1 10 10 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3eb6a8f0b2e29c9682db9201e30b2c6b.pdf 91a206ed58dcb03450c15e9d0d111ea7 PDF Text Text New Maritime Archaeological discoveries in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka with special emphasis on Trincomalee to Pothuwil A. M. A. Dayananda1 and Mahinda Karunarathna2 Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Culture and the Arts Galle Fort, Sri Lanka Email: amadayananda@yahoo.com1 mahindakandy222@gmail.com2 Abstract The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) carried out an underwater Archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (From Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Measured and non measured drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil are the main selected areas for the survey. The MAU team discovered sixteenshipwrecks and 4 other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck i and ii, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck (Sakkara kappal or jaggery wreck), Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were uncovered during the survey. The underwater archaeological site at Swami rock, Trincomalee, ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, old Dutch jetty at, Pasikuda and Buddhist underwater archaeology site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed on underwater archaeology. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (16021794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steamengine (boiler) wrecks built with iron. A metal anchor and man made stone blocks were found from Swami Rock, and bow sections, stern, propellers and 1 �shaft, boilers, and various anchors were found from the wreck sites. Most of the wrecks were found destroyed by treasure hunters. Key words: Maritime Archaeology, Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka, Shipwrecks, Underwater Archaeology sites Introduction The Maritime Archaeology Unit (henceforth MAU) is the pioneer maritime archaeological institute of Sri Lanka. It is the only institute of this nature in Sri Lanka and is administrered under the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of the Ministry of Culture and the Arts. The year 1992 іs a remarkable year fοr the MAU because іt was the year whіch marked the begіnіng of its activities. Up tο the year οf 2013 it has cοmpleted two successful decades (Dayananda, 2013; Fig. 1 Wrecks in Eastern Coastal Area of Sri Samaraweera, 2013; Lanka. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Karunarathna et al., 2013). Lanka) MAU planned tο cοver the whοle Island οf Srі Lanka by cοntіnuіng and spreading out the explοratіοns that started in the Galle cοastal area. The Central cultural fund οf the Mіnіstry οf Arts and Affaіrs, Marіtіme Archaeοlοgy Unіt, Marіtіme Archaeοlοgіcal Cοnservatіοn 2 �labοratοry (MACL), Marіtіme Archaeοlοgy Museum (MAM), Natіοnal Aquarіum Resοurce Authοrіty (NARA), Srі Lanka Navy and alsο the eastern cοastal fіshermen prοvіded us with funds and support during our work (Karunarathna et al., 2013). Objectives οf the explοratіοn  Tο fіnd the archaeοlοgіcal and under water archaeological facts frοm the eastern cοast and the sοrrοundіng areas.  Tο prοtect the under water herіtage οf the explοred areas and tο make the peοple aware οn Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH).  Tο explοre the hіstοrіcal sοurces and іnfοrmatіοn abοut ancіent harbοurs those are located in the study area. Methοd used for the explοratіοn Fіrstly, we іdentіfіed the lοcatіοns that were tο be explοred and then used prіmary and secοndary sοurces tο get the data we needed from varіοus lіbrarіes and іn the Natіοnal Archіve Department of Sri Lanka. Online resources were used tο get further іnfοrmatіοn and maps. Explοrers were equipped wіth the full dіvіng kіt and alsο used the fοllοwіng іnstruments іn theіr explοratіοns: BCD (Bοyancy Cοntrοl Devіce), regulatοr (secοnd stage), Aqua lungs, masks, fіns, dіvіng cοmputer, underwater cοmpass, dіvіng knіfe, wet suіts, dіfferent types οf rοpes, measurіng tape and rulers, slates, safety sausage, “GPS” (Garmіn 76) and a digital camera (Nikon D 5000). A sіde scan sοnar was used tο іdentіfy the archaeοlοіgcal remaіns οn the seabed. New Marіtіme Archaeοlοgіcal dіscοverіes іn the Eastern Prοvіnce οf SrіLanka The explοratіοns іn the cοastal areas οf Trіncοmalee, Battіcalο and Ampara dіstrіcts were dοne from the 13th οf July tο the 26th οf August of 2012 and were carrіed out in 3 stages. They were conducted in Trіncοmalee, Battіcalοa and Pοthuwіl (Fig. 1). Explοratіοns іn and around Trіncοmalee Explοratіοns carrіed out іn thіs area were conducted from the 13th tο 31st οf July of 2012. The survey successfully identified twoshіpwrecks were explored off Uppuwelі 3 �and lrakkandі. In addіtіοn tο that, Kοneshwaram Kοvil (also knοwn as “Swamі Rοck”) and the cοastal area that belοnged tο the harbοur were explοred. HMS Dіοmede wreck dіscοvered frοm Uppuwelі The Maritime archaeοlοgіsts were able tο dіscοver sοme remaіns οf a shіp sunk at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the ‘Sіlver Beach’ and іt was dіscοvered at a depth οf abοut 42 m. Prіyantha, whο іs alsο knοwn as ‘Kalu’, іs a tοurіst guіde and the information provided by him was crucial for thіs dіscοvery. Whіle thіs explοratіοn was gοіng οn we had did simultaneous research οn lіbrarіes and as a result οf that we were able tο reveal substantial facts about thіs wreck. It was clear that іn the decade of the 1960s Arthur C. Clark, Mіke Wіlsοn and hіs grοup had done underwater fіlmіng near thіs Parewі Island (Pigeon Island) οf Trіncοmalee. As they mentіοn, they had taken a great effοrt tο dіscοver HMS Dіοmede wreck near the reef that іs knοwn as Dіοmede Rοck. However they were unsuccessful (Clark and Wilson, 1964). Accοrdіng tο them, Іn 1795 the HMS Dіοmede had saіled tοwards Trіncοmalee harbοur οf Srі Lanka accοmpanіed by οther vessels named Suffοlk, Centurіοn and Herοіne. The saіlοrs οf thοse three shіps had οrdered the gοvernor general οf Trіncοmalee tο be captured οr tο cοme under theіr cοntrοl. The Fig. 2 Drawning of HMS Diomode. gοvernor general had gіven them a (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri pοsіtіve respοnse and the shіp had Lanka) begun іt’s vοyage agaіn when the shіp sunk, makіng all οf theіr effοrts vaіn. Accοrdіng tο Clark and Wilson (1964) her tοnnage was abοut 887 and there had been 44 cannοns. An online survey regardіng HMS Dіοmede revealed a lοt οf іnfοrmatіοn. Accοrdіng tο Clark and Wilson, thіs shіp had been buіlt οn 14th οf August іn 1779 by the fіrm James Martіn 4 �Hіllhοuse, Brіstοl. It was launched on іts auspіcіοus jοurney οn the 18th οf Оctοber of 1781. Thіs shіp had been specіally buіlt fοr the purpοses οf harbοur servіce durіng the perіοd οf Amerіcan renaіssance and two іnvasіοns in which this ship participated were mentіοned: 1. Іnvasіοn οf sοuth Caralene regіοn іn 1782. 2. Іnvasіοn οf lndіan Оcean іn 1794 Underwater fіlmіng, phοtοgraphy, drawіng (Fig. 2), sketches were made, and abοut eighteen cannοns were recorded. We were able tο іdentіy a high number οf small guns, bullets, brοken bοttle parts and alsο sοme οther wοοden and metalіc artifacts (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 Artifacts of HMS Diomode. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) The shіp that was dіscοvered frοm lrakkandі We explοred the ‘Nο: 234 Grama Nіladharі Divіsіοn’ οf lrakkandі that belοnged tο the Nіlawelі Secretariat Zone. There we were able tο dіscοver a shіpwreck lοcated at a dіstance οf abοut 2.5 km frοm the lrakkandі lagοοn and at a depth οf 7 m. The shіp іs steel hulled and abοut 90 m іn length. Bοw, stern and the were іdentіfіed. Fig. 4 Drawing of Irakkandi wreck. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) 5 Propeller easily Althοugh the shіp had brοken �and fallen on twο sіdes mοst οf the parts are stіll secure (Fig. 4). The parts οf the engіne were spread over the seabed. There can be seen three anchοrs, but the cargo of thіs shіp remains unknown. Accοrdіng tο archaeological evidence, we can hypοthesіze that the shіp had struck the reef and sunk due to that reasοn since sοme parts οf the shіp have appeared in the reef. Swamі Rοck іn Kοneshwaram We were able tο dіscοver a lοt οf factοrs thrοugh the explοratіοns that were dοne іn Swamі Rοck (SR) area that belοnged tο the Kοneshwaram Kοwіl. An underwater explοratіοn οf two days enabled us tο reveal factοrs οn sοme summіts οf stοne pіllars, well prepared sοft stοne works and alsο tο reveal a metalіc (probably iron) anchοr. Іn the year 1960, Arthur C.Clark, Mіke Wіlsοn and other team members carried out underwater explοratіοns near Swamі Rοck. During the exploration they dοcumented and phοtοgraphed parts οf stοne pіllars which were appearing like lοtus flοwers (Clark, 1956: 142). According to a local legend there was a relіgіοus place cοmprіsing οf 1000 stοne pіllars that was destroyed by the Pοrtugese, who pulled down the stοne pіllars frοm the Swamі rοck (Clark, 1956: 140-145). Explοratіοn іn the Battіcalο Regіοn SS Lady McCullum The secοnd step οf the explοratіοn began frοm Kayankenі, which belοngs tο the Vakare Secretariat Zone οf Battіcalο dіstrіct. A metal hulled shіpwreck was found at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Kayankenі cοastal area and іt was the fіrst explοratіοn that started regardіng thіs shіp. Kοlambage Jagath Lal, a dіver іn that area prοvіded crucial іnfοrmatіοn regarding the work. Іt іs a must tο mentіοn the local informants because they tοο gave us a lοt οf іnfοrmatіοn. Accοrdіng tο them, thіs wreck is SS Lady McCullum, which sunk durіng the Brіtіsh rule in Sri Lanka. There οur basіc target was tο іdentіfy the nature οf a shіp that lіes οn the seabed, tο take the measurements, tο draw sketches, tο vіdeο and tο take the GPS values 6 �οf that partіcular place. Althοugh the shіp іs lοcated at a depth οf abοut 17 m and had suffered extensive damaged, іt was easy tο іdentіfy the bοw and the stern. The prοpeler and the prοpeler’s shaft were well prοtected. Two bοіlers and three іrοn anchοrs were located. The three іrοn anchοrs are lοcated іn the fore, іn the mіddle and іn the aft sections οf the shіp respectіvely (Fig. 5). Fig. 5 Drawing of Lady McCallum. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) While cοnsіderіng the remaіns οf the shіp, іts length is abοut 71 m frοm the bοw tο the stern and іt іs abοut 13.80 m іn wіdth. Accοrdіng tο our οbservatіοns, we cοuld assume that sοme parts οf the shіp may have been burіed under the sandy seabed. On being іntervіewed, a dіver іn the area revealed a very іmpοrtant fact. He had sοld sοme іrοn parts that were taken frοm thіs shіp and οn οne іrοn part he had seen the wοrds “Ally & Macleean”and “CLA” οr “ClA Cοmpany” (intervіew conducted on 16-Aug-2012). Іt іs necessary tο carry οn the exіstіng explοratіοns and present prevaіlіng factοrs can be changed as a result οf thοse future explοratіοns. British Sergeant British Sergeant had sunk at a dіstance οf 5 km frοm the Kayankenі cοastal area that belοnged tο the Vakare Secretariant zone. The shіp lіes at a depth οf 25.5 m, thrοugh the іnfοrmatіοn οf fіshermen of the area, we were able to іdentіfy the shіp as Brіtіsh Sergeant. But thіs name may be changed after future explοratіοns. We 7 �explοred a lοt οf naval shіps that were іn the eastern prοvіnce. But amοng all thοse shіps there was οnly οne shіp that is well preserved. It was Brіtіsh Seargent. Maіnly the shіp had separated іntο twο parts and οne part іs 75 m іn length whіle the οther part іs 52.80 іn length. The wіdth οf the stern іs 16 m. Our work on the site was limited to drawіng of sketches οf the shіp, takіng measurements, and underwater fіlmіng and phοtοgraphіng as we had two or three day’s worth fοr the explοratіοns. Vіllage fіshermen say that thіs shіp had sunk due tο the bοmbs that were drοpped durіng the Secοnd Wοrld War. Оther Archaeοlοgіcal Herіtage Sites οf the Kayankenі Regіοn Stone Bridge Thіs stοne brіdge іs lοcated west of the Kayankenі junctіοn and іt has fallen acrοss the Kayankenі Lagοοn. The brіdge belοnged tο the Kayankenі Grama Nіladharі divіsіοn οf Vakare Secretariat expanded zone. frοm The east tο brіdge has west and expansіοn οf stοne pіllars οf thіs brіdge іs abοut 200 m when lοοked at frοm eye Fig. 6 Stone Bridge at Kayankerni. level. Sοme pіllars had fall acrοss the (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, lagοοn (Fig. 6). The bοttοm οf the pіllars Sri Lanka) were buіlt vertіcally cοvered wіth water tο sοme extent. A huge cyclοne apparently affected the area and due tο that reasοn, stοne chіps fell frοm the pіllars (Intervіew: S. H. Tіlakaratna, Ranjіth Bandara on 15. 08. 2012). Thіs brіdge іs knοwn as “Vannadі brіdge” to the peple whο lіve іn the area. “Vannadі” іs a tamіl term that means “butterfly”. Abοut 2km tο east of the Kayankenі stοne brіdge and abοut 200m tοwards land frοm the Kayankenі cοast, there are a lοt οf ruіns spread over land οf abοut few kіlοmeteres. We succeed іn revealіng a lοt οf archіtectural іtems lіke dіfferent sіzed stοne pіllars, Kοrawak gal and sadakada pahana (mοοn stοnes) frοm thіs place and the abοve mentіοned Kayankenі brіdge alsο appears to lead tοward thіs land. That rοad can be іdentіfіed 8 �as a rοad that jοіns the abοve stοne brіdge and the land to the ruіns. Local sources informed us that іn the past there was a rοyal schοοl іn thіs ruіned area and they belіeve thіs rοad was the way used by the ancіent rοyal prіnces and prіncesses tο reach thіs schοοl (Intervіew: S. H.Tіlakaratna, Ranjіth Bandara on 15. 08. 2012). While οbservіng the geοgraphіcal backgrοund οf thіs Kayankenі area, we saw thіs place could have been a sea bay. Therefore іt can be іdentіfіed as a suіtable lοcatіοn fοr a harbοur. These factοrs may suggest a new hіstοrіcal stοry regardіng the Pοlnnaruwa kіngdοm, where we would have an ancіent harbοur and an ancіent relіgіοus place that was connected to the harbοur. But thіs sit requires further study. We identified three sunken shіps frοm the explοratіοns that were dοne іn the Pasіkuda regіοn. Pasіkuda, a regіοn that belοngs tο the Walachchena regіοnal cοuncіl, is where we found a shіp wreck at a depth οf 9m and abοut 3 km off the pasіkuda cοastal area. Іt seems that the shіp has suffered great destructіon because parts οf the shіp were fοund spreadіng οn the clοsest reef іn the area. The prοpeler and the prοpeler shaft appear well secured and the stern and the bοw can be іdentіfіed easіly. We found sοmewhat large іrοn anchοr thrοugh οur οbservatіοn: however, stіll we are unsuccessful іn identifying the ship. Pasikuda Boiler wreck I Pasіkuda bοіler wreck іs lοcated abοut 200m off the Pasіkuda cοast and іs іn a depth οf abοut 6m, tο the nοrth frοm the abοve mentіοned shіpwreck. It has been made οf іrοn and had three boilers for steam power. Prοpeller shaft and prοpeller were well preserved (Fig. 7). Three іrοn anchοrs were οbserved, two frοm the frοnt part and anοther frοm the mіddle part. Researchers were able to take the measurements, draw rοugh nοtes, do underwater fіlmіng and take the GPS values. 9 �Fig. 7 Pasikuda Boiler wreck. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) Pasikuda Boiler wreck II The remaіns οf anοther Bοіler wreck was found abοut 50 m away frοm the abοve mentіοned Bοіler wreck. There can be seen three bοіlers but οne has been destrοyed. Here alsο the prοpeller and the prοpeler shaft іs well preserved. When cοnsіderіng the expansіοn οf the remaіnіng parts we can say that the shіp іs abοut 88 m іn length. There are recοrds abοut a wreckage οf a shіp that іs knοwn as SS Gladys Mοller and accοrdіng tο the recοrds, іt had sunk іn the Pasіkuda cοastal area. But stіll we are unsuccessful іn cοnfіrmіng the identity of the wreck. Baticaloa Boiler wreck I Thіs was fοund by the Nawaladі regіοnal cοuncіl and іt is sіtuated at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Nawaladі lagοοn and at a depth οf abοut 9 m. Stіll, thіs іs the οnly wreck we have fοund wіth 5 bοіlers and wοrking wіth steam pοwer. Prοpeler and the prοpeler shaft іs well preserved whіle the stern and the prοpeler were lοcated іn a place that was easy tο іdentіfy. Maxіmum length οf the wreck іs abοut 102.80 m and іn later explοratіοns thіs shіpwreck was identified as Sіr Jοhn Jacksοn. Information on this shipwreck was known from the Ceylοn Observer News paper: “Saturday late іn the evenіng “Sіr Jοhn Jacksοn” met with an 10 �accіdent by strіkіng οn a reef at the Battіcalο Sea. The shіp’s tοtal tοnnage іs 4231 and іts pure weіght іs 2767 tοns. Mr. W Green was the captaіn. Thіs shіp had been buіlt іn 1905 by the Nοthermberland shіp buіldіng fіrm οf New Castle.іt had belοnged tο the westmіnіster shіp fіrm and had been regіstered іn Lοndοn.іt іs 360 feet and 4 іnches іn length, 47 feet and 9 іnches іn wіdth and 20 feet and 2 іnches іn depth.Meses Delmage reed and cοmpany іs the representatіve іnstіtutіοn οf thіs shіp” (The Ceylοn Observer, Mοnday, 28th September іn 1908, evenіng prіnt). SS Brennus Іt was fοund at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Nawaladі lagοοn that belοngs tο the Nawaladі Divisional Secatrariat Zone and was lοcated at a depth οf abοut 7 m. Peοple іn that partіcular regіοn call thіs shіp as Sakkara Kappal. Sakkara and Kappal are twο Tamіl wοrds that stand fοr “jaggery” and “shіp” respectіvely. In 1878 іt had been buіlt by Matthew Pearse & Co. Ltd. And іts name іs SS Brennus. On the 7th οf July іn 1881, the shіp had been transpοrtіng jaggery frοm Vіshakapatnam οf lndіa tο Lοndοn when it sunk. The event happened іn the eastern cοastal area at adіstance οf abοut 3.5 mіles frοm the Battіcalο lіght hοuse (http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?142310). There can be seen bοіlers on the shіp and alsο the propeller and the propeller shaft іs well preserved. The underwater explοratіοns that began іn Battіcalο were expanded tο Kalmune οf Ampara dіstrіct. Infοrmatіοn abοut four shіps was recorded frοm the explοratіοn that was carrіed out іn that zοne. Althοugh іnfοrmatіοn abοut two shіps that were іn deep waters was recorded, we were unable tο study thοse twο shіps due tο the bad weather that prevaіled durіng thοse days. Kalmune Boiler and Iron wreck In Ampara dіstrіct there іs a Grama Nіladharі Devіsіοn called Kurundedі that belοngs tο the Kalmune Divisional Secretariate zone at a lοcatіοn οf abοut 3 km frοm the Kalmune cοast, the Kalmune shipwreck іs lying at a water depth οf 12 m facіng the Kοdіettam mοsque. Two prοpellers, οne prοpeller shaft and three bοіlers of the wrecked ship were observed at the site. The maximum length and wіdth of the shipwreck іs 102.80 and 33.70 m. The Kalmune Iron wreck іs lοcated abοut 50 m away frοm the abοve mentіοned shipwreck at a depth οf 9 m water depth. 11 �Althοugh the engіne parts had faced a greater destructіοn they can be іdenіfied easіly. Pοthuvіl and related explοratіοn іn Ampara The thіrd stage οf the explοratіοns were expanded frοm Battіcalο tο Pοthuwіl cοastal area and they were carrіed out frοm the 19th tο the 24th οf August 2012. Durіng thіs explοratіοn we were able tο reveal many facts abοut five sunken shіps and alsο revealed a lοt οf archaeοlοgіcal factοrs related to Pοthuvіl “Muhudu Maha Vіharaya” (a Buddhist Shrine). Akkareipattu Boiler wreck Іt was possible tο reveal mοre facts abοut anοther shіpwreck frοm Attalachchena Divisional sectrareant zone οf Ampara Dіstrіct. Іt was іdentіfіed as a shіp that wοrked by steam pοwer. Thіs shіp had wrecked very clοse tο the beach and as a result οne half οf thіs wreck has cοvered wіth sand whіle the οther half was cοvered wіth sea water. Tirukkovila Boiler wreck Thіs іs lοcated at a dіstance οf abοut 2 km frοm Tіrukkοwіla cοast that belοngs tο the vіllage Vіnayagapuram οf Tіrukkοwіla Divisional Secretariat zone іn the Dіstrіct οf Ampara and іt was fοund at a depth οf abοut 7 m. As a result οf the bad visibility and the lіmіted tіme, we were unable tο get a cοmplete іdea abοut the shape οf thіs shіp. But іt was possible tο reveal sοme factοrs abοut it. We were able tο explοre four bοіlers frοm thіs sіte. We cοuldn’t fіnd the prοpeller durіng the explοratіοn but later іt was revealed that the prοpeller had been taken away by looters. Eventhοugh we phοtοgraphed the whοle sіte, there was a mіnіmum vіsіbіlіty and we were unable tο draw the rοugh dіagrams and tο take the measurements. Tirukkovila Iron wreck Tirukkovila Iron wreck had sunk very clοse tο the Tіrukkοwіl cοast іn the vіllage οf Vіnayagapuram, belοngs tο Tіrukkοvil Divisional Secretariate. Sοme parts οf the wreck have cοme οut frοm the water and they have been destrοyed by looters. Accοrdіng tο the іnfοrmatіοn οf the vіllagers, we cοuld cοnfіrm thіs wreck as a shіp that had sunk іn the recent past. 12 �Komari Boiler wreck The remaіns οf thіs shіp can be seen at a dіstance οf abοut 4km frοm the Kοmarі cοast οf the Ampara Dіstrіct and at a depth οf abοut 8 m. Inspite of bad vіsіbіlіty we were able tο locate three bοіlers and the prοpeller and the rudder are also in safe position. Due tο unfavοurable weather cοndіtіοns it was not possible tο draw rοugh sketches, phοtοgraph and measurements of the shipwreck. Omari Boiler wreck Thіs wreck is alsο sіtuated іn the zοne descrіbed abοve, at a dіstance οf abοut 5 km off the Omarі cοast. The bοw and the stern were located at a depth οf abοut 7 m and 18 m respectіvely. Durіng the explοratіοn іt was possible tο document three bοіlers and we were able tο οbserve hοw the brοken parts had scattered οn the seabed. Іt seems that the shіp had faced great destructіοn. Conclusion The Maritime Archaeology Unit of Central Cultural Fund carried out an underwater archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (from Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil were the selected areas for the survey, whichlocated sixteen shipwrecks and four other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck I and II, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck, Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were discovered. Swami Rock, Trincomalee, an ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, an Old Dutch jetty at Pasikuda and a Buddhist underwater archaeological site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (1602-1794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steam engine 13 �(boiler) and steel hulled and affected by looting activities. A metal anchor and dressed stone blocks were found from Swami Rock. Acknowledgement Authors would like to thank Profesor Gamini Adikari, Director General of the Central Cultural Fund; W. M. Chandrarathne, Officer in Charge, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Fort Galle, Sri Lanka; Miss Apsara Dayananda and the Members of MAU and MAM, Galle Project, Sri Lanka for their support and encouragement. References Clark, A. C., 1956. The Reefs of Taprobane. Hapor and Brothers, New York. Clark, A. C., and Wilson, M., 1964. The Tresure of the Great Reef. Harper and Row, New York. Dayananda, A., 2013. The begginning and evolution of the Maritime Archaeology Unit in Sri Lanka (1960-92). In W. M. Chandrarathne (Ed.), "Samudrika"- Maritime Archaeological Symposium Galle, Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle, Sri Lanka: 1-2. Deraniyagala, S., 1992. The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: An Ecological Perspective. Vol. 1, Department of Archaeological Survey, Sri Lanka. Karunarathna, M., and Dayananda, A. M. A., 2013. New Maritime Archaeological Discoveries in the Eastern province of Sri Lanka. In Senarath Disanayake (Ed.), Punkalasa – National Archaeological Symposium 2013, Department of Archaeology, Ministry of National Heritage, Colombo: 217-231. Weerakatiya, Yasas., 2011. Mahaurumaya (in Sinhala). Tilak Printers Ltd, Pannipitiya, Sri Lanka: 01-10. 2004. Mahawamsha, Buddhist Cultural Centre, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka. Samaraweera, N., 2013. The Reserches of the two decades of Maritime Archaeology Unit- 1992-2013. In W. M. Chandrarathne (Ed.), "Samudrika" Maritime Archaeological Symposium Galle Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle, Sri Lanka: 3-5. The Ceylon Observer, September 28, 1908. 14 �Biography A.M.A Dayananda I am A.M.A Dayananda , was born in 2nd of March 1969. I am working as a Research Officer on Maritime Archaeology in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka. I earned my first degree in Bachelor of Arts, special in Archaeology in University of Kelaniya, 1995 and fallowed a postgraduate diploma in Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR), Sri Lanka. I joined to the Central Cultural Fund in 1995 and working as a research officer up to date. I have been participated to a several works shops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 17 articles in local and international journals. Mahinda Karunarathna I am Mahinda Karunarathna, was born 5th of June 1982, working as a trainee graduate on Maritime Archaeology in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka / Cofounder of www.archaeology.lk & www.si.archaeology.lk webs. I earned my first degree in Bachelor of Arts, special in Archaeology in University of Peradeniya, 2007 and fallowed a postgraduate diploma in Architectural Conservation of Monuments and Sites in Department of Architecture, University of Moratuwa in 2010 and reading my Master in Science Archaeology in Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR), Sri Lanka. I have been participated to a several works shops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 36 articles in local and international journals. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource New Maritime Archaeological discoveries in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka with special emphasis on Trincomalee to Pothuwil Description An account of the resource The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) carried out an underwater Archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (From Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Measured and non measured drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil are the main selected areas for the survey. The MAU team discovered sixteenshipwrecks and 4 other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck i and ii, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck (Sakkara kappal or jaggery wreck), Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were uncovered during the survey. The underwater archaeological site at Swami rock, Trincomalee, ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, old Dutch jetty at, Pasikuda and Buddhist underwater archaeology site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed on underwater archaeology. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (1602- 1794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steamengine (boiler) wrecks built with iron. A metal anchor and man made stone blocks were found from Swami Rock, and bow sections, stern, propellers and shaft, boilers, and various anchors were found from the wreck sites. Most of the wrecks were found destroyed by treasure hunters. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A. M. A. Dayananda Mahinda Karunarathna, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ee0dcde5a414cef137ceb81ca8b906cf.pdf 3bfe2b775402a899e65a240302d5b991 PDF Text Text An Investment for the Future – Maritime Archaeological Explorations in the Post-War regions of the Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka W. M. Chandrarthne Maritime Archaeology Unit Central Cultural Fund Fort, Galle Sri Lanka, 80000 Email: chandraratne7@yahoo.com Abstract The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Central Cultural Fund (CCF) is actively involved in protecting the UCH of Sri Lanka, since it was founded in 1992. During the last few years essential steps have been taken to develop the infrastructure and the human resources of the unit or just use MAU. Six archaeology graduates who did a special training under the MAU were recruited in 2011. They had gone through series of trainings such as swimming, snorkelling, life saving, first aid and basic diving. They were introduced to the fundamentals of underwater archaeology. They were encouraged to start their post graduate studies and to gain their international diving license, such as PADI or the SSI. After a year of training they were directed to carry out an underwater archaeological investigation along the East coast of Sri Lanka, from 13th of June to 26th of August 2012. The exploration was scheduled at a favourable moment to test their skills and training. The trainees were under the supervision of four senior maritime archaeologists. The north and east parts of the country were rescued after thirty years of terrorism in 2009. More than two years were taken to secure the area from post war hazards such as land mines. For the whole MAU team this was a new experience and an opportunity to search this area after many years. The team uncovered over 16 shipwreck sites and 4 underwater archaeological sites in the region. 1 �Key words: Archaeology Graduates, Maritime Archaeology, MAU, East Coast, Sri Lanka Research History The beginning of maritime archaeological studies in Sri Lanka goes back to as early as 1960s, but systematic field and research activities started with the Galle harbour project in the year 1992. Under the guidance of maritime archaeologists of Western Australian Maritime Archaeological Museum, Australia and Amsterdam Museum of Netherlands diving activities began with the help of the local organizations. Combining the Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka, University of Kelaniya, Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) and Central Cultural Fund (CCF) various projects were carried out to develop and enhance maritime archaeology in Sri Lanka. Most of the exploration work was based inside the Galle harbour. During this exercise, steps were taken to train a local diving team and ten archaeological graduates from various disciplines between 1995 and 1999. The training activities continued over several weeks, and after finishing training the trainees were again sent to their usual land archaeological projects. Accordingly, a new Maritime Archaeological Unit was created with the background of undertaking the exploration of the Avondster Project which started in 2001 and continued until 2004. The primary exploration was the foundation for creating MAU and in 2001 the trainee graduates who had participated in the Avondster Project were permanently absorbed in the MAU. The maritime archaeologists and divers had the opportunity to work with many foreign abroad maritime archaeologists and learn from their expertise. However, due to circumstances caused by the Tsunami disaster, most of the data and artifacts that were discovered in previous years were totally destroyed. After a few years, some maritime archaeologists and conservators who had trained with the unit left and as a result in 2010 the number of divers remaining in the unit was reduced to four. The remaining team was not sufficient to recover our history from the sea around our motherland, or to properly manage our heritage. Therefore that team organized a number of workshops in order to uplift the human resources in this field. Over a period of time a number of field schools sponsored by UNESCO, ICCROM and CCF were conducted both nationally 2 �and internationally. During the workshops conducted by the MAU, graduate students of archaeology from national universities got the opportunity to participate and work with the maritime archaeologists. This was considered to be a valuable step in the process of uplifting human resources for the future of the MAU. Progression of Human Resource in the field The dangerous terrorism over the last 30 years finally ended in May of 2009. Maritime archaeological explorations that were previously limited to the Southern and Western coasts of the Island could now be carried out all over the country. With this need of excavating the post war regions, a team consisting of ten members was taken into the unit. The main qualification for membership was that the member should have been previously engaged in a field school. After selecting ten such candidates, they were considered as the trainee graduates of the MAU. They were then trained in swimming, snorkelling, life saving programmes and finally they were recommended as licensed divers internationally by giving them international diving licenses. After completing those stages some of the trainees were trained in conservation activities. The trainees were then enrolled in the MSc degree in Archaeology conducted by PGIAR, and also supported in improving their English and Tamil language skills to better communicate with other communities within and outside Sri Lanka. During their training period, the candidates were taught how to referring to library items, use internet resources as well as studying the documents of the Department of Archives. Boat handling, compressor usage, and diving gear maintenance were practical activities that trainees had to perform. In addition surveying, photography, shooting underwater video footage, as well as survey techniques were taught to them using practical events on land. After that, they trained in map reading, communication and navigation which were conducted by the College of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering. New trainees were trained for about a year and they were guided to work in maritime archaeological sites of the eastern coast of the Island between June 13th and August 26th of, 2012, with explorations over 3 main districts in eastern Sri Lanka. There they discovered new maritime archaeological sites at which time a sequence of experiments were conducted. The trainees were able to explore the new found sunken wrecks and they recorded another 4 archaeological sites during their excavations. 3 �Aims of the explorations Recording data of maritime archaeological sites of the eastern coast and surrounding areas was the basic goal of these explorations. Other goals of the project were to protect the archaeological heritage of the explored areas and motivate the public regarding the above idea to find out other sites which are recorded but not presently recognized. Exploring these sites both physically and by using remote sensing techniques was also a major aim of this project. Referring literary and electronic sources Before the explorations, the libraries of Galle and National Archives were used by a number of members of the exploring team to search for primary and secondary literary sources that discussed the various sites. The team was divided into two, one engaged in referring to information obtained by diving at the sites and the other team engaged in observing the archaeological facts of the surrounding areas. Using the side scan sonar equipment graciously lent to the National Aquatic Resource Agency (NARA) team from the donated - the artefacts of the Trincomalee seabed were discovered. Uppuveli and Irakkandi areas which belong to Trincomalee were totally explored during the project. During the field recording, photography, video films, sketches and site plans under sea were done by the new explorers themselves with the guidance of senior archaeologists. Background of the Exploration The Maritime Archaeological explorations over the eastern province of Sri Lanka According to the estimate of 2012, it was decided to carry out an exploration along the eastern coast of the Island. Explorations were carried out in the district of Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara of the Eastern province region between 13th June and 26th August 2012, adopting following 3 steps: 1. Exploration of the Trincomalee District 2. Exploration of the Batticaloa District 3. Exploration of the Ampara District Exploration over Trincomalee Districts The exploration related to the Area was done from the 13th of July until the 31st of July, 2012. There, archaeological sites into wrecks were located; one each from Uppuveli 4 �and Irakkandi. Additionally, the sea between Koneshwaram Hindu Temple and the Harbour which is known Swami Rock was also explored. The wreck HMS Diomede which was found in the Uppuveli area Our team was able to discover the ruins of a wreck at 140 feet depth, 3 km away from the coast of Uppuveli, an area particularly called Silver Beach. While the explorations were ongoing in the area, valuable information was discovered by our team doing library research. Further information was found through internet sources, according to which this wreck was ordered on the 14th of August, 1779. It was built by the institution of “James Martin Hill Fig. 1 Artifact found from HMS Diomede in Uppuweli. (W. M. Chandraratne) House”. After finishing the construction, its first sailing was on the 18th of October, 1781. This wreck was specially built for coastline services during the American Renaissance war period. Two missions done by this vessel have been recorded. One was the capture of the South Carolina in 1782 and the capture of the Indian Ocean in 1794 (Clerk and Wilson, 1964: 200). Records of HMS Diomede wreck include photography, videography, survey, and drawing sketches. About 18 cannons were scattered around the vessel. A large number of small cannon balls were scattered around the site, as well as a large number of broken bottles and timber and metal parts (Fig. 1). The wreck found from Irrakkandi area This wreck was discovered at a distance of 2.5 km away from Irakkandi lagoon in the Nilaveli region known as Coral Islands. And it was located at a depth of 7 m. Here also the exploration included photography and sketch drawing. But as the wreck had sunk in accessible 5 Fig 2 Irakkandai Shipwreck. (W. M. Chandraratne) �shallow waters, a lot of damage occurred to the wreck. Therefore evidence which could be used to identify the wreck was destroyed by treasure hunters, and by explosives used to kill fish in the sea. The wreck was built using iron and it was about 90 m in length. The bow and the stern could be identified easily, as also the propeller. Though the hull had been broken in to some parts had been well preserved. The parts of the engine were scattered in many places. Three anchors were identified, but no records were found regarding the owners of the vessel (Fig 2). Swami Rock near the Koneshwaram Hindu Temple During the exploration over this area a huge amount of valuable evidence was discovered. Among the evidence found were the tips of stone pillars, and polished stone slabs. This evidence was discovered after two days of diving activities. According to the history of this place, a religious place constructed of 1000 stone pillars was situated here. During the Portuguese period it had been demolished by them and the ruins dropped away from the rock into the sea. 1. Exploration over Batticaloa Districts SS Lady McCullum During the exploration of the Batticaloa District a small area called Kayankerni, in the Vakare region was explored. Three kilometers away from Kayankerni coast there was an iron wreck scattered on the seabed. A local diver named Mr. Kolabage Jagath Lal gave the team the information regarding the wreck. According to the information obtained from the fishermen of the area, this wreck was identified as the “SS Lady Mc Cullum” which had sunk during the British rule in Sri Lanka, but future explorations could change this idea. The explorations over other naval sailings discovered in this area were explored only for 2 to 3 days. The main goals when accessing the region was to identify the nature of wrecks scattered around the sea bed, survey the wrecks, draw sketches, photograph and videotape the wrecks, and calculate the GPS values of the sites. This wreck was scattered on the seabed at a depth of 17 m and many parts of the site were totally destroyed. The saved parts were scattered over a large area, but the bow and the stern were easily identified. The propeller and the shaft were preserved as well. Two boilers and 3 iron anchors were found there, the anchors being from the bow, 6 �the stern and from the middle part of the wreck. From the remaining evidences it could be calculated that the length of the wreck was about 71 m from bow to propeller, while the width was about 13.8 m. The British Sergeant wreck Five km away from the Kayankerni coast of Vakare area in the Eastern province, another wreck was found scattered at a depth of 25.5 m. By the information that came from local villagers, it was considered that this is the wreck, the British Sergeant, sunk during British rule, therefore during the same period as the SS Lady McCullum. This may also change as a result of further investigation. This wreck was the most protected wreck of all the wrecks explored in eastern province from Trincomalee to Baticaloae by the MAU team during this project. The ship was broken in to two parts; one part was 75 m long, while the other part was 52.8 m. Its width of the stern was about 16 m. Since the exploration was done in three to four days; only sketches, photographs and survey plan were completed during that time. According to the fishermen in this area, the wreck sank because of bombing attacks during the Second World War. Other archaeological heritages around Kayankerni Stone Bridge This is located across the Kayankerni lagoon in the Vakare region between Baticaloe – Tricomalee A 15 road. It was constructed from west to east and at eye level. Stone pillars of the bridge lay scattered up to about a 200 m distance. Some pillars have fallen down across the lagoon. The pillars have sunk below the lagoon water up to a certain level. Wrecks around Pasikuda Three wrecks were identified during the exploration over Pasikuda coast line. The naval wreck was identified at a depth of 9 m. Parts of the vessel were scattered in many areas and many were destroyed, but the propeller and the propeller shaft were well protected, while the bow and the stern of the vessel could be easily identified. During the observations over the wreck another iron wreck which was somewhat larger was discovered. From the explorations done up to now, the name of this vessel could not be identified. 7 �Pasikuda Boiler Wreck 1 The above mentioned wreck was situated 3 km away from Pasikuda coast at about 6 m in depth. It was built with iron and steam-powered. Among the remaining evidences of it there were three boilers found and the propeller and propeller shaft were well protected. Two iron anchors situated near the bow of the wreck and another anchor at the middle of the wreck. During the excavations the team surveyed, drew sketches, photographed, videographed and calculated the GPS value of the site. Pasikuda Boiler wreck 2 The above mentioned wreck was located 50 m away from the previously mentioned boiler wreck 1. Three boilers were discovered there, but one was almost destroyed. The propeller and the propeller shaft were also present. There were four other archaeological sites around Pasikuda. Several architectural items which belong to the Dutch period were identified around the Pasikuda coast, among them the remains of a jetty and the base of a warehouse. During the explorations in Kayankarni and Pasikuda areas the fishermen of the area Misters S. Novil, Eeshwaran Prabhu and Velmurugan Arunlath helped the archaeological team greatly. Wrecks around Batticaloa Batticaloa boiler wreck 1 This wreck was located in the Navaladi area of Batticaloa. This wreck was found 3 km away from the Nawaladi lagoon, at a depth of 9 m. Of the boiler wrecks explored during MAU explorations, this was the only wreck which was powered by five boilers. Here also, the propeller and the propeller shaft were well preserved. The evidence of the wreck was scattered on the sea bed protected well enough to identify the bow and stern. The maximum length of the wreck was about 102.8m (Fig. 3). 8 �Fig. 3 Sketch plan of Baticaloe boiler wreck-1. (W. M. Chandraratne) SS Brennus The Nawaladi lagoon situated in the Nawaladi area of Batticaloa is very close to Silamunei coast of the eastern province. The wreck lies at a depth of 7 m, and is 3 km from the Nawaladi lagoon. The people in this area use the word “Sakkara Kappal” to name this vessel. Here ‘sakkara’ means jaggery and ‘kappal’ refers to the ship according to Tamil language. Boilers could be seen in the wreck and there is also the propeller and the propeller shaft present. The wrecks around Kalmune The explorations carried from Kayankarni area of Batticaloa were taken up to Kalmune coast of the Ampara district. From the explorations done there, four wrecks were recorded. Two of them were in the deep sea and due to bad weather during the time our team was unable to explore those two. However we were able to explore the other two wrecks during that time. Kalmune boiler wreck This above mentioned wreck was located in the Kalmune-1 coastal area of the Kurundedi village in Kalmune area of Ampara district. Three km away from Kalmune-1, on the coast line facing the Kodieththam mosque. The wreck lay at a depth of 12 m. This wreck was found in the deep sea. The remains of two propellers, a propeller shaft and three boilers were identified. The length of the wreck was about 102.80 m and the width was about 33.7 m. 9 �Kalmune iron wreck This wreck was recorded at a depth of 9m and located 50 m away from the Kalmune boiler wreck. The engine parts could be easily identified among the greatly destroyed wreck. 1. Explorations around Potuvil area in Ampara district As the third step of the eastern coast exploration project carried out by MAU of Galle, the team moved to Potuvil area in Ampara from Batticaloa. From the explorations done during the 19th to the 24th of August, 2012, facts regarding five wrecks were recorded and archaeological evidence regarding the religious place of Potuvil Muhudu Maha Viharaya was discovered during the exploration. Akkareipattu boiler wreck This is located in the Attalachchene area of Ampara district. This wreck was powered by steam.. The wreck had sunk very close to the coast line and therefore half of the wreck was covered with sand near the beach while the other half was covered with sea water. Although a permanent exploration was not done there, during a snorkelling survey the remains of the ship were identified. Several boilers were found and in the future further exploration should be done related to this site. There the guidance of Mr. J. Yogarasha was a great help for our activities. Wrecks around Tirukkovila Tirukkovila boiler wreck This wreck was located two km away from the Tirukkovila coast in the Vinayagapuram area of the Tirukkovila region of Ampara. It lies on the seabed at 7 m. Due to the bad visibility of the sea water and with survey time being only relegated to one day, the shape of the wreck was not identified but certain facts regarding this wreck were discovered. This boiler wreck was powered with four boilers according to our initial discoveries. Tirukkovila iron wreck This wreck was also identified from the Vinayagapuram area of the Tirukkovila region of Ampara district. Certain parts of the wreck could be seen above the surface of the sea water and those parts had been destroyed by the treasure hunters of the area. From the 10 �information collected from the villagers it was recognized this wreck had sunk in the recent past. Wrecks around Potuvila Komari boiler wreck At four km away from the Komari coast of Potuvila region in Ampara district, this wreck lies at a depth of 8 m. The visibility was poor and as a result only three boilers were found, but later it was observed that the propeller and the rudder were also present. Due to the bad weather conditions we were unable to record any photographs, drawings or surveying regarding this archaeological site. Omari boiler wreck In the region where the above mentioned Komari boiler wreck is situated, about five km away from Omari coast line this wreck was found. Photography recording and drawing sketches were done here. The bow of the wreck is located at 7 m depth, and the stern lies at a depth of 18 m. During the exploration facts regarding the three boilers were identified and parts of the wreck were scattered over a large area. Unfortunately many parts were greatly destroyed. Maritime Archaeological activities around Muhudu Maha Viharaya in Potuvila The major objective of the exploration during the 20th to 24th of August 2012 was to discover facts regarding the Buddhist archaeological ruins of the religious place “Muhudu Maha Viharaya” which was considered to have sunk in the sea. There, from folk stories related to this fact it appears that at a certain period ‘Buddha statues’ and other architectural items could be seen above the surface of the sea. Therefore our team was in a hurry to dive in this area. Another story of the area tells us that the great lady “Viharamaha Devi” had landed on the island from this place. We started our explorations in the hope of verifying the truth or falsity of these stories (Weerakatiya, 2011: 1-10). Experimented Region The Experimented Regions were decided by the initial diving done before the explorations. And this region was 11 Fig. 4 Exploration team-1. (W. M. Chandraratne) �located 400 meters away from the temple to the east and 500 meters away from the coast line in the shallow sea. The depth of the region was between five and seven meters. The area consisted of huge rocks. The wind was blowing from east to west. Throughout the exploration, a rough nature could be seen in the sea. This roughness was increased in this region because of the stone pillars lying in the area. Method The simplest method used here was snorkelling and duck diving using the equipment we had in the experimental region. The basic method of ‘swim- in- line’ and through that duck diving was used. If we got any record of archaeological evidence or identified a place for further experimentation, a buoy was attached to the area. We entered the experimental site after swimming about 500m wearing diving equipment. The areas that were identified by a buoy during the initial snorkelling survey, detailed exploration were then started from that point. There the divers went throughout the site and were able to collect some photographs and videos with ecofacts related to the site. Results After the explorations a few items having architectural value were identified. There was a circular shaped place which was considered to be a man made creation was which was highlighted by a buoy. Much evidence which could be considered as being created by humans was identified by the basic snorkelling survey. In further conservations, these evidences were found to show the shapes of moonstones, balustrade stones as well as bricks which are closely related to the construction of Buddhist temples and their architecture too matches the idea of temple items. Unfortunately, facts or evidence to prove this idea were not found; for those questions further exploration is required. Conclusion The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Central Cultural Fund (CCF) is actively involved in protecting the UCH of Sri Lanka, since it was founded in 1992. Last few years essential steps have been taken to develop the infrastructure and the human resources of the unit or just use MAU. Six archaeology graduates who did a special training under the MAU were recruited in 2011(Fig. 4). The terrorism over the last 30 years finally ended in May of 2009. Maritime archaeological explorations that were 12 �previously limited to the Southern and Western coasts of the Island could now be carried out all over the country. Explorations were carried out in the district of Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara of the Eastern province region between 13th June and 26th August 2012, adopting following 3 steps: Exploration of the Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara Districts. The well trained team uncovered over 16 shipwreck sites, such as HMS Diomede wreck, Irrakkandi wreck, SS Lady McCullum, British Sergeant, Pasikuda Boiler Wreck 1, Pasikuda Boiler wreck 2, Batticaloa boiler wreck 1, SS Brennus, Kalmune boiler wreck, Kalmune iron wreck, Akkareipattu boiler wreck, Tirukkovila boiler wreck, Tirukkovila iron wreck, Komari boiler wreck, Omari boiler wreck and 4 underwater archaeological sites (Muhudu Maha Viharaya in Potuvila, Kayankerni Stone Bridge and Swami Rock near the Koneshwaram Hindu Temple) in the region. Acknowledgement Author is thankful to Professor Gamini Adikari, Director General, Central Cultural Fund, Department of Culture and the Arts for encouragement and guidance and to the excavation team of the Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka for their support and cooperation. References Clerk, A., and Wilson, M., 1964. The Treasure of the Great Reef. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York, p. 200 Karunarathna, M., 2013. New Maritime Archaeological Discoveries in the Eastern province of Sri Lanka. In Punkalasa - National Archaeological Symposium 2013, Department of Archaeology, Ministry of National Heritage, Sri Lanka, Colombo: 217231. Mahawamsha. 2004. Buddhist Cultural Centre, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka. Panabokke, C. R., 1996. Soils and Agro-Ecological Environment of Sri Lanka. Natural Resources, Energy, Science Authority, Colombo. Samaraweera, N., 2013. The Reserches of the two decades of Maritime Archaeology Unit 1992-2013. "Samudrika" Maritime Archaeological Symposium, Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle: 3-5. 13 Maritime �Silva, R., and Ariyaratne, P. A., 2007. The Natinal Atlas of Sri Lanka. Survey Department of Sri Lanka, Colombo. The Ceylon Observer. (September 28, 1908). Weerakatiya, Y., 2011. Mahaurumaya (in Sinhala). Tilak Printers Ltd, Pannipitiya, Sri Lanka: 01-10. Biography W. M. Chandraratne (b. 1968), working as a Research Officer of Maritime Archaeology and Officer- in- charge of the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka since 1994. He has participated in several workshops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 20 research articles both in reputed local and international journals. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An Investment for the Future: Maritime Archaeological Explorations in the Post-War regions of the Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka Description An account of the resource The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Central Cultural Fund (CCF) is actively involved in protecting the UCH of Sri Lanka, since it was founded in 1992. During the last few years essential steps have been taken to develop the infrastructure and the human resources of the unit or just use MAU. Six archaeology graduates who did a special training under the MAU were recruited in 2011. They had gone through series of trainings such as swimming, snorkelling, life saving, first aid and basic diving. They were introduced to the fundamentals of underwater archaeology. They were encouraged to start their post graduate studies and to gain their international diving license, such as PADI or the SSI. After a year of training they were directed to carry out an underwater archaeological investigation along the East coast of Sri Lanka, from 13th of June to 26th of August 2012. The exploration was scheduled at a favourable moment to test their skills and training. The trainees were under the supervision of four senior maritime archaeologists. The north and east parts of the country were rescued after thirty years of terrorism in 2009. More than two years were taken to secure the area from post war hazards such as land mines. For the whole MAU team this was a new experience and an opportunity to search this area after many years. The team uncovered over 16 shipwreck sites and 4 underwater archaeological sites in the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource W. M. Chandrarthne, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/aed71ad26404c2541bafe9b60397b4f4.pdf 1bb61ec4517eaf6690d5507ff955d202 PDF Text Text Maritime and underwater archaeological explorations in Kenya: Recent discoveries Caesar Bita National Museums of Kenya, Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa, P.O. Box 82412, 80100, Kenya Email: mcbita@yahoo.com Abstract Kenya is the first sub-Sahara African country to initiate an underwater archaeological expedition thus legally recognizing the value of underwater cultural heritage. This was after successful survey and excavation of the 17th Century Portuguese shipwreck, Santa Antonio De Tanna, in Mombasa. Kenya coast is part of the Western Indian Ocean; commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’. This coast was a domain of foreigners from the early centuries of the first millennium AD. It was visited by the Greeks; controlled by the Arabs, Portuguese and the Europeans. In addition, it played a major role in ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard linking the Swahili Coast with the Arab world, India sub-continent, Far East and China, America and Europe. Owing to crude navigation and sea faring technologies of the time, there are on the seabed of Kenya traces of these interactions in the form of archaeological remains. Recent studies have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of shipwrecks and has immense potential in underwater cultural heritage. Drawing from ancient literature, previous and current maritime and underwater archaeological studies, and this paper presents the recent discoveries from underwater archaeological surveys in Kenya. The paper illustrates that there is immense potential for underwater archaeology in Kenya that requires new attention both in research and conservation. Key words: Swahili Coast, Lamu archipelago, Malindi, Maritime Archaeology Underwater Cultural Heritage, Shipwreck Introduction The conservation of maritime and underwater cultural resources has become a major field of great scientific and regional importance world over. Maritime cultural heritage is a critical element of Kenya’s wellbeing. In addition to its intrinsic value, it provides us 1 �with important space for recreation and has a significance that makes it worth preserving; it is part of the environment, has an economic and scholarly value. This resource is however under ever increasing pressure from human activity. Its protection is thus a key part of sustainable development, whereby policies to encourage social and economic development should be equaled by policies to protect our environment. To effectively protect this heritage one important step is to document how much of this resource is available. The National Museums of Kenya (NMK) cannot afford to rely on “accidental” discoveries by non-scientific ventures and still remain an authentic custodian of the national heritage. It is for this that Kenya has made efforts to implement the preservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH). The country has developed capacities in maritime and underwater cultural heritage through the training of underwater archaeologists and establishment of an underwater artifact conservation laboratory. NMK has designed a maritime archaeological programme for the study of this heritage as well as a database of all shipwrecks in the country. These efforts are expected to increase the dimension in which we understand and interpret this heritage in addition to mitigating the risk of loosing this resource to vandalism and uncontrolled development. Maritime History of the Kenyan Coast Kenya is a maritime country with a coastline approximately 600 km long with many small islands and navigable channels. This coast, which is part of the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’, was a major player in the ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard. Its inhabitants are known to have had a history of long and continuous interaction with not only the Indian Ocean but also foreign visitors including the Greeks, 2 1 Fig. 1 Trade goods exchanged across the Western Indian Seaboard. (C. Bita) Arabs, Portuguese and the �Europeans. Further, several early Swahili settlements ranging in time from the 8th-17th centuries AD dot both the entire coastline as well as its off-shore islands (Garlake, 1966; Chittick, 1984; Horton, 1984; Abungu, 1989; Bita, 2011b). Such include Mombasa, Lamu, Pate, Faza, Dondo, Kiunga, Ishakani, Ungwana, Siyu, Kilepwe, Mambrui, Malindi, Gedi, Jumba La Mtwana and Kilifi. These ancient towns linked the Swahili Coast and other continents across the Western Indian Ocean seaboard including the Arab world, India sub-continent, south East Asia, the Far East and China, America and Europe (Fig. 1). Several historical records make reference to ancient seafaring off the Swahili coast. The Periplus of Erytharean Sea, document by the a an anonymous Greek sailor, mentions the east African coast as early as 2000 BP (Freeman- Fig. 2 Figure showing the concentration of shipwrecks along the Grenville, 1962; 1975; Wright, 1984; Horton, Kenya coast. (C. Bita) 1990; Whitehouse, 2001; Chami, 2006). Records by Chinese travelers refer to the Somali coast and her trade connections with the Far East by late 800s AD, while reports by Arab geographers allude to thriving maritime communities on this coast by 900 AD (Kirkman, 1964; Datoo, 1970; Martin, 1973; Freeman-Grenville, 1975; Horton, 1990; Hall, 1996). The period between the first millennium BC and the 2nd half of the first millennium AD was characterized by crude shipping technology and lack of nautical charts. These crude navigation technologies, as well as oceanic changes, are likely to have made early seafarers casualties of coral reefs and violent sea waves. In addition, the East African coast has been a centre of rivalry between major powers and the resultant wars 3 �witnessed a number of marine armour destroyed and sunken in these waters. This evidence is today lying on the sea-bed and foreshores in the form of shipwrecks, anchors, military structures among others (Bita, 2014). In Kenya this underwater archaeology comes to light from researches, accidental discoveries by fishermen, written records and oral tradition. Recent investigations that corroborate historical literary sources have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of ancient shipwrecks. Studies have shown the highest concentration of these sites in Kenya to be around Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu (Fig. 2) (Breen and Lane, 2003; Forsythe et al., 2003; Bita, 2008; 2010; 2011b; 2014). Maritime and Underwater Archaeological explorations in Kenya There are significant pointers towards the richness of Kenya’s maritime and underwater cultural heritage. A survey to establish the full range of this resource is ongoing in the country. The objectives of this undertaking are to identify and understand the range and distribution of this resource in the Kenya coast and to develop a database of the maritime and UCH sites for further archaeological investigation and conservation. Kenya initiated an underwater archaeological expedition after successful survey and excavation of the 17th century Portuguese shipwreck in Mombasa. This Portuguese frigate was sunk by Oman Arabs in 1698 in Mombasa during a battle to free Fort Jesus from the Arabs (Piercy, 1977; 1978; Sassoon, 1980; Boxer, 1960; Lynch, 1991; Patience, 2006). Following this development, this shipwreck, later dubbed ‘Mombasa Wreck’, was gazetted as a national monument and is today protected by the country’s legislation. It is this initiative that made Kenya the first east African sub-Saharan country to legally recognize the value of underwater cultural heritage. In the subsequent years, there was a growing importance of underwater archaeology including management of UCH in Kenya. With the potential of underwater archaeology in the country, a new research and heritage management perspective was required. As such, Kenya sought to develop capacities in underwater cultural heritage management through training and infrastructure development. The country has trained two underwater archaeologists, three conservators of underwater cultural material and has a well established underwater artifact conservation laboratory. Additionally, a database of maritime and 4 �UCH sites has been developed for the coastal region and undersea cultural heritage impact assessments are conducted as part of these efforts. Recent Discoveries Several underwater surveys have been undertaken off the Kenyan coast in which a lot of archaeological heritage has been documented. These surveys include a 2001 maritime archaeological study of Mombasa Island (Breen and Lane, 2003). Others are the 2006-2009 surveys in Lamu, Malindi and Mombasa by NMK (Patience, 2006; Bita and Wanyama, 2007; Bita, 2008; 2009 a-b). The latest, and ongoing, is the survey by National Museums of Kenya in collaboration with National Museums of China, in the “Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology project” (Bita, 2011a; 2013a). In these surveys numerous maritime and underwater heritage sites have been documented including shipwrecks, structures and artifacts. Interestingly these have been found to occur around the ancient towns of Lamu, Mombasa and Malindi; towns that played a major role in the ancient transoceanic interactions across the Western Indian Ocean (Fig. 2). Underwater archaeological surveys have also focused on these important towns. Underwater Archaeological survey in Mombasa Mombasa Island borders the open sea to the south east and has several channels. There have been numerous underwater archaeological surveys of this island in the previous years that realized a lot of maritime and heritage sites. underwater The first cultural survey undertaken was the excavation of the Santa Antonio recovered Indian shipwreck wares, which Chinese porcelain, Martaban and Portuguese jars, canons, mortar shells and bronze medallions (Piercy, 1977; 1978; Bita, Fig. 3 Lamu Archipelago: the eastern shores 2013b). A later survey revealed several have many rock outcrops where ancient ships 5 are believed to have sunk while entering Lamu Town. (C. Bita) �anomalies, some being shipwrecks (Breen and Lane, 2003; Forsythe et al., 2003). Recent surveys (Bita, 2009b; 2011c) have recorded wreck sites and associated structures (Fig. 3). Underwater Archaeological survey in Lamu archipelago Lamu archipelago is composed of several islands but the main ones are Lamu, Manda and Pate, all with ancient towns by the same names (Fig. 3). Ancient settlements in this archipelago are important landmarks in the history of the Swahili Coast. They were important centres of the northern Swahili world with some, like Manda and Pate, exhibiting evidence of very early occupation (Chittick, 1984; Horton, 1987; Wilson and Omar, 1996; 1997). Ancient Pate Bay for instance was the gateway to Lamu Town for sea travelers. Even up to the present, the eastern shores of this island are referred to by the locals as mlango wa Lamu (gateway to Lamu). This route was used by the Portuguese for decades controlling the WIO trade (Kirkman, 1964; Freeman-Greenville, 1975; Chittick, 1976; 1984; Hall, 1996). The Arabs dominated the Swahili Coast long before the Portuguese and used this route for hundreds of years in trade with the Persian Gulf (Bita, 2011b). Pate Bay has several long reefs and many coral rock outcrops such as Pazzali, Hassani and Hanawi. These rocks are at the confluence of Pate channel and the open sea and being submerged at high tide suggests many vessels may have wrecked here. In addition, the lack of nautical knowledge for this area caused many early seafarer Fig. 4 Portion of a shipwreck embedded in concretion in casualties on these coral rocks Mombasa waters. (Coastal Archaeology, National when sailing through this bay. Over Museums of Kenya) the years, fishermen in the Lamu archipelago have been recovering archaeological materials at various sites along these 6 �reefs and channels in addition to seabed surveys (Bita and Wanyama, 2007; Bita, 2009a; 2014). Recent surveys in Lamu have made major achievements in terms of the volume of artifacts recovered; sites surveyed and amount of data collected. Geophysical studies have recorded several underwater anomalies while sites identified include areas with concentrations of pottery and iron anchors (Bita, 2014). A massive anchor approximately 4m long with 2m long hooks was found (Fig. 4). Standing upright and embedded in coral, one of its hooks is however missing (this suggests probably its line was cut when sailors were unable to take it back into the ship). Similar types of anchors have also been recovered in Mombasa. Small iron anchors 2m long heavily encrusted and of 3 hooks have also been recovered. This style of 3 hook anchors is not a common feature of the Swahili Coast and suggests they belong to foreign ships. Early travel across the Western Indian Ocean was subject to the monsoon winds which alternated every six months. For instance, foreign traders sailed to the East African coast on the northwest monsoon wind which blows from November until April. For six months they would wait for the winds to change direction in order for them to sail back home on the southeast monsoon winds which blow from June to October. During this period of wait, ships would be anchored for loading and repairs while the sailors engaged in trade. Similarly, due to ocean currents and long wait, the ship anchors would, in most cases, be covered in sand or dragged into rock crevices. Such would make them difficult to pull back into the ship at departure forcing the crew to cut the ropes and abandon the anchor underwater. As is the case with Pate channel, many areas have silted over the years with many sites heavily covered in the sands (Bita, 2014). Maritime Archaeological Survey in Malindi Malindi town is located 120km north of Mombasa and is one of the ancient trading towns which had contact with the outside world in the last centuries of the last millennium. The town owes, as do many other coastal towns, its origin and prosperity to the Western Indian Ocean for facilitating transport and trade. It was at one time a gateway where the movement and transformation of goods were facilitated and urban services developed to promote maritime trade (Bita, 2008). It is believed to have been visited by a Chinese fleet in the 15th century. When the Portuguese arrived on the Kenyan coast in 1495, they found a thriving town and made it their trade headquarters 7 �while monopolising the WIO trade (Hall, 1996; Martin, 1975; Bita, 2012). Malindi Bay has three ancient centres, Malindi town, Mambrui and Ngomeni. Mambrui and Malindi were vibrant agricultural regions while Ngomeni was known for production and export of mangroves (Bita, 2005; 2008). In trading areas, shipwrecks would be closer to certain shipping hazards such as reefs and projecting headlands. In Malindi Bay, Ngomeni is located near a headland whereas in Malindi town there is Leopard Bay, the navigation channel of which is between two reefs. In the two areas, many ships are suspected to have sunk (Patience, 2006; Bita, 2008; Bita, 2011a-b; 2012). Portuguese records mention their ships lost and sunk in Malindi and whose locations have not been found (Patience, 2006). Maritime and underwater archaeological surveys in the area have documented several shipwrecks (Bita, 2005; 2008; 2011a) including remains of a ship engine block, sites containing 14th-15th century Indian and Chinese pottery (Bita, 2008; Bita, 2011a). This corroborates Portuguese and British records of ships lost in Malindi waters (Patience, 2006). Fig. 5 The plan of the Ngomeni Ras shipwreck Fig. 6 The remains of the Ngomeni Ras shipwreck site. (Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology lying project) on seabed. (Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology Project). Ngomeni Ras Shipwreck While no UCH sites have been located in Mambrui, 10km north of Malindi Town, in Ngomeni, a village about 30 km northeast of Malindi town, several important sites have 8 �been identified. Ngomeni stands on an arm of land jutting towards the sea (Ras Ngomeni), which offers a protected shallow harbour formerly used as a gateway for all seafarers from Lamu to Malindi (Wilson, 1982; Bita, 2008; 2011b). The area was known for mangrove growing which was exported to, and used in house construction in cities around the Persian Gulf (Wilson, 1982; Whitehouse, 2001). Surveys in 2008 discovered a wooden shipwreck that consistently produced materials dating to the 14th century including Persian and Far Eastern wares. The shipwreck was revisited in 2010-2011 and excavated in 2013. The exposed wood remains of this site are however seriously threatened by terredo. Ngomeni Ras Shipwreck is a probable 15th-16th century merchant ship. The site measures 40m x 20m lying 5m below the sea (Fig. 5-6). This discovery has proved the town participated in ancient mangrove trade across the Western Indian Ocean (Bita 2011a-b; 2013a). Fig. 7 A militant bunker overlooking the sea in Fig. 8 Lime and stone jetties and sacred sites on the Mombasa. (C. Bita) maritime zone of Mombasa coast. (C. Bita) Intertidal and Foreshore surveys Intertidal and foreshore surveys have also documented a rich resource of cultural heritage. Irrespective of typology, these sites existed to exploit the maritime resource that is the Western Indian Ocean. The most important include ancient forts, redoubts, anchorages, ports and jetties. Others are maritime practices such as boat building and fishing styles. It is their relationship with this ocean that makes them worth studying and conserving. 9 �Military structures Ancient East African coast was a centre of rivalry between powers such as between rivaling Arab rulers, Arabs and Portuguese and later in the 1st and 2nd world war between Germans, British and Italians (Coupland, 1938; Kirkman, 1964; 1974; Martin, 1973; 1975). These witnessed a number of marine structures erected along the coast as defense forts or escape tunnels (Bita, 2009a-b). The Kenyan coast is awash with such, including redoubts, forts including Fort Jesus, Siyu and Lamu, as well as habitable caves and military bunkers. A majority of these are associated with Arabian, Portuguese and British periods (Fig. 7). Moorings, Anchorages, Jetties and sacred sites Intertidal surveys have recorded ancient moorings and anchorages of different styles (ranging from metal, lime and stone), ruins of jetties built of stone and lime (Fig. 8). A majority of these have been attributed to the Portuguese and British periods. Jetties may probably be related to old crossing points from the Islands to the coastal mainland. Other equally important features are the sacred sites that are manifestations of the relationship between people’s beliefs and the elements of maritime environment. Most shrines are located in rock shelters, caves and secluded places on the seaward side of cliffs (Bita, 2009b). The traditional ritual paraphernalia including talismans, white and or red pieces of cloth; mixed colours of red, blue, white and black are mostly strategically placed so as to come in contact with sea water at high tide. Acknowledgments I am thankful to the Director General, National Museums of Kenya, for his support and nominations to the training in Underwater Archaeology. I am also grateful to UNESCO for the sponsorship to train in the 3rd Foundation and In-Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage courses in Thailand and participation in the Abuja UCH meeting. Thanks too to the Chinese government for the bilateral cooperation in underwater archaeology research in Kenya. 10 �References Abungu, G. O., 1989. Communities on the river Tana, Kenya: An Archaeological study of relations between the Delta and the river basin, 700-1800 AD. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Bita, C., 2014. The potentials of underwater archaeology in Kenya: A short communication. In Sila Tripati (Ed.), Shipwrecks around the world: Revelations of the past, Delta Book World, New Delhi: 486-510. Bita, C., 2013a. Underwater archaeological survey of Ngomeni Shipwreck site. SINOKenya Underwater Archaeology Project Report. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2013b. Martaban jars found in Kenya. Southeast Asian ceramics museum Newsletter. Vol. VII (1) Jun-Sept 2013: 3. Bita, C., 2012. The Origin of Malindi Town: A Case Study of Mambrui. M. A. Dissertation. University of Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam. Bita, C., 2011a. SINO-Kenya Underwater Archaeology Project. Preliminary Report. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2011b. Ancient Afro-Asia links. New evidence from a maritime perspective. 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International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 6 (4): 331-47. Piercy, R, C, M., 1978. Mombasa wreck excavation, Preliminary Report. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 7 (4): 301-19. Sassoon, H., 1980. Mombasa Wreck Excavation. Interim Report, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. 13 �Whitehouse, D., 2001. East Africa and the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean AD 8001500. In B. S. Amenoreti (Ed.), Islam in East Africa: New Sources, Herder, Rome: 411424. Wilson, T. H., 1982. Spatial analysis and settlement patterns on the East African coast. Paideuma, Vol. 28: 201-219. Wilson, T. H., and Omar, A. L., 1997. Archaeological investigations at Pate. Azania, Vol. 32: 31-76. Wilson, T. H., and Omar, A. L., 1996. Excavation at Pate on the East African coast. In G. Pwiti., and R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African Archaeology, University of Zimbabwe, Harare: 543-554. Wright, H. T., 1984. Early seafarers of the Comoro Islands: the Dembeni phase of the 9th-10th centuries AD. Azania, Vol. 19: 13-60. Biography Caesar Bita has a Masters degree in Archaeology from the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; a Postgraduate Diploma in Management of Heritage and Museum Collections from the University of Nairobi, a Professional Diploma in Underwater Archaeology from Underwater Archaeology Center in China. Bita has participated in training programme such as Maritime Heritage Training and Integrated Coastal Zone Management Course (2006, Zanzibar, Tanzania), Regional Training on Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management (2010, South Africa), International Training Workshop on Preservation, Presentation and Education on Maritime Cultural Heritage (2010, Alexandria, Egypt). He participated in the 3rd UNESCO Foundation Course on Underwater Cultural Heritage and In-Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2011, Thailand). He joined the National Museums of Kenya in 1999 and currently coordinating underwater archaeological research and underwater cultural heritage management at Fort Jesus museum, Mombasa, Kenya. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime and underwater archaeological explorations in Kenya: Recent discoveries Description An account of the resource Kenya is the first sub-Sahara African country to initiate an underwater archaeological expedition thus legally recognizing the value of underwater cultural heritage. This was after successful survey and excavation of the 17th Century Portuguese shipwreck, Santa Antonio De Tanna, in Mombasa. Kenya coast is part of the Western Indian Ocean; commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’. This coast was a domain of foreigners from the early centuries of the first millennium AD. It was visited by the Greeks; controlled by the Arabs, Portuguese and the Europeans. In addition, it played a major role in ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard linking the Swahili Coast with the Arab world, India sub-continent, Far East and China, America and Europe. Owing to crude navigation and sea faring technologies of the time, there are on the seabed of Kenya traces of these interactions in the form of archaeological remains. Recent studies have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of shipwrecks and has immense potential in underwater cultural heritage. Drawing from ancient literature, previous and current maritime and underwater archaeological studies, and this paper presents the recent discoveries from underwater archaeological surveys in Kenya. The paper illustrates that there is immense potential for underwater archaeology in Kenya that requires new attention both in research and conservation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Caesar Bita, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ec58639175e5eaa5dfa1016f57575cd4.pdf 374f4b44ba42239bbb8cd94d4ff6d3c2 PDF Text Text Ancient and Medieval ports of the Gulf of Mannar Coast, East coast India and their Maritime Connections across Indian Ocean Countries N. Athiyaman Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology, Tamil University Thanjavur 613010, India Email: rajachidam@gmail.com Abstract The Gulf of Mannar lies in the south-eastern corner of India, bordered by Sri Lanka on the south east. It covers the coast of Tamil Nadu from the island of Rameswaram to Kanniyakumari. This region witnessed extensive long distance maritime activities from the Early Historic period; from 500 BCE to 500 CE. Like other ports of this region, Korkai was part of the Indo-Roman trade activities and literally mentioned in Greek sources. Evidence of Roman contact has been found at the ports of Korkai and Alagankulam. In the Medieval period, Kayal and Periyapattinam were important ports of this region, which is also rich in underwater marine resources and famous for their coral reefs. Stone anchors have been found in this region during surveys by the author. This region has one of the important marine resources venerated by Indians from the ancient period: Turbinella Pyrum. Pearl harvesting was very active in this region for several centuries. It was commercially exploited and exported to many regions in India and beyond. The proposed paper seeks to study the marine archaeological evidence and their importance from the Early Historic period to the medieval period; from 500 BCE to 1600 CE. Key words: Ancient ports, Gulf of Mannar, Korkai, Alagankulam, Pearl fishery, Trade network 1 �Introduction Even before the Christian era, a vibrant trade network between Southeast Asia and Mediterranean region was present in the Indian subcontinent as a transit marketplace. The Indian subcontinent, rich in resources, played a major commercial role between its double-sided counterparts of Southeast Asia and the Red Sea region. More studies are being attempted to view the trade dynamics of these regions from a holistic perspective as maritime contacts cross both cultural and political boundaries. This paper is an attempt to view the active role played by the Southeast Indian coast, a part of the maritime gateway extending between Cape Comorin and Rameswaram Island. Studying this 300 km stretch of land could be useful for understanding the maritime importance of this region (Fig. 1). Sources To understand the maritime trade process of this region for the study period, ancient Tamil Literature, specifically the two Sangam Epics, Silapatikaram and Manimekalai, foreign accounts and sporadic archaeological excavations carried out form the basic sources of the study. The temple inscriptions and foreigners' accounts of the medieval period are used for the later periods. Sources available from Southeast Asia and the Red Sea region Fig. 1 Map showing the Early Historic are also taken in to account. Marine and Medieval Ports of the study Area. archaeological studies by the author around (Athiyaman, 2014) the Rameswaram region as well as previous studies made by the author on pearl fishing were also used as sources for this article. The Hinterland and the resources for Maritime relations The inland region of the study area is a dry plain region shadowed by the Western Ghats of the subcontinent in the west. This region has many rivers; the Vaigai in the 2 �north and the Gundar, Vaippar and Tamraparani in the south. The main source of water flow in these rivers comes from the Southwest monsoon and to a lesser extent during the Northeast monsoon. All of these rivers except the Vaigai are not perennial. However the deltaic area is not as vast as compared to the river Kaveri which flows in central Tamil Nadu. Except for the regions near the river banks, all the regions are semi-arid in nature. Archaeological sites found in this region are few compared to sites found in the northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Those that are found are located along the river course (Rajan, 2011). As these regions were ruled by the Pandiya Kings, spices and forest products available in the Western Ghats could be traded through the ports of Bacare and Nelkynda situated south of Muziri on the west coast, a famous emporium. Only the pearl and Conch shells were the only local resources from this region contributing to trade. However, being situated centrally between the east and west, this coast played a lead role in trade activities. Ports The presence of ports indicates the maritime activities of the particular region and their possible connections with the hinterland. At the very least, resources should be available the region for ships to come and replenish their food stocks and water. Usually the river mouths were used as anchorages for the large boats and ships in the east coast of India. The available evidence suggests that no permanent port structure existed in the early historic period of the Tamizhakam. However, small boats were used to carry the goods from the ships to shore and vice versa. In the present study area the ports or the coastal habitations of considerable importance could be culled out from the foreigners’ accounts, literature and the inscriptions. During the early historic period, from the south, the Cape Comorin, the Korkai at the confluence of River Tamraparani and Alagankulam at the mouth of River Vaigai played a major role in maritime activities. During the early medieval period and medieval period the newly formed ports of Kayal and Periyapattinam played a significant role in the maritime activities. Smaller coastal settlements also were active during this period. The ports of the early historic and medieval period from the south to the north are briefly discussed here. Early Historic Ports 3 �Comorin This is the southernmost tip of the subcontinent which is the meeting point of three seas; the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Mannar. As the wave travels along these three seas in different seasons, for the most part the weather in this region could be rough. The possibility of the existence of a port for maritime trade is remote, since the place for anchorage and cargo transfer is not conducive. However, in foreigner accounts, one finds mention of this place invariably as it was considered a holy place well before the Christian era. Ptolemy mentions this place as Komaria, a cape and town (McCrindle, 1927). Periplus accounts for it as a cape and harbour and also mentions that “(T)here come those men who wish to consecrate themselves for the rest of their lives, and bathe and dwell in celibacy; and women also do the same; for it is told that a goddess once dwelt here and bathed” (Schoff, 1912). So far, no archaeological study around this region has been made. Korkai Korkai, now 6 km east of the coast, where the sea has receded, was one of the important emporia of the Pandiyan Kingdom during Christian era. It lies on the bank of the river Tamraparani. Adichanallur was another contemporary important early historic settlement lying 15 km west of Korkai. Adichanallur was excavated by Rea and ASI (Rea, 1915; Nambirajan et al., 2009). Ancient Tamil literature alludes to Korkai as the place of a fishing community that also dived for pearls and conch shells. One of the anthologies, akanaanuuRu (130:11), refers to it as a coastal town. Periplus (59) mentions, "from Comari toward the south this region extends to Colchi, where the pearlfisheries are; (they are worked by condemned criminals); and it belongs to the Pandian Kingdom..." (Schoff, 1912). Ptolemy accounts 'Kolkhoi' as an emporium (Renou, 1925). Korkai was famous for pearl fishing until very recently. The pearls obtained from this place acquired great trade importance. The importance of the pearl fishery is discussed elsewhere in this paper. 4 Fig. 2 Anchor salvaged off Rameswaram, Gulf of Mannar. (Athiyaman, 2001) �During the 1870's, Caldwell made an exploration and sporadic excavations at Korkai and Kayal (east of Korkai) and published an article in Indian Antiquary. He made a thorough survey and found only the pearl oysters and conch shells on the surface and beneath the soil (Caldwell, 1982). He also came across two Buddha images, two Singhalese coins and sepulchral urns. He discussed in detail about the sea receding to the east and the formation of a new port called Kayal during the medieval period. Based on the literary evidence, the State Department of Archaeology of Tamil Nadu excavated Korkai in the 1969 and found evidence for the cultural sequence of three periods ranging from the 3rd century BCE–4th centuries CE, the 4th–10th centuries CE and between the 10th–14th centuries CE (Sridhar, 2004). The excavations revealed indigenous pottery with early Tamil scripts, sawed conch shells, bangle pieces, and semi-precious stones of the early historic period. A brick structure was also found along with the ring well. The excavation revealed the uninterrupted activity of this place. Alagankulam This site is situated near the river mouth of Vaigai at the extreme north of the present study area. The place mentioned in Periplus as 'Argaru' could be identified with present Alagankulam rather than Uraiyur which is far inland as proposed by the scholars (Sastri, 1972; Athiyaman, 2013). As this port was situated in Palk Bay the transfer of cargo from ships coming from the south was made through a land crossing about twenty kilometres north. This site was excavated by the State Department of Archaeology of Tamil Nadu during 1990's in five seasons (Sridhar, 2005). It yielded a cultural sequence of four periods ranging from 500 BCE to 1200 CE after which the site lost its importance probably due to the emergence of the port Periyapattinam during this period. The site has yielded indigenous as well as western wares, particularly roulette wares. The site has yielded Terracotta dice, spindle whorls, and measuring weights. A Fig. 3 Anchor Salvaged at Gulf of Mannar. (Athiyaman, 2001) 5 �remarkable piece of Red Roulette ware dated to 1st-2nd centuries CE was unearthed with the symbol of ships with oars identified as the depiction of a Roman vessel by Lionel Casson (Sridhar, 2005). The Roman coins of 4th-5th centuries CE were also unearthed in this place. This signifies the active role of this port during early historic and early medieval period. Medieval Ports Kayal As the sea receded along the Gulf of Mannar, Korkai lost its importance around the 10th century. Another port settlement near the sea at the mouth of the River Tamraparani was established. This is due to the importance of the pearl and conch shell fishery and their related activities. This place was also explored by Caldwell during the 1870's. He reported Chinese porcelain wares of many varieties, broken pieces of Arabian ware and Arabian gold coins of 13th century implying the east-west contact in this region (Caldwell, 1982).The Chinese wares of the 13th century found during the exploration at old Kayal and the absence of them in later periods suggest that another settlement south of this place established in the later period since the Chinese ware found south of Kayal, at a site called Punnaikayal, yielded the wares of later periods (Karashima et al., 2004). So far no excavations have been made in this region. However, the Colonial records provide ample information regarding this place which implies that the area was busy with maritime activities. Periyapattinam Periyapattinam, one of the late medieval ports, lies in the Gulf of Mannar region 15 km south of Alagankulam. During excavations conducted by Tamil University with Noboru Karashima in 1987, many Chinese wares have been unearthed and studied for their provenance and possible dating (Karashima et al., 2004). It flourished during 13-14th century CE. It has been mentioned in a Chinese source as 'Dabadan' and Ibn Battuta described it as 'Fattan' (Karashima, 1989; Karashima, 2004). Other minor settlements and ports 6 �During the early historic period Ptolemy mentions some other places which were on the south east coast: Sosikourai, on the Mouth of the River Solen and Kory, also called Kalligikon (McCrindle, 1927). Of these, Kory could be identified with Rameswaram with some certainty. Other places are not as clearly understood. During the Medieval period Kulsekarapattinam, Virapandianpattinam were situated south of Kayal and Kilakkarai (alias Ninaithathumudittan pattinam), west of Periyapattinam has also been identified from the Tamil Inscriptions (Jayakumar, 2001). These places must also have played a considerable role in maritime trade. Marine Archaeological Studies Offshore and onshore explorations conducted in the Gulf of Mannar region of India, by the Centre for Underwater Archaeology of Tamil University have yielded two grapnel type (Indo-Arabian) stone anchors under the shallow waters in the Gulf of Mannar (Figs. 2 and 3). From the region where these two anchors were collected, two more were also found onshore, one a grapnel type and another trapezoidal type. These three grapneltype anchors are now exhibited in the Tamil University museum. Apart from this, a mooring stone, presumably a grapnel type anchor has also been noticed near Tuticorin coast, which even now is used for mooring the fishing boats (Athiyaman, 2001). Though they were dated to between 13th and 14th centuries CE a petrographic analysis may push the date further into the Christian era. Surveys conducted by National Institute of Oceanography around Manapad area, north of Kayalpattinam revealed single holed stone anchors indicating the continuance of indigenous navigation technology (Sundaresh, 2013). Ships and boats of this region The Tamil literature clearly suggests that several varieties of crafts were in use during the early historic Tamizhakam, which proves the extensive nature of its maritime activities. The crafts ambi, mithavai, naavaay, pahri, punai, thimil and toni were medium or small sized crafts. Thimil may have been well-designed since it served as a fishing craft. The crafts naavaay, vangkam and kalam were deep ocean vessels. Not a single clue into the shape of these crafts could be found. Pahri and toni were coastal crafts that plied between the big vessels anchored offshore and were also used in the lagoons. It can be inferred that all the crafts mentioned in the literature except kalam, 7 �which is associated with the Yavanas, were indigenous (Athiyaman, 2011a). Since references to the ship builders are also available, it is clear that the various crafts were built by local craftsmen. The author of Periplus mentions ships named sangara which travelled up to Malacca (Schoff, 1912). This could be the vangkam mentioned in the Tamil text. Archaeological excavations conducted at port towns of Alagankulam (Sridhar, 2005), Korkai (Sridhar, 2004) and Periyapattinam (Karashima et al., 2004) in Tamizhakam prove beyond doubt that busy trade activities were undertaken in ancient Tamizhakam. The volume of trade carried out with the Red Sea region was so huge (Selvakumar, 2011), that for the exchange of various commodities there was need to build various crafts. The early historic Tamizhakam had indigenous knowledge on navigation and shipbuilding. Although this idea is based on the literary evidence, the terms of crafts must be studied in comparison with Greek, Sanskrit and other languages of Southeast Asia. The crafts in the literature of the early historic period were scantily referred to up to the medieval period and lost their names over the course of history. The study clearly highlights that several categories of watercrafts were used for different purposes and the indigenous crafts too had an active role in the long distance trading (Athiyaman, 2011b). Pearl and conch shell fishery Rich in pearl oysters and conch shells the Gulf of Mannar was an attraction not only to traders but too many writers as well. A great deal of importance was given to the pearl and chank fishery and references to this industry off Korkai and Kayal are many. Throughout history, the Gulf of Mannar enjoyed busy trade activities due to the pearl industry (Table. 1). Besides conch shell diving also had its importance each year. A detailed study of this Industry has already been documented by scholars (Arunachalam, 2011; Stephen, 1998; Athiyaman, 2000; Decla, 2008). Table 1. Account of Pearl and Chank Fishery on Indian Coast of Gulf of Mannar Account of Period Reference Megasthenes 3rd century CE McCrindle, 2008 Strabo 21 CE McCrindle, 1979 8 �Periplus 60 CE Schoff, 1912 Pliny 77 CE McCrindle, 1979 Pan Kou end of the first century Sastri 1972 CE Cosmos 6th Century CE McCrindle, 1979 Ma Twan Lin 550 - 600 CE Sastri, 1972 Yuan Chwang 645 CE Sastri, 1972 Chau Ju-Kua 1225 CE Hirth and Rockhill, 1966 Marco Polo 1260 -1300 CE Yule and Cordier, 1993 Account of embassies 1279-1292 CE Sastri, 1972 between China and India John of Montecorvino 1292-1293 CE Sastri, 1972 Wang Ta Yuan 1330 CE Rockhill 1915 Friar Jordanus 1323-1330 CE Sastri, 1972 Ibn Battuta 1333-1345 CE Sastri, 1972 Duarte Barbosa 1516-1517 CE Dames, 1967 Caesar Frederic 1563-1581 CE Caldwell, 1982 Perdro Teixeira 1568 CE Sinclair and Ferguson, 1967 Van Linschoten 1576-1592 CE 9 Arunachalam, 2011 �This industry was worked by the local fishing community, namely Paratavar, from time immemorial as the conch shell collection is carried out even today by them without any intervention (Athiyaman, 2000). This industry around Korkai and then Kayal region has attracted many traders from east and west and this enhanced its influence in the socio-political environment of the inland region (Arunachalam, 2011; Stephen, 1998). Horse Trade Arabian horses were traded along the West and East Coast of South India in the early historic period. The horses making voyages along the Arabian Sea reached the South east coast of Tamil Fig. 4 Mosaic of Nadu and were much sought after up to the Thiruppudaimarudur painting of Vijayanagar period. The inscriptions recounting Horse Trade. (Athiyaman and horse trading and the sculptures and paintings on Rajavelu, 2011) maritime activities depicted in the medieval temples of Tamil Nadu are striking examples. The Nayak period painting depicting an Arab ship arrival with horses was found at Thiruppudaimarudur Temple, Thirunelveli District and sculptural representation of Arab merchants landing in a ship at Thirukkurungudi temple provide authentic evidence regarding the maritime activities of this region (Deloche, 2011; Athiyaman, 2011, Figs. 4-5). This trade was mainly carried out by the Arab merchants as the inscriptions and the art representations suggest (Jayakumar, 2001; Athiyaman, 2011; Rajavelu, 2011). Maritime Trade with Southeast Asia and China Since Sri Lanka is nearest the study region, the maritime trade contact was very frequent and almost uninterrupted from 3rd century BCE. The evidence of the existence of early contacts is covered in recently edited volumes (Manguin et al., 2011). The earliest Tamil inscription is found at Khuan Luk Pat of Thailand, a touch stone belonging to the goldsmith of the third century CE (Chaisuwan, 2011). Medieval Tamil Inscriptions 10 �at various places of Southeast Asia prove beyond doubt that the contact between Gulf Fig. 5 Sculptural representation of Horse Trade (Thirukkurungudi). (Athiyaman, 2011) of Mannar region and Southeast Asia was prolific (Subbarayalu, 1998; Karashima, 2002). It continued as one could glean from the accounts of pearl fishing in the Gulf of Mannar even during the Colonial period. Maritime Trade with Western world Many studies have been made by scholars on the Indo-Roman trade after Warmington (1974). The ports of India, trade goods, shipping and navigation have been studied in the light of the foreign accounts, archaeological excavations conducted at Indian ports of Pattanam, Pumpuhar, Arikamedu, Alagankulam and Korkai, pottery inscriptional evidences and the Vienna Papyrus as well. It is beyond the scope of this present paper. However, the western trade with this region was continued, without break and this region played an active role in it (Young, 2001; De Romanis, 2012). Potential region for Marine Archaeological Studies The Gulf of Mannar has more marine archaeological potential than the northern coast of Tamil Nadu of India. The Marine Archaeological studies carried out at various places of the Northern Tamil Coast like Pumpuhar, Arikamedu and Mamallapuram did not yield much evidence except for the 18th century shipwreck explored by CSIR-NIO, Goa, off Pumpuhar (Sila Tripati et al., 1996; and Sila Tripati et al., 2003). The excavation conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India, also did not yield any concrete 11 �evidence due to the nature of seabed. In northern Tamil Nadu a lot of sediments are carried by the rivers throughout the year and they are deposited in the littoral and shallow water region. The clay formation is so high that a fairly good marine archaeological exploration is not at all possible. However, the Gulf of Mannar is protected by Sri Lanka from the onslaught of huge waves and cyclones. Hence the shipwrecks and lost anchors could be found with more convenience. The sea is relatively calm for long periods. Moreover, the stone anchors found off Rameswaram can be taken as a precursor for marine archaeological studies. The busy trade activity throughout history allows one to presume that this region should be probed intensively in future. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Dr. M. Thirumalai, Vice-Chancellor, Tamil University for his constant support in research and giving permission to contribute the paper at the Asia Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Hawaii. Acknowledgement is also due to Drs. S. Rajavelu and V. Selvakumar of Tamil University for their suggestions in improving the paper. References Arunachalam, S., 2011. 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Lead ingots from a shipwreck off Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India: Evidence for overseas trade and their significance. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 32 (2): 225-237. Sila Tripati., Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh, Gudigar, P., 1996. Marine Archaeological Explorations in the Kaveripoompattinam Region: Fresh light on the Structural Remains. Man and environment, Vol. 21(1): 86-90. Sinclair, W. F., and Fergusson, D., 1967. The Travels of Pedro Teixeira, Kraus Reprint Limited, Nendeld 14 �Sridhar, T. S., 2004. Excavations of Archaeological sites in Tamil Nadu (1969-1995). Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai. Sridhar, T. S., 2005. Alagankulam: An ancient Roman Port city of Tamil Nadu. Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai. Stephen, S. J., 1998. Portuguese in the Tamil Coast. Navajothi Publishing House, Pondicherry. Subbarayalu, Y. 1998. The Tamil Merchant-Guild Inscription at Barus, A Rediscovery. In Claude Guillot (Ed.), Histoire de Barus, Sumatra, Le Site de Lobu Tua I: Etudes et Documents, Cahiers d 'Archipel 30, Paris: 25-33. Sundaresh., 2013. Stone anchors of Manapad Region, Tamil Nadu. Paper Presented in the 8th National Conference on Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries, Dedicating to Dr. S. R. Rao 1st-2nd July 2013 Organized by Society for Marine Archaeology, National Institute of Oceanography Dona Paula, Goa. Warmington, E. H., 1974. The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India. Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi. Young, G. K., 2001. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and imperial policy, 31 BC - AD 305. Routledge, London. Yule, H., and Cordier, H., 1993. The book of Ser Marco Polo. Munshiram Manoharlal publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Biography N. Athiyaman working as a Professor in the Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology of Tamil University, Thanjavur, India has about 30 years of service in research organisations at various levels. He has participated in marine archaeological investigation off Pumpuhar, in collaboration with National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai. He has salvaged four stone anchors and two metal anchors of medieval period in Gulf of Mannar. He has participated in excavations of early historic settlement sites conducted by Tamil University. He has authored four books and edited 13 volumes on Archaeology, History and Maritime History. He is the life member of Indian History congress, Society for Marine Archaeology and Tamil Nadu Archaeological Society. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ancient and Medieval ports of the Gulf of Mannar Coast, East coast India and their Maritime Connections across Indian Ocean Countries Description An account of the resource The Gulf of Mannar lies in the south-eastern corner of India, bordered by Sri Lanka on the south east. It covers the coast of Tamil Nadu from the island of Rameswaram to Kanniyakumari. This region witnessed extensive long distance maritime activities from the Early Historic period; from 500 BCE to 500 CE. Like other ports of this region, Korkai was part of the Indo-Roman trade activities and literally mentioned in Greek sources. Evidence of Roman contact has been found at the ports of Korkai and Alagankulam. In the Medieval period, Kayal and Periyapattinam were important ports of this region, which is also rich in underwater marine resources and famous for their coral reefs. Stone anchors have been found in this region during surveys by the author. This region has one of the important marine resources venerated by Indians from the ancient period: Turbinella Pyrum. Pearl harvesting was very active in this region for several centuries. It was commercially exploited and exported to many regions in India and beyond. The proposed paper seeks to study the marine archaeological evidence and their importance from the Early Historic period to the medieval period; from 500 BCE to 1600 CE. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource N. Athiyaman, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/44abd9bec55afaf5e134ef9359ed07bd.pdf bf31fc4fd48d2431b640015a65a8b483 PDF Text Text Stone anchors of India: Findings, Classification and Significance Sila Tripati CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India Email: sila@nio.org Abstract Various types of stone anchors have been observed during inshore and offshore explorations along the east and west coasts of India. The earliest stone anchors of India have been recorded from the Harappan sites (3rd millennium BC), but their shape and size do not resemble the anchors found during maritime archaeological explorations since 1986. The stone anchors until now recovered from many sites of India can broadly be classified into four types: namely composite, Indo-Arabian, ring stone (mushroom) and single hole. Among all these types of anchors the Indo-Arabian are largest in number and were associated with the Arab traders who were also involved in the horse trade. Moreover, Indo-Arabian stone anchors have been found in a datable context as well reused as lintels, mooring bits, pavements, etc. Composite and single-hole stone anchors are the oldest ones. Composite stone anchors have been reported from Gujarat and Maharashtra coast; ring stone anchors from Gujarat and Goa coast and single hole and Indo-Arabian anchors from both east and west coasts of India. Evidences suggest that stone anchors were used in Indian waters from the 3rd millennium BC to the mid 20th century along with iron anchors which were introduced by the Europeans. Stone anchors resembling Indian have also been reported from the Persian Gulf, African countries, Sri Lanka and Maldives, which suggest maritime contacts and transfer of knowledge and technology. This paper details the finding of stone anchors, their role and significance in the maritime history of India. Key words: Stone anchor, Horse trade, Maritime contacts, Technology, transfer of knowledge Introduction It has been stated that man attained the knowledge of nautical skills from the time when he crossed the oceans with the help of crafts made of logs and dugouts during the Stone Age. He must have used stones of some size as anchors. After several centuries, different types and shapes of stone anchors were developed and used for various purposes including inland and overseas trade. In Indian contexts, a great extent of new evidence relating to stone anchors has come to light during inland, coastal and offshore explorations and excavations (Fig. 1). Gujarat is the lone state of India where stone anchors have been recorded during land excavations but those differ in shape and size 1 �from the anchors which were found during maritime archaeological explorations. A study of stone anchors of India is the key to understanding maritime trade, overseas contacts and shipping activities of the region. In this paper an attempt has been made to describe the stone anchors of India, their role and significance in the maritime history of India. Anchor finding sites of India In India, stone anchors have been observed during land excavations and onshore as well offshore explorations. Lothal and Kuntasi, Fig. 1 Map showing the stone anchor sites in India. both inland sites in Gujarat, off the west coast of India, have yielded (Sila Tripati) stone anchors during land excavations that vary in shape and size from other anchors. Seven stone anchors from Lothal (Fig. 2a) (Rao, 1979) and two from Kuntasi (Fig. 2b) (Dhavalikar et al., 1996) have been recorded. Lothal anchors appear like the composite and single hole types whereas Kuntasi anchors seem like the ring stone type. Since the commencement of maritime archaeological research in Indian waters in 1983 by the CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa, (http://www.nio.org) their goals are to discover submerged habitation, port sites and shipwrecks in order to understand the relationships between man and sea. Explorations have been carried out along both the east and west coasts of India. During this maritime archaeological research, in addition to habitational and port remains and shipwrecks, numerous stone anchors of composite, Indo-Arabian, ring stone and single hole type have been recovered during both onshore and underwater explorations off Gujarat (Gulf of Kachchh, Bet Dwarka, Aramda, Dwarka, Miyani, Visawada, Somnath, Mithi Virdi, Kodinar); Maharashtra (Dabhol, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg); Goa (Baga, Grande Island, Sunchi Reef); Kerala (Kannur); 2 �Lakshadweep (Minicoy Island); Tamil Nadu (Gulf of Mannar, Tuticorin and Manapad); Andhra Pradesh (Kottapatnam); Odisha (Kanas, Chilika Lake); West Bengal (Harinarayanpur). Fig. 2 (a-e) Types of stone anchors found Fig. 2 (f-k) Types of stone anchors found along the Gujarat coast of India. (Sila Tripati) along the Gujarat coast of India. (Sila Tripati) Gujarat In order to locate remains of submerged habitation and port sites of Gujarat, onshore and offshore explorations at Dwarka (Fig. 2c i, ii, iii), Bet Dwarka (Fig. 2d i, ii,), Aramda 3 �(Fig. 2e), Somnath (Fig. 2f i, ii, iii), Miyani (Fig. 2g i, ii), Viaswada (Fig. 2h i, ii), Kodinar (Fig. 2i), Mithi Virdi (Fig. 2j), Gopnath, Hatab, Ghogha, Navi Bunder (Fig. 2k) were carried out. During these excavations, composite, Indo-Arabian, ring stone and single hole types of stone anchors were found from different water depths (Gaur et al., 2013, 2008, 2005). Those were documented and some of them were retrieved for study and analysis. These anchors resemble those found in the Mediterranean Sea, Persian Gulf and Red Sea Coast. Petrographic analysis shows that mariners of India used different rocks for making anchors irrespective of their size and variety and sourced the rock from nearby and sometimes from the hinterland (Sila Tripati, et al., 2010) Maharashtra During maritime archaeological explorations along Maharashtra coast, composite and Indo-Arabian types of stone anchors were discovered at Sindhudurg (Fig. 3a i, ii) and Vijaydurg (Fig. 3b i, ii). These stone anchors have been used as mooring bits and laid on the pavement, whereas Indo-Arabian type of stone anchors have been utilised as lintels (Fig. 3b iii) in the second fortification of the Vijaydurg Fort and mooring bit at the dockyard, which is 3 km away from Vijaydurg Fort (Sila Tripati et al., 1998). Similarly, one Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor was noticed which has been used as a lintel at Padmagad Fort (Fig. 3c), which is near Sindhudurg Fort (Sila and Gaur, 1997). In 2003, dredging for construction of a passenger jetty at Dhabol port, revealed four Indo-Arabian stone anchors (Fig. 3d) along with wooden flukes Radiocarbon dates of the flukes suggest that the anchors were 590 + 90 and 600 + 70 years old (Gaur et al., 2009). In India this is the first instance where stone anchors found along with wooden flukes. Goa During shipwreck explorations in Goa waters stone anchors are also recorded: one each of Indo-Arabian and ring stone (Fig. 3e) type of stone anchor from Sunchi Reef, two Indo-Arabian type from Grande Island (Fig. 3f) and a pyramidal type of stone anchor from Baga waters (Sila Tripati et al., 2013). At first glance, the Baga stone anchor appears like an Indo-Arabian type (Fig. 3g). All these anchors of Goa are chance finds. 4 �Kerala During exploration an Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor was recorded on the southeast corner of Hydross Palli Mosque near the beach of Kannur. The stone anchor is half buried in the ground (Fig. 3h). It has two lower square holes meant for wooden flukes. No marks are visible on its surface; however, a thick coat of grey varnish colour has been applied on its surface. The length and width of the visible portion of the anchor is 0.89 x 0.30 m, but the original length is more than what has been recorded. The anchor has been trimmed neatly leaving prominent straight lines all around on its surface (Sila Tripati et al., 2005). Lakshadweep An Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor was found Fig. 3 (a-d) Types of stone anchors lying in the compound of Jama Mosque of Funhilol found along the Maharashtra, Goa, of Minicoy, which was built in 1344 year of the Hijri. Kerala and Lakshadweep coast of Originally the anchor was used as a lintel at the entrance of the mosque. During renovation of India. (Sila Tripati) mosque the anchor was removed from the lintel and kept aside (Fig. 3i). Chisel marks are visible on the surface of the anchor. Its upper hole is round and lower holes are square. The anchor is made of sandstone and its maximum length is 292 cm (Sila Tripati, 2009). Coral growth, noticed on its surface, signifies that the anchor was underwater for some time. Tamil Nadu Onshore and offshore explorations off Rameswaram (Fig. 4a), the Gulf of Mannar and Tuticorin region of Tamil Nadu have yielded one trapezoidal and five Indo-Arabian types 5 �of stone anchor. These anchors are made of greywacke sandstone, granite and sandstone. The biggest anchor, found off Kursadi Island, measures 2.97 m, has fluke holes at lower end and the upper hole for rope. The anchor is not used extensively and its estimated weight is 1522 kg. The other Indo-Arabian anchor has lower holes and rope hole is missing. It is made of greywacke sandstone and the estimated weight is 178 kg. The Indo-Arabian type stone anchor which was found near the mosque of Fig. 3 (e-i) Types of stone anchors Vedalai (Fig. 4b) is made of granite. The fluke found along the Maharashtra, Goa, holes of the anchor are present whereas the rope Kerala and Lakshadweep coast of hole is missing. Marine growth and chisel marks are visible on the anchor. Its maximum length is India. (Sila Tripati) 181 cm and weight is 520 kg. The trapezoidal type of stone anchor found in the backwaters of Periapattinam, is made of sandstone and its rope hole is present. Its total length and weight is 52 cm and 72 kg respectively and it is highly weathered (Athiyaman and Jayakumar, 2004). During underwater exploration five single hole stone anchors (Fig. 4c) were found off Manapad, Tamil Nadu coast. Among the five anchors four were found in shallow water and one from inland. All these anchors serve as mooring for small fishing boats. These anchors are made of sandstone and chisel marks were visible on some anchors. The quarrying site of these anchors is also noticed close to the church of Manapad. This is the first evidence of a quarry site for stone anchors in the Indian context. Local craftsmen were engaged in making these square shaped single hole stone anchors which they sold to fishermen. Similar types of anchors have been retrieved from Visawada in Gujarat. Moreover, these anchors resemble the Uluburun stone anchors which are recovered from the late 14th century BC shipwreck (Pulak, 2005). 6 �Andhra Pradesh Recently, onshore explorations were carried out at Kottapatnam in Andhra Pradesh to ascertain the antiquity of the site and possibilities of undertaking underwater explorations. In the course of the exploration various types of pottery and a coin belonging to the Vijaynagar period were collected amidst the sand dunes. In addition to these finds, a single hole stone anchor was found lying in an agricultural field close to the navigational canal (Fig. 4d). A major portion of the Fig. 4 Types of stone anchors found along the anchor is buried and only a little portion is east coast of India. (Sila Tripati and N. visible on the surface. Soil on one side of the anchor was removed to study its Athiyaman) shape, size, presence of marks if any, etc., before it was documented. Prominent chisel marks are visible on its surface as well in the hole. The anchor tapers upwards and its overall thickness is not uniform. A big piece of rock has been chopped off from the lower side. The maximum length, width and thickness of the anchor are 76x77x27 cm and weight could be about 250 kg. From the archaeological finds of Kottapatnam and a comparative study of stone anchors recorded from other sites of India, the stone anchor of Kottapatnam can be tentatively dated to the medieval period (Sila Tripati et al., 2014). Odisha Onshore explorations at Kanas on the bank of River Luna in the surrounding region of Chilika Lake, brought to light stone anchors and hero stones. The stone anchors of Kanas are made of sand stone, trapezoidal in shape, having one, two and three holes, an uneven surface and were weathered (Fig. 4e). Moreover, they differ in shape and size from the anchors reported from other sites of India. These stone anchors were 7 �made for marshy and muddy river mouths and lakes. Wooden pegs were inserted in the holes and rope was tied at the upper hole. The stone anchors with one hole were probably used for small boats. The wear and tear marks are distinct and breakage is more because these anchors are made of sandstone. Some of the stone anchors have been converted into hero stones. These stone anchors were found lying with a number of hero stones. However the shape and effectiveness of the anchors can be taken into account in relation to the environment and nature of the lakebed. The possible reason for finding a number of hero stones could be that there might have been some naval battles fought in the region and hero stones were erected in their memory. The making of anchors from the hero stones indicates their alternative use (Sila Tripati and Patnaik, 2008). Classification Stone anchors are classified according to character, shape and region. In general stone anchors have been classified as composite, Indo-Arabian, Ring stone and single hole stone anchor. Frost (1991) indicates that a composite stone anchor used to have more than one hole. Wooden flukes were provided in the additional holes which protrude on both sides of the anchor so that whichever manner the anchor falls on the seabed the flukes will hold the seabed firmly. Triangular anchors are known as composite anchors, these are often made of a flat thin stone block, giving them a triangular shape with a circular upper hole at the apex and two holes at the lower side. These lower holes may be either rectangular or square. Occasionally, some of the composite anchors used to have one, two and four holes. The common feature of Indo-Arabian type stone anchor is that they are trapezoidal or rectangular in shape, used to have two square or rectangular holes at the lower end opposite facing each other for securing wooden flukes and a round hole at the apex meant for cable. The other feature of Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor is that its lower side is thicker than the upper side because it tapers upwards. As the lower side is broader and heavier it provides sturdier, better grip and chances of drifting become less. The distinctive feature of ring stone type of anchor is that they are circular in shape, have a flat base, taper upward to a certain height and have a wide hole. In shape they appear like mushrooms. Single hole stone anchors are made of thick flat blocks of different sizes. The hole is found either at the centre or 8 �upper portion of the block. The size of the hole used to be smaller than that of the stone block. Significance Stone anchors are mostly recovered along ports and harbour sites, sheltered bays and shipwrecks. A study of anchors provides evidence of maritime contacts between countries and finding of varieties of anchors suggests visits of ships of various countries. It also helps in understanding the nature of maritime trade and the period. It shows that a larger number of stone anchors have been discovered than shipwrecks have been explored all around the world. In case of composite stone anchors which have been profusely reported from the Mediterranean Sea, they are distinct in their dimensions, typology, period and similar anchors have been found in underwater and in-land regions of the west coast of India. So far there is no direct evidence to conclude that composite stone anchors which were reported from Indian waters were introduced by the Mediterranean mariners in this part of the world. Whereas Arab mariners had sailed in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean with varied climatic and physical conditions hence, technically, they had designed their (Indo-Arabian) type of anchors differently to be able to withstand rocky, coral or sandy seabed. From the 8th-9th centuries onwards the Arabs and Persians had sailed to the Indian Ocean region and used Indo-Arabian type of stone anchors for anchoring their ships. Similar types of stone anchors have been reported from Iran, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Kenya and Sri Lanka suggesting maritime contacts between these countries (Sila Tripati et al., 2013). Unless some new evidence for dating Indo-Arabian stone anchor comes from any other source, the earliest date of Indo-Arabian stone anchors would remain between 8th and 11th centuries AD. With regard to ring stone anchors those are recorded in Gujarat, Goa, and Minicoy and found along with Indo-Arabian stone, composite and single holes (Sila Tripati et al., 2013). In India reuse of Indo-Arabian stone anchors has been noticed at the Jama Mosque of Funhilol of Minicoy. Earlier such instance has come to light at Vijaydurg fort where Indo-Arabian stone anchors have been used as lintel in the fortification wall of the fort. Composite, Indo-Arabian anchors have also been used as mooring bits, pavement 9 �and doorsill of Sindhudurg fort. In India a larger number of Indo-Arabian and ring stone (mushroom) stone anchors have been reported than composite and single hole stone anchors. All these types of stone anchors were concurrently in use in Indian waters. Probably composite type of stone anchors were used in Indian waters for a limited period, because, these stone anchors are nowhere reported other than in Gujarat and only one from Vijaydurg along the west coast of India. Indo-Arabian, ring stone, single hole type stone anchors have been reported with and without composite type of stone anchors in Indian context. Date of anchors Most of the stone anchors of India have been discovered without any archaeological context and associated findings are too minimal to date them. In the absence of direct evidence, findings such as pottery, coins, inscription, etc in close proximity of the stone anchors have been taken into account to date the stone anchors. In India, there are very few sites where the dating of stone anchors has been correlated with archaeological evidence. For instance in Bet Dwarka stone anchors were found along with amphorae datable to the 4th and 5th centuries AD (Gaur et al., 2005), glazed ware of medieval period were recovered along with stone anchors in Ghogha, stone anchors have been used in the lintel of Vijaydurg Fort of medieval period (Sila Tripati et al., 1998), the Arabic inscription of the Mosque of the 13th and 14th centuries can be associated with the stone anchor in Kannur (Sila Tripati et al., 2005), in Chilika Lake the hero stones of the 7th to 9th centuries AD are related to stone anchors (Sila Tripati., and Patnaik, 2008). In Dabhol, Maharashtra, stone anchors found along with wooden flukes and their Radiocarbon dates show that the flukes are 500 to 600 years old which confirms that Indo-Arabian type of stone anchors were used in Indian waters 500 to 600 years Before Present (Gaur et al., 2009). Such dating of stone anchors confirms that stone anchors were used during those periods, but it is not known exactly when the particular type of stone anchors was introduced and how long those were in use. However, from the shape, size and weight, the evolutionary development of stone anchors can be traced. Although the stone anchors of Lothal and Kuntasi were found during land excavations and dated in archaeological context, there is some ambiguity about their use, identification and context. 10 �Conclusions It is well recorded that India had along maritime history starting from the Bronze Age civilization onwards if not earlier and the discovery of large number of anchors both from east and west coast confirm the statement. So far there is no clear evidence to suggest that the varieties of anchors recorded were evolved in India or these were introduced by outside mariners in Indian waters. As different types of stone anchors have been found in different parts of the world therefore scholars are keen to study their evolution to development. The type of stone anchors reported from other parts of world is also recorded in Indian waters. It has been observed that all varieties of stone anchors were used simultaneously for long period and continued till the introduction of iron anchors by the European in Indian waters. The recovery of types of stone in Indian water suggests that the mariners adopted all varieties of stone anchors for the safety of their vessels. Once mariners found a type of anchor suitable for anchoring the boats they adopted it for centuries. In many parts of the world fishermen still use their primitive type of stone anchors even today in spite of advancement made in every field and this makes interest to the maritime archaeologist to study the stone anchors. Acknowledgement The author is thankful to the Director, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography for his encouragement. The author is highly obliged to the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) for financial grants for attending the conference. Thanks are also due to colleagues for their co-operation in the field and while completing the paper and Shri S. B. Chitari, R. Uchil, and Sham Akerkar for computer tracing of figures, Shri S. N. Bandodker and Shri Sheikh Ali for the photographs. References Athiyaman, N., and Jayakumar, P., 2004. Ancient anchors off Tamil Nadu coast and ship tonnage analysis. Current Science, Vol. 86 (9): 1261-1267. Dhavalikar, M. K., Raval, M. R., and Chitalwala, Y. M., 1996. Kuntasi - A Harappan Emporium on the West Coast. Post Graduate Research Institute, Deccan College, Pune. 11 �Frost, H., 1991. Anchors sacred and profane; Ugarit-Ras Shamra, 1986; the stone anchors revised and compared. In Yon, M. (Ed.), Ras Shamra-Ougarit, VI: Arts et Industries de la pierre: 355-410. ERC Paris. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., 2013. Maritime Archaeology around Porbandar. Aryan Books International, New Delhi. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., Sila Tripati., and Vora, K. H., 2009. Radiocarbon dates of the medieval period stone anchors from Dabhol, west coast of India. Current Science, Vol. 96 (2): 299-302. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., Vora, K. H., 2008. Underwater Archaeology of Dwarka and Somnath. Aryan Books International, New Delhi. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., Vora, K. H., 2005. Archaeology of Bet Dwarka Island: An excavation Report. Aryan Books International, New Delhi. Pulak, C., 2005. Discovering a Royal Ship from the Age of King Tut: Uluburun, Turkey. In G. F. Bass (Ed.), Beneath the Seven Seas, Thames and Hudson, London: 34-47. Rao, S. R., 1979. Lothal – A Harappan Port Town, Part I, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Sila Tripati., Rao, K. P., Kumari, S., Imsong, O., and Vanlalhruaitluangi, V., 2014. A Single-hole Stone Anchor from Kottapatnam: early historic port site of Andhra Pradesh, India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 43 (1): 188-191. Sila Tripati., Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., 2013. Maritime Archaeology and Shipwrecks off Goa. Kaveri Books, New Delhi. Sila Tripati, Mudholkar, A., Vora, K. H., Rao, B. R., Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., 2010. Geochemical and mineralogical analysis of stone anchors from west coast of India: provenance study using thin sections, XRF and SEM-EDS. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 37 (8): 1999-2009. Sila Tripati., 2009. Stone anchors from Minicoy Island, Lakshadweep, India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 38 (2): 406-412. Sila Tripati., and Patnaik, A. P., 2008. Stone anchors along the coast of Chilika Lake: New light on the maritime activities of Orissa, India. Current Science, Vol. 94 (3): 386390. 12 �Sila Tripati., Manikfan, A., and Mohamed, M., 2005. An Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor from Kannur, Kerala, west coast of India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 34 (1): 131-137. Sila Tripati., Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., and Bandodker, S. N., 1998. Historical period Stone anchors from Vijaydurg on the west coast of India. Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 22: 1-8. Sila Tripati., and Gaur, A. S., 1997. Stone anchors from Sindhudurg Fort on the west coast of India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 26 (1): 51-57. Based in Goa, Sila Tripati is a Maritime Archaeologist at the CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography (NIO). Tripati is the author and co-editor of books on Maritime Archaeology and Archaeology and has published his works in peer-reviewed national and international journals. He has excavated shipwrecks in Goa and Tamil Nadu waters and studied stone anchors discovered along the Indian coast. He has participated in a number of maritime archaeological explorations in the waters on the west and east of the Indian subcontinent and overseas. He also specialises in the research and study of maritime trade and submerged ports of India. 13 �Table 1. Various types of stone anchors observed along the Indian coast (North to South) 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Stone anchors of India: Findings, Classification and Significance Description An account of the resource Various types of stone anchors have been observed during inshore and offshore explorations along the east and west coasts of India. The earliest stone anchors of India have been recorded from the Harappan sites (3rd millennium BC), but their shape and size do not resemble the anchors found during maritime archaeological explorations since 1986. The stone anchors until now recovered from many sites of India can broadly be classified into four types: namely composite, Indo-Arabian, ring stone (mushroom) and single hole. Among all these types of anchors the Indo-Arabian are largest in number and were associated with the Arab traders who were also involved in the horse trade. Moreover, Indo-Arabian stone anchors have been found in a datable context as well reused as lintels, mooring bits, pavements, etc. Composite and single-hole stone anchors are the oldest ones. Composite stone anchors have been reported from Gujarat and Maharashtra coast; ring stone anchors from Gujarat and Goa coast and single hole and Indo-Arabian anchors from both east and west coasts of India. Evidences suggest that stone anchors were used in Indian waters from the 3rd millennium BC to the mid 20th century along with iron anchors which were introduced by the Europeans. Stone anchors resembling Indian have also been reported from the Persian Gulf, African countries, Sri Lanka and Maldives, which suggest maritime contacts and transfer of knowledge and technology. This paper details the finding of stone anchors, their role and significance in the maritime history of India. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sila Tripati, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/16/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3556397f7797c4dc1f7fe8c39379a639.pdf 56213e4ad423f754f6062e47dc9801b6 PDF Text Text Medieval Ports and Maritime Activities on the North Malabar Coast of India V. Selvakumar Department of Epigraphy and Archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur 613010, India Email: selvakumarodi@gmail.com Abstract The Malabar Coast of India (Lat. 8° and 13° N, and Long. 74° 50’ and 77° 50’E) is strategically positioned in the navigational network of the Indian Ocean region. From Early Historic times, this region witnessed intense maritime activities. While there exist many studies on the Early Historic (300 BCE to 600 CE) and Modern period (1500 to 1950 CE), medieval maritime activities of Kerala have not received due attention. The Arab and Chinese sources and the Geniza documents help us to understand the maritime history of this region. Indian, Chinese, Arab and Jewish merchants were active, with Kozhikode and Pantalayini Kollam emerging as important ports on the North Malabar Coast. This paper discusses the maritime activities on north Malabar Coast (from ca. 600 CE to 1500 CE) in general, and the dynamic around the above-mentioned ports in particular, based on textual and archaeological sources. Key words: Maritime Archaeology, Ibn Batutta, Malabar, Ports, Indian Ocean Trade Introduction India is strategically positioned in the navigational networks of the Indian Ocean region that connect the eastern and western worlds. The landscape of India is like a honeycomb that hangs in the “Indian Ocean-scape,” fanned by the southwest and northeast monsoons, which facilitate cultural exchanges and cross-fertilization across the ocean. India has been a source of ideologies which have influenced, and natural resources that have attracted people from different regions of Asia, Europe and Africa. Because of proximity, variation in the internal and external cultural factors and the 1 �available natural resources, the Indian coastal landscapes have had different microregions. The North Malabar Coast of India (Fig. 1) is one such micro-region that witnessed the rise of many maritime centres, and it has occupied a significant place in the maritime history of India. An overview of the maritime history of this region from ca. 600 to 1500 CE is presented in this paper. The Region North Malabar lies (Lat. 11° and 13° N, and Long. 74° 50’ and 77° 50’E) in the southwestern corner of India. This region, bounded by the Arabian Sea in the west and by the Western Ghats in the east, is drained by several rivers, and along the sea coast, bays and backwater lakes occur. The river mouths serve as landing points for ships and the rivers support inland Fig. 1 Location map of Kerala. (Selvakumar, 2014) navigation. Important loci on the coast have been the promontory- like features with bays near Koyilandy, Kannur and Ezhilmala, which offer secure contexts for the ships. The region is favored by the Southwest Monsoon and it has an annual rainfall of around 3000 mm. Kerala has forests with resources such as wood and spices, including pepper. Presence in the terminal zone of the Indian subcontinent gives Kerala an advantageous position in the Indian Ocean maritime networks. Previous Research A few studies are available on the maritime history of North Malabar Coast. History of the port towns of Kozhikkode (Narayanan, 2006) and Pantalayini Kollam (Raghava Varier, 2003) has received scholarly attention. The medieval commercial activities of this region are discussed by Karashima (2002), Chakravarti (2008, 2012) and Habib (2011) as part of developments in the Indian Ocean region. Sila Tripati et al., (2005) discuss about a stone anchor found near Hydross Palli Mosque. None of the medieval 2 �ports have been excavated. A surface survey of the ports of this region was undertaken by the author from 2005 to 2007. Sources Historical texts assist in understanding the maritime history of the Malabar Coast. The inscriptions from southern India published under South Indian Inscriptions and Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy are useful for studying the commercial activities. The Mushika Vamsa Kavyam, considered to the earliest known historical text of India, is Fig. 2 Ports of the Malabar Coast. (Selvakumar, useful for understanding the history 2014) of North Malabar. For reconstructing maritime history, external sources are very crucial, as they provide an Oceanic perspective, which is absent in the local sources. Foreign accounts of Macro Polo (Murray, 1845) and the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta give details on the ports of Malabar (Gibb et al., 1971). The Chinese sources (Raghava Varier, 2003) and the Geniza documents are very important for understanding the trade dynamics of the Malabar Coast (Goitein and Friedman, 2008). In this paper, the maritime activities are visualized in terms of: A) ports/settlements and landscape features, B) communities and the agencies, C) commodities, D) maritime corridors and E) navigation and shipbuilding. A. Medieval Ports/Maritime centers and the Landscape of the North Malabar Coast The landscape of Kerala is very rich in natural resources, especially pepper, cardamom, timber and iron. In addition, Malabar Coast is strategically located facing the ports of West Asia and North Africa. Besides, its congenial climate was a factor that attracted migrants and maritime agencies. Calicut (Kozhikkode), Pantalayini Kollam and Mangalore were the major medieval ports of the North Malabar Coast (Fig. 2), besides the smaller ports such as Cumbala, Kasaragod, Nileshwar, Eli, Baliapatnam, 3 �Dharmapatam, Chombaye, Badagara, Pantalayini Kollam, Parappanangadi and Ponnani (Kurup, 1997). A few specialized centers, e.g. Beypore, which served as a major shipbuilding centre in the late historical period, also perhaps existed in the medieval period. The smaller ports and the hinterland settlements also had an important role in the economic system and they supported the larger ports. The larger ports-cumpolitical-commercial centers developed due to the resource concentration, external demand for commodities, and the nature of organization of local polities. Mangalore Mangalore (12°51'35"N, 74°49'57"E) was an important port catering to the hinterlands of Karnataka region and northern Malabar, and it was a major commercial centre, as it figures in many travelers’ accounts. It is identified with Ibn Battuta’s Manjarun, a major estuary of Malabar. It is said to have had 4000 Mohammedan merchants including the greatest merchants from Yemen and Persia and was rich in spices and ginger. It was here that the Jewish merchant, whose letters have been preserved in the Cairo Geniza, was involved in commercial activities in the twelfth century (Goitein and Friedman, 2008). Ezhilmala Ezhilmala or Mount Eli (12°2'39"N, 75°11'51"E) was another important centre along the Malabar Coast. The hill here served as an important landmark, as it is prominently visible from the sea. This hill is considered to be part of Early Historic chief Nannan’s territory. Ezhilmala is identified as the northern most limits where the ships of China reach, according to Ibn Battuta. The mount Hili was considered sacred to Mohammedans and Hindus. The existence of a mosque is also mentioned by Ibn Batutta (Gibb et al., ‎1971). It is no surprise, since in the Indian tradition that such prominent landscape features (e.g. hills) are considered sacred. Venetian traveler Marco Polo, who visited India at the end of the thirteenth century mentions mount Eli, i.e. Ezhimala. The nearby settlement of Madayi is also important and in the compound of a mosque (considered to be medieval in age), West Asian glazed ceramics were found in 2008. Vallabha II, The king of Mushika (Mushika=rat in Sanskrit and Eli in Malayalam, and hence the Mount Eli) dynasty founded the ports of Madayi and Valapattinam (Vallabha Pattanam=Valapattanam). Narayankannur inscription found 4 �near Ezhilmala gives details about the trade guild of Manigramattars, who were the protectors of the temple land (Raghava Varier, 2003: 160). After Ezhilmala, the port of Jurkannan is mentioned as the next destination by Ibn Battuta, and its king was held in high regard. The exact location of this place is unknown. Dadkannan is the next town mentioned and it could be identified with Dharmadam. Fattan is mentioned as the place before Pantalayini Kollam and it had Brahmin population. Mention is made of a mosque, which was used by strangers, by Ibn Battuta. Pantalayini Kollam Ibn Battuta mentions Fandarina as the town next to Fattan. Pantalayini Kollam (different from the port of Kurakkenikollam (Quilon) of South Malabar) was an important port on the Malabar Coast, located a little north of Koyilandy. This port figures in the accounts of Ibn Battuta as Fandarina and it is identified with “Shaojunan” of Daoyi Zgilue (Aoyagi and Ogawa, 2004: 51). Its location is close to a bay, which is considered an Ideal location for wintering of the Chinese ships (Raghava Varier, 2003). Name of a merchant called Kantancantirayya Chetti from Pantalayini Kollam occurs in an inscription (ca. 1234-35) from Vizagapattinam, a medieval port on the Andhra Coast (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, Ins. 98 of 1909). Mostly ceramics of thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were unearthed from Pantalayini Kollam (Aoyagi and Ogawa, 2004: 52). This town also had Jewish and Arab merchants. Calicut Calicut or Kozhikkode was a major port in the northern part of Kerala. The reason for the development of Calicut was perhaps the Samuthiri (Zamorins) kingdom. In addition, its location in north Malabar directly opposite to the Gulf is very significant. Calicut seems to have emerged as a major trade centre mainly from the thirteenth century (Narayanan, 2006). According to Das Gupta, before the13th century the Persian Gulf was an important commercial region which had direct connection with Chinese ports via Kollam in southern Kerala. It has to be noted that in 2014 a large hoard of Chinese coins were unearthed from Southern Kollam. This trade route was disrupted with the fall of Abbasid Caliphite in 1258 CE, due to the Mongol invasion. As a result, the Persian Gulf lost its importance and the Egyptian Karimi merchants gained prominence and Calicut gained importance (Das Gupta, 1967: 5). Marco polo who visited Calicut in 5 �1293-94, mentions that Calicut was an important port and was famous for spice trade (Raghava Varier, 2003). Ibn Batutta also gives a detailed account of Calicut port (Gibb et al., ‎1971). The Samuthiris were the leading political powers here from the thirteenth century. They could raise a strong army; build an alliance with the Muslim traders to develop commercial activities in this town. Kamal-ud-Din Abdur Razzaq ibn Ishaq, a Persian ambassador to the court of Samuthiris (Zamorin of Calicut), gives details on Calicut, which seems to have emerged after the decline of southern Kollam. The Chinese admiral Zheng He touched Calicut eight times (Chakravarti, 2012: 85), which suggests that Calicut had a settlement of Chinese merchants. The Samuthiris also had maintained good relations with the Chinese empire. Calicut also figures in the accounts of Marco Polo and Niccolò de' Conti. Obviously Calicut was a large cosmopolitan centre with Arab, Jewish, Chinese and local merchants, and well known for pepper and other spices and the famous textiles called Calico. The dominance of the Arabs could have reduced the significance of the Chinese merchants at a later date. B. Communities and Agencies Apart from the local people, who were mainly suppliers and consumers of goods, the merchant communities played an active role in the maritime activities, which cannot develop merely with the presence of one group; they are the result of interactions and exchange involving multiple partners. This is very much evidenced by the Jewish, Indian, Arab and Chinese communities who were involved in the mercantile transactions of the Malabar Coast. After the 12th century the Arab traders were dominant on the coastal landscape. However, numerous merchant guild inscriptions in the interior regions suggest that local traders were also dominant in many parts of South India (Karashima, 2002.) Geniza documents and the Jewish Trader of the Malabar Coast Geniza documents are an important source of medieval merchants of the western Indian Ocean (Goitein and Friedman, 2008). These documents have been compiled and edited by Goitein, and Amitav Gosh has published on the contexts of the letters (Ghosh, 2012). Abraham Bin Yiju was a Tunisian Jewish merchant who had set up a brass factory on the Malabar Coast perhaps near Mangalore and was sending commodities from Malabar region. He had married a girl from Malabar and lived on the Malabar 6 �Coast for about 17 years. The correspondence between him and his agents is preserved in the Cairo Geniza documents. These documents help us understand the connections and the importance of the trade. The letters mention about a Nambiyar who was a Nakhuda, a ship captain. Geniza documents also prove that pepper was the dominant commodity in the trade, and it adds that iron was also exported from the Malabar coast. The fact that the Jewish trader set up a brass factory here reveals the entrepreneurial activities of the merchants across the oceans. The luxury commodities that the Jewish merchant demanded from his contacts in West Asia, give a glimpse on the personal preference of the merchants. Medieval Merchant Guilds From the early medieval period, trade guilds were active in South India, including the Malabar Coast. The Terisapally copper plates of ninth century mention about the Anjuvannam and Manigramattar (Abraham, 1988). Mercantile activities of medieval South India were very dynamic from about 13th century CE. Inscriptions mention the activities of Nanadesis and Tisaiyayirattu Ainurrvar. Merchant guild inscriptions occur in several places of Kerala: Pantalayini Kollam, Ramantali, Talakad, and Wayanad (Shanmugam, 2002: 297-307). C. Commodities Commodities are important ingredients of maritime trade. As social complexities increased, communities required prestige goods from long distance for various reasons including social hierarchy and warfare. Pepper Pepper was an important exported commodity in the maritime trade of the Malabar Coast. Pepper grows naturally and it was also cultivated extensively in medieval Kerala. The bulk of the pepper production gave Malabar Coast an advantage in the spice trade of the Indian Ocean. Horses Horse, an important animal of prestige (Fig. 3), transport and warfare was in great demand in the medieval period, Fig. 3 The Chera King of Kerala depicted on a 7horse in the 11th century paintings of Brihadhiswara (Selvakumar, 2014) Temple, Thanjavur. �when feudalism and warfare were on the rise. The Sangam Tamil texts of the early period indicated that horse and chariots were symbols of the chiefs and royalty. To maintain political supremacy, the local rulers acquired horses very extensively and as result the horse traders, from northern part of Kerala, amassed a lot of wealth and numerous inscriptions mention their activities in various parts of South India. Kudirai Chettis (horse traders) of Malaimandalam figure frequently in the inscriptions and because of their access to the western coast, these traders could dominate horse trade in South India. Other Commodities In addition to prestige goods, subsistence goods such as rice and wheat, and fine clothes, semi precious stones, metal and camphor were also traded. The Geniza documents indicate the preference of the Jewish trader for good quality paper and other personal items. D. Maritime Corridors The Malabar Coast represents one of the historically important maritime stretches in the Indian Ocean world. The Malabar Coast was part of four important corridors of trade. Corridor (A) covered from Gujarat to the Malabar Coast; the second corridor (B) linked the east coast of India. The international corridors that connected with the ports of West Asia (C) and with China and the East (D) are the other two. The ships from Malabar came to Gujarat with spices, timber and areca nut and returned with clothes, pepper and horses (Habib, 2011). The merchants from the Malabar Coast were active in the medieval Andhra coast. It is also clear that Bengal supplied rice to Maldives Island and in turn shells were exported from the Maldives (Chakravarti, 2012: 86). It is considered that the Chinese Junks sailed up to the Malabar Coast and the goods were transported into the ships of the western world from Malabar Coast (Aoyagi and Ogawa, 2004: 53). It was convenient for the Chinese sailors to navigate up to the Malabar Coast, and similarly the Arab sailors could continue to operate from the West Coast of India. The Malabar Coast interlinked these eastern and western Indian Ocean realms, beautifully and acted as an intermediary (transit) space in the “Indian Ocean scape”. 8 �E. Navigation and Shipbuilding Navigation is the key factor that facilitated maritime The enterprise. texts give a detailed picture of the navigation during this period. The tradition of shipbuilding was well established in this region in the medieval period (Kurup, 1997; Greeshmalatha and Fig. 4 Beypore Boatbuilding yard. (Selvakumar, 2014) Rajamanickam, 1997). Beypore still has a tradition of building large ships called Uru, which are now manufactured for the Gulf market (Fig. 4). The watercraft of Uru is mentioned in the medieval inscription of Mottupalli of Andhra Pradesh. The reason for the emergence of large shipbuilding industries in the north Malabar seems to be theavailability of good quality timber in the Nilambur forests (Kurup, 1997). A stone anchor reported by Sila Tripati et al., (2005) near Kannur belonged to a large ship. The Indians also owned large ships as evidenced by the Geniza documents and Ibn Batutta indirectly mentions that he sailed in a ship that was produced in India. The abundance of teak wood and Anjili (Artocarpus hirsutus) here made the building of large ships easier. Ibn Batutta mentions about three types of Chinese ships that plied on the Malabar Coast. The medieval sailboat excavated at Thaikkal in southern Kerala displays Southeast Asian and Chinese features (Tomalin et al., 2004; Selvakumar, 2006). The maritime contacts obviously brought new elements into local shipbuilding traditions. Discussions Maritime activities are the result of a number of factors, both internal and external. Efflorescence of culture, elite consumers and organized state are essential factors for long distance trade. The emergence of empires in West Asia, India and China boosted 9 �the maritime activities in the Indian Ocean. Fluctuations were also seen in the intensity of the trade due to changes in the political and economic factors in the Indian Ocean region. The historical developments in medieval India reveal that maritime dynamics of this region is partly due to the core cultural developments in the interior and partly due to external factors. The coasts are regions where external and internal factors fuse. The coastal landscapes at times remain entirely distinct cultural regions from the interiors, because of the external dynamic. From the developments it is clear that the fortunes of ports fluctuated according to the political scenario. We notice the rise of Calicut and the decline of Kollam in the medieval period. From the fifteenth century, the long distance voyage declined and the different sectors of the trade routes from West Asia to China were navigated in separate lags and were dominated by different navigators; the route from west Asia to India was dominated by Arab navigators, while those from India to Malacca were dominated by Indian navigators and the Chinese navigators dominated the stretch between Malacca and South China (Das Gupta, 1967). Calicut, Pantalayini Kollam and Mangalore were the major ports of the North Malabar Coast. The reasons for the rise of major ports in North Malabar could be attributed to the strong political power, especially the Samuthiris. They did realize the importance of the maritime trade and the dynamics that could bring wealth and prestige goods for the territory, and supported the activities of the merchants. With regard to the goods of trade, pepper was an important commodity exported from this region, while horse was one of the important items of import. In addition timber was also exported and reference is also made to the construction of ships on the Malabar Coast. Camphor was imported from Southeast Asia and carnelian, from Gujarat. The Jewish traders seem to have been active in the trade activities from about ninth century in Kerala. From the analysis of evidence, one could see the predominance of Arab traders from the 13th century in South India. Similar pattern is also seen on the east coast. This could be attributed to the dominant role of West Asian kingdoms in medieval Asian history. The development of strong states, state policies and consumerist elites and materialistic, enterprising merchants were essential for the maritime commercial activities. Urbanization and commercial activities, including the proliferation of merchant guilds, took stronger roots in South India from the thirteenth century, which could be attributed to the “medieval 10 �globalization” (a world system) that was sweeping across the Indian Ocean Regions. The historical sources clearly indicate that external factors were as dominant as internal factors in the development of long distance maritime trade. Acknowledgements My thanks are due to Sila Tripati, Veronica Walker and Brian Fahy for their suggestions on the paper. I am grateful to the Nehru Trust for the Indian Collections at the Victoria and Albert Museum for providing travel grant in 2013, which supported data collection for my research. References Abraham, M., 1988. Two Medieval Merchant Guilds of South India. Manohar, New Delhi. Aoyagi, Y., and Ogawa, H., 2004. Chinese Trade Ceramics of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries in the Malabar Coast. In N. Karashima (Ed.), Search of Ceramic Sherds in Southern India and Sri Lanka, Taisho University Press, Tokyo: 47-54. Chakravarti, R., 2008. Visiting Far Away Ports: India’s trade with Western Indian Ocean 800-1500. In Rajat Datta (Ed.), Rethinking a Millennium: Perspectives on Indian History from the Eighth to Eighteenth century, Essays in honor of Harbans Mukhia, Aakar Books, Delhi: 249-274. Chakravarti, R., 2012. Merchants, Merchandise and Merchantmen: The Western Seaboard of India and the Indian Ocean (500-1500 CE). In Om Prakash (Ed.), History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. VIII (1), Centre for Studies in Civilization, Delhi: 59-116. Das Gupta, A., 1967. Malabar in Asian Trade: 1740-1800. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Ghosh, A., 2012. In An Antique Land. Ravi Dayal Publisher, New Delhi. Gibb, H. A. R., Defremery, C., and Sanguinetti, B. R., ‎1971. The Travels of Ibn Battuta AD 1325-1354. The Syndicate of Cambridge University Press, Hakluyt Society, London. Goitein, S. D. F., and Friedman, M. A., 2008. India Traders of the Middle Ages: Documents from the Cairo Geniza “India Book”. Part I. Brill, The Netherlands. Greeshmalatha, A. P., and Rajamanickam, G. V., 1997. The Shipbuilding Technology as practiced in Beypore, Kerala. In K. S. Mathew (Ed.), Shipbuilding and Navigation in the Indian Ocean Region AD 1400-1800, Munishiram Manoharlal Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi: 44-54. 11 �Habib, I., 2011. Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500. History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. VIII (1), Centre for Studies in Civilization, Delhi. Karashima, N., (Ed.), 2002. Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean: Testimony of Inscriptions and Ceramic-sherds. Taisho University, Tokyo. Kurup, K. K. N., 1997. Indigenous Navigation and Shipbuilding on the Malabar Coast. In K. S. Mathew (Ed.), Shipbuilding and Navigation in the Indian Ocean Region AD 14001800, Munishiram Manoharlal Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi: 20-25. Murray, H., 1845. The Travels of Marco Polo. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburg. Narayanan, M. G. S., 2006. Calicut: The City of Truth. University of Calicut, Calicut. Raghava Varier, M. R., 2003. Patalayani Kollam: A Medieval Port Town on the Malabar Coast. In Kesavan Veluthat and P. P. Sudhakaran (Eds.), Advances in History, Essays in Memory of Professor M. P. Sridharan, Professor M. P. Sridharan Memorial Trust, Calicut: 154-179. Selvakumar, 2006. Nature and Characteristics of the sailboat excavated at TaikkalKadakkarappally, Alappuzha District, Kerala. In A. S. Gaur and K. H. Vora (Eds.), Glimpses of Marine Archaeology in India, Society for Marine Archaeology, Goa: 4-14. Shanmugam, P., 2002. Topographical List of the Merchant guild Inscriptions. In N. Karashima (Ed.), Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean: Testimony of Inscriptions and Ceramic-sherds. Taisho University, Tokyo: 297-307 Sila Tripati., Manikfan, A., and Mohamed, M., 2005. An Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor from Kannur, Kerala, West coast of India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 34 (1): 131-137. Tomalin, V., Selvakumar, V., Nair, M. V., and Gopi, P. K., 2004. The ThaikkalKadakkarapally Boat: An Archaeological Example of Medieval Shipbuilding in the Western Indian Ocean. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 33 (2): 253263. Biography V. Selvakumar is a faculty member of the Department of Epigraphy and Archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur, India. His research interests are Indian Ocean Exchanges, Archaeological theory, Archaeology of South India and Heritage Management. He has published one book, Tamil Cultural Connections across the World, 2010, and co-edited a book, namely, History of Thiruvathikunnam (in Tamil, 2013). 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Medieval Ports and Maritime Activities on the North Malabar Coast of India Description An account of the resource The Malabar Coast of India (Lat. 8° and 13° N, and Long. 74° 50’ and 77° 50’E) is strategically positioned in the navigational network of the Indian Ocean region. From Early Historic times, this region witnessed intense maritime activities. While there exist many studies on the Early Historic (300 BCE to 600 CE) and Modern period (1500 to 1950 CE), medieval maritime activities of Kerala have not received due attention. The Arab and Chinese sources and the Geniza documents help us to understand the maritime history of this region. Indian, Chinese, Arab and Jewish merchants were active, with Kozhikode and Pantalayini Kollam emerging as important ports on the North Malabar Coast. This paper discusses the maritime activities on north Malabar Coast (from ca. 600 CE to 1500 CE) in general, and the dynamic around the above-mentioned ports in particular, based on textual and archaeological sources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource V. Selvakumar, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/16/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e2aab0de88cebe447b8c489c2cd48e0c.pdf 73386499175b6a1b9b5dc8585b9f6c9f PDF Text Text Nagappattinam – A medieval port of South India S. Rajavelu Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology Tamil University Thanjavur, 613010 India Email: rajavelasi@gmail.com Abstract Nagappattinam, a famous sea port of the imperial Cholas, is presently the headquarters of a District in Tamil Nadu, India. During the medieval Period, under the imperial Cholas, this port city played a vital role politically, commercially and culturally. From the time of the Pallavas of Kanchipuram around 8th century CE, the port city was referred to as Nagai. Though we do not get any direct reference from the records of the Pallavas, there is an inscription on a stone slab in the Naganathar temple at Nagappattinam that refers to donation of gold to the temple of Naganathar by a big smith probably a goldsmith of the town Nagai. The sacred saivite literature Teevaram refers to the port city as being fortified by big walls and the ships like vangam anchored in the harbor of Ten Nagai. In the succeeding period this city flourished as a main port of the imperial Cholas where the Chola Navy was stationed. During the time of Rajendra Chola I (1012-1018 CE) the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola I (985-1014 CE) crossed the Bay of Bengal with his Navy from seaport of Nagappattinam and conquered Kedah in the year 1017 CE. During the times of Vijayanagar, Nayaks and Dutch East India Company, the port was busy with foreign trade. This paper traces the emergence of the port city and Maritime contacts to Southeast Asian Countries in the medieval period in the light of available inscriptional and literary evidences in detail. 1 �Key words: Dutch East India Company, Nagappattinam, Teevaram, Rajaraja, Rajendra, Naganathar temple Introduction Nagappattinam (10° 79’06” N, 79° 84’28” E) was a major port city of the imperial Cholas of the medieval period. At present the city Nagappattinam is the headquarters of the District of the same name in the State of Tamil Nadu, India. The origin of the port city is quite obscure in the beginning of the early Common Era, since Tamil literature of the Sangam period never mentions this city although it provides more information on the other port cities on the Coromandel Coast. The early name of the city Nagappattinam is referred to in the sacred literature Teevaaram of 7th century CE., and an inscription of 8th century CE, was found engraved on a stone slab which is now preserved in the complex of Naaganaathar temple at Nagappattinam. Colonel Henry Yule (1873) identified the city with Ptolemy’s metropolis Nigama. referring to a mercantile group or community. Nigama is a common term The term nigama is found in the inscriptions of 1st century CE on stone and pottery engravings (Subbarayalu, 2008). In the later period, the settlement of merchants was known as Niyamam which is the corrupt form of nigama. The identification of Ptolemy’s nigama with the place name Nagai needs further collaborative evidence. Teevaram is the sacred literature of the Tamils sung by the Saiva saints (Naayanmaars) of 7th century CE in praise of the lord Siva of various temples in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Sri Lanka. They personally visited these temples and made vivid descriptions of the places and their significance. Nagappattinam is mentioned in this literature as Naagai or kaTal Naagai (Naagai along the Sea). The city Naagai was situated in a coastal area and it had many huge multi storied buildings (neTu maaTam, MaaTa neTu viiti) and long streets (neTu viiti) with huge fortification walls (maamatail) surrounding it alluded by saiva saints Tirunavukkarasar and Sundaramurthi of 8th century CE, (Devaram, 1961). All these descriptions clearly suggest that the city was a harbor in which the merchant community lived. The traders who lived in this city engaged in maritime trade. Further, it is gleaned from the above literature that the city was busy with anchoring of 2 �many kinds of ships and vessels (kalam and vangam vangamali kadal nagai). Thus the port of Nagai became one of the major sea ports of Tamil Nadu around 6th-7th centuries CE. The port was located between the two outlets of Kaveri, namely, the Kudavaiyar and the Uppanar to anchor ships safely (kazi suuz kaTal naagai). Origin of the name Naagai The above sacred literature teevaram and the inscription of the 8th century refer to the city as Naagai not as Nagappattinam. Thus Nagai is the early name of the place. When the city became a major sea port of the Cholas around 9th century CE, it became Nagappattinam. (Nagai+Pattinam) The place name Nagai in all probability derived its origin from Naagu, a Tamil word meaning Conch, (i.e., Chank- Xancas pyrum (Linnaeus). It shows that the city Naagai in all probability was once famous for its chank fishing centre. Chank fishing Chank is considered as an auspicious object in the Hindu pantheon. The manufacture of chank bangles is one of the major industries in India from time immemorial. Manimegalai, a Tamil epic of 6th century CE, refers to the Naga nadu which was ruled over by Valai vanan. The queen of the Naga nadu was vaasamayil. They had a daughter known as pili valai (Nattar and Duraisamy, 2007). Pili valai married a Chola prince and had a son named Tondaiman Ilantiraiyan. Later Tondaiman Ilantiraiyan became the king of Tondaimandalam, a northern part of Tamil Nadu, with a capital city, Kanchipuram, around 2nd century CE. The name Piili valai has two components. The first part piili means chank and Valai refers to a bangle (bangle made of Chank). The area in and around Nagai in the early common era was known as Naga nadu. All these suggest that the naga nadu or nagai was famous for chank fishing as well as manufacturing of chank bangles and it was ruled over by the Naga clan in the early period of the Common Era. Kaveripumpattinam and Nagappattinam Before the emergence as a port city on the eastern coast, the city Nagai as narrated above, served as a small port for chank fishing. Kaveripumpattinam or Pumpuhar, the 3 �celebrated port city of the early Cholas on the East coast, was famous as a maritime trade centre in the early Common Era. The Sangam literatures, especially the post Sangam work Pattinappalai of second century CE, describes the city Kaveripumpattinam in detail. Accordingly, Kaveripumpattinam was famous for sea trade from where, the articles like horses, gems, gold, sandal, pearls, food stuffs from Sri Lanka and other articles from Kalagam (Burma) were imported and exported. According to this work many traders from this city spoke different kind of languages (Tamilannal and Annamalai, 2003). The twin Epics Silappadigaram and Manimekhalai of 4th-5th centuries CE, give vivid pictures of the port city Kaveripumpattinam and according to the Manimekhalai the city was destroyed by the sea (aninagarantannai alaikadal kolga) (Nattar and Duraisamy, 2007). The port city Kaveripumpattinam was also famous for Buddhism. Further, the epic Manimekhalai and the excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India attested to the fact that this city was a flourishing centre for Buddhism prior to 5th century CE (Soundararajan, 1994). The destruction of the port city Kaveripumpattinam by the sea paved the way for the emergence of Nagappattinam, which is located on the south of Kaveripumpattinam, as an important port city during the time of the Pallavas around the 6th-7th centuries CE. Naagai as a busy port and an international centre for Buddhist religion The port city Naagai became a prominent port city around 7th century CE during the rule of the Pallavas. When the Saiva saints Appar and Sambandar visited a temple Naagai Kaaronam they witnessed many big ships anchored in the harbor of Naagai. The ships were big in size: the vangam, a type of big ship, is vividly compared with mountains by these two saints. The fortified city port was spacious enough to accommodate many big vangam and kalam vessels. Gold (kanakam), camphor (kaRpuram), and elephants were important goods for trade in this port. The ships or vangam carried elephants along with shores and the taxes (sungam) were levied for the goods which were stored in the port (Teevaram No.7.101.5, 8). Pallava Period During the rule of Rajasimha II, the Pallava King of Kanchipuram (CE 691-729) sent an embassy to China. Due to this cordial relationship with China the traders and Buddhist 4 �monks visited South India and influenced the king to construct a china pagoda at Nagappattinam. In the year 720 CE, the 9th month, the king of South India Che-li-na-loseng-kia-pas-to-pa (Sri Narashimha Varman i.e, Rajasimha II) constructed a temple to honour the China Empire: he addressed to the emperor a request asking from him an inscription giving a name to this temple; by decree it was decided that the name should be “which caused return to virtue” and the emperor sent Narashimha a placard or tablet with the inscription “Koci hoa se,” so that it might be placed on the front of the temple erected in India by Narashimha for the benefit of China (Minakshi, 1977). From the above remarks, it is known that the King Narashimha Varman alias Rajasimha II constructed a Buddhist vihara at Nagappattinam for the benefit of merchants and pilgrims arriving from China and elsewhere in his kingdom. The existence of a Buddhist vihara of the Pallava period, which was popularly known as China-pagoda, at Nagappattinam is referred to by Yule in his ‘Marco Polo’ (Yule and Cordier, 1993). The Chinese pagoda or Jaina pagoda was noticed by Walter Elliot (1878) until its demolition in 1867 by the local Jesuit mission. This edifice was known as the Chinese or Jaina Pagoda at Nagappattinam. A large number of bronze images were discovered before and after the demolition of the above said vihara in 1867 by Jesuit mission of Nagappattinam. These were catalogued by the Madras Museum (Ramachandran, 1965). When Marco Polo visited the place he witnessed the ruined Buddhist vihara at Nagappattinam. The Kalyani inscription from Burma records that the Theeras and Chitraduta travelled on foot to Nagappattana and visited the place Padarikaaraama monastery and worshipped the statue of Buddha (Yule, 1873). Chola Period After the decline of the Pallavas around 9th century CE, the imperial Cholas came to power under the founder ruler Vijayalaya. Nagappattinam came under the direct control of the Cholas and they made the port the headquarters of the Chola Navy. It was referred to in the inscriptions of Cholas as Nagappattinam alias Cholakulavallippattinam (in the name of a queen of Chola race) (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1956-57: 157). Rajaraja Chola I inscriptions clearly suggest that the city became both commercial and religious capital of that period. At the request of the Srivijaya king Vijayotunga Varman, Rajaraja I allowed him to build a Buddhist vihara in Nagappattinam in the 5 �name of the latter’s father Chulaamani Varman (Aiyar, 1934). Rajaraja allowed this and also granted a village, Anaimanagalam, as tax free village (pallichandam). The construction of the vihara was started during the time of Rajaraja I and completed during the reign of Rajaraja-I’s son Rajendra I. This vihara also had another name, Rajarajapperumpalli, at Nagappattinam named after the King Rajaraja I. The larger Leiden plate as well as inscription of late 13th century CE from Naganatha temple at Nagappattinam refers to this vihara. Anaimangalam grant was renewed during the time of Kulottunga I for the Buddhist vihara. Besides, we come across in the inscriptions of later period that there were several such viharas of Buddhist pantheon at Nagappattinam, such as Rajendra Perumpalli (in the name of either Rajendra Chola I or Kulottunga Chola I) and Akkasalai Perumpalli. The smaller Leiden grant of Kulottunga I refer to Rajaraja Perumpalli and Rajendra Perumpalli. From this we can presume that Rajendrapperumpalli constructed during the time of Rajendra I or Kulottunga I. The Akkasalaip perumpalli in all probability was yet another Buddhist vihara, contemporaneous to Rajendra Perumpalli. In the collection of Rockefeller’s bronzes, there are some images of Buddha which originally belonged to Nagappattinam Buddhist vihara. Among Rockefeller’s collection, interestingly, a standing image of Buddha yields an inscription engraved on the pedestal referring to the bronze image which belonged to the viharas of Rajendra Perumpalli – Akkasalai Perumpalli of Nagappattinam (Karashima and Subbarayalu, 2002). The image of Buddha was taken for procession from these two Buddhist viharas. Further the name Akkasalai denotes “mint”. Nagappattinam had a mint for coins from the time of the Cholas. This Buddhist vihara might have been an exclusive worship centre for the goldsmiths working in the mint; hence it earned the name Akkasalaipperumpalli. The second line of the above inscription which records the mercantile community known as padinen vishayattar in the pedestal inscription supports our view. During the Chola period there were a number of mercantile communities who engaged in foreign trade. They were called naanadeesi, tisaiayirattu ainnurruvar, senamugam, nagarattaar and padinen(bhumi) vishiayattaar. Many of the above names appear in the inscriptions of Sri Lanka, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (Karashima and Subbarayalu, 2002). Besides, the port was used by the merchants who came from the western coast of Peninsular 6 �India especially from Kerala to Southeast Asian countries and China, who anchored their ships at Nagappattinam port midway through their voyage. They gave several donations to the temple of Naganatha at Nagaippattinam while they stationed at this port (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1956-57: 155-7). Two inscriptions from the temple of Naganatha mention the merchants Taamandaiyan and Tiruccirrampalam udaiyan from Kollatturai or kurakkeeni Kollam or kollapuram which was identified with the modern Quilon port on the Arabian Sea in Kerala. All these suggest that the port city of Nagappattinam became the international centre for Buddhism for the pilgrims and traders of Buddhist faith of Southeast Asia and China. The mercantile group padinen vishaiyattar had close contacts with Southeast Asian countries through sea voyage from Nagappattinam and some of the inscriptions from Malay Peninsula refer to the above merchant group (Nilakanta Sastri, 1949). During the reign of Rajendra Chola I, the son of Rajaraja I, around 1015 CE, an officer in the court of Srivijaya namely Eran Sadaiyan made a donation of precious stones to Nagai Azhavar temple at Nagappttinam. He was a native of Melthonrippattinam, a place in Ramanathapuram District of Tamil Nadu (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 195657, No 164). It could be possible that he was appointed by the king Rajendra I in the court of Srivijaya after his conquest. The Navy of Cholas went to Southeast Asian countries under the able leadership of Rajendra I and conquered almost all countries in Southeast Asia. Rajendra Chola I inscriptions clearly suggest that he made a naval expedition from the port of Nagappattinam to Southeast Asian countries around 1025 CE. His eulogy of the king (prasasti) in the inscriptions gives the list of places in the Southeast Asian countries that were attacked by the navy of Cholas. The eulogy says “alaikadal naduvil palakalam celutti” meaning having dispatched many ships in the midst of the rolling sea. The inscriptions from Naganatha temple suggest that Nagai was the main seaport for the dispatch of the Chola Navy. The inscription from this place mentions the officers of Srivijaya kingdom who frequently visited Nagappattinam. The agent of the king of Srivijaya namely KaNTan Nimalan Agattiswaran (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1956-57, No 161) donated several gifts to the temple of Srikayarohanaswamin temple at Nagappattinam. As already pointed out, Eran Sadaiyan an officer of Srivijaya king also donated precious stones to the temple. Another 7 �inscription of the same temple in this place records certain Sri Kuruttan Kesuvan alias Akralekai, a royal writer of the King of Kedaram (modern Kedah of Malaysia) installed a siva and Uma image Ardhanariswara in the temple and gave (Chinak kanakam) the gold coins of China (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1956-57, No. 166). Nagappattinam in the late medieval period As discussed earlier, the port of Nagappattinam was frequently visited by many travellers and merchants from Southeast Asian countries who were later followed by Westerners. The Portuguese established their settlement here with the concurrence of the Nayak King Sevappa Nayaka of Thanjavur in AD 1542. They found that the port was well suited for their trade since it was located between two outlets of Kaveri namely the Kudavaiyar and Uppanar. The Nayaks of Tanjore allowed the Portuguese Captain of Nagapattinam to collect a revenue . They built a fort in Nagapattinam in order to prevent a possible attack from the Dutch in 1594. The Vijayaragava Nayak of Tanjore did not allow the Dutch settlement in this region. However, the Dutch took Nagapattinam from the Portuguese in AD 1658 (Kovai, 1996). The Batavia Museum’s Silver plate inscription refers to an agreement made by the Dutch and the Marathas of Tanjore to establish their trade at Nagapattinam in 1676 (Raju, 1988). The Tanjore Maratta king Ekoji accepted their plea after the intervention of the able agent Chinnanna Chetti. Chinnanna Chetti, a Malay merchant, had already established his trade on the Coromandel coast and helped the Dutch in their trade activities. Initially, the Marathas of Thanjavur accepted the Dutch trade at Nagapattinam for a period of three years. However the agreement was renewed in the year 1661 AD. Accordingly, the Dutch received some privileges and villages in and around Nagapattinam and in lieu of that they agreed to give 4200 Pon and 1 tusker elephant. The Dutch continued their trade activities in this port until the British occupied it in the year 1781 AD. An inscription found engraved on a loose stone slab kept in the courtyard of the Naganatha swamy temple (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1990, No 57) is significant, since this is the first stone inscription mentioning the Dutch occupancy of the port city Nagappattinam and their liberal donation to the Hindu temple at Nagapattinam. The inscription starts in praise of the God of Nagappattinam's Nagalingam. It is dated in 8 �the Saka year 1695, Kali era 4875 and the Dutch year 1774 (ulaandesu kumpanir anntu) in the month of Chittirai corresponding to AD 1775. The Dutch year mentioned in the inscription is nothing but the Gregorian year (English calendar system). It records the gift of some land and revenue which were under the control of the Dutch for the renovation of the temple of Naganatha. The Dutch Governor Captain Bilichingan made an oral order (yethalooReyi nirpam) after the local authorities (maniyam) approached (civalentoyini pelattu) him. The Dutch company is referred to as Ulandesu kumpanir. From the above, it is evident that Nagapattinam was functioning as a strong Dutch port city controlled by the Dutch captain Bilichingan, and they were actively involved in the local affairs of Nagapattinam port for a considerable period in 18th century AD. The Dutch East India Company's Governor’s name occurred in the inscription in the tamilized form (Maharaja Bilichingan) of the Nagapattinam Governor Christian Van Teylingen. He was a governor of seventh government of the Dutch which had factories at other ports like Sadras, Bimlipatam, Palkole and Jaganadhapuram with their capital at Nagapattinam itself. Accordingly the following revenue was given for the above renovation and for conducting Sivaratri festival in the temple. 1. Daily kuttagai from the Company. 2. Revenue from the Harbour (pusa mugattuvarattu kuttagaippanam) 30 3. Maganmai revenue from the Mint (kampattattu maganmai) 4. On areca- net (pakku maganmai) 2 in number per day from the Kalasakarar. 4. Tax on betel leaves (verrilai kuttagai) 20 leaves per day. 5. Monthly Rent on the onion shop at Big bazaar belonging to the temple. The inscription also refers to the early maniyam Nagamallu Chinnayya Nayakkar who was a friend of the Company (Kumpani toluggu) and his successors Mayaludai Ganapathi Chettiyar and his son Subhramanya Chettiyar. Subhramanya Chettiyar was alive when the donation was made. Nagamallu Chinnayaa Nayakkar in all probability was the agent Chinnanna who helped the Dutch in the establishment of their maritime trade in Nagappattinam. From the Battavia Museum Silver plate it is known that the Dutch had possessed 10 villages including Nagapattinam in the year 1676. Among 9 �them the lands from the two villages were given for the renovation work as evident from this present inscription. Pudur is identified with Puttur and Anthonipettai is the same as Anthonipettai referred to in the Battavia Museum Silver Plate: the village Neyveli mentioned in our present epigraph is referred to as kumpanir gramam indicating that it was a new occupancy by the company after 1676. From the above silver plate it is also evident that the Naykas allowed the Dutch to Mint Panam and Varagan for circulation at Nagapattinam. The word Kampattam occuring in record also attests to this fact. Conclusions From the above discussion it is evident that the port of Nagai or Nagappattinam played a vital role in maritime contacts with Southeast Asian and Western countries in the late medieval period. It was also one of the international (Buddhist) pilgrimage centres starting from the times of Pallavas to the late 18th century CE. The Chinese Pagoda i.e., the Buddhist vihara in this place received royal patronage from the kings of Southeast Asia, especially the king of Srivijay who constructed the Rajarajapperumpalli alias Rajendra Perumpalli. The merchants of foreign trade made significant contribution and they constructed a buddhist vihara, namely Akkasalai Perumpalli, in this port city. The navy of the Cholas stationed in this port and went to Far East up to Southeast Asian countries under the leadership of able King Rajendra Chola in 11th century CE. The port Nagappattinam had enough facility of anchoring large size of vessels like Kalam and Vangam type of ships. Acknowledgements The author acknowledges Dr. M. Thirumalai, Vice-Chancellor, Tamil University for his constant support, guidance and permitting to present at the Asia Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Honolulu, Hawaii on 12th - 16th May 2014. I am also thankful to my colleagues Drs. N. Athiyaman and V. Selvakumar of Tamil University for their encouragement suggestions on this paper. References Aiyar, Subrahmanya, K. V., 1934. The Larger Leiden Plates of Rajaraja I. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 22 (34): 222. 10 �Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (AREp.) Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Walter, E., 1878. Jaina Pagoda at Nagappattinam. Indian Antiquary, Vol. 7: 224-27. Karashima, N., and Subbarayalu, Y., 2002. Goldsmiths and Padinen vishayam: A bronze Image of Nagappattinam. In N. Karashima (Ed.), Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean: Taisho University, Tokyo: 57-61. Kovai Ilancheran, I., 1996. Nagappattinam. Manivasagar publishers, Chennai. Kumara Gurubaran., 1961. Devaram. Kasimadam Publishers, Tiruppanandal. Minakshi, C., 1977. Administration and Social Life under the Pallavas. University of Madras, Madras, p. 85. Nattar, V., and Duraisamy, V., 2007. Manimeghalai, Cantos, 24; line 57, 27 line 179, 29 line 4; Saradha publications, Chennai. Nilakanta Sastri, K. A., 1949. South Indian influence in the Far East. Hind Kitabs Ltd, Bombay. Ramachandran, T. N., 1965. The Nagappattinam and other Buddhist Bronzes in the Madras Museum of the Madras Government Museum. New Series, General Section, Vol. 7 (1): 19-20. Raju, S., 1988. Copper plates of Marathas. Tamil University, Thanjavur. Soundararajan, K. V., 1994. Kaveripumpattinam Excavations 1963-73, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Subbarayalu, Y., 2008. Mankala Tamil-Brahmi ezuttup porippugal. Avanam, Vol. 19: 189-221. Tamilannal and Annamalai., 2003. Pattinappalai, Kovilur Madalayam, Kovilur, Yule, H., 1873. Nagappattinam. Indian Antiquary, Vol. 13: 332. Yule, H., and Cordier, H., 1993. The book of Ser Marco Polo. Munshiram Manoharlal publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Biography S. Rajavelu, presently, heads the Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur, India. He has widely explored over South India and discovered a large number of Palaeolithic, Megalithic, Early Historic sites and 11 �inscriptions in Tamil Nadu. To his credit he has published 8 books and 75 research articles in various national and International journals and participated and presented research papers both national and International conferences. He is the recipient of Tamil Nadu State Award in the year 1990 for his book, Archaeological Excavations in Tamil Nadu in Tamil. Currently, he is the Editor of Avanam, a journal published annually by the Tamil Nadu Archaeological Society. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nagappattinam - A medieval port of South India Description An account of the resource Nagappattinam, a famous sea port of the imperial Cholas, is presently the headquarters of a District in Tamil Nadu, India. During the medieval Period, under the imperial Cholas, this port city played a vital role politically, commercially and culturally. From the time of the Pallavas of Kanchipuram around 8th century CE, the port city was referred to as Nagai. Though we do not get any direct reference from the records of the Pallavas, there is an inscription on a stone slab in the Naganathar temple at Nagappattinam that refers to donation of gold to the temple of Naganathar by a big smith probably a goldsmith of the town Nagai. The sacred saivite literature Teevaram refers to the port city as being fortified by big walls and the ships like vangam anchored in the harbor of Ten Nagai. In the succeeding period this city flourished as a main port of the imperial Cholas where the Chola Navy was stationed. During the time of Rajendra Chola I (1012-1018 CE) the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola I (985-1014 CE) crossed the Bay of Bengal with his Navy from seaport of Nagappattinam and conquered Kedah in the year 1017 CE. During the times of Vijayanagar, Nayaks and Dutch East India Company, the port was busy with foreign trade. This paper traces the emergence of the port city and Maritime contacts to Southeast Asian Countries in the medieval period in the light of available inscriptional and literary evidences in detail. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource S. Rajavelu, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/58e96f3302df29d9d6437f249a190fc4.pdf 719d17aa10db3d4ec16d1752f6d1923b PDF Text Text The discovery SS Indus (1885) with Cargo of the 3rd century BC Bharhut sculptures in Sri Lankan waters S. M. Nandadasa Central Cultural Fund, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, GL80000, Sri Lanka Email: nandadasa@yahoo.com Abstract SS Indus ran aground in 1885 somewhere in the North east coast of Sri Lanka while she was sailing from Calcutta or Kolkata to London via Colombo. At the time she possessed valuable cargo, a fine collection of sculptures from Bharhut, a 3rd century BC Buddhist monastery in India. They were masterpieces of a collection of Sir Alexander Cunningham, the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India and they were being transported for exhibition in the London Museum. For the last one century, Indian and Sri Lankan archaeologists and historians were interested in finding this shipwreck, yet no one knew the exact location of the wreck. However the recent Maritime Exploration in the month of August 2013 by the Maritime Archaeology Unit, Sri Lanka has traced the possible remains of the SS Indus off Muliative. Key words: SS Indus, Bharhut sculptures, British India, Mulaitivu, Trincomalie Introduction Interest in Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka has been increasing since the early 1960s. Being an island Nation, our past is intertwined with all aspects of maritime life and its history. The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) was established in Galle in 1992 with the objective of carrying out maritime research in and around Sri Lanka (Dayananda, 2013). From its inception, MAU has done much to further the work in this field and have lead some major maritime research history projects (Samaraweera, 2013). This work has seen the area of research extended in the North, East and NorthWest coastal regions of Sri Lanka. The end of the Civil War in 2009 enabled us to work in the North and East. Exploration in the North started in 2013. 1 �Archival references of SS Indus The main objective of this exploration was to trace any evidence of ships wrecked in the region during the last two centuries. The information collected from old news paper reports and other documents. Fortunately there is well preserved collection of the19th century daily news papers in the Colombo National Archive. The careful investigation of the document some interesting information on hitherto unknown wrecks including the SS Indus (The P & O Liner SS Indus, 1871) (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London). Bharhut sculptures The name of the SS Indus is well known among Sri Lankan and Indian historians and archaeologists, and especially those interested in the study of the Bharhut as well as the history of art and the sculptures of ancient India. Over the last one century Fig. 1 Figure showing the probable route of the researchers have worked tirelessly SS Indus from Calcutta to London via Colombo to uncover information about the and wrecked off the north coast of Sri Lanka. Indus’s cargo. They widely believed that the ship was transporting a fine collection of sculptures from the Bharhut (a well known Buddhist Monastery in India founded in the 3rd century BC) and she ran aground in the seas off Sri Lanka (Ceylon) in 1885 when retuning from India via Colombo to London. At this time of “British India” the renowned British scholar Sir Alexander Cunningham was head of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). It is widely thought that his collection of master pieces from the Bharhut was on route to London Museum, in the hold of the ill fated SS Indus. To set the geographical back ground, Bharhut Stupa is located in the present day Satna District of Madhya Pradesh in Central India. It was first identified by General Alexander Cunningham in 1873. On his second visit to Bharhut in February 1874 he collected and recorded scattered pieces of sculptures and tried to understand their 2 �layout and design. He returned there for a third time in November 1874 with some legal right and took several of the sculptures to Kolkata (or Calcutta) and founded a Bharhut Gallery in the National Museum at Kolkata. After a detailed study of Buddhist literature and sculptures from the site, he published a book in 1877 titled “The Stupa of Bharhut”, which remains highly respected study of the Bharhut Stupa. When study the history of the monument and the works of Sir Alexander Cunningham, it is important to focus on the items he collected from the site and especially upon the loss of the SS Indus because it is believed to have been carrying the best pieces. Until now, the story of the SS Indus was confined only to the interest of scholars as it was believed that the ship was wrecked in water so deep that conventional diving equipment could not be used in the exploration. Until now, it seems no one has made any serious effort to reveal the actual facts related to the wreck, no tracing to identify where the wreck is located. In 2013 the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Sri Lanka decided to extend research works in the northeast coast which include the search for the S S Indus. As the first step we studied the historical evidence to confirm a possible location. Our research has revealed that there has previously been great interest among scholars in finding this wreck. However, some misunderstanding of the information available to them had thwarted their efforts; most notably, reports of its location being “50 miles north of Trincomalie” have proven to be misleading. Opinions of scholars Rao (1987) mentioned that the “P & O Liner Indus which carried the second century BC Buddhist sculptures of Bharhut sank 50 miles north of Trincomalee (Trincomalie) in Ceylon in 1885. An attempt made to salvage them was not successful”. Gaur informed that this wreck was very popular among the archaeologists as Cunningham was first in charge of Indian Archaeology in 1860 and I 3 Fig. 2 Shipwreck is marked on the Nautical Chart right before the Mullaitive town. �believe records may be in the Kolkata Archives as the ship must have sailed from Kolkata and it is sure that this wreck contains stone sculpture from Bharhut (a Buddhist Stupa) of the 2nd century BC (personal communication). As per tradition it is at about 40 m water depth and lies North of Trincomalie. The Archaeological Commissioner of Sri Lanka, Charles Godakubre, in his Annual Report for the year 1962 – 63 has made the following statement about the SS Indus: “The possibility of doing more undersea archaeology in Ceylon in the near future takes our mind to the invaluable collection of works of art from the Stupa of Bharhut (2nd century BC) lost of 1885 in the wreck of the P & O liner Indus that ship aground on a shoal known as Mulaitivu 50 miles North of Trincomalee. It is known that some salvage operations were attempted at the time, with what results, we do not know. We shall therefore be thankful if anyone with information on this matter would pass on the same to Mr. Arthur C. Clarke or to us”. Arthur C Clarke also asks for any news of the Indus in his book, “The Tresure of the Great Reef” published in 1964. He gives a description of the supposed location of the site of the wreck as “Fifty miles to the North of Trincomalee, on a shoal known as Mullative, lays another important wreck and one which may contain the most valuable cargo lying beneath the waters around Ceylon. On November 9, 1885 the 3,462 ton P & O liner Indus was steaming south from Madras to Colombo when she went aground at full speed owing to a gross error in navigation (She was twenty miles off course, and her captain was lucky to get away with a twelve month suspension of his tickets.) At high tide, the Indus was worked off the shoal, and then had her second piece of bad luck. She came to rest immediately above one of her own anchors, and as she rose and fell in the waves she quickly knocked a hole in her bottom and sank within a few hours. There was no loss of life, but none of the cargo could be saved. Aboard the Indus was the collection of the finest works of art from the Stupa of Bharhut which had been specially selected by the director of the Indian Archaeology, General Cunningham. Today, these statues would be priceless – if they are still on Mulattive shoal. But we are not certain of this; we know that salvage operations were later carried out on the Indus with a view to recovering the indigo and other valuables aboard her. Would the divers also have bothered to bring up what they probably considered to be a few old statues? We rather doubt it, but until our researchers have settled this important point the Indus 4 �will remain on our list of possibilities, not certainties” (Clark, 1964: 239). Arthur C Clark in all the time he spent searching could not find the Indus. He was a pioneer of underwater exploration who introduced scuba diving to Sri Lanka in the early ‘60s, arguably the most eminent maritime archaeologist of his generation. Our investigation of the archival documents confirmed that there have been attempts to excavate cargo from the Indus but there is no evidence of any success. It is therefore highly likely that there has been no historical disturbance of the site which remains untouched since the ship sank. No evidence of disturbance soon after the ship was lost because there were perilous waves in monsoon weather at that time, nor in later years before the development of equipment to recover heavy items from a wreck or to stay underwater at such a depth for sufficient time. There is possibility that the strong waves would have resulted in sand covering the cargo which would add to the difficulty of retrieving it. Only in very recent times have new techniques and equipment become available to allow such excavation. These facts, together with Arthur C Clarks’ statement that he had not found the wreck or cargo, is proof of the Fig. 3 News Paper article The sculptures remaining intact beneath the sand. Times of Ceylon, Sunday Information about the Indus appeared in a news November 15th, 1885. (National paper “Times of Ceylon” on the 12 and 13 of November 1885 and also from the account given Archive, Colombo) by a passenger on the 15th. Final piece of news of the ships’ loss was printed on the 17th, in which one of the passengers gave a dramatic description of what happened when she sank and afterwards. The news printed on the 12th of November states; “The wreck of the P & O SS Indus, Completed brake up off the vessel ... “Information just brought by H.M.S Ranger which has return from the wreck with all passengers, native crew, and stewards, that the caption, chief and fourth 5 �officer, and doctor are standing by the ship in boats. Ranger reports that the ship is settling down. The four compartment has been carried away, and the aftercompartment has started. The ship is full of water. No lives have been lost, and the mails are saved”. On 13th “Times of Ceylon” had mentioned about the cargo of sunken ship........ The Indus had a large consignment some 200 chests-of indigo shipped at Madras, and many thousands of chests of tea. The latter is of course done for, but the indigo may yet be recovered next year, for it suffers little deterioration in water...... the “Indus” being completely under water and heavy seas braking over her. It is being lived that the treasure on board some 40,000 has been saved, as the mails. Undoubtedly have been and the treasure would undoubtedly be the first thing to which attention would be directed”. According to the above list of things there is no any mention about the sculptures, probably it has been there as a personal collection or not much attention was paid on them as important as we consider on this day. Narration by a passenger of the SS Indus The account which appeared on 15th Sunday in “Times of Ceylon” give us a vivid picture begins with “responsible for the opinions of our correspondent”. The dates he gives do not match with the incidents previous dating and thus lead to some confusion however; it does not harm other reliability and authenticity within his account. The reason for the apparent ‘error’ in his account may have been to protect the Captain from future legal action? “We left Madras in the Indus at about a quarter to 2.00 PM on Saturday afternoon, the 8th September bound for London via Colombo. There were but seven first class passengers in all, and all went well until the morning of Sunday, the Indus coming to grief in reality but a few hours after we had the started. I had but just finished my chota hazeri on Sunday morning, and was just entering my cabin, when I felt the ship bump, and I was nearly thrown off my feet. Running on deck at once, as indeed did everybody, we found ourselves about four miles from land, which lay to starboard and grating against the bottom heavily. I believe, but I cannot say with certainty, that the captain was on the bridge with the officers of the watch at this time. I looked at my watch, and found it was just 6.20 AM. But a few minutes previously, I had seen that we were in sight of land, and though I was rather surprised at this, I naturally did not give the matter much thought. The ships did not heel over but kept grating on 6 �the sandy bottom, and after a while the engines went full speed astern, part without any effect, though we moved from our position. The Captain then ordered the boats out with the lead, and sundry observations were taken from the ship and from the boats........” “..... Captain Breeze still made frantic endeavors to get his ship out of the mass she was in, and the engineers were kept hard at it, but we seemed to get struck only the faster. Up to this time, though we had practically been fast for eight or ten hours, absolutely nothing had been done to lighten the ship by jettisoning the cargo, though the passengers suggested it to the Captain more than once. The ship at this time, so far as we were informed, it must be remembered, had made no water. Fig. 4 Photograph of the SS Indus taken in 1881 in Towards the afternoon Southampton. (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, the anchor was let go, and attempt made to Gould Collection, London) warp her off into deep water, which the boats had found by casting the led. This was the beginning of our worst misfortunes. I am unable to give a consecutive account of what took place during Sunday afternoon and night. Sleep we naturally get little of, and by morning we heard that the main hatch was full of water and the ship was fast. It appears that through some mismanagement we had gone ahead on our anchor and driven the fluke right into our bottom, and not content with this, we had gone on moving backwards and forwards, an had of course worked a great hole in the bottom of the vessel” (The Times of Ceylon, 1885). “....... The ship was filling fast and we naturally desired to be out of danger. Our luggage was piled up on the main deck-to be washed in to the sea. As it eventually proved–but we were not allowed to take it ashore. We took a few wraps with us and 7 �rowed ashore with little or no difficulty. There we found a small fishing village called Mullativu where we went to the Rest house and made ourselves as comfortable as we could....” (The Times of Ceylon, 1885). His detailed description creates a dramatic picture of the incident and portrays its effect on the passengers and crew and the part played by the Captain. Some of his information is most useful to our research as it includes many incidents and the consequences. Interestingly we found evidence of the rest house he mentioned but unfortunately it is no longer standing however I found a photograph of it. Last moments of the Indus The times of Ceylon on Tuesday, November 17, 1885 reported the final stage of what happened to the Indus and the information given is important to our understanding of the cargo she carried “The Indus had not settled down to one side or the other, and her masts stood straight up with the sail caps on, clean and smart. Orders were left that as much as possible should be saved, and all that remained above water dismantled, but, the bad weather coming on, compelled the wreck to be abandoned, and forced the brig to make the best of her way to Trincomalie, as already described” (The Times of Ceylon, 1885). News about Indus in an Australian news paper The loss of the Indus was published in “The Daily News” in Australia. She had previously sailed there a few times “Wreck of the P & O Company’s SS Indus “The Melbourne Superintendent of the peninsular and oriental steam navigation company (Mr. Geo Withers) has received a telegram from the head office in London stating that the company’s’ steamer Indus which left Calcutta on the 1st November for London has been wrecked at Sandra on the Indian coast a few miles north of Ceylon. The message is stated that there were some hopes of her again being successfully floated, and that the steam “Clyde” had gone to her assistance, but beyond that passengers and mails had been all saved. No further particulars were given. The Indus was one of the best known of the P & O Company’s fleet, having many voyages to Australia since the initiation of the fortnight mail service. She was built in 1871 by Messer Denn Brothers, of Glasgow, who designed her for the Indian and China trade, which was then the principle field of the company’s operations”. It was interesting to find couple of internet images of 8 �SS Indus taken at the time of a Census on 20th July 1882, three years prior to her ill fate. These are under the rights of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London, Gould Collection and P & O Heritage Collection it describe the detail as “The P & O liner SS Indus (1871, 3462 GRT) in July 1882. She was in the port of London at the time of the census of April 1881. She had 17 Goan crewmen on board. She was wrecked off Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in 1885; fortunately, no lives were lost.” Commencing our field work to discover the Indus Utilizing nautical charts is a necessary means to successfully trace and record the position of the wreck. They enabled us to find and record the approximate site of the wreck. . This “pre-survey” was most useful in providing opportunities to meet the local fishing communities. We knew from previous experience how useful it is to develop a good relationship with the local fishing and diving community. Much helpful and reliable information about shipwreck can be obtained from local people. We started our Field Study in August 2013 in Mullaitive in the north of Sri Lanka:Our first task was to meet with local people, boatmen, guides, fishermen, divers and navy personal etc. We then studied all the information available to us. We used local suggestion and knowledge to target our underwater survey methods to locate the shipwreck site. We discovered that the nautical chart was incorrect and after a few days of searching, we decided to stop and find some reliable data. After much persistence, and on our last day on site, we found the exact location of what is likely to be the location of the SS Indus! The site is fully covered in fishing nets and it would be a risk to dive there before clearing the nets. Due to its age, the wreck must be in a fragile condition. We observed that it rests on a sandy bottom in water at a depth of around 810 m. The wreck is some two miles away from the location marked on the nautical chart. The location is matching with data collected from archived in terms of distance from land and seascape. It is resting in less than 10 m of water. There is no other record of a similar ship being lost in this area. The evidence on site confirms that it is unlikely 9 �that the wreck has been previously excavated. The Maritime Archaeology Unit is planning to start a test excavation on the shipwreck towards the end of 2014. Acknowledgements Professor Gamini Adikari, Director General of Central Cultural Fund, the members of Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka for their guidance and support and Valerie Lidiard for her valuable help preparing this paper and all others who assisted in our efforts to find SS Indus. References Clark, A. C., 1956. The Reefs of Taprobane. Hapor and Brothers, Ballantine Books, New York. Clark, A. C., and Wilson, M., 1964. The Treasure of the Great Reef. Harper and Row, New York. Cunningham, Sir Alexander., (1814 - 1893). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online Ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford: The Stupa of Bharhut: A Buddhist Monument Ornamented with numerous sculptures Illustrative of Buddhist Legend and History in the Third Century BC (1879). Dayananda, A., 2013. The Begginning and Evolution of the Maritime Archaeology Unit in Sri Lanka (1960-92). "Samudrika"- Maritime Archaeological Symposium, Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle: 1-2. Godakumbure, C., 1962-63. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Colombo. Samaraweera, N., 2013. The Reserches of the Two Decades of Maritime Archaeology Unit: 1992-2013. "Samudrika" Maritime Archaeological Symposium, Maritime Archaeology Unit & Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle: 3-5. Rao, S. R., 1987. Progress and Prospects of Marine Archaeology in India. National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. The Times of Ceylon, November 12, 13, 15 and 17, 1885, National Archive, Colombo. The Daily News (Perth, WA: 1882 – 1950) National Library Australia National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, www.flickr.com/photos/nationalmaritimemuse. 10 London. Gould Collection, �Biography Samaraweera Mudiyanselage Nandadasa, (b. 1966), working as a Research Officer in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF), Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle, Sri Lanka. He has obtained special degree in Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka (1992) PG diploma in Architectural Conservation of Monuments and Sites from the Department of Architecture, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka (1993). He joined the Central Cultural Fund in 1993 as a Excavation Officer and conducted leading excavations in the World heritage Site of Sigiriya (1993-1997) and Lead the Conservation Branch as the Chief Conservation Officer (1997- 2004), Officer in Charge of the World Heritage Site of Galle project and Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) (2004- 2008) and presently working as a Senior Research Officer for MAU. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The discovery SS Indus (1885) with Cargo of the 3rd century BC Bharhut sculptures in Sri Lankan waters Description An account of the resource SS Indus ran aground in 1885 somewhere in the North east coast of Sri Lanka while she was sailing from Calcutta or Kolkata to London via Colombo. At the time she possessed valuable cargo, a fine collection of sculptures from Bharhut, a 3rd century BC Buddhist monastery in India. They were masterpieces of a collection of Sir Alexander Cunningham, the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India and they were being transported for exhibition in the London Museum. For the last one century, Indian and Sri Lankan archaeologists and historians were interested in finding this shipwreck, yet no one knew the exact location of the wreck. However the recent Maritime Exploration in the month of August 2013 by the Maritime Archaeology Unit, Sri Lanka has traced the possible remains of the SS Indus off Muliative. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource S. M. Nandadasa, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f7e6c38a8e7a5a8b65c8b42c965735ad.pdf 39c0810e13b97cbd49a14c4b1ef7351e PDF Text Text The missing crafts of Sri Lankan waters Rasika Muthucumarana Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Fort Galle, Sri Lanka, 80000 Email: muthurasika@gmail.com Arjuna Thanthilage Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, 407, Bouddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 00700 Email: arjuna_t@hotmail.com Abstract The artefacts were slowly removed and brought up one by one; certainly, they had been undisturbed for nearly two thousand years. The wreck and some of its cargo were analyzed and radiocarbon dated, and the results make the Godawaya wooden wreck found from the seabed of south Sri Lanka, the oldest shipwreck in the Asiapacific region. The inscription belonging to the 1st century, found at the Godawaya temple provides evidence to the world that the Sri Lankan people had well organized ports which took tax from the vessels. But we weren’t able to find the cargo or the ships that sailed through until 2008. This valuable wooden wreck was first found by two conch divers and later explored by the Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka (henceforth MAU). Analyzing and artefact research were done not only to find the chronological order, but also to discover a hidden chapter on maritime activities and ship building techniques used in this region. The artefacts appear to be originally of the Indian subcontinent region; hence, it is possible that the origin of the ship may be traced to this region. A large number of potshards and stone quern indicate that these items may also be part of a trading commodity. The major part of the wreckage needs to be identified and that will reveal the kind of cargo ships used to carry at that time. The paper aims at bringing to light the recent discoveries and the results of analyzing the cargo. Especially the excellent copper lumps and Black & Red ware found and analyzed in 2012. 1 �Key words: Godawaya, Great Basses, Black & Red ware, Copper ingots, Port city From the past to the future A journey ends with terrifying suddenness, sending a majestic seagoing vessel to the ocean floor, ending the life of sailors and passengers. The wreck is now home to sea creatures, corals and sponges. Years later, detectives in the form of Fig. 1 Remains of the Godawaya shipwreck. (Rasika Muthucumarana) maritime archaeologists locate the wreck and start piecing together tiny bits of information. Like a forensic scientist who attempts to work out the cause of death, they try to unearth the story of that forgotten hulk sitting alone in its watery grave. This story is a small part of a larger one which consists of many – the cement between the bricks that make the whole tapestry of our history. But, what if there is a wreck without a story, or a wreck without any clue or evidence to trace its name, date of construction or when it sank? For the archaeologist, this is the beginning of a whole new episode, imaginary and real, the latter requiring interpretation of small clues – intense detective work. The maritime archaeologist’s task takes on a greater challenge as the wreck ages. The physical evidence that identifies the wreck hides under the sand and, in time, it becomes a sealed tomb. In 2008 archaeologists from Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Galle found an isolated wreck, actually a mound surrounded by hundreds of potshards on the seabed near the Godawaya coast, a small fishing village situated between Ambalantota and 2 �Hambantota in southern Sri Lanka. The site was deep and undisturbed. The team located the site following an alert by two local conch divers from Godawaya area who found the site. When the team reached a dark and cold seabed at 32 m we faced coral mounds and sea plants on a sandy seabed. The artefacts were Fig. 2 View of the Buddhist temple from the sea. slowly removed and brought up one by one. It was certain that those had been (Rasika Muthucumarana) undisturbed for hundreds of years (Fig. 1). This find was a treasure trove for a maritime archaeologist. The potshards and other artefacts found at the site can be traced up to 2nd century BCE, which make this site the oldest shipwreck found in the Asian Pacific region. While there have been reports of several shipwrecks in and around the Indian Ocean countries during the last two decades, these wrecks were dated between the 9th century CE and the early 20th century CE. Thus, there is a paucity of information about early shipwrecks, so the Godawaya shipwreck site has provided much needed import to the maritime archaeology of this region. An inscription belonging to the 1st century, found at the Godawaya temple provides evidence to the world that the Sri Lankan people had well organized ports which took tax from the vessels. The paper is aimed at bringing to light the recent discoveries and the analysis results of the cargo. Especially the excellent copper lumps and Black & Red ware found and analyzed in 2012. Godawaya: the historical port city Godawaya is a small fishing village, located in the Hambantota district close to Ambalantota near the old estuary of the Walawe River, the fourth longest river of the island. However, the mouth of the river near Godawaya is blocked by sand deposit and now the river is debouching into the sea at Ambalantota, 3 km west of Godawaya. A 3 �Buddhist temple is located on a small rocky elevation on the left bank of the river mouth (Fig. 2). In ancient times, Godawaya was known as Godapavata-patanaha as is mentioned in a Brahmi inscription found in Godawaya dated to the 2nd century AD (Roth et al., 2001: 296), and in Mahavamsa the etymological identifiable term “Gotapabbata” is used (Geiger, 1912: 255). Two inscriptions found from this temple were first examined and reported by E.R. Ayortone in the early 20th century. Later, Professor Senarath Paranavithana published his findings on estampage found in this area (Paranavithana, 1983). The small and unclear inscription (No. 1) and the wellknown inscription (No. 2) were carved on a natural rock north of the Stupa. The inscription No. 2 clearly describes a seaport situated at Godawaya. It consists of two lines, and the letters, which have been clearly incised, are regular in form. These writings can be clearly identified with the first or second century CE (Paranavithana, 1983). The inscription describes the collection of customs duties called Godapavatha collected at this port (Fig. 3). The text of the inscription No. 2 and its translation: 1. Siddham Godapavata patanahi Su (ka) su(ri)yi 2. Raja Gamani Abaya viharata dini “Success! The customs duties of the port of Godapavata, King Gamani Abaya granted to the vihara (temple)”. The name Godapavatha, Gota pabbata or Godawaya refers to a kind of mound with a rounded shape, composed of rock (gota – short and round /pabbata – rock). The small stupa built on a rocky elevation south of the temple is clearly visible from the sea and may have been used as a landmark. Most probably the name Godapawatha could have been a name attributed to those early seafarers. When the excavation team dug a new trench under the rock with the main inscription mentioned above, they found another well-preserved threeline inscription (No. 3), one meter below the old one. It also describes some of the donations to the temple. The earliest archaeological evidence from Godawaya traces the history of Fig. 3 Inscriptions found from Godawaya. 4 (Upper - Inscription no 02/ Lower – Inscription No. 3). (Rasika Muthucumarana) �this region from the Mesolithic period onward. During the last two decades many explorations and excavations took place in and around the Godavaya temple. From an excavation that took place near the fishing village, part of an old maritime structure was found. It appears to be part of a jetty or a bridge built with stone pillars, which are very similar to the stone pillars seen in the shrine room of the old temple. Looking south from the temple, the river flows to the sea to the right and the Godawaya fishing village is to the left. Both of these may have been parts of the ancient seaport. This is not surprising as the bay of Godawaya with its beach with the stone pillars and fishing village is the safest landing place along the coastline of this area. The river mouth and the wide sluggish river also provide suitable access for transportation. Cargo from the vessels may have been transferred inland using boats and barges. The Walawe River flows through ancient settlements and monastic sites such as Ridiyagama, Mahanavulu Pura and the Ramba monastic complex. There are records of coins, mainly thousands of Indo-Roman, from private lands and paddy fields near the riverbanks. In 2003, an old stone anchor was found in the sea near the Godawaya fishing village. It was a granite triangle with a hole in the middle, resembling the stone anchors excavated from Galle harbour. These types of stone anchors are thought to have been used during the Fig. 4 Single hole stone anchor and stone pre-colonial period, especially by Indo- bench like object found from shipwreck site. Arabian and Chinese vessels (Rasika Muthucumarana) (www.mausrilanka.lk). In the following year two local well experienced conch divers (Sunil and Peminda) from Godavaya village found other valuable artefact. On one of their regular deep shell dives they found the area rich with potshards and a small stone object which bore a resemblance to a small bench. They brought it with them and marked the location on their GPS. The bench was handed over to the excavation project and was stored at the Tissamaharama storeroom at the Department of Archaeology. But the incident and bench were forgotten over time (Fig. 4). 5 �A new beginning In October 2008 the MAU started an exploration along the south coast with some funds from the UNESCO Bangkok office. The Godawaya site was at a depth of 30 meters and three kilometres from the shore. The presence of potsherds and artefacts like the stone bench strongly suggested the presence of a shipwreck, which warranted further investigation. The seabed near the site is composed of coralline rocky formations whereas a wide area is covered with thick grained coralline sand towards the northeastern part of the site. Under some mounds, which initially appeared to be a reef, we found Fig. 5 Rim of jar and potsherds at some timber sections. Those very fragile wooden Godawaya shipwreck site. (Rasika parts were covered with a thick layer of corals and Muthucumarana) plants (Fig. 5). Between and around two large mounds there were lots of potsherds. These were scattered over about a 100 square meter area. Other than the potsherds, we found some complete and near complete jars. Some of these jars were huge and encrusted and embedded with corals. This was a clear sign that the site was undisturbed. But it was not easy to understand the site formation, and we were not able to identify any parts of the ship’s construction. Many ships have been wrecked around Sri Lanka but Godawaya is a very unique shipwreck and no parallel has been reported in publications. We did some exploratory studies from which a site plan was derived and artefacts were brought up and studied. Most of the potshards were identified as black and red ware (BRW), a particular type of clay-ware unique to the South Asian region. This type of potteries goes back to the 13th century BCE. According to the comparative typological evaluation (with the typologies of the early scientific excavations in Sri Lanka and India) the shapes and the types found at the Godawaya site, the wreck has been tentatively dated at between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. The symbols carved on the stone bench also belonged to the same era. Many shipwrecks have the potshards 6 �as cooking ware but the high density of the potsherds at this site indicated that this vessel carried pottery as cargo. Further, six glazed blue bun-shaped ingots at site 2 were retrieved for further analysis. These were widely used in the pottery industry. The stone bench was identified as a quern and thought to be used for the preparation of food or medicine onboard. This assumption was discarded when we found another three similar objects in 2010. These items may also be part of a trading commodity. Materials and methods Different types of artefacts and samples have been collected from the site during the field works till 2010 for study and analysis. Some of the samples were analyzed and studied at CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Goa; Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, India and PGIAR (Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology and Atomic Energy Authority), Sri Lanka. These studies were very helpful to date and understand the shipwreck, cargo and its origin. SEM-EDS analysis Clear specimens (size 2-4 mm) of these artefacts are placed on a carbon conductive tape stuck on a nylon stub. Each specimen is mounted on a separate stub in such a way that the surface to be analyzed faces upwards. These specimens are then sputter coated with about 20-nanometer thick gold coating using a Gold sputter coater. Each coated specimen image was analyzed by SEM (model JSM 5600) with an EDS attachment (model JOEL 5800 LV). Radiocarbon dating In order to remove the extraneous material such as carbonate specks within its pores, the wood sample was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid repeatedly and washed thoroughly with de-ionized water. The powdered and dried wood sample was combusted in presence of O2 to yield CO2. The CO2 obtained was converted to benzene for 14C measurement. The 14C activities were assayed using a low background liquid scintillation counter. The calculated 14C ages were calibrated using INTCAL09. Results Copper slag - A small lump of copper was also found from the wreck site; however, the identification of the object is difficult. EDS analysis at nine spots in the copper show that major elemental oxides present in abundance are CuO, SO3 and FeO. The average 7 �weight (%) of CuO, SO3 and FeO in the copper slag is 97.92, 1.95 and 0.293 respectively (Table 4). Interestingly, CuO wt (%) values range with minimum and maximum values of 97.00 – 98.59 while FeO is present only in four spots with an average wt % of 0.293. This shows that the copper sample is not from a slag as we described earlier. The 97% of CuO and the condition of the lump shows it is not a slag. It is almost in a pure combination which is melted and purified (unless it was found from a mine in a pure state). This could be a part of a lump/chunk or an ingot which was used in the ship or transport. We found this copper lump on 15th November 2010 while we were diving at the site for a monitoring purpose. We noticed several lumps of copper on the wooden parts of the main block at the place where we took the sample. Fig. 6 Representative EDS spectrum and SEM photograph of the glass ingot. (CSIRNIO) Glass ingots -The SEM-EDS results of five spots in glass ingot show (Fig. 6) that major elemental oxides present by the abundance are SiO2, Na2O, Al2O3, CaO, FeO, K2O, CuO, TiO2, MgO in the average weight % 62.67, 12.85, 8.10, 8.07, 3.33, 1.76, 1.37, 0.63 and 0.42. Silica Oxide (SiO2) is the major component 62.67% with a narrow range of minimum and maximum values of 60.61 – 64.17 %. Titanium Oxide is present in three spots with an average value 0.63%. These glass ingots weigh about 2-3 kg and having a diameter of about 20 cm (Table 2) Iron concretion The SEM-EDS results of four spots in Iron concretion show that major elemental oxides present in abundance are FeO, SO3, SiO2, Al2O3, MgO, CaO, and K2O with the 8 �average weight (%) of 77.54, 16.48, 7.06, 2.43, 1.39, 0.93 and 0,37 respectively. Iron oxide (FeO) is the major component (Av. 77.54%) with a range of minimum and maximum values of 66.58 – 83.96 %. Conclusion Relative dating and radiocarbon dating from the wood samples shows the site is approximately 1900 years old, which means it belongs to the era in which the inscription was written. There are several questions that remain unanswered: what kind of vessel was it? What was its destination and from where was it sailing? How did it sink and how was it preserved for so long? Until we find answers to these questions we need plausible stories to fill the gaps. The main mound containing the wooden remains can be the best way to find answers. The surface observation indicates that a large part of the wreck is buried in the sediment and the extension of the site can only be determined after a more complete investigation. With the archaeological information so far investigated it has not been possible yet to determine whether this wreckage is belonging to an inbound or outbound vessel to the country. By looking at the cargo the ship was transporting would be an efficient method to get an idea in this regard. Raw ingots of copper and glaze found along with the other findings could possibly be successful indicators in solving the question raised above. Here we are trying to compare the composition of raw copper ingot found from the shipwreck with the already known characteristic composition of locally produced copper in order to determine the destination of this cargo, if possible. Identification of locally produced copper Historical records and chronicles had indicated that Sri Lanka used its own source of copper during the historical period. It is also suggested that the Seruwila is the place which produced the copper (Seneviratne, 1995: 125). The Anuradhapura Gedige excavation had proved that the copper smelting was practiced here as early as 6th – 5th Century BC (Deraniyagala, 1972: 145; Seneviratne, 1995: 123). The use of Seruwila copper for the production of bronze Buddha images during the latter part of the Anuradhapura period has been proven through scientific means which will be described later (Thantilage, 2008: 41-44, 71-76). It has been suggested that the occurrence in metal artefacts of a particular element at an unusually high concentrations may be 9 �characteristic of a particular geographic or mineralogical origin (Reedy, 1997: 83-85; Craddock and Meeks 1987: 132). The compositional characteristics of the local Seruwila copper magnetite ore source had been determined by the Geological Survey Department of Sri Lanka by analyzing the copper ore samples obtained by deep coring and had shown the copper ore from Seruwila, the only known copper deposit in Sri Lanka, contained characteristic high nickel content and cobalt, nickel elemental ratio has been calculated as between 0.43 – 0.55 (Jayawardhana and Padmasiri, 1977). The same cobalt, nickel ratio values has been successfully utilized to identify the possible ore source for some South Indian bronze images (Sirinivasan, 1999 (a) and bronze images of Sri Lanka made out of copper from the Seruwila ore source (Thantilage, 2008: 41-44, 71-76). Because of the high nickel content and consistent copper, nickel ratio the copper artefacts found from the Anuradhapura Gedige excavation are attributed as has been made from ore from the Seruwila deposit (Maliyasena, 1987). Analysis of copper Ingot from Godawaya ship In this backdrop it was decided to analyze the bronze ingot from Godawaya ship wreck for trace elements qualitatively by XRF method using the facilities at the Atomic Energy Authority, Sri Lanka. The analysis proved that nickel, the characteristic indicator of the copper from the Seruwila copper source, is not present in the copper ingot. The absence of nickel in the copper ingot from the ship wreck would be a powerful indicator to exclude the possibility of origin of the copper ingot could be Sri Lankan. If this is the case, the ingot could have been on the way to the region. It has been shown through scientific means the existence of two schools of bronze Buddha image productions during the Anuradhapura period in Sri Lanka in which one school had not used the local copper for its production (Thantilage, 2008: 96-99). The copper ingots suggest that the ship was sailing to Sri Lanka. The wreck was probably a coastal trader that sailed around the country. It may have been making for the Godawaya port aiming to travel further inland towards settlements along the river. One possibility is that cargo was loaded from Godawaya and the vessel may have been heading for the east side or the far south to the Magampura settlements or this vessel may have been involved in international trade. It may have been travelling to the east coast of India or coming from India, or leaving for Southeast Asia or a vessel of foreign origin. To find these answers 10 �we need to inspect the hull remains through the remaining wooden parts. This part needs a detailed investigation not only underwater but also by taking a few samples for analysis. Gaining insights about the shape and size of the hull planking and fastening will provide details about the construction methods and its origins and reveal information about the ships used during ancient trade. If we compare this site with other underwater archaeological sites found so far in Sri Lanka, this is a site of high significance. The wreck is a unique example of this early period from this part of the world. Our conclusions are still a work-in-progress, so dating and cargo are still under investigation. This is an initial attempt and the story of this wreck is still being written and may change as more data comes to light – this is the story of maritime archaeology. Table 1. Detailed dimension and weight of glass ingots retrieved from the wreck site. Table 2. EDS results of elemental oxide abundance (wt %) of glass ingot. 11 �Table 3. EDS results of elemental oxide abundance (wt %) of Iron concretion. 12 �Table 4. EDS results of elemental oxide abundance (wt %) of copper slag. Acknowledgements Special thanks go to the Physical Research laboratory, Ahmedabad and Dr. A. S. Gaur, CSIR- NIO, Goa for analyzing the samples. Authors are also thankful to the funding agencies including the UNESCO and The Netherlands as well to other participants who partook in the exploration of the shipwreck. References Craddock, P. T., and Meeks, N. D., 1987. Iron in ancient copper. Archaeometry, Vol. 29 (2): Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford University, UK. Deraniyagala, S., 1972. The Citadel of Anuradhapura 1969: Excavation in the Gedige Area. Ancient Ceylon No. 2, Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka: 145. Geiger, W., 1912. 1983. The Mahavamsa or the Great Chronicle of Ceylon XXXV, (Reprinted) from London 1980 and New Delhi. Jayawardhana, D. E., de S., Padmasiri S., 1977. Report on the Copper Magnetite at Seruwila Arippu Prospec”, Geological Survey Departmentm of Ceylon, Sri Lanka. Maliyasena, H. B., 1987. Metallurgical and Archaeological studies of some iron objects from the 1969 Anuradhapura Citadel (Gedige area) excavation in Seminar on the Archaeometallurgy of Sri Lanka, September 1987, IFS Kandy. Paranavithana, S., 1970. Inscriptions of Ceylon. Containing cave inscriptions from 3rd century BC to 1st century AD and other inscriptions in the Early Brahmi script, Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 13 �Paranavithana, S., 1983. Inscriptions of Ceylon. Containing Rock and other Inscriptions from the Reign of Kutakanna Abhaya (41 BC-19 BC) to Bhatiya II (140-164 AD), Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Roth, H., Kessler, O., Recker, U., and Wijeyapala. 2001. The Gadawaya Harbour Site. Report on the excavations 1994-97. In H. J. Weisshar, H. Roth, and W. Wijepala (Eds.), Ancient Ruhuna, A Sri Lanka-German Archaeological Project in the Southern Province, Vol. l, Verlag Philipp Von Zabern, Mainz Am Rhein: 291-326. Reedy, C. L., 1997. Himalayan Bronzes Technology, Style and Choices. University of Delaware Press. Seneviratne, S. 1995. The Ecology and Archaeology of the Seruwila copper magnetite prospect northeast Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities, Vol. 21 (1-2), University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Sirinivasan, S., 1999. Lead Isotope and Trace Element analysis in the study of over hundred South Indian metal icons. Archaeometry, Vol. 41 (1): 91-116. Somadeva, R., 2006. Urban origins in Southern Sri Lanka. Department of Archaeology and Ancient History Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. Thantilage, A. 2008. An Archaeo-metallurgical Investigation of Sri Lankan Historical Bronzes, PhD Thesis (unpublished), Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. Biography Rasika Muthucumarana is a maritime archaeologist working at Maritime Archaeology Unit, of the Central Cultural Fund, the custodian agency for the UNESCO world heritage sites in Sri Lanka. He has obtained special Degree in archaeology at the University of Peradeniya, then joined the Avondster Project, which was the first field operation of the MAU. Since then he has been conducting most of the underwater archaeological projects of Sri Lanka and some of the UNESCO field school projects. Apart from underwater explorations, excavations and conservation, he is devoted to developing field archaeology and human resources of the MAU. Rasika is also a professional photographer and a landscape artist who loves to travel and stay close to nature. 14 �Arjuna Thanthilage is a senior lecture at the Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) at the University of Kelaniya. He has got his degree and masters from University of Colombo for Physical Science and Analytical Chemistry, then began his career as a research assistant at the PGIAR and has obtained his PhD in 2008 on Archaeometallurgy. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The missing crafts of Sri Lankan waters Description An account of the resource The artefacts were slowly removed and brought up one by one; certainly, they had been undisturbed for nearly two thousand years. The wreck and some of its cargo were analyzed and radiocarbon dated, and the results make the Godawaya wooden wreck found from the seabed of south Sri Lanka, the oldest shipwreck in the Asia- pacific region. The inscription belonging to the 1st century, found at the Godawaya temple provides evidence to the world that the Sri Lankan people had well organized ports which took tax from the vessels. But we weren’t able to find the cargo or the ships that sailed through until 2008. This valuable wooden wreck was first found by two conch divers and later explored by the Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka (henceforth MAU). Analyzing and artefact research were done not only to find the chronological order, but also to discover a hidden chapter on maritime activities and ship building techniques used in this region. The artefacts appear to be originally of the Indian subcontinent region; hence, it is possible that the origin of the ship may be traced to this region. A large number of potshards and stone quern indicate that these items may also be part of a trading commodity. The major part of the wreckage needs to be identified and that will reveal the kind of cargo ships used to carry at that time. The paper aims at bringing to light the recent discoveries and the results of analyzing the cargo. Especially the excellent copper lumps and Black & Red ware found and analyzed in 2012 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rasika Muthucumarana Arjuna Thanthilage, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8df63714084b5fddec4142f39f7744a8.mp4 e00f208e90235959672c38f33770cf56 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Sila Tripati. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sila Tripati Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/12/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014