of a training team that carries out underwater training programs in Thailand and Indonesia. His areas of interest include Southeast Asian maritime history, Asian ceramics and World War II shipwrecks. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 3: Ceramic trade and cross-cultural exchange from Asian-Pacific region to the world Description An account of the resource Ceramics are the crucial cultural materials for understanding the cross-cultural exchange from Asian-Pacific region to the world. This session will discuss how interdisciplinary approaches such as archaeology, art, history, geophysics, and material science can broaden our horizons on the study of ceramic trade and cross-cultural exchange. Second, we will discuss the connection of ceramic trade and exchange between the early age of commerce (c.900-1300 C.E.) and the age of commerce (1450-1680 C.E.) in Southeast Asia and other regions. This established some challenges in ceramic trade including the influence for new creativity and production development, such as in Europe where some trademarks were developed under the Chinese influence. Our goal is to deepen our knowledge on the application of interdisciplinary approaches on the study of ceramic trade and cross-cultural exchange across the two historical periods. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sharon Wong Wai-yee Department of Anthropology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T. Hong Kong Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Blues of the Santa Cruz: A study of porcelain color and composition Description An account of the resource For the study of ceramics found in a shipwreck, stylistic and provenance analysis are two approaches that can provide critical information about period and trade route of the vessel. In this paper, we investigate the characteristics of trade ceramics from the well-preserved Santa Cruz shipwreck, which sunk along the west coast of Luzon Island in the Philippines. Underwater excavation has brought to light more than 15,000 ceramics, mainly Chinese Jingdezhen blue-and-white porcelain and Longquan celadon of the Hongzhi period (1488-1505 CE) as well as other wares from Thailand, Vietnam, and Burma. Here, we have focused on the Jingdezhen blue-and-white porcelain and selected twelve dishes with similar decorative patterns, but showing different tones and shades of the blue color. The dishes were most likely produced in the same workshop or within a small region and the primary goal was to investigate production variability. The chemical composition of the ceramics and the characteristics of the blue pigment were studied non-invasively with portable X-ray fluorescence pXRF) and fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS). Results have shown that pXRF data are relatively homogeneous which reflects some constancy in term of raw materials procurement usage. On the other hand, although the blue pigment was as expected a cobalt-based material, FORS spectral profiles present significant differences which might be due to variations in the pigment composition and/or firing conditions, while for others, they could also be related to weathering. From an archaeometry perspective, this research provides some insight on production standardization in Jingdezhen as well as on subsequent modifications that can affect ceramics found in an underwater archaeological context. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ellen Hsieh Christian Fischer Bobby C. Orillaneda Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Ellen Hsieh Christian Fischer Bobby C. Orillaneda Asia-Pac Session 3 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cfa098913665dc154fddf76dd74aa421.pdf 26911d5cb3f7987668cdd7f2ea6eb048 PDF Text Text Maritime Means and Mountain Ends: the origin of stoneware jars in mid 15th CE burial complexes of the Southern Cardamom Ranges, Cambodia. Peter Grave Archaeology & Palaeoanthropology University of New England, NSW Australia 2351 email: pgrave@une.edu.au orcid.org/0000‐0001‐5076‐2386 Lisa Kealhofer Anthropology/Environmental Studies Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA USA 95053 orcid.org/0000‐0002‐8308‐462X N. Beavan Institute of Environmental Science and Research, Kenepuru Science Centre, Kenepuru, Porirua 5022, New Zealand orcid.org/0000‐0001‐5649‐0430 Tep Sohka Royal University of Fine Arts, Cambodia Miriam Stark University of Hawai’I‐Manoa, Honololulu, USA 96822‐2223 orcid.org/ 0000‐0003‐1700‐4406 Ea Darith APSARA Authority Siem Reap, Cambodia Abstract Southeast Asia during the first half of the second millennium CE. Their hegemony is particularly apparent in lowland areas throughout the Lower Mekong basin, expressed in both architecture and ceramics. How strongly this control was exercised in more geographically marginal regions – and what the nature of power was after the capital moved southward -- has not been explored. In this paper we present the results of a geochemical analysis of ceramics from absolutely and comprehensively dated mid-15th century CE burial complexes in the Southern Cardamom Ranges of southeastern Cambodia and a nearby contemporary shipwreck. The �wreck assemblage was typical of a Southeast Asian maritime trader. Comparison of burial and shipwreck ceramic compositional data enables us to confirm a provenance for some of the jars and fine wares from production centres in central Northern Thailand. A second group, not represented in the wreck assemblage, is from a yet unidentified source that we suggest is located in the adjacent Cambodian lowlands. The results of this provenience analysis highlights both the role of the relatively well-known maritime trade, as well as a previously unsuspected continuity in local Cambodian stoneware production. This window into 15th c exchange networks expands our understanding of the context of subsequent European 16th-17th c engagement during the Early Modern Period, is one piece of the broader picture needed to more closely define the processes of economic transformation. Key words: Southeast Asia, ceramics, geochemical analysis, shipwreck, Cardamom Mountains Introduction The dramatic expansion of archaeology across mainland Southeast Asia in the last twenty years is beginning to provide the level of detail needed to evaluate previous models of exchange and interaction (e.g., Bronson 1977; Reid 1988). The role of maritime interaction and trade has long been argued to be a critical factor in the development of coastal polities throughout the region (Manguin 2000). However, this perspective has relied heavily on historical data, much of which begins in the Early Modern period for this region. This historical bias has focused attention on economic and political development for the coastal regions and the Early Modern period as an instant of economic and political rupture (Wallerstein 1974). It has also promoted an externalist bias in how mainland political and economic transformations are viewed. Arguably, our understanding of the posited economic and political ruptures in the region remains hampered by the still relatively sparse direct archaeological evidence of the local economic trajectories across the transition (Stark 2010). �Here we add to a growing body of material evidence that Southeast Asia was a large scale, internally complex and integrated exchange system prior to European engagement (e.g., Carter 2013; Manguin 2004; Manguin 2014). Ceramic compositional data from exceptionally well dated mid-15th c burial sites in the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, as well as from a contemporary shipwreck just off the west coast of Cambodia, are analyzed to better understand these local maritime/coastal economies outside the main political centers, in the decades prior to the Early Modern period engagement in SE Asia and the Pacific. Maritime exchange spheres in mainland SE Asia The organization of trade and exchange systems in Southeast Asia is a key research area for archaeologists and historians of the region. In the 1970s, Bronson suggested a dendritic model integrating coastal and inland sites (Bronson 1977), while others have focused on maritime patterns over time (Cartier 1988; Evers 1988; Manguin 1993). These earlier models heavily relied on historical data and ethnographic comparisons, but with a few exceptions, little direct archaeological data (e.g., Junker 1993; Junker 1998). More recent terrestrial archaeology across both island and mainland Southeast Asia has greatly expanded our understanding of the development of polities and their interaction beginning in the first millennium CE (Hendrickson 2010; Hendrickson 2011; Manguin 2004; Manguin 2014; Murphy and Stark 2016; Stark 2010; Stark 2006). Two main types of evidence are used to reconstruct pre-modern trade and exchange in the region: shipwrecks and trade goods. Shipwreck data allow us to track the expansion of maritime trade (and technology). Beginning with the 9th c. Belitung shipwreck in Indonesia, with cargo from China and the Middle East, the shipwreck evidence increases through the �early second millennium CE. The Gulf of Thailand, in particular, has a shipwreck record of extensive local trade from the 13th-15th c. CE (Brown 2004; Green and Harper 1987). Wrecks like the 15th c. Pandanan, in the South China Sea, reveal the extensive exchange between island and mainland SE Asia, and with points to the west (Diem 1998). In terms of ceramics, these wrecks commonly include a range of jars and fine tablewares (typically glazed bowls and plates) from a wide range of production centres in Southeast Asia and China (Grave and Maccheroni 2009). With the improvement and expansion of both regional archaeological databases and archaeometric analyses, we can begin to evaluate the regional trajectories of trade across SE Asia. In addition to site excavations and surveys, specific trade goods, such as carnelian beads from burials, provide some evidence of the direction, scale, and intensity of interaction across mainland SE Asia (Carter, et al. 2016; Carter 2015; Carter and Dussubieux 2016; Theunissen, et al. 2000). Patterns of exchange and emulation of South Asian religious items and iconography have also provided insights into inland and maritime exchange networks (Brown 1996; Shaffer 2015). Large scale changes in economic and political relationships SE Asia took place in the 10th-11th c. CE. These included the development of the Khmer Empire and the expansion of interaction with China (Wade 2009). Chinese interaction and exchange is apparent through both technological adoption and trade goods. Manguin (Manguin 2000) argues that the 10th13th c CE is one the major phases of intensified maritime exchange that promoted the growth of coastal polities (Baker 2003). However, while the Khmer traded with the Chinese, and expanded northward in mainland SE Asia, their production and exchange appear to have remained internal. �The 15th c CE was a critical nexus in both political and economic reorganization in SE Asia. Documentary sources suggest the Khmer Empire collapsed by the mid-15th c. CE. Post-Angkorian power migrated south to a series of 15th-18th c capitals that flanked the Tonle Sap lake (Srei Santhor, Bakan [Pursat] and then to the Oudong and Longvek area that lies c. 35 km NW of Phnom Penh). At the same time, other polities emerged across the region during this time (Grave 1995), and the expansion of maritime trade was supported by a network of entrepôts (e.g., Melaka, in the Malacca Straits). Chinese records suggest that 15th c Cambodia was a sea power in close relations with China (Vickery, et al. 2004:43). Despite Ming Dynasty trade restrictions, 15th c private Chinese ships continued their active trade throughout Southeast Asia (Hall 2016:406-409; Wade 2004:19-27). At least one previously-established Ming trade route through Southeast Asia included Siam (Ptak 1998:27), and maritime research on 15th c shipwreck sites offer ample evidence of durable Southeast Asian goods, including high-fired ceramics from kiln complexes in central northern Thailand (Flecker 2001:225-226). The onset of the Early Modern period, in the 16th c. with the European intervention in the region, arguably, caused a major rupture, redefining production, exchange and scale of interaction. While current research projects are beginning to address the nature of this transformation, we argue that the political and economic relationships of the 15th-16th c. CE in Southeast Asia are critical elements for understanding the impact of the Early Modern economic transformation in SE Asian societies. Our use of two Cambodian case studies allows us to trace one such relationship: mid-15th century commodity flows across the region. �Here we make use of contemporary evidence from mid-15th c. CE isolated burial sites in the Cardamom Mountains as well as a contemporary shipwreck on an adjacent coastline to assess exchange networks on the eve of the Early Modern Period. Our Cardamom Mountain samples derive from work at “Jar and Coffin burial sites” whose artifacts and bioarchaeology has been reported previously (e.g., (Beavan, et al. 2012a; Carter and Beavan 2014; Halcrow, et al. 2014). Using Neutron Activation Analysis [NAA] we characterize ceramics from both the burial and shipwreck sites, and compare these results with legacy stoneware data sets from both well dated shipwrecks and production centers in Thailand and Cambodia. These analyses allow us to begin to evaluate the economic relationships of these upland communities with coastal shipping and elsewhere at this key historical juncture. Background: The Sample & Context A relatively small sample of seventy one ceramics were selected for geochemical profiling from fragmentary material in four contemporary mid15th c CE archaeological assemblages (i.e. three burial sites in the Cardamom Range and the shipwreck Koh Sdech assemblage)(Fig 1). A total of fifty samples were selected from the three burial sites and 21 samples came from the shipwreck (Table 1). Both the burial sites and the shipwreck included earthenware and stoneware samples. Due to the disparity in sample populations between the burial sites the burial sites are combined into a single Southern Cardamom group to compare with both the shipwreck assemblage and other reference NAA datasets. The contemporaneity of these sites facilitated this grouping. �Fig. 1: Study area and general location within mainland Southeast Asia (inset) showing locations of burial sites and shipwreck discussed in the text. �Table 1: Summary of the NAA geotechnical results for the Cardamom and Shipwreck samples organized by ware type (stoneware/earthenware) and by compositional group (A-D for S. Cardamom A B C C1 C2 D E 100 200 210 300 400 500 S SW EW N 20 4 2 1 1 11 1 4 3 2 5 12 5 71 40 31 Koh Sdech Shipwreck Earthenware Stoneware Group stoneware, E refers to the celadon singleton; 100-500 for earthenware). 12 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 21 14 7 8 3 1 1 1 11 1 4 3 0 0 12 5 50 26 24 The earthenwares include cooking pots, kendis, water jars, while the glazed stoneware are mainly storage jars but also includes a few fine glazed and decorated bowls. The glazed stoneware jar assemblage includes brown, black, and green glazes, and potentially some unglazed samples. The shipwreck site is located in the Gulf of Thailand near the island of Koh Sdech (20 km off shore). Radiocarbon dating of a piece of short-lived cargo (bamboo core lacquerware box) established a mid-15th c CE date for this assemblage (Beavan, et al. 2012b). The shipwreck included a large assemblage of small, medium and large stoneware jars, �predominantly from Singburi / Maenam Noi (based on typology (Cort 2017), as well as basins, bowls, mortars, kendis and Sisatchanalai and Sukkhothai bowls (black under-painted and green glazed/celadons). Earthenware types included cooking pots, lids, and stoves. Only a few Chinese ceramic bowls were found, and were interpreted as the private items of the ship crew (Sokha 2013). Non-ceramic items included lacquerware, ‘picul’ (lead tokens), a betel box, ingots, a cannon, two ivory tubes, and some sandstone. The three burial sites, all with secondary interments, are distributed in a cluster within the southern Cardamom Mountain range, 150-700 m asl, ca. 40 km inland from the east coast of the Gulf of Thailand. Both log coffin and jar inhumations are present at these sites. Through an extensive program of radiocarbon dating these burials have also been chronologically bracketed within the mid-15th c. CE (Beavan, et al. 2012a; Beavan, et al. 2015). Other trade goods present in the burials include simple copper finger rings and glass beads (Carter, et al. 2016). The glass beads are consistent with types circulating in the maritime trade of SE Asia at the time. Methods The ceramic samples were processed at UNE, and shipped to Maxxam Labs, Ontario Canada for NAA. Processing included documentation, photography prior to sampling. Subsamples were cleaned and crushed to homogenize the sample, and submitted for analysis. NAA results were structured and grouped using an iterative combination of non-parametric multivariate procedures (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (Ward’s method). �The compositional data from the ceramics were compared with two general reference stoneware compositional data sets from Thailand and Cambodia. For Thailand the production sites include Sisatchanalai/Sawankhalok, Sukkhothai, and Suphanburi (n=24); the production sites from Cambodia, dating to the Angkorian period, include: Tani, Sar Sei, Thnal Mrech, Bangkong, Khnar Po, Torp Chey, Chong Samrong, Veal Svey, and Cheung Ek (n=877). Several of these kiln sites are closely clustered and have similar compositional fingerprints (e.g., Sar Sei/Thnal Mrech as one group, and Torp Chey/Chong Samrong/Veal Svey as another). Our sample of five stoneware samples from the Suphanburi kilns are of unglazed grey stamped jars. The excavated shipwreck assemblage included a large number of jars of various, all attributable to the Maenam Noi kiln complex in the Singburi province of central Thailand. While we could not include reference results from the Maenam Noi kilns in Singburi, we suggest that that there is a common geochemical profile for Singburi and Suphanburi (75 km to the southwest), reflecting the geographic proximity of these two Thai production centres in the same geochemically undifferentiated (?) alluvial plain. Results The Cardamom Mountains and Shipwreck data (Table 1) Analysis of the NAA dataset for the combined Cardamom Mountains burial and shipwreck assemblages shows that it is highly compositionally structured with multiple discrete groups. We identified six earthenware groups (n=31) and four stoneware groups (n=40) including one singleton outlier (Group E; a fine ware celadon, typical Sisatchanalai/Sawankhalok, central Northern Thailand)(Table 1). of �The largest stoneware group (Group A, n=20) is split between burial (n=8) and shipwreck (n=12) samples. The samples in the second largest stoneware group, (Group D n=11), are from burial sites only, and include several samples previously identified as dark brown glazed “Angkorian” jars. Four of the six earthenware groups are from burial sites only, and are dominated by cooking pots. None of these have compositional matches or external parallels and therefore are treated here as locally produced in the Cardamom Mountains area. The other two earthenware groups are exclusive to the shipwreck samples and include a range of vessel types. Therefore, the distribution of earthenwares in this sample shows no evidence of maritime trade in earthenwares. Comparison with all SE Asian production centers (Table 2) �Table 2: In this table we compare the burial and shipwreck stonewasamples with the reference kiln ceramics from Thailand and Cambodia. The data presented are a subset of the data illustrated in Figure 2, focusing on the groups found only in the Cardamom Mountain burials and the shipwreck. Singleton samples have also been excluded. Cambodia Thai. The table notes the total number of samples for each assemblage (N) followed by percentage membership in each compositional group. The letters following groups 3 and 4 refer to group identifications defined in Table 1 (e.g., 3(A)). The matches in the greyed blocks are suggested to be misleading, see Discussion section. The matches in black boxes indicate matches between assemblages. For example, for Group 3, matches are between the Cardamom and shipwreck jars and a production center in Suphanburi/Singburi; the greyed block for Cheung Ek indicates an apparent, but rejected, connection to the Group 3 burial and shipwreck Site S. Cardamom burials Koh Sdech Shipwreck Suphanburi Sisatchanalai Chong Samrong Torp Chey Veal Svey Cheung Ek N 26 14 5 16 117 53 41 145 % Jars W.ware 3 (A) 4 (D) 2.9 42 42 4 93 --100 ---69 19 -98 --100 --98 -92 --- Given the size of the region with potential production centres, and the strong likelihood there were many more production centers in operation than we have reference material for, we undertook a further comparative analysis to provide more general provenience information. This combined analysis is useful for allowing a better understanding and differentiation of shared or unique geological settings. �We combined the compositional data from the nine Khmer and two Thai ceramic production complexes (n=799). In this analysis, five general geochemical groups were identified (Table 2) which were most clearly distinguished by systematic variations in Fe (iron) and Sb (antimony)(Fig. 2). Four singletons are discounted due to small sample size (with the exception of two fine ware bowls: Sukhothai underpainted and Sisatchanalai celadon sample). The groups and sites with singleton matches, or with production groups not matched in our burial and shipwreck assemblages, are excluded from Table 2. �3. Antimony (Sb) ppm 3 5 2 1 4 2.9 Iron (Fe) % Fig. 2: Five compositional groups for stoneware samples identified in the combined NAA dataset (n=839) defined by Fe/Sb concentrations in the Southern Cardamom burial sites, the Koh Sdeach shipwreck assemblage, Thai production centres at Sisatchanalai and Suphanburi, and nine Khmer production centres (Bangkong, Cheung Ek, Chong Samrong, Khnar Po, Tani, Thnal Mrech, Torp Chey and Veal Svey). Note group 2 is composed entirely of whitewares from residual clays in the Kulen hills and is not represented in the burial or shipwreck assemblage. It is also distinct from white wares from Sisatchanalai (group 2.9). The singleton 3.9 is the only example of a fine ware bowl produced at Sukhothai (inset) from the Cardamom burials. �At this scale, these groups represent the broad differences in chemical composition of stoneware clays across the region. In some cases, specific kiln complexes can be identified within specific groups, but more commonly where complexes shared geologically similar settings, multiple kiln complexes are grouped together (as noted above). For example, one group combines kiln samples from Torp Chey, Chong Samrong, Veal Svey, and Sisatchanalai although these can be differentiated at a finer level of analysis. Evaluation of the shipwreck and burial assemblages within this combined analysis of production centers, shows that all of the burial and shipwreck samples can be assigned to four of five general compositional groups (Groups 1, 3-5; Table 2, Fig 2). (The fifth group [Group 2] is composed entirely of whitewares from the Kulen hills which are absent in the shipwreck and burial assemblages.) Group 3, which matches with the Suphanburi kiln samples, includes both shipwreck and burial site samples. In addition to the Suphanburi reference samples, Group 3 also includes all the Cheung Ek samples. We discount Cheung Ek as a source for this material for several reasons. First, a more detailed separate analysis of Group 3 shows that Group A samples group separately from Cheung Ek reference material. Second, the Cheung Ek kilns date to the 11th c. CE, centuries before the Cardamom Mountains burials. Lastly, there is no evidence for Cheung Ek jars, or any Khmer jars, in Southeast Asian shipwreck assemblages. However, the burial sites also match a second source (Group 4) that is not found in the shipwreck assemblage. In addition to samples from the burial sites, Group 4 includes the proxemic Angkorian production centers of Torp Chey/Chong Samrong/Veal Svey (also the latest dated Angkorian production center 14th c CE). While not direct support for an origin in these �specific complexes, it does suggest an origin in a similar geological setting within the region. We would note that Group 4 also includes samples from the Thai reference group of Sisatchanalai/ Sawankhalok. We suggest that the Cambodian reference groups provide a more likely source region for two main reasons. First, Sisatchanalai jars are not found in the shipwreck assemblages; and second, the burial samples are compositionally closer to the Cambodian reference samples when Group 4 is analyzed separately. Archaeological perspective Burial site assemblage: The earthenwares from the burial sites are predominantly cooking pots. Their compositional differentiation into multiple groups is likely to reflect local production groups. The stoneware samples from the burial sites include matches with both the Suphanburi and the Sisatchanalai reference samples (jars and bowls; Groups 3 and 2.9). A further group of jar samples (n=10), is not represented in the shipwreck assemblage and only broadly/generically matches our Thai reference groups. This group (Group 4) includes the “Angkorian” jars and compositionally is better approximated by the geographically proximate Cambodian centres of Torp Chey/Chong Samrong/Veal Svey. Shipwreck assemblage: The earthenware groups identified in the shipwreck assemblage only occur in the shipwreck. We do not have sufficient data to posit any origin for these earthenware samples. The shipwreck stoneware sample, including typical Maenam Noi jar types, are strongly dominated by one compositional group (93%), which �approximates the Suphanburi grouping, supporting a likely origin in this region (Singburi). Discussion The unusually fine chronological resolution of these data, based on an extensive dating program of multiple materials from multiple sites, allows a high degree of certainty about the mid-15th c. single generation use of the Cardamom burial sites (Beavan, et al. 2012a; Beavan, et al. 2015). In addition to this inland assemblage, the shipwreck assemblage is also firmly dated to the mid-15th c. from short-lived cargo (Beavan, et al. 2012b). In combination these two assemblages provide an unparalleled window on exchange dynamics between inland and maritime trade. The shipwreck assemblage is typical of other contemporary local trading vessels within the Gulf of Thailand: with a few exceptions, the cargo is composed of locally produced (mainly Thai) goods, cooking pots, multiple jar types, and fine ware bowls (Brown and Sjostrand 2002). The composition of the stoneware samples from the shipwreck are consistent with production from a single complex, in this case jars that are readily typologically attributed to Maenam Noi, Singburi province. The Cardamom Mountains burial assemblage includes locally produced earthenwares, fine wares and jars from Thailand (Sukkhothai, Singburi, and Sisatchanalai), but also a typologically unmatched stoneware jar type. This distinctive stoneware jar type has no parallels in the shipwreck assemblage, either in form or composition. However, geochemically it is consistent with stoneware samples from the 14th c. Angkorian kiln complexes (Torp Chey/Chong Samrong/Veal Svey) east of Angkor. As the likelihood that this group reflects heirlooming of old jars is small given the number of jars represented (n=11), we suggest this compositional type �was probably produced in a similar geological zone (near Torp Chey?) in the 15th c.. The combination of both maritime and inland trade goods in the Cardamom Mountain burials supports a scenario where upland groups are providing goods in both directions as part of a larger regional interaction sphere. This is better documented in Northern Thailand where upland and lowland groups were closely connected through an inland exchange economy in the 13th-16th c.. Lowland urban elites controlled production of stonewares, both emulating exotic types and innovating new ceramic types (Grave 1995). Upland groups, thought be harvesting and exchanging forest goods (Wheatley 1959), consumed both these regionally produced ceramics as well as relatively large volumes of maritime trade wares. Again the combination of local and exotic stoneware ceramics were critical to the operation of Northern Thai inland economic networks. A further parallel is the similar and distinctive mortuary practices of the Cardamom Mountain and upland northern Thai groups, particularly in relation to stoneware consumption. These comparable patterns of consumption suggest that while historically invisible, groups in the upland and inland regions across mainland Southeast Asia engaged in extensive interaction networks which supported local lowland production centers and their controlling elites (in this case, stoneware production, but likely a wider range of goods). Conclusion Historians have presented the transition from the premodern to Early Modern period in Southeast Asia primarily through the lens of maritime trade (Reid 1993). Arguably, the greatest impact of this transition is in the �production and consumption dynamics of groups in the interior of Southeast Asia, who remained beyond the reach of historical sources. While as yet relatively rare (e.g., Grave 1995), archaeological research on the Early Modern period in inland areas offers the potential to understand the interior dynamics of this transition. Our data provide insight into an economy that was apparently still functional within and beyond the Greater Angkor region after the collapse of the Khmer Empire. This economy utilized (at least) local stoneware production to articulate with a large regionally integrated economy. We conclude that local lowland elites in Cambodia found ways to engage with the larger regional exchange economies after the political collapse of Angkor Wat. How these inland groups negotiated the transformations of the Early Modern period of the following century is now the challenge and opportunity for future fine-grain, chronologically high resolution studies. Acknowledgments We thank Cambodia’s Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts for permission to undertake field investigations that collected data used in this project. Analytical research for this project was supported by the Australian Research Council (DP140103194). Our Khmer Production and Exchange Project is a collaboration between APSARA Authority, University of New England, Santa Clara University, and the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa. We thank Don and Toni Hein for Thai reference material used in this study. We also thank the conference organizers for the opportunity to present our research. References Cited Baker, Chris 2003 Ayutthaya rising: from land or sea? 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 3: Ceramic trade and cross-cultural exchange from Asian-Pacific region to the world Description An account of the resource Ceramics are the crucial cultural materials for understanding the cross-cultural exchange from Asian-Pacific region to the world. This session will discuss how interdisciplinary approaches such as archaeology, art, history, geophysics, and material science can broaden our horizons on the study of ceramic trade and cross-cultural exchange. Second, we will discuss the connection of ceramic trade and exchange between the early age of commerce (c.900-1300 C.E.) and the age of commerce (1450-1680 C.E.) in Southeast Asia and other regions. This established some challenges in ceramic trade including the influence for new creativity and production development, such as in Europe where some trademarks were developed under the Chinese influence. Our goal is to deepen our knowledge on the application of interdisciplinary approaches on the study of ceramic trade and cross-cultural exchange across the two historical periods. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sharon Wong Wai-yee Department of Anthropology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T. Hong Kong Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Means and Mountain Ends: the origin of stoneware jars in mid 15th CE burial complexes of the Southern Cardamom Ranges, Cambodia Description An account of the resource Southeast Asia during the first half of the second millennium CE. Their hegemony is particularly apparent in lowland areas throughout the Lower Mekong basin, expressed in both architecture and ceramics. How strongly this control was exercised in more geographically marginal regions – and what the nature of power was after the capital moved southward -- has not been explored. In this paper we present the results of a geochemical analysis of ceramics from absolutely and comprehensively dated mid-15th century CE burial complexes in the Southern Cardamom Ranges of southeastern Cambodia and a nearby contemporary shipwreck. The wreck assemblage was typical of a Southeast Asian maritime trader. Comparison of burial and shipwreck ceramic compositional data enables us to confirm a provenance for some of the jars and fine wares from production centres in central Northern Thailand. A second group, not represented in the wreck assemblage, is from a yet unidentified source that we suggest is located in the adjacent Cambodian lowlands. The results of this provenience analysis highlights both the role of the relatively well-known maritime trade, as well as a previously unsuspected continuity in local Cambodian stoneware production. This window into 15th c exchange networks expands our understanding of the context of subsequent European 16th-17th c engagement during the Early Modern Period, is one piece of the broader picture needed to more closely define the processes of economic transformation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Peter Grave Lisa Kealhofer N. Beavan Tep Sohka Miriam Stark Ea Darith Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Peter Grave Lisa Kealhofer N. Beavan Tep Sohka Miriam Stark Ea Darith Asia-Pac Session 3 2017