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https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/708b4dbbe6bc70240824e2adba5ea2c7.pdf
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Cultural attitude and values towards
underwater cultural heritage and its influences on the management actions in
Indonesia
Zainab Tahir
Directorate of Coast and Marine Affairs, Jakarta, Indonesia 10110
zen02zen@yahoo.com
Abstract
Understanding attitudes and values towards underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is
critical element in determining appropriate approaches to a wide variety of planning and
management actions. Management actions such as gaining support to protecting
historic shipwreck and its associated relics, designing and implementing new
management methods depend on an understanding of cultural norms and values of
their success.
In Indonesia, historic shipwrecks and its associated relics are managed through two
different policies. Cultural protection Act 11/2010 mandates protection on cultural
heritage including underwater remains, and Presidential Decree 19/2009, regulated
commercial management processes, incorporating UCH as marine resources with
potential economic value, which might contribute to community welfare. These two
paradoxical procedures have raised long debate between stakeholders, including
government agencies.
Using individual interview, this paper attempts to understand cultural attitudes and
values towards shipwreck and its relics in related government agencies in Indonesia, in
which resulting the two deferent management approaches. Furthermore, this writing
also examines the possible influences of these policies on the current management of
UCH in this country.
Key words: historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, intrinsic value, commercial interest,
private company
Introduction
Substantial amount of underwater cultural heritage in the form of historic shipwrecks
and its cargoes are predicted lying off Indonesian Water. This form has lost mainly due
to natural or accidental causes. Currently, there are twenty underwater sites
documented, spreading from South China Sea to Java Sea.The character of the wrecks
varies from one another. For example, the Cirebon wreck, found in Java Sea, is a 10 th
century wooden shipwreck containing large amount of artifacts from Five Dynasty
Chinese ceramics to glass bottle from Iran, enriched history of an ancient trade in
�maritime silk road, while in Tulamben, Bali lies beneath the water a World War II
transport ship the USAT Liberty. Each wreck has its story, comprising valuable
knowledge, technology and culture from specific periods and place, assigning it not only
exceptional and irreplaceable (Smith & Couper, 2003) but also finite.
Therefore, some experts assert that historic shipwrecks are human legacy and it
deserves protection and management, ensuring these heritage is interpreted and
shared with the wide public and preserved for the benefit of present and future
generations (Jameson and Scott-Ireton 2007; Spirek and Scott-Ireton 2003 see in
(Leshikar-Denton, 2010). However, beside the concern of safeguarding the UCH, there
is a distinct-profit interest towards historic shipwrecks. It is likely related to a different
value assigned to the objects by different parties. Delgado (1988) examines the
monetary benefit provided by historic shipwrecks, in particular its cargoes, besides
cultural, historical, archaeological, aesthetic and recreational (Delgado, 1988). Public
has witnessed how the Geldermalsen and Vung Tau were priced $16 million and $7,2
million respectively in the auction house. Some people have seen this commercial
interestas threat against preservation and protection of the heritage. Kaoru and
Hoagland (1994) supported that those values can overlap considerably causing conflict
among parties over appropriate use of historic shipwrecks (Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994).
Overlapping interest towards historic shipwreck and its cargoes become an interesting
issue on managing underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia. Legally, there are two
distinct policies imposed in regard to managing underwater artifacts. First is a policy
places this heritage as significant cultural, archaeological and historical remains
required preservation and protection, while the other policy has governed the objects as
marine resources with physical value, allowing consumptive use of the heritage
�i
. Hypothetically, this paradoxical management type is influenced by knowledge,
perception and attitude of people in a policy making level. Some studies have shown
that people’s perceptions and attitudes towards particular objects or management
issues are shaped by their knowledge, educational background, socio economic factors
or management intervention (Allendorf et al. 2006; Shrestha and Alavalapati 2006; Xu
et al. 2006; Alkan et al., 2009; Shibia 2010 see in (Htun, Mizoue, & Yoshida, 2012).This
paper is about to portray and compare perceptions and attitudes of decision making
level officers from two institutions in Indonesia, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
(MMAF), and Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC), towards an underwater cultural
heritage and its current management. Both institutions plays significant role in managing
UCH in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in this country. The result of the
study might provide preliminary insight and support in developing appropriate
management strategies towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia
Methods
Policies towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia
Shipwrecks exploration in Indonesian water has a long history, started from the
exploitation of the Geldermalsen in 1986. Before this period, there was no specific
national mandatory on managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (Tanudirjo, 2008)).
Discovery of the Geldermalsen and the fantastic value of its cargoes became an eyeopening reality to the government in regard to the significance of historic shipwrecks,
particularly its cargoes (Tanudirjo, 2008). In 1989, the Presidential Decree concerning
Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship commanded the government to form a special
committee, which has responsibility to manage the cargoes discovered from shipwrecks,
included permitting its exploration and exploitation (Decree No. 49, 1989) ii. Since then,
the monetary interest of underwater cargoes has become a concern inmanagingthe
UCH in Indonesia.Three years later, in 1992, Act concerning Protection of Cultural
heritage had been released under Ministry of Education and Culture, and it mandated a
protection of cultural resources in land and underwater (Act 5, 1992)iii. The Act was
revised in 2010 through Act 10/2010 and this new is clearly prohibited transferring
cultural objects to other countries for any purposes but education and research.
815
�However, another new act concerning Coastal Management (Act 27, 2007), released
under Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, classifies historic shipwreck and its
cargoes as marine resources, in which the protection and economic concerns can be
mutually managed.
Sample and Data Collection
Perception and attitudes of the government officers from the two ministries regarding
underwater cultural heritage were measured by a personal interview, using
questionnaire. The questionnaires consisted of three sections, first is started questions
to identify general knowledge about the valuable cargoes from shipwrecks, answered in
Yes, No and Not Sure; the section 2 is 15 major statements covered in 3 parts, part 1 is
meant to gauge perceptions on the state of the significance of an underwater heritage,
part 2 scales the attitudes towards the current management of historic shipwrecks and
its cargoes, and the last part is to identify responses on the management implication;
then the section 3 is personal information. Perceptions and attitudes were measured by
asking respondents to rate statements using Likert-type scale from 1 (Strongly
disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (not sure), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree), few statements
used strongly unacceptable to strongly acceptable form. The questionnaires were
closed type, however few parts of the section 2, the respondents were given space to
provide comments.
The respondents were gathered using non-probability method, with purposive sampling
technique (Kumar, 2013). This paper only examined perception and attitudes of the
decision making level officers (i.e. Head of Unit, Deputy Director and Director) from
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) and Ministry of Education and Culture
(MEC), focusing to the unit or directorate that has closely responsible in managing
underwater cultural heritage. From MMAF, 9 high official members of Directorate of
Coastal and Marine Affairs were chosen, while in the MEC, the target respondents were
Deputy Directors of Directorate of Culture and Head of the Preservation and Protection
of Cultural Resources Office. The total respondents from the two institutions were 18
people.
Result
The first section, the respondents were asked four general questions with a Yes, No or
816
�Not sure answer to assess their understanding of the status of historic shipwrecks and
its cargoes in Indonesia. Respondents who answered “yes” were preceded to the
section 2 enquiring their perceptions and attitudes towards management of historic
shipwrecks and its cargoes and the implication. In general, as it is written in table 1, all
respondents from both institutions distinguished that historic shipwrecks and its cargoes
are not only important but also protected. They also have knowledge, that these historic
objects are opened for commercial purposes.
Table 1. General understanding on the status of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes
Questions on survey instrument
Percentage
Yes
Do you know about the valuable objects from the sunken ship or
commonly known as BMKT?
100
Do you think historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are important?
100
Do you know historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are protected?
100
Do you know some of the cargoes, discovered from historic
shipwrecks could be sent off to auction?
94,4
Perceptions of the officers on the significant values of an underwater cultural
heritage
Concerning the significant value of an UCH in the form of historic shipwrecks and its
cargoes, the respondents were asked to scale 4 statements. These statements are
narrowed to portray perceptions of the officers towards the consumptive use and the
non-use value of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (See (Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994).
The results as indicated in table 2 show the officers from both institutions have strong
agreement on valuing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Both of them are aware that
there are several different values attached to these entities. Shipwrecks and its cargoes
are historically and culturally significant, framing intrinsic quality of maritime past, as
many experts support that historic shipwrecks are a closed context reflecting the society
of the time; it has the potential to provide information about the people on board, ship
construction, navigation technology, and the goods it was transporting; however, beside
those essential value, it also have short term economic opportunities gained from this
817
�historic object (See (Delgado, 1988; Huang, 2013; Hutchinson, 1996; Kaoru & Hoagland,
1994).
Table 2. Perceptions of the officers on the significant values of the UCH
Statement
On survey instrument
Protecting underwater cultural
heritage is important (i.e. historic
shipwrecks and its cargoes)
because it has historical value
By managing historic shipwrecks
and its cargoes provide
livelihood and other economic
opportunities.
The government should protect
historic shipwreck and its
cargoes in order to preserve
national and cultural identity.
Artifacts from historic shipwreck,
such as ceramics and jewellery,
are highly valuable in the
antique market.
Respondents-Scale (%)
Correl.
n1,
1
n2,1
n1,2
n2,2
n1,3
n2,3
n1,4
n2,4
n1,5
n2,5
0
0
0
0
0
0
22.2
0.0
77.8
100
0.958
0
0
0
0
0
0
66.7
6.0
33.3
33.3
0.853
0
0
0
0
0
0
55.6
33.3
44.4
66.7
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
22.2
88.9
77.8
11.1
0.160
n1 = 9 (respondent from MMAF), n2 = 9 (respondent from MEC); 1 - 5 = likert scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 2 =
disagree, 3 = not sure, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree; Correl. = Correlation
Perceptions of the officers on the current management of Historic Shipwrecks
and its cargoes
Currently, private company funds exploration of shipwrecks in Indonesian water.
Consequently, they have rights to own 50% of the cargoes or 50% generated from the
selling artifacts. The five statements in the questionnaire tried to explore how decisions
making level officers perceive the involvement of the third party in exploring historic
shipwrecks and its cargoes, auctioning the artifacts, and an appropriate funding source.
In response to the statements, as it is shown in the table 3, the respondents from both
institutions scaled strongly agree to agree that the government has responsibility to
provide funding support to exploring and managing the historic shipwrecks and its
cargoes. However, interestingly, when they were giving an option whether the fund for
exploration should be provided by the government or private, the responses were varied,
33,3% officers from MMAF agreed the exploration should be funded by the government,
33% of it opposed the idea and 22,2% was not sure. 55,6% from MEC preferred the
private as fund source, instead of the government, yet 22% strongly agreed if the fund
818
�support is from the state, while 11% was not sure. Even though, more than half of
MEC’s respondent agreed the private providing fund for exploration, there were 33,3%
of them refused the involvement of the third party would assist to manage and preserve
historic shipwrecks and its cargoes.
Table 3. General Knowledge on the Status of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes
Statement
On survey instrument
Exploration of shipwrecks and its
cargoes should be conducted and
funded by government not by
private company.
National policy allows private
company to perform recovery
excavation of historic shipwrecks
and auction its cargoes off; then
the selling income will be shared
between government and private
company.
We can auction off artefacts
discovered from one shipwreck as
long as the national museum has
pick the Significant
Representative Collection.
The government has responsibility
to provide funding support to
explore and manage historic
shipwreck and its cargoes
To help managing and preserving
historic shipwreck and its cargoes
in Indonesian water is by involving
third party or private company to
explore it
Respondents-Scale (%)
Correl.
n1,
1
n2,1
n1,2
n2,2
n1,3
n2,3
n1,4
n2,4
n1,5
n2,5
11.
1
0.0
33.3
55.6
22.2
11.1
33.3
11.1
0
22.2
0
22.2
11.1
56.7
0
0
55.6
22.2
33.3
0
-0.067
0
0
0
77.8
0
0
44.4
11.1
55.6
11.1
-0.24
0
0
11.1
0.0
0
0
44.4
55.6
44.4
44.4
0.970
0
0
0
33.3
22.2
11.1
66.7
44.4
11.1
11.1
0.659
0.476
Furthermore, the biggest difference between the officers from the two institutions is
when they were asked their perception on getting the artifacts off to auction. Even
though, the unique and rare pieces must be list as state property and prohibit for sale,
still 77,8% respondents from the MEC against the idea of selling the underwater
artifacts, and only 11% respectively scaled strongly agree and agree to this idea. While,
55,6% and 33,3% of the MMAFs’ officers settled with the notion of commercial interest.
They commented, that principally they agree to bring the mass product artifacts off to
auction but the rare one must belong to the country.Subsequently, strong negative
correlation (See(Rumsey, 2003) between officers existed, when they were asking their
819
�opinion on the current National Policy in which allows private company to salvage and
auction the underwater artifacts. There was strongly disagreement towards the policy
(56,7% and 22,2%), even though 22,2% of MECs’ officers marked agrees towards it.
While 55,6 and 33,3% officers from MMAF were consistently support this involvement.
Attitudes of the officers towards the management implication
Integrating commercial values of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes into the policy have
evolved public perceptions towards the objects. Since 1989, number of private
companies permitted to explore shipwrecks in Indonesian water has increased and
hundred thousands of artifacts discovered along the shipwrecks (PANNAS, 2012).
However, despite the fact that this practice attracts investment to the country, some
people criticized the exploration and salvage activities in Indonesia are far concern to
the money-making and tend to disregard the intrinsic value of the objects (Tanudirjo,
2008). The International Congress of Maritime Museums mentioned the exploration of
the Geldermalsen as an example how commercial salvor destroy the historical value of
the cargoes (See in (Hallwood & Miceli, 2005).
Six statements in the table 4 examine attitudes and perceptions of decision making
officers from two main institutions, that closely responsible for managing underwater
heritage, towards the management implication of the current policy. There are some
significant differences between the MMAF and MEC regarding the statement that
income generated from investment on shipwrecks and its cargoes benefits the country.
66,6% MECs’ respondents resisted that business on shipwrecks is not profitable to the
state, contrasting 66,7% of the respondents from MMAF. The correlation between the
high official respondents is negative. Similarly, most of the MECs’ do not accept to gain
revenue by selling artifacts, while more than half respondents from MMAF (66,7%)
consider this policy as an agreeable. Interestingly, when the MECs’ officers were asked
about banning the auction, the proportion of MECs’ (44,4%) who agreed and disagreed
is similar.
Furthermore, a significantly higher percentage of the MECs’ (88,9%) believed the
exploration of shipwrecks destroys the context of maritime history, while 56,7% from
MMAF disagreed with the statement and one third of them have no knowledge
820
�regarding the issue. From one perspective, it might understandable if the proportion of
“not sure” answers were little high considering respondents from MMAF generally come
from different study background such as environment and economic. Yet, one MMAF’s
respondent stated exploration might destroy the context of history if there is no strong
regulation existed. Despite strong agreement from MECs’ about destruction of historical
context, there are slightly high proportion of its respondents (44,4%) accepted the
exploration done by the private has contributed to the preservation and protection of the
historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, even though 33,3% of them disagree with this.
Some people believe that exploration and recovery of historic shipwrecks and its
cargoes might be considered as one way to safeguard the objects from being illegally
salvaged and also providing further opportunity of the wide public to access the objects.
Table 4. Attitudes and perceptions of the officers towards the management implication
Statement
On survey instrument
Income from business on
underwaterartifacts benefits the
country.
National policy should ban selling
the cargoes discovered from
shipwreck
Exploration of historic shipwrecks
and its cargoes, done by private,
has contributed to the
preservation and protection of
underwater cultural heritage.
Exploration of historic shipwrecks
and its cargoes, done by private
company, has destroyed the
context of maritime history
Business on shipwrecks and its
cargoes attract more investment
to Indonesia
Government auctions off artefacts
discovered from shipwrecks to
gain country’s economic income.
Respondents-Scale (%)
Correl.
n1,
1
n2,1
n1,2
n2,2
n1,3
n2,3
n1,4
n2,4
n1,5
n2,5
0
22.2
11.1
66.7
11.1
0.0
66.7
11.1
11.1
0
-0.17
11.
1
0.0
11.1
44.4
44.4
11.1
33.3
44.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
33.3
44.4
11.1
55.6
44.4
0
11.1
0.476
0
0
55.6
0
33.3
0
11.1
88.9
0
11.1
-0.27
0
1
11.1
55.6
22.2
0.0
55.6
22.2
0
11.1
0.036
0
44.4
11.1
33.3
11.1
11.1
66.7
11.1
11.1
0
-0.39
Discussion and Conclusion
This survey was conducted to accomplish the main task of determining the perceptions
and attitudes of the decision making level officers from different institutions towards
historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. As it is predicted, the two institutions showed
821
�negative correlation for particular commercial interest issue. The policy on sending
artifacts off into auction becomes sensitive among respondents from the MEC. Kaoru
and Hoagland (1994) noticed that some individuals might find commercial attachment to
the historical objects is offensive. To inform, all of the interviewees come from similar
background, archaeologists and historians. Their knowledge on the historic objects
might associate with their perception and attitude. In parallel with some studies resulted
that greater in knowledge are associated with greater influence of attitudes on behavior
(See (Fabrigar, Smith, Petty, & Crites Jr., 2006). On the other hand, high officers from
the MMAF tend to consider the consumptive use over the non-use value of the historic
shipwrecks and its cargoes (See Kaoru and Hoagland, 1994). They argue that historic
shipwrecks and its cargoes along with other natural ecosystems are part of marine
resources, which can be used and managed for the sake of the community wellbeing.
Accordingly, the long term development goal of the MMAF are maximizing the use of
the resources to achieve prosperity while keeping sustainability towards environment,
social, culture, and economic as a based of actions (MMAF, 2007). Therefore, it is not
surprising when the officers from this ministry have supported the inclusion of
commercial value of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes into their policy. Assumption on
the physical benefit of historic shipwrecks, particularly its cargoes is tempted, even
though further research is required to justify how much direct and indirect benefit
generated from this business until now.
In relation to the involvement of private company in funding and exploring historic
shipwrecks and its cargoes, apparently, there is ambivalent on the respondents from the
MEC. It is realized that, exploring shipwrecks and its cargoes is an expensive project.
The government has a limitation to fund the exploration of historic shipwrecks due to the
country’s economic development priorityiv; this constraint encourages institution to seek
for alternative funding source in order to study and explore more the maritime past. At
the same time the private company offers an opportunity to access the historical time
capsule on the deep ocean, with mutual benefit sharing mechanism. It often places the
government in dilemmatic positions; partnership with the private company or salvors
means allowing them to take away their shares, half of the historic cargoes, separating
the artifacts as whole context, however, without fund support, the access to explore, to
822
�study and to research are also limited. While, looting and illegal salvage continually
threatens the objects.
In fact, both respondents are aware of the intrinsic cultural and historical value of the
entities, however, they value the objects differently, in which resulting different
management. At the end, managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes requires
political willingness. The national government, include both institutions need a
comprehensive action to unravel dispute and settle down national strategy on managing
the underwater cultural heritage in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes.
Bibliography
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Knowledge Effects on Attitude–Behavior Consistency: The Role of Relevance,
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90(4), 556 - 577.
Hallwood, P., & Miceli, T. J. 2005. Economic Analysis of the Legal Regimes Governing
Salvage of Historic Shipwrecks. Ocean Development & International Law, 36(4), 323 337.
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Perceptions and Attitudes Toward a Protected Area and Its Management: A Case Study
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Huang, J. 2013. Odyssey's Treasure Ship: Salvor, Owner, or Sovereign Immunity.
Ocean Development & International Law, 44(2), 170 - 184.
Hutchinson, G. 1996. Threats to underwater cultural heritage: The problems of
unprotected archaeological and historic sites, wrecks and objects found at sea. Marine
Policy, 4, 287 - 290.
Kaoru, Y., & Hoagland, P. 1994. The value of historic shipwrecks: Conflicts and
management. Coastal Management, 22(2), 195 - 213.
Kumar, P. S. 2013. Sampling Design Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers
in Agricultural Science, Social Science and Other Related Fields (pp. 427). India:
Springer.
Leshikar-Denton, M. E. 2010. Cooperation is the key: We Can Protect the Underwater
Cultural Heritage. Maritime Archaeology, 5, 85-95.
Management of Coastal Zone and Small Islands, 27 C.F.R. (2007).
823
�Ministerial Decree. Standard Operation Procedures on Survey and Salvage of the
Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship, 39 2000.
PANNAS, B. 2012. Laporan Perkembangan Pengelolaan BMKT. Annual Report.
PANNAS BMKT.
Presidential Decree. National Committee of Salvage of the Valuable Objects from the
Sunken Ship, 19 2009.
Protection of Cultural Heritage, 10/2010.
Rumsey, D. J. 2003. Statistics for Dummies. Hoboken: NJ. Wiley.
Smith, H. D., & Couper, A. D. 2003. The Management of the Underwater Cultural
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Biography
Zainab is an Underwater Archaeologist working for Ministry of Marine
Affairs and Fisheries. Zainab received her Bachelor in Archaeology at
Hasanuddin University and a Master Degree in Environmental
Science, specializing in Protected Area Management at James Cook
University, Australia.
i
Sources are Act 11/2010 concerning Protection of Cultural Objects and Act 27/2007 concerning Coastal Area Management and
Small Islands.
ii
This presidential Decree was revised in 2000, 2007 and 2009 due to the changes of responsible institution, however the substantial
content has not been altered. Since 2000, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is the mandated institution to lead the committee.
iii
In order to harmonize the two legislations, the special committee has imposed a decree ordering the exploration and recovery of
historic shipwrecks and its cargoes should be documented and recorded by the contractor. In addition, the unique and rare cargoes
must be returned to the state (Ministerial Decree 39, 2000).
iv
Based on the Indonesia Strategic Framework for Development 2012 – 2016, there are five focus area, renewable energy, disaster
risk management, agriculture, human resource development and eastern Indonesia
824
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia
Subject
The topic of the resource
Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session.
Description
An account of the resource
The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions.
UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex.
The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation.
This session will discuss:
• Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH.
• The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries.
• The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries.
• Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Nia Hasanah
Document
A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Cultural attitude and values towards underwater cultural heritage and its influences on the management actions in Indonesia
Description
An account of the resource
Understanding attitudes and values towards underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is critical element in determining appropriate approaches to a wide variety of planning and management actions. Management actions such as gaining support to protecting historic shipwreck and its associated relics, designing and implementing new management methods depend on an understanding of cultural norms and values of their success.
In Indonesia, historic shipwrecks and its associated relics are managed through two different policies. Cultural protection Act 11/2010 mandates protection on cultural heritage including underwater remains, and Presidential Decree 19/2009, regulated commercial management processes, incorporating UCH as marine resources with potential economic value, which might contribute to community welfare. These two paradoxical procedures have raised long debate between stakeholders, including government agencies.
Using individual interview, this paper attempts to understand cultural attitudes and values towards shipwreck and its relics in related government agencies in Indonesia, in which resulting the two deferent management approaches. Furthermore, this writing also examines the possible influences of these policies on the current management of UCH in this country.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Zainab Tahir, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.)
Date
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5/15/2014
Asia-Pac Session 12 2014
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https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/92aaf00c10c453cf0aa33756881ed92a.pdf
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Types of river transportation in the east coast of
Sumatra before the 19th century: an analysis based on the findings of boats in
North Sumatera Province
and Siak districts, Riau Province
Azwar Sutihat
Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of West Sumatera Province, Riau,
and Riau Island
Ministry of Education and Culture, Republic of Indonesia
Jl. Sultan Alam Bagagarsyah, Batusangkar, West Sumatra, 27281
E-mail: azwar_sutihat@yahoo.com
Abstract
In the east coast of Sumatra, there were kingdoms that relied on river as the main
transportation. In this region, there are big rivers with the same characteristics that
empty into the Strait of Malacca, including Asahan River, Siak River, and Batanghari
River. Not only relying on the river as the main transportation, some kingdoms even
established their center of the kingdom on the river bank. These included the Deli
Kingdom nearby Deli River, Siak Kingdom nearby Siak River, Serdang Kingdom nearby
Serdang River, and the Ancient Malay Kingdom nearby Batanghari River.
In 2013, the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office carried out a study on the findings of
a boat in Siak River. The type of the boat is considered a rarity for the east coast of
Sumatra region. However, it bears a similarity with the boat founded in Deli Serdang
District in 1997, which was analyzed by Medan Archeological Agency. In addition of
bearing a similarity, the study also concluded that the two boats are believed to be the
type of boat that is used before the 19th century. From the findings of both boats, we
can then describe the type of boats as the means of transportation in the east coast of
Sumatra before the 19th century.
Key words: River Transportation, East Coast of Sumatra, before the 19th Century
Introduction
Indonesia with its marine potential, is a country about ¾ of which is covered by sea. As
a country with around 17,508 islands, Indonesia is known as the largest archipelago in
the world with sea areas of 5.8 million square kilometers, and has the second longest
coastline in the world (81 thousand km). With its location and condition, Indonesia has
various natural resources, and unique floras and faunas throughout the country
(Ardiwidjaja, 2011).
1
�Archipelago or inter-islands means an area comprised of islands that are separated by
water, making the area consists of water or sea water. Therefore, it is impossible for the
inhabitants to move from one area to another without being supported by a floating
object. The object called boat is reputedly the oldest means of transportation in the
world. Yet, its history of origin is still not known. Archaeological evidences of the
existence of boats have been widely revealed, including in the form of cave paintings,
referred to and described in the ancient inscriptions, and in sculptures of stone temples
(relief). The depiction of boats in these archaeological evidences also show the
development of boat building technology based on the shape of the boat in the
corresponding era.
The shape and technology of the boats seem to adjust the everyday function and the
cruising challenges; whether the boat was used as a means to facilitate the movement
of people in search of food, trade and habitat movement or migration. According to
experts, in the past there have been movements of people that brought along their
culture. Evidence of these events can be seen through
similar cultural works from one place to another (Siswanto,
2010).
Migration
cannot
be
separated
from
the
advancement in technology achieved by the people itself.
East Sumatra (Ooskust van Sumatra or Sumatra's
Ooskust) is a term that developed in the 19th century to
refer to an area around the eastern coast of Sumatra
island. In this region, some Malay kingdoms successfully
imposed its hegemony over the river that was a major
transportation at that time. Some of these kingdom also
established the center of the kingdom by the bank of small
and big rivers, including: Siak Kingdom with the center of Fig.1: The east coast of
its kingdom in the downstream of Siak River, Langkat Sumatra (red line)
(Source:
Kingdom near the Langkat River, Deli Kingdom nearby Deli www.indonesiataglance.files.
River, Serdang Kingdom nearby Serdang River, Asahan wordpress.com)
Kingdom nearby Asahan River, Bilah Kingdom in Bilah River and Labuan Panai
Kingdom nearby Panai River.
2
�The eastern coast of Sumatra has a long history as the traffic route of trade. Its strategic
location makes this area as the main line of trade since centuries ago. In the mid-18th
century until the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Siak had been a dominant force in
the east coast of Sumatra. The dominance of Siak Sultanate over the areas in the
eastern coast of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula was quite significant that they were
able to replace the previous Johor influence over the control of trade routes (Marsden,
2008). Long before that, in the 7th until the 11th century AD, the Sriwijaya Kingdom that
controlled the Malacca Straits was known as a maritime kingdom that possessed
mastery in the ship and shipping navigation technology. The Sriwijaya Kingdom relied
the life of its kingdom on trades and maritime activities. Therefore, Sriwijaya had
extensive relationships with other countries, not only in the archipelago, but also with
China, India, and the Middle East (Riyanto, 2011). Besides Sriwijaya, the Old Malay
kingdom (Malayapura) also relied on the river as a major transportation. This kingdom
was originally centered in Jambi inland on the banks of the Batang Hari River and
moved to Dharmasraya and then to the upstream area of Batang Hari River in Tanah
Datar, West Sumatra.
Boats and Sailing in Indonesia
Boat is one of the maritime cultures that since prehistoric times has played important
role in human’s life in the world, including Indonesia. The oldest written record of water
transport in the form of a boat in Indonesian waters mentioned in Kedukan Bukit
inscription of 683 AD stated the existence of a Sriwijaya’s king that was travelling on a
boat (Riyanto, 2010). In addition, information about boat and sailing in Indonesia was
derived from Chinese news that told a story about a priest travelling to India by boat in
672 AD. Other notes are the interpretation of Pierre Paris based on other foreign
sources stating that in the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD there had been sailing
activity using boats from Sumatra to India.
A research by F.L. Dunn and D.F. Dunn (1977) stated that between 20,000 to 18,000
years ago the sailing technology in Southeast Asia was still very limited. There was no
sailing activity in the open ocean, and sailing activity was possibly still limited in shallow
waters such as swamps and mangrove forests which were influenced by the sea tide.
3
�Then, 9000 years ago boat and raft were started to be known. They were used in
swamps and for limited sailing in the open water. Area exploitation using boats was only
carried out in line with the enhanced knowledge in boating skills. Furthermore, it is
estimated that approximately 5000 years ago there was exploitation of the South China
Sea region through mastery of the ever developed marine navigation and boat
technology. The use of outriggers and simple sail made of woven leaves enhanced the
exploitation area with cruising range far enough from the beach.
Boat is understood as a manifestation of maritime needs (or other waters; rivers and
lakes) as well as the aspiration of the supporting communities. The shapes or
characteristics of local boats will be influenced by factors such as surrounding
environment and local traditions at that time. Boat tradition is embodiment of a system
of ideas about what boat is and how they should design and build the boat. Terminology
of engineering design parameters and how to build a boat is a social practice that
contains symbolic and ideological aspects. In practice, the shape, size and complexity
of a boat will be limited or determined by the desires of the community over its
usefulness, availability of materials and the purpose of a boat to be operated. Therefore,
the shape or characteristics of local boats, structural characteristics, appearance and
usefulness, are predominantly influenced by local values, both physical and non
physical (Budiman, 2010).
Based on the types, sailing can be divided into sailing in open waters and in inland
waters (rivers and lakes). In Sumatra Island, there are large rivers that become the main
road heading to inland areas. The interaction between human and rivers in Sumatra is
estimated to have taken place since thousands of years ago. Even in this modern era,
the relationship can still be seen to this day. Some of the major rivers empty into the
east coast of Sumatra (Malacca Strait). These include the Deli River, Serdang River,
Padang River, Siak River, Batang Hari River, and Musi River. Physical evidences of
sailing in the inland areas of Sumatra include findings of relatively intact ancient boats.
From this finding, we can then describe the types and shapes of boats used as a means
of river transportation in the east coast of Sumatra, especially before the 19th century.
4
�Besar II Terjun Village, Serdang Bedagai Regency, North Sumatra Province
In 2003, a local resident found a boat at the base of Terjun River. The boat was then
lifted by the community and placed in the house of the boat founder. The boat was a
dugout canoe (hollowed) made of an intact, large, and long wood. Dugout/hollowed
canoe are made by removing the center part of the wood. For local communities, this
type of boat is known as sudur itik boat, because the overall shape of the tip of the boat
resembles the beak of a duck. The boat was 910 cm long, 86 cm wide and 28 cm deep.
The boat wall has an average thickness of 3 cm. In each of the inner side of the hull,
there are thirteen sangkar (local term for these components in South Kalimantan), which
is the rectangular protrusion engraved directly on the tree trunk that is used to make the
boat. These sangkars are 20-26 cm long and 8-10 cm wide. Their function is to support
the boards or logs that are laid crosswise on the body of the boat as wall reinforcement
and can be used by passengers or rowers (Koestoro, 2010).
Fig. 2: Sangkar components on boat (Source:
Medan Archaeological Research Office)
Fig. 3: Sudur Itik boat (Source: Medan
Archaeological Research Office)
5
�Padang River, Tebingtinggi, North Sumatra
The boat was founded by local resident at the base of Padang River in 2006. This boat
has the same shape and construction as the boat found in Serdang Bedagai Regency.
The construction is made of solid wood, and perforated in the middle. The boat is 610
cm long, the widest section is 113 cm wide, and 29 m deep. The middle part of the boat
has a slightly rounded shape and elongated at both ends. Both ends are somewhat
tapered.
1 Fig. 4: Itik boat sketch (Source: Medan Archaeological Research Office)
Inside of the boat hull, there are eight sangkars. The sangkars are 22-27 cm long, 12-14
cm wide and 10-15 cm thick (Koestoro, 2010). In the boat wall, both at the base and at
the hull, there are parallel holes with diameter of 1 cm that penetrate the wall of the boat.
The holes are covered with a round wood that has the same size as the thickness of the
body of the boat. Communities in Riau call this hole as kakap hole that serves to
equalize the thickness of the hull of the boat. The kakap hole serves a guide or a basis
for the process of dredging the inside of the boat. After perforation is complete, the
kakap holes eyes are closed or clogged with wood so that water does not get into the
boat.
6
�Muara Bungkal Village, Siak Regency, Riau Province
Boat in Muara Bungkal village was founded by local residents in 2012. The boat was
founded at the base of Minas River (a tributary of the Siak River). Once lifted by the
residents, the boat was then placed in the yard Muara Bungkal village office. This boat
is made of a piece of wood that is hollowed in the middle. Its shape is like a mortar, the
middle part is somewhat rounded and slightly tapered at both ends (mortar-like shaped).
Tapered shape, especially in the bow, was probably selected to make it easier for the
boat to travel in shallow water, in fast-flowing water, with rocky and muddy river bottom.
This is related to the river terrain. Overall, the length of this boat from the tip of the bow
(front) up to the end of the stern (rear) is 8.3 meters. The middle part of the boat (the
widest) has a width of 77 cm with a height from the stern of the ship to the base of 20
cm. In each part of the inside of boat hull there are sixteen penuku (sangkar). Penuku is
a term used by local community. Penuku has similar function with sangkar in a boat
found in North Sumatra, namely to support the boards or logs that are laid crosswise on
the body of the boat as a wall reinforcement and can be used by passengers or boater.
There are different components between penuku/sangkar in Muara Bungkal Village and
penuku/sangkar found in North Sumatra. Penuku in the boat of Muara Bungkal has a
hole in the middle with average size of 6 cm long and 4 cm wide. Penukus on both
sides of the hull are connected by wood. These connecting woods are called gadinggading. Gading-gading has a function as a peg between penuku. In the boat wall, both
at the base and at the hull, there are parallel holes with diameter of 1 cm that penetrate
the wall of the boat. The holes are covered with a round wood that has the same size as
the thickness of the body of the boat. The local community calls this hole as kakap hole
that serves to equalize the thickness of the wall or the hull of the boat.
Types of river boat in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century
Water environment is an important element in supporting the life of human being. Rivers,
lakes, and oceans are environment that provide sources of foods and, at a certain time,
become the most effective transportation infrastructure to move further and faster. The
rivers in Sumatra became an important means of transportation from inland to coastal
areas and vice versa. Interaction between humans and rivers in Sumatra has been
going on for thousands of years. Boat as a means of transportation can be
7
�Fig .5: Boat in Muara Bungkal Village (Azwar Fig .6: Boat components (Photo and
Sutihat, August 2013)
Modification by Azwar Sutihat, August 2013)
understood as a form of adaptation of human interaction with the environment.
According to Johnston (1980), based on shape, material and construction, the
development of boats can generally be classified into several types, namely:
a. Raft boat, which is boat that was formed from the composition of a single piece of
wood tied together horizontally. The next stage is marked by the addition of a
layer of wooden beams tied together with the direction of crossed wooden beams
on top of the first layer, so that the raft is composed of several layers of wooden
beams.
b. Dug-out canoe, which is a boat which is formed of a hollowed tree trunk in the
middle so that the shape resembles the mortar.
c. Planked-boat, which is a boat which construction of its body is formed from
arrangement of boards with specific merging technique.
8
�Based on the shape, materials and construction, boats found in North Sumatra and in
Siak Regency, Riau Province fall under dug-out canoe type. The three boats have
similarities in term of construction and components. The similarities are:
a. There are penukus/sangkars to support the boards or logs that are laid crosswise
on the body of the boat as wall reinforcement and can be used by passengers or
boater.
b. There are kakap holes that serve to equalize the thickness of the walls or boat
hulls.
c. There are gading-gading that functions as peg between penukus/sangkars. In
the boat found in North Sumatra, these gading-gading components no longer
exist. While in the boat found in Siak there are still 2 pieces of gading-gading.
d. Both ends of each boat have a tapered shape that resembles the shape of
duck beak. Because of this shape, the Malay community called the boat as
sudur itik boat. In the manufacturing process, the tapered shape was selected
to achieve better boat speed, and to facilitate better navigation in shallow
waters that have many plants. This is clearly related to the river terrain in the
east coast of Sumatra that is dominated by mangrove swamps.
Koestoro (2010) indicated that the trees used in the manufacture of boats found in North
Sumatra are possibly Artocarpus champeden, Intsia palembanica that is resistant to
moisture or Hopea sangal that falls under Dipterocarpaceae family. While the materials
used in the manufacture of wooden boats found in Muara Bungkal village, Siak
Regency is believed by local people as Giam wood (Cotylelobium spp, Vatica spp) that
fall under Dipterocarpaceae family.
A description of boat building technique on the east coast of Sumatra can at least be
obtained from traditional boat building techniques in Kuantan Singingi community of
Riau province that is still ongoing. Traditional boat building, that is called jalur by the
Kuantan Singingi community, has been going on for hundreds of years. The cultural
connection, and close geographical location makes it possible to do a reconstruction of
building techniques of boats found in North Sumatra and Siak Regency based on the
9
�traditional boat building techniques in Kuantan Singingi Regency, Riau Province.
According Koestoro (2010), the existence of sudur itik boat in the Besar II Terjun village
is part of the historical formation of large plantation estates in the east coast of Sumatra
in the late 19th century. Besar II Terjun village is one of residential areas located in the
middle of plantation of what used to be the area of the Sultanate of Serdang. The boat
finding in Padang River cannot be separated either from its historical context. This area
was once one of residential areas in the middle of plantation which was once a territory
of the Sultan of Deli.
The existence of a boat in Muara Bungkal village, Siak Regency has a historical
relationship with the Kingdom of Siak as a maritime kingdom. The eastern coast of
Sumatra has a long history as the traffic route of trade. Its strategic location makes this
area as the main line of trade since centuries ago. Marsden (2008) mentioned that at
that time Siak was a supplier of wood material to Batavia (Jakarta) to build ships in large
numbers. Even the woods for construction of naval warships in Penang Island were also
sourced from Siak. Furthermore, it is said that Siak was a powerful maritime kingdom.
The naval force of Siak often attacked Johor, Malacca, and various places in the east
and west coast of the peninsula. In term of trade, it was mostly carried out by Keling
ships. They traded clothing materials, raw silk, and other goods that they provided in
Penang or Malacca. In return, they received gold, wax, sago, salted fish, fish eggs, ivory,
gambier, camphor, and various types of rattan. The role of Siak River as part of the core
region of the kingdom had a major effect on the economic growth of Siak Sri Indrapura.
In the 18th century, in 1767 to be precise, Siak Sultanate led by King Ismail had
become a dominant force in the east coast. The advancement of Siak economy is
evident from Dutch notes that stated that in 1783, there were about 171 merchant ships
from Siak heading to Malacca. Siak became a trade triangle between the Dutch in
Malacca and the British in Penang Island (www.wikipedia.org).
Conclusion
Rivers in Sumatra Island become an important means of transportation from inland to
coastal areas and vice versa. Interaction between humans and rivers in Sumatra has
been going on for thousands of years. Some kingdom in Sumatra even made the river
10
�as the main force in maintaining their existence. Boat as a means of transportation can
be understood as a form of adaptation of human interaction with the environment.
Findings of boats in three locations in the east coast of Sumatra show that before the
19th century, there were river cruising boats in this area. The first feature can be seen
from the shape and construction that fall under the type of dug-out canoe. The two ends
of each boat have a tapered shape that resembles the shape of duck beak. The Malay
communities call such boat as sudur itik boat. The second feature is the boat
components such as penuku/sangkar, kakap hole, and gading-gading. In some
locations in the Indonesian archipelago, we can still find dug-out canoe made of one
piece of wood. However, nowadays, we can no longer find dug-out canoes that have
similar components as sudur itik boat. In the future, we need to have a more in-depth
study of sudur itik, particularly regarding the manufacturing technology, the identification
of the types of wood, radiocarbon analysis (to determine the absolute age of the boat)
and the conservation techniques (waterlogged wood conservation).
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of West Sumatera, Riau, and Riau
Island - Ministry of Education and Culture, Medan Archaeological Research Office, Siak
Regency Government, especially the Office for Education and Culture of Siak Regency,
Sungai Mandau Government Sub-District, Muara Bungkal Government Village,
Research and Development Centre for Marine and Coastal Resources, Ministry of
Marine Affairs and Fisheries, and to all people who always support us in conducting
study and preservation on marine archaeological resources.
Bibliography
Ardiwidjaya, Roby., 2011. “Temuan Perahu Kuna di Rembang”. Varuna. Jurnal
Arkeologi Bawah Air. Vol.5/2011. Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air. Jakarta. p. 1-5.
Budiman, Arief., 2010, “ Bentuk Perahu Awal Manusia Pulau Borneo sebelum
Persebaran Penutur Austronesia: Sebuah Hipotesis”. Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi.
No.6/tahun 2010.Yogyakarta: Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta. p. 120-153.
11
�Dunn, F.L, and Dunn, D.F., 1984, Maritime Adaption and Exploitation of Marine
Resources in Sundaic Southeast Asia, Prehistory a Reader, ed. De Velde, P.V.,H.248,
Foris Publication, Holland.
Jhonstone, P.,1980, The sea-craft of prehistory, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.,
London.
Koestoro, Lucas Pratanda., 2010, “Bangkai Perahu di Pesisir Timur Sumatera Utara
dan Pembudayaan Perahu”. Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi. No.6/tahun 2010.Yogyakarta:
Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta. p. 84-109.
Marsden, William., 2008, Sejarah Sumatera. Komunitas Bambu. Jakarta.
Riyanto, Sugeng., 2010, “Perahu Kuna Punjulharjo dan Arkeologi Maritim Nusantara” .
Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi. No.6/tahun 2010.Yogyakarta: Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta. p.
2-13.
Siswanto., 2010, “Temuan Perahu Kuna di Rembang”. Varuna. Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah
Air. Vol.4/2010. Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air. Jakarta. p. 1-5.
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesultanan_Siak_Sri_Inderapura
www.indonesiaatglance.files.wordpress.com
Biography
Azwar Sutihat was born in Yogyakarta on February 11, 1983.
In 2008, he completed his study in the Department of
Archaeology, Gadjah Mada University. From 2009 to the present,
Azwar works at the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of West
Sumatra, Riau, and Riau Island, Ministry of Education and
Culture, Republic of Indonesia. Over the last 5 years, he has
various experiences working in the field of preservation of
cultural heritage and has participated in several international
level activities such as Workshop on “Document Preparation of
World Heritage Nomination” (2013), Workshop on “Managing
Indoor Climate Risks” (2013), ”Sub-Regional Training Workshop
on "Disaster Risk Preparedness and Management” (2013), and World Culture Forum
(2013).
12
�
Dublin Core
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Title
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Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia
Subject
The topic of the resource
Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session.
Description
An account of the resource
The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions.
UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex.
The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation.
This session will discuss:
• Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH.
• The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries.
• The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries.
• Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries.
Creator
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Nia Hasanah
Document
A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Types of river transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century: an analysis based on the findings of boats in North Sumatera Province and Siak districts, Riau Province
Description
An account of the resource
In the east coast of Sumatra, there were kingdoms that relied on river as the main transportation. In this region, there are big rivers with the same characteristics that empty into the Strait of Malacca, including Asahan River, Siak River, and Batanghari River. Not only relying on the river as the main transportation, some kingdoms even established their center of the kingdom on the river bank. These included the Deli Kingdom nearby Deli River, Siak Kingdom nearby Siak River, Serdang Kingdom nearby Serdang River, and the Ancient Malay Kingdom nearby Batanghari River. In 2013, the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office carried out a study on the findings of a boat in Siak River. The type of the boat is considered a rarity for the east coast of Sumatra region. However, it bears a similarity with the boat founded in Deli Serdang District in 1997, which was analyzed by Medan Archeological Agency. In addition of bearing a similarity, the study also concluded that the two boats are believed to be the type of boat that is used before the 19th century. From the findings of both boats, we can then describe the type of boats as the means of transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Azwar Sutihat , in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.)
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
5/15/2014
Asia-Pac Session 12 2014
-
https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/875858654025fec90d9a9ab6e63862ab.pdf
58a5982c7977d3775fdaf32e9a11a520
PDF Text
Text
The continuation of traditional boatbuilding in Cam Pha, Sam Son and Cua Lo,
Vietnam
Ken Preston
Independent Researcher
Seattle, US
Email: kenpreston46@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper will describe recent and current construction activity on three separate
building sites, one each in Cam Pha (near Halong City), Sam Son (near Thanh Hoa),
and Cua Lo (near Vinh). The three sites produce boats generally in the Northern
Vietnamese/Chinese tradition, but with significant differences in both design and
construction details and techniques. The designs that will be discussed are all traditional
style motor vessels, that is, vessels whose design and style were developed prior to the
availability of powerful diesel engines but are now motorized. They include:
The Halong Bay “Square Head” boat, a mid-sized utility and fishing vessel that is
the dominant wooden boat in Halong Bay in the size range from 18' to about 35'.
The Sam Son large traditional fishing vessel, A 60' class seagoing shallow draft
vessel derived directly from a 3-masted lug rigged sailing vessel with a long
history in the Northern Coastal waters.
The Cua Lo mid-sized utility fishing boat (works in a number of fisheries), which
is the only significant design in use from the small fishing port on the south bank
of the river at Cua Lo.
Key words: Traditional Boatbuilding Techniques, Cam Pha, Sam Son, Cua Lo,
Northern Vietnam
Background
Between 2005 and 2013, I have made a total of 8 trips to Vietnam, totaling about one
year accumulated time in country, or in nearby Laos and Cambodia. My purpose has
been to document the continued building and use of wooden fishing and freight vessels
along the coast and up the Mekong. I have made repeated visits to certain specific boat
building sites and boatyards. Among these are three in particular in northern Vietnam.
Many of their techniques are very similar and the boats they build have much in
common. The three sites, Cam Pha (23 km north of Halong City), Sam Son (near Thanh
Hoa) and Cua Lo (near Vinh), are all within a distance of 300 km along the northern
coast. Though they have other commercial interests, all three are vigorous fishing towns.
1
�Although epochal changes in technology can lead to radical changes in boat building
and design (availability of steel saws leading to readily available planking for example,
or the introduction of inexpensive diesel engines leading to broad transom sterns) my
expectation is that a thorough knowledge of the surviving traditional construction
techniques and vessel designs will provide significant insight into the origin and perhaps
age of shipwrecks and on-shore remnants of older vessels.
The common boat building techniques and the similarities of design characteristics of
the boats built in the three towns described can be summarized as follows:
The planking is edge nailed from plank to plank
The primary fastenings are black iron, hand forged square spikes and
commercial bolts and nuts.
The boats are built right way up on a single central plank, with one or both ends
bent up to serve as stem and stern post.
If a separate stem timber is used, it is bolted directly to the central bottom plank,
effectively replacing the bent up bottom plank's function.
The wood is bent when necessary by heating it over a slow fire and bending the
plank with weights or levers or both.
Although all three boat designs are more or less descended from sailing
ancestors, they are all pure motor boats today.
They are usually built to ground readily, with hoisting rudders and flat (but
rockered) bottoms that keep their props mostly off the bottom.
The boats have long overhanging bows, and their lines are long and easy, with
very few sharp bends in the planking.
Two of the three are, in effect “5-plank” boats with two chines each side. That is,
they have the flat bottom “plank”, sloping bilge “planks” and near vertical side
“planks”, though each “plank” will be made of a number of individual pieces.
Cam Pha
When I first became aware of the building site on the derelict beach below the town of
Cam Pha in 2005, one old man with a crew of up to eight men and women was building
2
�two different sizes of the typical “Halong Bay Squarehead” utility vessel. These boats
are traditional both in their overall style and in the manner of their construction. Their
defining characteristic is their odd (but very useful) square foredeck. They are
commonly built in lengths from 20' to about 40', the smallest having no cabin other than
a small box or a deck over the engine and perhaps an arched canvas cover over the
hold. The larger sizes have substantial houses built at deck level over their engine
areas.
1 Fig. 1 Cam Pha Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)
The building process of the traditional “squarehead” boat (Figs. 1 and 2)
The central plank is tapered at the forward end then bent sharply upward at each
end by heating over a slow fire while forcing one end of the plank down with
weights. More recently, a separate stem timber is bolted to the forward end of
the central plank and the aft end is bent up as before.
The central plank is set up, with props at bow and stern to support the ends and
bolted down to deadmen set in the sand.
Planks are added to the boat in pairs, port and starboard, by edge nailing with
3
�hand forged square boat spikes about 5” long x 1/4” thick. The plank is first
offered up and the inner edge marked to follow the previous plank. The builders
use large wooden clamps, chains and prybars to hold the plank in position while
it is marked and fastened.
The upper edge of the new plank is marked to utilize the available wood while
achieving the hull curvature the builder has in mind and the plank is sawn to
shape.
It is offered up a second time to check the sawn shape, and at that time the two
adjacent plank edges are marked for spike locations at about one foot on center.
The “new” plank will be chisel cut to produce a V-shaped tapered opening into
the interior of the plank at each nail location, then the plank will be braced on
edge and a nail “guide hole” drilled from the center of the plank into the chiseled
entry.
The plank already on the vessel will also be drilled, from the marked nail location
straight into the center of the plank.
With both the old and new planks drilled for spiking, the new plank is offered up
one more time and pried into position with clamps and pry bars while it is nailed
off.
If all goes well the spikes will be driven home using a punch to drive them into
the chisel cut slots into the face of the plank. If there is trouble with the fit up, the
spikes can be withdrawn with the same punch, catching under the hooked head
of the spike, the correction made and the plank finally fastened off.
These boats are not 5-plank boats; they are a simple round bottomed shape. At
the turn of the bilge nothing is done differently, except that the new plank is pried
up to match the builder's idea of the correct angle. Usually, with one plank above
the bottom in place, a floor timber will be added amidships, chopped to the angle
with a balance-hatchet and spiked in place. A similar timber will be placed to
form the lowest member of the future transom stern.
4
�Fig. 2 Cam Pha Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)
Thereafter, the sides are raised with at most a few additional floor timbers and a
futtock or two to help hold the growing hull together. The wood used at Cam Pha
is generally dreadful, full of knots and checks, and sawn relatively thin. The fit up
of the plank seams is quite casual.The builders rely heavily on good caulkers to
make their boats water tight.
At the top of the lower portion of the hull, a doubly thick but narrow plank or “wale”
is placed full length each side. By this time the stem and transom are both well
established and effectively locked into place by the planking and the wale.
A cross-timber is added at the top of the stem, extending out to the sides to mark
the extent of the foredeck and provide a landing for the forward end of the sheer
plank (which is twisted sharply through nearly 90 degrees to land flat on the
cross timber) and the filler pieces that bridge the wide gap in the planking under
the foredeck.
Aft, the wale continues on past the lower transom and defines the lower edge of
the upper transom. This was originally a common feature on Chinese sailing
vessels, on which the upper, outer transom provided some protection to the
5
�rudder (hanging on the lower transom) in following seas. Nowadays the rudder is
often a typical steel plate motorboat's rudder, positioned deeper under the hull in
the prop-wash.
Since the sheer plank tumbles home a bit aft and rolls out nearly 90 degrees
forward to form the squarehead, it is always fitted in at least two pieces, scarfed
about amidships.
With the planking finished (or nearly so) the balance of the framing is fitted into
the hull, using all sorts of rough pieces of timber, sawn to gentle curves, beveled
to fit with the balance hatchet and spiked into place with boat spikes. Here and
there the hull, as originally planked, won't suit the builder's eye and he'll bore a
hole through plank and frame for a bolt, which will be used as a clamp to force
the planking into place against the frame.
Very different from Western practice, the floors and frames do not usually overlap
much if at all, and may not even touch each other.
With the planking complete, in the older model, a false stem was fitted over the
hood ends of the planks at the bow and shaped to a somewhat sharp entry. In
the past two years the use of a completely separate stem has become the norm
and that stem, bolted to the central bottom plank, is rabbeted in normal fashion
as planks are brought to it.
At some point after the planking is complete to the sheer, the curvature of the
plank ends, where they transition from the lower to the upper transom, will be
marked by eye with white chalk and cut out with a mallet and chisel.
With the frames in place and trimmed to height, bulkheads are installed full depth
(spiked to the frames and edge nailed plank to plank) at least one at the forward
end of the engine area and another at the forward end of the fish hold. Often
even fairly small boats are divided into five compartments (lazarette, engine room,
fish hold, forward hold, and a space under the fore deck). Often the fish hold will
be drilled through the planking to provide a free-flooding wet well for the catch.
No doubt the hulls derive a great deal of their strength from the bulkheads, since
the frames are not continuous anywhere.
Deck framing and hatch coamings are installed along with uprights extending
6
�from the floor timbers to the eventual height of the cabin top.
Decks are laid and cabin joinery completed.
With the hull construction complete, she's released from her anchorage to the
earth and propped up first on one side, then the other for caulking. Since the
planks were fitted roughly and tight edge to edge and no caulking seam was cut,
it is done by the caulkers as they go along, opening up not only the seams
between planks but also the checks and splits in the planking. Quantities of
waste fiber are driven into the seams and splits, trimmed with a chisel, and
troweled over with a gray mastic for sealant.
At that point the vessel is ready for power and outfitting for her work and is
routinely put overboard on a high tide and towed away to have her engine fitted
elsewhere.
Fig. 3 Cua Lo Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)
Sam Son (Figs. 3 and 4)
Although the boatyard in the river mouth north of town does significant new construction
of various sorts, for this paper we will only consider the construction of large traditional
vessels on the beach in front of town. They are built on a single very long bottom plank
7
�bent up at each end to form the stem and what amounts to the central plank of a narrow
transom stern. They are fastened with hand forged square boat spikes and commercial
steel carriage bolts. Since I have not seen the entire building sequence, some points
can only be surmised, but in general:
The bottom (which comprises the “bottom plank” and the two “bilge planks”) is
built complete in one piece lying on coconut palm trunks that are set to support
the line of the bottom rocker, on sand bags a foot or so above the beach. The
bottom planking is bolted through the floor timbers (which do not extend past its
edge) but a number of edge nails are also used.
The entire side “slabs” are edge nailed together and cut to final profile flat on the
beach. When I arrived to see one of these boats at this stage, the port side was
complete and lying flat on the sand alongside the completed bottom, with its
stern quarter region already bent into a sharp curve upward. The starboard side
was not yet complete forward, additional planks were being offered up where the
slab lay in the sand, but the stern quarter area was already in the midst of being
bent up over a slow fire. This is the only example I have seen of bending the
slab upward by levers rather than downward with weight, a concession to the
size of the completed sides, which are massive, with planking nearly 2” thick and
require a number of planks edge nailed and scarfed lengthwise.
Unlike at Cam Pha, these heavy planks are not repeatedly offered up and
marked, cut, offered again, marked again, drilled, offered again and finally nailed.
Rather they are offered only once on the sand, cut to shape with a circular saw,
and edge nailed directly where they lie. The chisel cuts to provide an entry for
the spike are the same as at Cam Pha but the hole is drilled from the chiseled
opening into the two planks. Since the drill cannot bend to run cleanly into the
center of the old plank as it effectively does at Cam Pha the drilled hole
necessarily is aimed toward the far side of the plank. A small bend is placed in
each spike before driving and most of them stay within the planking. Only now
and then does one break out to the surface of the side.
8
�Fig. 4 Cua Lo Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)
With the sides nearly complete but lying flat on the sand on either side of the hull,
a single temporary mold is erected and braced off amidships.
In the course of a long day, the sides are raised into position on the bottom,
wrapped around the temporary mold and fastened off to the bottom and the
raised stem and transom sections of the central plank. The process requires
about 20 men to pick up the sides one at a time and temporarily hold them
generally in place with rope, chain and chain falls. But the rest of the day's effort
only involves eight to ten men, slowly urging the side slabs into contact first with
the transom portion of the center plank, then bit by bit with prybars, chain falls,
large wedges and brute strength, bringing the chine together full length. The
chine fasteners are carriage bolts roughly 1/2” x 10”, driven into drilled holes
through the side and into the edge grain of the bottom on approximately one foot
centers.
Thereafter the futtocks (side frames) are cut and fitted, one pair per floor timber,
but not necessarily in contact with the floor and not normally bolted to it. In some
9
�examples I've seen the futtocks are deliberately spaced between the floors. The
futtocks are shaped like hockey sticks, sawn to shape, so that the short end of
the hockey stick projects out onto the hull bottom and becomes a primary
connection and strength member at the chine. They extend well above the
original side slabs to support additional structure.
Above the sides that were erected in one piece, a thicker plank or wale is
wrapped around the frames. Bulwarks are raised a further foot to 18” and given a
rail cap, which is often armored with a smoothly welded stainless steel cover to
help prevent hangups of the fine web used in their nets.
Aft, three or four beams are let into the top plank of the original sides and are
used to extend the deck substantially to each side, with the bulwarks boxing in a
comfortable aft work deck. This gives the boat a peculiar appearance aft, with a
large boxy aft deck area above the shapely quarters.
The rudder lowers through a trunk extending from the aft deck through the
bottom, and the whole aft compartment is left free flooding and not even caulked.
A tight bulkhead between the rudder compartment and the rest of the vessel may
be the only tight bulkhead. Other bulkheads may be added, but in many cases
the hull is effectively open from end to end.
A centerline hatch runs full length of the fore deck, covered with loose hatch
covers that apparently are never dogged down.
The “pilot house”, if any, is low, providing only sitting headroom, and may be nonexistent, the engine house covering the engine but not offering crew quarters.
As recently as the 1990's these boats were rigged with three masts and three lug
sails and provided with a Chinese style daggerboard working vertically in a trunk,
but none of them carry a rig today and there is no sign of the daggerboard.
Cua Lo (Figs. 5 and 6)
The small fishing boat harbor in the creek at Cua Lo is remarkable in that all the
resident boats are the same model, ranging in size from about 25' to about 50'
overall length. Before my visit in late 2012 I had not seen any of these boats under
construction, only hauled for maintenance. In late 2012 there were two new boats
10
�about 35 feet long standing partially framed and planked in the yard on the south
bank nearest the mouth of the creek.
Fig. 5 Sam Son Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)
At that time one was clearly a week or two further along than the other, which
immediately gave some indication of the sequence of building. I was able to examine
them in detail at that time and again about one month later. More recently, in late 2013
the same small yard had three boats under construction spaced a couple of weeks
apart, from a bare bottom going together to a nearly planked up vessel. Between these
three visits we have essentially complete documentation of the building sequence.
The boats are built on a central plank which is bent up aft to form the run, leading
to what will be a
broad, but narrow (top to bottom) planked transom in the
finished boat.
A separate stem timber is bolted to the bottom plank and rabbeted for the
planking. The first three or four floor timbers swallow the stem.
The floor timbers are cut to the profile of the bottom and the planks are bolted to
them, rather than being edge nailed without benefit of frames. Fastenings in
11
�general are bolts, not spikes. The boats give the impression of being round
bilged from outside, but they are actually multi-chined, with hard chines as well
as an arced bottom. The planking is very thick and probably planed to relieve the
sharp corners outboard. The planks are definitely planed to remove scars from
flame bending.
Sawn elbows are bolted to the floors, and the futtocks in turn are bolted to the
elbows, forming a typical western-style complete frame. However, only a few
frames are completed before the planking is advanced further. The hard chines
are formed by sawing the angles into the floors and futtocks, not by making each
futtock straight and splicing the frame with gussets.
Rather than advancing the planking piece by piece, when the turn of the bilge is
reached a separate plank is placed above the next chine angle to stabilize the
frames and apparently also to provide a guide for building subsequent frames.
Great care is taken with fitting each plank and the plank seams are routinely
nearly perfect.
The boats have a great deal of rocker and the stern is built broad and flat, which
forms a very easy long run. Individual planks at the stern are allowed to run wild
for most of the construction.
The slot and framing for the rudder trunk are placed early in the bottom
construction.
Since the harbor partially dries at low tide all the boats have
hoisting wooden “barn door” rudders.
Perhaps unique to this design, two futtocks on each side up forward are made of
massive timbers, and project well above deck and bulwarks. They will support a
cross timber which will support the long booms which the local fleet uses to push
a net ahead of the boat.
To provide more working deck aft, the next to last topside plank is rolled out from
plumb to nearly horizontal and extends the beam a few inches each side, thus
producing a small reverse knuckle in the topsides aft. Alternatively, two or three
cross beams may be let into the sides and the aft deck planked over them to
provide yet a wider work area aft.
The final topsides plank lands on top of the timber that all the previous bottom
12
�and side planks had been bolted to and becomes the bulwarks of the cockpit and
the working deck forward, but also the lower sides of the engine house or cabin
midships.
Fig. 6 Sam Son Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)
Summary
The primary techniques of the northern Vietnamese boat builders, flame bending, edge
nailing, building the bottom on a single central plank and raising the sides on the bottom
(whether in one piece, or plank by plank) are consistent along the northern coast of
Vietnam but those techniques allow for construction of a wide range of boat types.
Thus, even if the style of boat changes (e.g. from sail to power) the building techniques
will still provide a “signature” which may be useful in identifying their origin.
Biography
Ken Preston was born in 1946, took a degree in Geology, and served in the US Army
in Vietnam. He went commercial fishing off the US West Coast until he went broke, then
pursued a career in marine construction (harbor works, bridges, docks, dredging,
breakwaters and so forth). Ken held a license as a tug boat operator for a period of
years, but only worked on boats locally on construction projects. Since 2005 he has
spent six weeks to two months each year traveling in Indochina, documenting the
remaining traditional (primarily wooden) fishing and freight boats of the region.
13
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia
Subject
The topic of the resource
Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session.
Description
An account of the resource
The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions.
UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex.
The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation.
This session will discuss:
• Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH.
• The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries.
• The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries.
• Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Nia Hasanah
Document
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Title
A name given to the resource
The continuation of traditional boatbuilding in Cam Pha, Sam Son and Cua Lo, Vietnam
Description
An account of the resource
This paper will describe recent and current construction activity on three separate building sites, one each in Cam Pha (near Halong City), Sam Son (near Thanh Hoa), and Cua Lo (near Vinh). The three sites produce boats generally in the Northern Vietnamese/Chinese tradition, but with significant differences in both design and construction details and techniques. The designs that will be discussed are all traditional style motor vessels, that is, vessels whose design and style were developed prior to the availability of powerful diesel engines but are now motorized. They include:
*The Halong Bay “Square Head†boat, a mid-sized utility and fishing vessel that is the dominant wooden boat in Halong Bay in the size range from 18' to about 35'.
*The Sam Son large traditional fishing vessel, A 60' class seagoing shallow draft vessel derived directly from a 3-masted lug rigged sailing vessel with a long history in the Northern Coastal waters.
*The Cua Lo mid-sized utility fishing boat (works in a number of fisheries), which is the only significant design in use from the small fishing port on the south bank of the river at Cua Lo
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Ken Preston, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.)
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
5/15/2014
Asia-Pac Session 12 2014
-
https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7512c47f527a62b96d97b981d0d0f61b.pdf
a915684fbd11f437885dc4f3e0947a99
PDF Text
Text
USAT Liberty Shipwreck Site in Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency,
Bali is Under Threats
Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan, Semeidi Husrin, and Gunardi Kusumah
Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerabilities
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia
Jl. Raya Padang – Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245
Email: niahasanah79@gmail.com
Abstract
USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Karang Asem Regency, Bali
Province is the most popular shipwreck diving attraction in Indonesia. The shipwreck is
well-known throughout the world and brings in many domestic and foreign tourists since
the 1980s. This underwater cultural heritage has a historical-archaeological value; it is a
US cargo ship that sank during World War II and now the shipwreck functions as an
artificial reef and is home to various marine life. This makes the wreck a very important
coastal resource of this region and has a significant impact in the local people’s life. The
condition of the site is currently considered to be vulnerable due to a variety of damage
caused by natural and human factors. Threats due to high water dynamics such as
currents and waves that could cause erosion, scouring, sliding, and other changes in
the physical environment make this shipwreck site highly vulnerable to a variety of
mechanical and physical damage as well as chemical weathering and corrosion. The
large number of tourist who dive on this site also threatens the site. The marine
archaeological research of 2013 conducted by Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
is aimed at study the deterioration of the wreck, to collect hydrodynamics,
sedimentation, and water quality data for providing an overview of recent conditions of
this underwater site, the ocean dynamics of Tulamben waters, along with the damages
suffered by USAT Liberty wreck which threatens its sustainability as an underwater
cultural heritage and diving attraction. Identify the different types of potential
vulnerabilities would become the basis of policy making for its preservation efforts in the
future.
Keywords: USAT Liberty shipwreck site, Natural and Human Threats, Vulnerability,
Dive attraction, Bali
Introduction
There are a lot of publications on USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben
Village, Kubu District, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province that highlights the
importance of the site; it is the best known shipwreck diving destinations throughout
Indonesia and one of the best in the world. We could find hundreds of thousands posts
1
�mentioning the site on the internet (Fig. 1). The research found also many publications
discussing the locals attempt to protect
the
site
traditional
by
imposing
laws,
their
Awig-awig,
local
which
includes fishing prohibitions nearby
shipwreck location and prohibitions of
destroying the ship's structure and
coral reefs. The rules seemed indeed
to be obeyed and nobody dares to
intentionally violate this laws. Such
matters have been discussed very
Fig. 1 USAT Liberty in 1918 and 1941 and Its Wreck
Site Location. (US Army Signal Corps Photo SC 131484, comprehensive
in
the
writings
US National Archives & Research Institute for Coastal
Kamaludin (2002), Supriyatun (2007),
Resources and Vulnerability)
Noerwidi (2007), and Ridwan (2011) and it has also been confirmed by the elders of
Tulamben Village through
interviews with Mr. Nyoman Karyasa (Kelian Adat
Tulamben)i and Mr. Degeng (Kelian Banjar Dinas Tulamben)ii. However, until now there
are no attempts from governments to discuss the vulnerability of USAT Liberty to
withstand the effects of the natural environment and human factors. These risks are not
covered by studies conducted by relevant institutions and authorities on the site. Thus
far, undertaken studies are only focused on the stage of mapping and documenting, as
the work carried out by Bali Office for Preservation of Cultural Heritage in 2011 (Tenaya,
2011). Therefore, this paper will discuss the vulnerability of USAT Liberty based on the
identification of numerous factors threatening the shipwreck and its ecosystem, both
environmental and human. This paper will also discuss what measures need to be
considered to prevent further damage that could lead to the destruction and loss of the
USAT Liberty. This extremely important issue requires to be addressed because the
existence of USAT Liberty and its diving industry are the only basis of the villagers' life.
USAT Liberty History
According to Radigan (1996), USAT Liberty is American freighter ex AK-35, and ex
Liberty (ID 3461), built in 1918 by Federal Shipbuilding Co., Hackensack, NJ with
2
�125.43 x 17 x 8.08 m in dimension, 4,809 tonnage, and equipped with one piece
2500ihp power steam engine. She was launched on 19 June 1918, and the local
newspapers at that time mentioned that she was the largest steel freighter ever made.
In October 1918, this ship was used by US Navy and was named the USS Liberty (ID
3461). In 1939, it was used by US Army who renamed her as Liberty US Army
Transport (USAT Liberty). In May 1941, US Army and US Navy approved the decision
that US Navy would return to take over the ship, but then US Navy did not get the
personnel to be placed on her so that the ship eventually remains Army’s property. In
her journey from Australia to the Philippines carrying railroads, rubber, and logistics for
the Allied Forcesiii, USAT Liberty torpedoed by Japanese Submarine I-166 in January
1942 off Lombok Straits. US Destroyer, Paul Jones, and Dutch Destroyer, Van Ghent,
attempted to drag her to Singaraja Port but she was already damaged and could not go
very far and stranded at last on Tulamben shores (http://pacificwrecks.com; wikipedia).
The ship then sank deeper and deeper into the depths and currently resides in a sandy
slope at 3 - 30 m depth about 40 m from shoreline.
USAT Liberty Shipwreck Dive Attraction
Shipwrecks in Indonesian waters are one of the main potential marine resources that
could be utilized for marine tourism (Ardiwidjaja, 2007). Under Indonesian regional
autonomy law, shipwreck sites could become region’s assets as marine tourism
destination, as well as for the establishment of maritime museums. USAT Liberty is the
most famous shipwreck dive site in Bali and has been included in the top 12 world
shipwreck sites to be dived as noted by scuba diving website. Tourists regard this site
as "a giant aquarium" due to the present of ± 400 marine life species which live around
the site. There are also ± 100 species of high seas fish which visit the site regularly.
Divers can find groups of bumphead parrotfish, barracuda, grouper, pigmy seahorse,
nudibranchs, morray eel, jackfish, napoleon, fusiliers, surgeon fish, trevally, bream,
anthias mill, batfish, large sweet lips fish, angelfish, butterfly fish, anemone fish, lionfish,
scorpionfish, hawkfish, pufferfish, coral trout, the gobies, blennies, shrimps, dottyback,
and others. Hard corals and soft corals i.e, giant barrel sponges, giant sea fans,
tubastrea, gorgonians can also be found easily at this location. Scuba-mania claimed
Tulamben as one of the most beautiful dive sites in Indonesia besides Komodo Island,
3
�Bunaken, Wakatobi, Raja Ampat, Lembeh Strait, Karimun Jawa, Bangka, Banda Sea,
and Alor (Pickel, 2010; http://gekodivebali.com; http://scuba-mania.com/). In addition, it
is the easiest location to enjoy recreational diving and to enjoy underwater scenery
around the shipwreck. All skill
levels divers could dive due
to its unique positions in the
seabed that ranging from
shallow water until 30 m.
USAT Liberty has brought
immense
Tulamben
benefits
people's
to
lives
since 1980s and is closely
related
to
people's
livelihoods. It is important not
Fig. 2 Characteristics of Tides and Currents in Tulamben Waters.
(Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability)
only
for
villagers
the
but
Tulamben
also
communities in Bali Province because all diving operators in Bali offer diving trips to
USAT Liberty to the tourists. Nowadays, there are about 150-200/day tourists diving on
the site and communities’ income obtained from fees and services is about 500-1,000
USD/day. Meanwhile, the Tourism and Cultural Agency of Karang Asem noted that its
regional revenue from tourism sector in 2012 was 1,200,000 USD and there were
416.363 foreigners came to the region to dive. This number is increasing continuously
every year (http://karangasemkab.bps.go.id; Ridwan, 2011).
Marine Archaeological Research
In 2013, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability conducted research
at USAT Liberty shipwreck site in order to determine its significance and current
condition as well as to carry out a visual observation of the deterioration and the extent
of the damage. The research also aims to find out the physical environmental conditions
and its changes as well as to identify the various factors threatening the site. This
research result could become a basic reference for further conservation effort and a
basis for the establishment of Maritime Conservation Area in accordance with the
4
�Marine and Fisheries Ministerial Decree No. 17/2008 and the Underwater Cultural
Heritage Site (UCH) determination in accordance with Law No. 11/2010 on Cultural
Heritage. The field survey was conducted in June-July, August, and September 2013.
Interviews with local communities, agencies, and relevant stakeholders to obtain data
and information on the weather and climate conditions; shipwreck's history, and tourism
industry development, had also been conducted. The team performed marine geology,
ocean hydrodynamic, and water quality measurements to obtain sedimentation, water
quality, and hydro-oceanographic data such as tidal, currents, and wave. Installing
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) equipment at 22 m depth with bottommounted system at USAT Liberty site location is a method to collect hydrodynamics
data. Those data above are needed to determine water dynamics surrounding site
location and to analyze the environment’s influence on shipwreck sustainability.
Threats and Site conditions
Natural Factor
Nicholas Flemming (2011) said that globally, underwater archaeological sites are
vulnerable to variety of damages caused by nature or human. A number of sites are
devastated due to waves and erosion processes. Threats to shipwreck sites can be
related to the changes in environmental factors due to the ocean dynamics in the
region. The currents and winds could spur high waves and cause sedimentation,
erosion, shifting, and sliding, thus making shipwreck sites susceptible to variety of
physical-mechanical damages, as well as chemical damage i.e corrosion matters.
USAT Liberty site is located in an area strongly affected by a very dynamic
oceanographic conditions where the currents from Pacific and Indian Ocean meet. Tidal
data measured by ADCP has 26.9 days duration commencing on August 29, 2013 until
September 25, 2013 with a 10 minute data interval. Furthermore, the data were
analyzed by using the T_TIDE processing program (Pawlowicz, 2002). Figure 2 shows
the results of data analysis in which the tidal analysis results (predictions) appears
closer to the actual data rate of up to 96.5% representation. Dominant tidal constituents
are O1, K1, M2, S2, SK3, M4, S4, 2MS6 and M8. Based on the number formzahl (Fz =
0822), the nature of the tides in Tulamben waters is a mixture tidal tends to double
5
�(Mixed predominantly semi-diurnal). ADCP current measurements enables us to see
the profile of water mass flow column. Figure 2 shows the flow characteristics of
Tulamben waters in the form of scatter plots at 4 different depths from the bottom
waters, each 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, and 20 m. From scattter plot, it is clear that the current
in Tulamben waters are generally dominant moving from East to West direction. Based
on the wind data, other factors that lead to differences in the surface characteristics of
the scatter plots clearly caused by currents driven by waves and a longshore. Profile of
current flow also show the current tendency to move westward and northward, so that
the
resultant
predominantly
direction
to
is
the
Northwest. The current results
measurements
show
the
maximum current to the North
reaches v=1 m/s, while to the
West
the
maximum
flow
reaches u=0:58 m/s.
Volcanic sandy seabed around
the wreck and the presence of
strong currents at certain times
Fig. 3 Extreme Weather Condition in Tulamben Coast on
can cause scouring in the Juli 2013. (Nia Ridwan)
shipwreck area. The hull
section located in shallow waters can be affected by all kinds of weather conditions and
there is also a large swell which can destabilize the fragile sections of the ship. The part
of USAT Liberty shipwreck at the top is starting from a depth of 3-10 m so they could be
affected significantly by the power of waves, currents, and winds at the surface. The
weather conditions that are occasionally extreme lately in Tulamben waters most likely
caused by climate change phenomenon. In extreme weather condition, wind will drive
high waves and strong currents on the surface of Tulamben waters and could put strong
pressure and make the ship parts in the shallow areas suffered the damage, became
fragile, unsteady, and finally collapsed and fall down to the bottom, or befall the another
ship part below it. So that successive events happened will cause even more damage
6
�(Fig. 3). High waves on July 2013 hit Tulamben beach for 3 days and reached 3-4 m in
height, and even had destroyed some hotels located right in front of shipwreck location.
A few days after storms, we found there are 4 parts of USAT Liberty ship that are
collapsed and dislodged from her superstructure: 1 point at the stern area, 1 point at the
middle section, and 2 points at bow area. In fact, previously the collapsed parts of the
hull have also experienced significant corrosion, so we strongly assumed that the high
corrosion rate in these parts has weaken them, added by high waves effect so
eventually those parts were no longer capable attached in her superstructure, then
detached and fallen down (Fig. 4).
In 1998, El Nino caused severe bleaching in the coral reefs of the shipwreck site
(Pickell, 2010) and from our observation, nowadays coral reefs attached to the hull are
also experiencing stress. Tulamben dive guides stated that at this time many species of
fish are disappeared from the site. The strong currents and waves in Tulamben waters
also led to high erosion processes. Based on our observation, a process that deposited
the USAT Liberty in its current location due to strong coastal erosion that occurs
continuosly. While the USAT Liberty initially shipwrecked on the beach, it has been
moving to greater depths because the sandy bottom upon which it rests has been
eroded by currents, tides, and waves. Athough all existing publications indicate that the
tremor from the 1963 Mount Agung eruption was a major contributor to the shipwreck´s
current location, our research shows that the erosion is probably the main process
responsible to USAT Liberty's current location. Mount Agung tremor may also have
affected her movement, but erosion is the most predominantly ocean and coastal
dynamic process in that area. The elders of Tulamben Village mentioned that the
difference between the distance of the current Tulamben beach and the previous shore
line is about 100 m, thus, it can be said that there have been a shoreline change. The
Regional Spatial Layout Plan 2012-2032 of Karang Asem Regency on Distribution of
Protected Areas nowadays states that Tulamben is one of the coastal areas which is
highly vulnerable to coastal erosion.
Tulamben beach is covered by black volcanic stones from Mount Agung's eruptions
prior to 1963. We presume those stones used to be covered by sand, and then the sand
was progressively run out and eroded by waves and currents. Eventually later, the
7
�expanse of volcanic stones previously existed in the layer below the sand are
appearediv. Since the erosion process has progressiveley "dropped" the USAT Liberty
into the ocean and taking into account its position on a 60%-90% slope, it is highly likely
that the USAT Liberty will move deeper into the ocean at depths that are no longer
safely accessible by divers (Fig. 5).
Human Factor
The concept of in-situ preservation in protecting and managing UCH raises the idea of
making an underwater museum in the site (Delgado, 2011) and a wreck dive attraction.
In fact, the easy access to the shipwreck site for tourists and divers represent a
potential threat even though it is an opportunity for archaeologist to present UCH to
society. The marine tourism has improved the communities’ welfare; however, the
impact of yacht marina construction, coastal buildings, hotels, water sports resorts,
touristic scuba diving, and the collection and souvenir sales have also impacted
negatively in the preservation of the site (Fleming, 2011). The damage to the shipwreck
caused by humans is not as
dramatic
as
the
damage
caused by nature; however,
this damage is cumulative
and significant (Viduka, 2006,
62). The excessive use of
USAT Liberty shipwreck in
Bali is indicated by the large
number of divers and their
impact on ship preservation
and its environment have not
been
examined
by
local
governments. They do not
Fig. 4 The Heavy Corrosion Ship Hull at Bow Section which
are Collapsed right after High Wave Event on July 2013. (Nia realize that the large number
Ridwan)
of
divers
who
perform
underwater activities have incurred in a tremendous pressure on USAT Liberty and its
ecosystem. Increasing number of divers in USAT Liberty does give a significant
8
�advantage to the development of that area, although on the other hand it could cause
environmental damage problems to the sea floor and the shipwreck itself. The concern
about its further degradation is actually emerging from the communities and local dive
guide lately. They dive with the guests almost every day and they notice that there has
been extensive damage to the USAT Liberty and its ecosystem. They also informed that
at present time many fish species no longer appear on the site and many coral reefs are
damaged and destroyed by the divers' negligence and carelessness (Pickell, 2010).
The tourists at USAT Liberty site are not intentionally damaging the site and breaking
awig-awig, but it is certain that many divers unintentionally destroy the site. The ability
of each tourist diving in USAT
Liberty is not homogeneous. Many
tourists
do
not
have
diving
qualifications and they use the site
to get their diving certification.
Uncontrolled
flapping
fins,
arbitrarily penetration into the hull,
hands touching and holding the
ship's parts directly could cause
damage
Fig. 5 The Hypothesis of Tulamben Beach Erosion
History that Showing the Chronology of the Fall of
USAT Liberty into Her Current Position. (Research
Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability)
to
USAT
Liberty.
Moreover, the habit of most divers
to feed the fish is also against the
rules of fisheries conservation. The
large number of divers visiting the
site may also lead to exposure of the sandy sea floor in USAT Liberty site. The divers’
fin kicking could agitate the seabed and kill unique animals and destroy some sensitive
coral reefsv. Besides physical-mechanical damage, the concentration of oxygen from air
released by divers may transform into air pockets trapped in the ship's hull. This will
accelerate the oxidation process which will increase the corrosion level and will
accelerate the chemical destruction process, and corrosion is one of the most
threatening chemical damage to iron objects (Fig. 6.)
9
�Conclusion
Nowadays, extreme weather conditions often hit Tulamben area and the estimated
effect
is
fairly
severe
on
shipwrecks and its marine life.
Erosion is the most dominant
environmental
changes
in
Tulamben
which
can
substantially
influence
the
preservation
Liberty.
currents,
of
The
the
USAT
movement
tides,
high
of
waves,
especially in extreme weather
conditions
damage
causes
and
physical
accelerates
the
Fig. 6 A Large Number of Divers in USAT Liberty Site.
mechanical fragility of shipwreck (Nia Ridwan)
that
has
been
previously
corroded. Meanwhile, the sedimentation rate is relatively small and does not
significantly affect USAT Liberty.
Today, awig-awig protection is not sufficient and needs to be strengthened by other
preservation efforts, i.e. limiting the number of divers on the USAT Liberty. This may not
be easy to apply and there will be disagreeing parties who think it will reduce the
community's income. Another solution could be to make the site an exclusive dive sites
like SS Yongala in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia which has a limit of 7,000 tourists
per year. We can monitor and limit the number of divers and still get a high income for
the community by raising the entrance fee. In order to implement these policies,
mapping this tourist destination according to its type becomes very important. Tulamben
needs to be reviewed whether it is a mass-tourism, limited tourism, or eco-tourism area.
Placing fish apartments and sinking another ship nearby can also be performed to build
a new artificial reef and to provide an alternative dive site. The use of in-situ
preservation methods such as corrosion prevention by cathodic-anodic protection using
10
�sacrificial anode can also be done. Another site stabilization to anticipate problems
caused by natural hazards can also be enforced. Depth study, long-term measurements
and model analysis need to be done to get the complete of data. Measurement and
monitoring the hull's progressinve shift can be performed by regularly benchmarking
and photo recording of the site after extreme weather conditions events. Making
physical models, and numerical modeling are needed to prove the erosion evolution
hypothesis that occurs over a fairly long period in Tulamben beach.
References
Ardiwidjaya, R., 2007. Pemanfaatan Benda Arkeologi Bawah Air (Shipwreck): Satu
Peluang Peningkatan Daya Tarik Wisata Selam. Diskusi Ilmiah Sumberdaya Arkeologi
Laut, Jakarta.
Delgado, J., 2011. The Impact on and Opportunities arising from Tourism to Submerged
Sites. UNESCO Scientific Colloquium on Factors Impacting the Underwater Cultural
Heritage, 13th-14th December 2011, Royal Library of Belgium, Brussels.
Flemming, N., 2011. UNESCO Scientific Colloquium on Factors Impacting the
Underwater Cultural Heritage, 13th-14th December 2011, Royal Library of Belgium,
Brussels.
Kamaluddin, L., 2002. Pariwisata Bahari dan Konservasi. Pembangunan Ekonomi
Maritim di Indonesia, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.
Noerwidi, S., 2007. Pemberdayaan Masyarakat pada Pelestarian Situs Bangkai Kapal
USS Liberty, Tulamben Bali, http://arkeologika.wordpress.com/2007/10/31, retrieval
April 5, 2013.
Pickell, D., and Wally S., 2010. Diving Bali: The Underwater Jewel of Southeast Asia.
Periplus, Singapore.
Radigan, J. R., 1996. USAT Liberty ex-AK-3, ex-Liberty (ID 3461), http://navsource.org,
retrieval March 19, 2013.
Ridwan, N. N. Hasanah., 2011. The Importance of Empowering Local Community in
Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali
and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi. In Proceeding on the Asia Pacific
Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila.
Pawlowicz, R., Beardsley, B., and Lentz, S., 2002. Classical Tidal Harmonic Analysis
including Error Estimates in MATLAB using T_TIDE. Journal Computers and
Geosciences, Vol. 28.
Supriyatun, R., 2007. Potensi Obyek Wisata Warisan Budaya Bawah Air di Tulamben,
Kabupaten Karang Asem. Varuna, Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, Vol. (1/2007): 00-00.
11
�Tenaya, I. W., Gde Yadnya, dkk., 2011. Laporan Pemetaan dan Penggambaran
Situs/Kapal Karam U.S.A.T Liberty, Tulamben Karang Asem. Balai Pelestarian
Peninggalan Purbakala Bali, Gianyar.
Viduka, A., 2006. Managing Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites: The
Yongala as a Case Study. In Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk.
http://gekodivebali.com, retrieval July, 2013.
http://karangasemkab.bps.go.id, retrieval May 10, 2013.
http://scuba-mania.com/tag/indonesia/17, retrieval November 17, 2012.
http://pacificwrecks.com/ships/usn/USATliberty, retrieval April 2, 2013.
http://wikipedia_USAT Liberty, retrieval October, 11, 2011.
Biography
Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan is Maritime Archaeology Research Scientist graduated
from Department of Archaeology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. Since 2005,
she has been working in Ministry of Marine Affairs & Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia in
Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability. In 2011, Nia appointed as
Head of Research Cooperation & Technical Services Division until present. She has
researched several underwater sites throughout Indonesian waters. Her current
research focuses to identify the factors threatening shipwreck sites and to examine
ways to mitigate it. Nia had attended UNESCO Foundation Course on Underwater
Cultural Heritage (2010) and In Situ Preservation Course (2011) in Thailand; 3
SEAMEO SPAFA-ICCROM trainings: in Thailand (2010), Singapore (2011), Philippine
(2011); The Netherlands Cultural Heritage Agency Course on Managing Climate Risks
towards a Sustainable Conservation of Mutual Cultural Heritage in Brazil (2011); and
ICCROM Forum on Science in Conservation (Italy 2013).
Endnotes
i
Kelian Adat is community leader who deal with social issues such as funeral rites, marriage ceremonies, rituals and traditional
customs regulations.
ii
Kelian Banjar Dinas is a hamlet head who is in charge in taking care of administrative matters, i.e. making residents identity card,
family card, and then passing them to the village office, district office or civil registry office.
iii
Tulamben residents said that USAT Liberty also carried large quantities of black pepper and eucalyptus oil.
iv
This is confirmed by the village elders were say that they have no idea where those stones suddenly appeared. Even mentioned
that these stones arise because of the "miracle of God". However, this can be explained scientifically associated with coastal
erosion processes were fairly dramatic.
v
In the 90s, a French photographer, who despite professional but was reckless, dived on USAT Liberty and dropped his fairly heavy
camera. It hit a poisonous coral reefs attached to ship's hull. Besides destroying the hull and the reef, he and the other divers
nearby also experienced severe poisoning (Pickell, 2010).
12
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia
Subject
The topic of the resource
Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session.
Description
An account of the resource
The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions.
UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex.
The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation.
This session will discuss:
• Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH.
• The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries.
• The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries.
• Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Nia Hasanah
Document
A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
USAT Liberty Shipwreck Site in Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali is Under Threats
Description
An account of the resource
USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province is the most popular shipwreck diving attraction in Indonesia. The shipwreck is well-known throughout the world and brings in many domestic and foreign tourists since the 1980s. This underwater cultural heritage has a historical-archaeological value; it is a US cargo ship that sank during World War II and now the shipwreck functions as an artificial reef and is home to various marine life. This makes the wreck a very important coastal resource of this region and has a significant impact in the local people’s life. The condition of the site is currently considered to be vulnerable due to a variety of damage caused by natural and human factors. Threats due to high water dynamics such as currents and waves that could cause erosion, scouring, sliding, and other changes in the physical environment make this shipwreck site highly vulnerable to a variety of mechanical and physical damage as well as chemical weathering and corrosion. The large number of tourist who dive on this site also threatens the site. The marine archaeological research of 2013 conducted by Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is aimed at study the deterioration of the wreck, to collect hydrodynamics, sedimentation, and water quality data for providing an overview of recent conditions of this underwater site, the ocean dynamics of Tulamben waters, along with the damages suffered by USAT Liberty wreck which threatens its sustainability as an underwater cultural heritage and diving attraction. Identify the different types of potential vulnerabilities would become the basis of policy making for its preservation efforts in the future.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan
Semeidi Husrin
Gunardi Kusumah, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.)
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
5/15/2014
Asia-Pac Session 12 2014
-
https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5a1d178ee063643692aeb3f7a48d0ba9.pdf
5caa9671e99f98b4dbcc98e38dfb0c2f
PDF Text
Text
The sea stories and stone sails of Borobudur
Douglas Inglis
Texas A & M University
PO Box 114, Waimanalo, HI, 96795 US
E-mail: divingarchaeology@gmail.com
Abstract
The most profound examples of ancient Southeast Asian ship iconography are found on
the walls of the 9th century Borobudur monument in central Java. As the contemporary
assemblage of nautical iconography from Southeast Asia is limited, the ship reliefs play
an important role in debates over trade and expansion in India, Indonesia and mainland
Southeast Asia.
The Borobudur ships are technical depictions, and contain data about rigging, rope use,
rowing configurations and outrigger construction. Elements in their design have
persisted independently as Indonesian watercraft evolved, including outriggers, bipod
masts, canted rectangular sails, and quarter rudders. Discussion has focused on
construction features, and scholars have made various assertions about how the
vessels might have been built, how they were used, and their origin.
The vessels' artistic context is often ignored. The ship reliefs are part of a religious
narrative which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were
portrayed, and how we should ultimately interpret them. The stories provide important
clues as to where each vessel was headed, who was aboard, and what is happening on
deck. Despite their detail, the Borobudur vessels should be interpreted cautiously, and
not as ancient blueprints. They are artistic renditions that were never meant to float they were meant to inspire.
Key words: Borobudur, bas-reliefs, Sailendra, Indonesia, Java, nautical archaeology
Introduction
The most informative examples of ancient Southeast Asian ship iconography are found
on the ninth century CE Borobudur monument in central Java (Fig. 1). Borobudur is a
massive terraced pyramid, decorated with thousands of bas-reliefs that tell stories from
the lives of the Buddha, Bodhisattvas and other saintly figures. Javanese artisans
depicted 11 boats within the 1,460 elaborately carved stone panels (Fig. 2). Due to the
quality of their technical detail, the artistic, religious, and narrative context of the
Borobudur vessels is often ignored. This is problematic, because the vessels are
1
�components of Buddhist narratives which directly influenced how the panels were
designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should interpret them. Moreover,
examining the Borobudur vessels in the context of their associated seafaring stories
provides unique insights into the Javanese perception of sailing, the ocean, and its
dangers.
Borobudur
Members of Java’s Śailendra Dynasty
erected Borobudur sometime between
780 and 832 CE (Miksic, 2010:29).
Viewed from above, Borobudur’s nine
terraced levels resemble a series of
nested concentric squares and circles.
Fig. 1: Eastern Indonesia, showing the location
of Borobudur
Thislayout is similar to that of a mandala,
a sacred diagram that represents the
structure of the universe (Miksic, 2010:37). The unique design of the monument has
generated more than a century of debate, yet its ultimate nature remains a mystery.
Borobudur seems to have been a place of pilgrimage and instruction. Over the centuries,
diverse groups of monks and devotees deposited thousands of votive stupas and clay
tablets at the monument (Ray, 2005:318). The visitors continued their pilgrimage as
they slowly circled the monument, ascending level by level. The panels on the lower
levels depict the core of Buddhist teaching: the Mahakarmavibhanga (laws of karma),
the Jātakas (stories of the Buddha's past incarnations), the Lalitavistara (stories from
the Buddha's final incarnation), and the Avadānas (stories of other enlightened beings)
(Soekmono, 1976:20-36). It is probable that once these basic lessons were mastered,
monks might have permitted select pilgrims to ascend to the upper levels containing the
more challenging and esoteric teachings of the Gandavyuha and Bhadracari (Miksic,
2010:71). Surrounded by reliefs of holy figures, miracles and magical stories, the visitor
was within a scared, mystical world (Miksic, 2010:46).
2
�The
Ship
Reliefs
and
Their
Artistic Context
Eleven
ships
Borobudur’s
are
depicted
reliefs.
They
in
are
remarkably technical depictions,
with data about rigging elements,
rope use, rowing configurations,
and
Fig. 2: Vessel I.b.86, Minister Hiru’s ship (from Van
Erp, 1923)
outrigger
construction.
Numerous scholars have used the
reliefs
to
expand
our
understanding of ancient sailing vessels including Van Erp (1923), Hornell (1946),
Mookerji (1957), Needham et al. (1978), Horridge (1982), Manguin (1993), Ray (1994),
Jahan (2006), and numerous others. Debate has focused on five outrigger vessels with
canted rectangular sails, bipod masts, and rowing galleries; they are most akin to kora
kora of the 16th and 17th century (Horridge, 1978:9). Due to their exquisite detail, the
Borobudur vessels are often treated as ancient blueprints, while their artistic context is
ignored. This is problematic, because the vessels are components of religious
narratives which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were
portrayed, and how we should interpret them.
The vessel depicted in panel I.b.86 has inspired several reconstructions. These sailing
hypotheses combined information from the reliefs with evidence available from artwork,
ethnography, archaeology, and indigenous seafaring traditions. These reconstructions
include Sarimanok, commissioned by Robert Hobman and sailed from Java to
Madagascar in 1985 (Dennison, 1985), Philip Beale’s full-sized replica, which was
launched in 2003 and sailed from Jakarta to Ghana (Beale, 2005), and the Spirit of
Majapahit, launched from Jakarta in 2010 on a goodwill voyage to Brunei, the
Philippines, Japan, China, Vietnam, Thailand, and Singapore (Antara, 2010, July 5).
Erik Peterson used I.b.86 as a set of blueprints to draft a detailed reconstruction (Fig. 3).
Petersen (2003:42) hypothesized that the artist "started by making a precise picture of
the ship as seen from the side.” To accommodate for some of the obviously skewed
3
�elements,
Peterson
suggested that the artist
changed perspective to
illustrate
the
rowing
galleries and outriggers
“as seen from above and
from in front." Peterson
executed
this
blueprint
experiment well, but there
are several problems with
the
1 Fig. 3: Erik Peterson’s elegant reconstruction of I.b.86 (from
Peterson 2003).
underlying
assumptions.
carvings
The
are
not
schematic side profiles with elements added in contrary views. The artist who created
I.b.86 was a master stone-carver (Van Erp, 1923:19). They chose to depict I.b.86 sailing
toward the viewer at an angle, an incredibly difficult illusion to attempt in bas-relief. To
show this perspective, the artist exaggerated the stagger of the bipod mast legs and
depicted the forward face of the outrigger booms, none of which would be visible in
schematic view. The ship tapers dramatically from stem to stern to further reinforce this
perspective. The point where the bow enters the water (marked by a furled wave) is
close to the lower part of the frame while the break of the stern is positioned much
higher. When combined with the tapered form, this slanted waterline gives the
impression of an oblique view. The artist tried to simulate this viewpoint in panel I.b.53
as well. The strake lines sweep up to the stem, and down the other side, giving us a
head on view of where they meet at the bow. More importantly, I.b.86 is not sitting
upright in the water. The artist went to great efforts to show the ship under full sail. The
canvas billows in the wind. The rigging is taut. The artist also exaggerated the forward
rake of both stem and stern to show that the vessel is heeling over on its side and
responding to the force of the wind (this was not corrected in Peterson’s model, which
has retained the extreme forward rake of the stem and sternpost).1The artist was
attempting to show a dramatic three-dimensional view.
4
�Peterson (2003:42) hypothesized that while the individuals aboard the vessels were
exaggerated, "the relative size of all the ship parts seemed to be accurately
represented.” In his reconstruction of I.b.86, Peterson insightfully suggested that each of
the modules in the rowing gallery accommodated one individual, and derived a
waterline length of 16.4m (23.4 m overall) by estimating that the distance between each
of the "modules" in the rowing gallery was 1 m (Petersen, 2003: 52). However, size is
seldom realistic in ancient iconography. Manguin (1993:263) correctly observes that
"with very few exceptions, iconographic representations of sailing vessels teach us little
of the structure and size of the craft depicted… …What one learns from these
depictions concerns the superstructure: how many masts and sails were used and what
their shape was, the position and number of rudders, and whether or not outriggers
were present."
Fig. 4: Multiple panel layouts. I.b.53 has three subdivision, while I.b.86 is divided in two (based
on images from www.photodharma.net, Anandajoti, 2013).
5
�Panel proportions and division are the primary factors determining the size, shape, and
complexity of the Borobudur vessels. The long panels of the first gallery are commonly
divided in half or in thirds (Fig. 4). These sub-divisions show related scenes, a
progression of events, or serve to clarify the characters and activities depicted. The
watercraft in half-panel format (I.b.86, I.b.88 and I.b.88) have much more detail than
those compressed into third-panel format (I.a.115, I.b.23, I.b.53, I.b.82) or those on the
Balustrades (I.B.a.54 and I.B.a.193).We can see the effects of compression when we
compare three of the outrigger-type ships, I.b.53, I.b.86, and I.b.88. Each has the exact
same configuration of an outrigger with three booms, rowing galleries, bowsprit, and two
bipod masts. I.b.53 is shortest, with 6 rowing stations and 6 sailors, I.b.88 has
10stations and 10 sailors, while I.b.86 is the longest with 12 stations and 19 sailors. One
could argue that each panel represents different sized vessels (Manguin, 2010:185).
This is not necessarily the case. Vertically, each ship consistently fills 90-95% of the
panel. The yard ends nearly reach the top of the frame, while there is only a small gap
of water between the outrigger and the bottom of the frame. I.b.86 fills a much greater
horizontal area than I.b.53, which makes I.b.86 appear long and skinny while I.b.53
looks practically tubby. They have the exact same configuration, and likely represent the
same type of vessel, just compressed and uncompressed according to the work space.
The point of these observations and critiques is that the Borobudur Vessels were not
created in a vacuum. They are framed by other scenes. The needs of those scenes
dictated how much space the artist could work with. If space wasample, they created a
beautiful, intricate vessel such as I.b.86. If they had to include more events, the artists
allocated less space to the ships and compressed their features, as with I.b.53.In
examining the details of these ships, it is important to remember that the vessels are
components of stories. The activities and individuals aboard are the centerpieces of the
narratives, while the watercrafts are elaborations.
Seafaring Stories and Buddhism
The maritime folklore associated with the Borobudur vessels is critical to their
interpretation. Sea stories have deep roots in the literature of India. The second
millennium BCE hymns of the Rigveda mention merchant voyages and sailing to distant
6
�islands.2 Although Vedic literature mentions incidents in the sea, it does not provide
evidence of extensive maritime travel (Ray, 2003:13). Shaw (2012:131) observes that
surprisingly, almost no travel by watercraft occurs in India’s great epics the
Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana. Where sea travel is mentioned, it is in similes and
metaphor. For instance, the Karna Parva (Book 8 of the Mahābhārata) describes
overwhelming grief like "shipwrecked mariners struggling on the bosom of the vast
deep" (Ganguli, 1889:II) while the Anugita Parva (Book 14) compares joy to the elation
of castaways who have made it safely to shore (Ganguli, 1896:LXX). The absence of
sea travel likely reflects the prohibitions against travel by boat found in Indian scripture
and codes of law. The dharmasūstras goes as far as to equate sea travel and maritime
trade with crimes such as theft from a Brahmin (Shaw, 2012:13).3 Later codes of laws,
such as the Manusmṛti (from the beginning of the first millennium CE), deal with
practical aspects of riverine transport (Buhler, 1969: pt. 8).
Buddhist maritime folklore demonstrates a
familiarity with seafaring that is not found in
earlier Indian literature. The Jātakas contain
numerous references to ship building and
ship operation (Ray, 1994:180). The texts
knowledgably describe the roles of captain
and
crew
(Schlingloff,
1988:198).This
familiarity is not surprising, as the Jātaka and
Avadāna traditions matured in the first half of
the first millennium CE when a series of
Fig. 5: Vessel I. .a. , sho ing up raga
and the mouth of the ocean (from Van Erp,
1923)
trade booms between China, India and the
West drove new developments in sailing, the
expansion of maritime trading networks, and
the proliferation of ports (see Hall 1985; Ray 1994; Christie 1998; Manguin 2004).
During this period, developments in Buddhis men courage maritime development by
removing Brahmanical stigmas associated with travel, trade, and outsiders (Wheatley,
1983:272) and by embracing private wealth as a vehicle that could serve spiritual needs
7
�(Holcombe, 1999:280).Hall (1985:37) concludes that Mahāyāna Buddhism was a direct
response to the expanding world of commerce.
Pilgrims, missionaries, and monastics traveling along the trade networks between India
and China spread Buddhist teachings as they went. Kandahjaya (2004:73-79)
calculates that between the third and sixteenth centuries CE, approximately half of
these initial Buddhist “transmitters” followed the sea lanes that connected India, Sri
Lanka, Southeast Asia, China, and the Indonesian Archipelago. Buddhists established
monastic communities which conscientiously served the spiritual and material needs of
the laity. This created intimate connections with local villages and trading groups
resulting in an “interactive support system” (Ray 1994:122; Ray, 2005:320).
The resulting contact between Buddhists and maritime communities created conditions
conducive to the incorporation of maritime folklore into Buddhist scripture. Seafaring
stories would have been an important part of the oral traditions, song, dance, and
dramatic
performances
throughout
maritime
Asia
(Shaw
2012:132). 5Buddhists
capitalized on the excitement, danger, avarice, and courage inherent in maritime
folklore, and populated Jātakas and Avadānas with greedy merchants, daring sailors,
horrible sea monsters, oceans filled with treasure, islands populated by demons, spirits,
and goddesses. These dangers and temptations became components of a vast
metaphor in which the ocean represents saṃsāra, the endless cycle of death and rebirth,
and crossing the ocean represents the process of awakening, searching for
understanding, finding salvation, acquiring merit, and obtaining enlightenment (Shaw
2012:133; Tatelman 2013:114). Just as the Buddha offered salvation from the cycle of
saṃsāra, bodhisattvas developed into saviors that could be called on by sailors during
times of distress (specifically Avalokiteśvara/Padmapāni/Guānyīn, see Rao, 1991: 1856; Ray, 1994: 153; Ohnuma, 1998: 337-40).
Heroes and Mariners
Buddhist seafaring stories are unique, both in their presentation of the nautical/maritime
traveler as hero (Shaw, 2012:130), and in their focus on the lower classes of people(e.g.
traders, craftsmen, sailors, etc.) who are generally below description in the Vedic texts
(Hall, 1985:37). Borobudur’s intricate reliefs provide an intimate look at both heroes and
8
�sailors as they were conceived in the ninth century CE. An example is the story of
Suppāraka/Supāraga the blind navigator (Jātaka No. 463, the Suppāraka-jātaka and
Jātakamāla No. 14, Supāraga-jātaka), carved in panels I.B.a.53-55). Suppāraka (a
former incarnation of the Buddha) was a master navigator. He lost his sight as he grew
old, and retired from seafaring. A group of merchants (from Bharuch, west India)
beseeched him to join their voyage to suvarṇabhūmi, the lands of gold (often identified
as the Malay Peninsula).A gale blew their ship across sixseas until they eventually
came to the jaws of the ocean at the end of the earth. Suppāraka knew that only a
miracle could save them. He cried out "Friends, bathe me speedily in scented water,
and put new garments upon me, prepare a full bowl, and set me in front of the ship"
(Rouse, 1901: 90). Properly prepared, Suppāraka leapt to the bow, used both hands to
pour libations into the sea, and uttered his saccakiriyā, an assertion of truth so powerful
that it can transform reality (Fig. 5).6The power of his invocation propelled the ship back
across all six oceans in a single day (Rouse, 1901: 86-90).
Fig. 6: A close-up of figures from the relief, sho ing upp raka pouring out libations in
I.B.a.54, and prayer and ceremony from I.b.86 (based on images from www.photodharma.net,
Anandajoti, 2013).
9
�Without knowing the story of Suppāraka, it would be difficult to identify many aspects of
the crowded ship depicted in I.B.a.54. Clearly the sea monster is a source of distress.
However, without knowing the story, it would be impossible to know that it represents
the devouring mouth of the ocean at the edge of the world. The Jātakamāla (No. 14)
describes the behavior of the ship’s crew during the horrendous gale: “Some were
overcome by affliction and stood speechless with terror, some behaved courageously
and were busily working to avert the danger, and some were absorbed in prayers to
their tutelar deities”(Speyer, 1895: 177 vv. 8). The exact same three reactions (terror,
courage, and prayer) are mirrored in the stones of Borobudur. Some of the crew are
acting courageously, fighting to control the sail. One is standing on the yard and
wrestling with the sail while three are in the stern hauling on the ropes. Desperate
passengers in the center of the ship are jettisoning the cargo. Two sitting figures have
placed their faces in their hands, sobbing in despair. Another figure has his hand raised
high, perhaps calling on the gods. Thanks to the Pāli text (Jātaka No. 463), we know
that this figure on the bow is Suppāraka, pouring forth libations exactly as described in
the narrative (Rouse, 1901:89), Van Erp, 1923:16).
Importance of the Narratives
The actions and reactions of the nearly one-hundred figures aboard the Borobudur
Vessels provide important insights into how the Javanese perceived seafaring. Panel
I.b.23 shows mariners laboring to raise a sail while their comrades spend time catching
fish. Panels I.b.108, I.B.a.54, and I.B.a193 show us how seamen reacted to a storm –
some struggle to save the ship, a few pray to their gods, others yet cling to the rigging in
terror while their comrades are thrown into the tumultuous sea. Panel I.b.86 is famous
because it provides elaborate technical details of how Southeast Asian shipwrights
constructed watercraft during the classical age. However, I.b.86also teaches us a great
deal about ancient seafaring. Hiru’s voyage in the Rudrayana-avadana (Divyāvadāna
No. 37) is the epitome of a successful expedition; its depiction in I.b.86 correspondingly
shows us what an ideal voyage should look like. The crew are lively about the ship,
hauling on the rigging and setting the sails. They show bravery by conducting daring
acts at the masthead and bowsprit. They are religious and mindful, performing the
10
�proper rituals at the bow of the vessel (Fig. 6). Hiru sits high in the stern, vigilant, and
directing his ship to a successful landfall.
The Borobudur vessels are components of Buddhist narratives which directly influenced
how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should
interpret them. Examination of the figures demonstrates that the Borobudur vessels can
provide more information about ancient seafaring than just the technical configurations
of Southeast Asian watercraft. They are material evidence of the intimate connection
between Buddhism and seafaring, and provide unique insights into the Javanese
perception of sailing, the ocean, and its dangers.
Footnotes
1
If we look at other vessels of this type, the forward rake of the stem is not as prominent, and the sternpost is actually raked
slightly aft (as with I.b.88 and I.b.108).
2
For examples, see Griffith (1896: v. I.25.7, I.48.3, I.56.2, I.116.3-5, and VII.88.3).
3
Shaw (2012: 130–1) also points out that Brahmins were traveling between India and Southeast Asia, so the prohibitions may not
have been as serious as these laws seem to indicate.
4
The Manusmṛti contains rules concerning
-
, 1969: pt. 8).
5
Shaw (2012:132) suggests that these vernacular versions probably thrived in ancient India, but were almost never preserved in
Hindu literature as high“
adventure, or
”
6
S
k
ā
“A
T
”
“T
”
w
k
k ā
k
w
w
w
S
ā k w
T
w
manifest the speakers wish, in this case, delivering the ship back to shore (Kong, 2012: 7–8).
w
l
and fact (in the case of
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Buddhist tradition.Choy Fah Kong,Singapore.
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Biography
Douglas Inglis studies the archaeology of seaborne exploration
and contact. He is a graduate student in the Nautical
Archaeology Program at Texas A&M, a professional
archae l gist at ultural Surveys
Ha aiʻi and a member
the Explorers Club. Doug served as assistant director of the
Warwick Shipwreck Project in Bermuda and the ongoing
Rockley Bay Research Project in Tobago. He is passionate
about public history and outreach, and writes about nautical
archaeology at http://divingarchaeology.com.
14
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia
Subject
The topic of the resource
Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session.
Description
An account of the resource
The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions.
UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex.
The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation.
This session will discuss:
• Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH.
• The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries.
• The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries.
• Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries.
Creator
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Nia Hasanah
Document
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Title
A name given to the resource
The sea stories and stone sails of Borobudur
Description
An account of the resource
The most profound examples of ancient Southeast Asian ship iconography are found on the walls of the 9th century Borobudur monument in central Java. As the contemporary assemblage of nautical iconography from Southeast Asia is limited, the ship reliefs play an important role in debates over trade and expansion in India, Indonesia and mainland Southeast Asia.
The Borobudur ships are technical depictions, and contain data about rigging, rope use, rowing configurations and outrigger construction. Elements in their design have persisted independently as Indonesian watercraft evolved, including outriggers, bipod masts, canted rectangular sails, and quarter rudders. Discussion has focused on construction features, and scholars have made various assertions about how the vessels might have been built, how they were used, and their origin.
The vessels' artistic context is often ignored. The ship reliefs are part of a religious narrative which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should ultimately interpret them. The stories provide important clues as to where each vessel was headed, who was aboard, and what is happening on deck. Despite their detail, the Borobudur vessels should be interpreted cautiously, and not as ancient blueprints. They are artistic renditions that were never meant to float - they were meant to inspire.
Creator
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Douglas Inglis, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.)
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
5/15/2014
Asia-Pac Session 12 2014
-
https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6f297d1340fc774e1a5f8b0fdb3aacdf.pdf
11414bb7be6c33f17693aa26270135b6
PDF Text
Text
On-going archaeological researches on shipwrecked junks in the Philippines
Franck Goddio¹, David Fabre¹, Marie-Amande Coignard²
¹Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology, Manila
²Archaeological Artefacts Conservator
FEFNA. 125, Suerte Street, Pasay City, 1300 Metro Manilla, Philippines
Email: dfabre.ieasm@yahoo.fr, marieamande.coignard@gmail.com
Abstract
The Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA) have been working with
the National Museum of the Philippines for twenty-eight years. The researches aim at
illustrating the maritime history of the Philippines through excavations and studies of
shipwrecks lying in their territorial waters. This presentation on junks focuses on a case
study, with few conservation points. Some of the junks have been discovered during a
systematic research campaign alongside historical trade routes. Some excavations
have also been performed at the request of the National Museum. Our knowledge of the
“Nanhai trade” is enhanced by the cargoes study: a large panel of Asian production
disclosing a dynamic network of cultural influences and commercial exchanges lasting
from the 11th to the 16th centuries. Some historical maritime trading roads have been
revealed. The Santa Cruz junk, late 15th century, is representative of a transitional time in
Nanhai maritime trade. In a way, this ship is a landmark of the last inter-Asian trading
phase in the Chinese “Mediterranean” area, before the 16th century “globalization”. In
addition, the Santa Cruz hull’s condition enabled completion of the existing
documentation and a larger scale reflexion on cargo stowage and shipbuilding process.
Specific analyses on construction details and hypothesis on assembly methods result in
original data on the evolution of nautical techniques and on reciprocal influence and coexistence of shipbuilding technologies. Hence, the construction study contributes to the
renewal of Nanhai maritime transport understanding, as it shows some original
characteristic and a perfect appropriateness to inter-Asian maritime trade organization.
Keywords: Chinese Trade, Junk, Naval Architecture, Nanhai Trade, Santa Cruz junk
Introduction
Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology undertakes, with the National Museum of
the Philippines, archaeological missions in the Philippines since 1985. This work is centred
on the search for, and the study of, territorial waters’ shipwrecks. These junks were found
either during systematic surveys1, either while searching for Spanish galleons and East
India Company vessels2, or found by following up information given by fishermen3. To date
these include the Breaker (11th century), Investigator (13th century), Lena (about 1490),
1
�Española and Santa Cruz (both from the end of 15th century), San Isidro (about 1510),
and Royal Captain Shoal (1573-1619)4.
Development of Chinese commerce
The cargoes of these merchant ships offer an overview of Asian products and trade routes
with their development over more than six centuries, not only in Southeast Asia – the
“Nanhai trade” –, but also in the Indian Ocean, and the Middle East. About Far East trade
we knew, until recently, only the final and European phase, which began with the arrival of
the Portuguese in Asia in the 16th century. The study of the shipwrecked junks in the
Philippines contributes to the understanding of exchanges and the wider political and
economical circumstances that led to the development of trade in the China seas and
beyond, from the 11th century, when China established important and constant
commercial links with the archipelago, up to the 15th century. Factors included improved
navigational techniques, the apparition of a mercantile class, the reform of taxation, the
unification of coinage, the development of new routes, the use of the monsoon system, the
fight against piracy, the reforestation for shipbuilding, the expeditions of Zheng He, etc.
Furthermore, the richness and variety of junk cargoes from the 15th century belies the
restrictions on maritime trade implemented by the Ming Dynasty. Either the decrees
prohibiting maritime trade caused an explosion in the price of South-East Asian products
and thus created an incentive for smuggling, which is difficult to prove archaeologically, or
there was considerable movement of goods to and from China within the category of
official tribute5.
It is also at this time that exchanges between China and the Philippines experienced a
considerable expansion, formalised through tributary relations and the sending of
ambassadors. Successful trading operations between the two countries meant that many
Chinese settled there, especially at the end of the fifteenth century and the sixteenth
century. In the Mingshi6 the Philippines are the subject of the following comments: “Luzon
(...). Because of the fertility of the island, thousands of merchants from Zhanzhou went
there. Many settled there... A large number of vessels visited Mindoro which became
prosperous. The Chinese who traded with the island were treated with fairness and
respect”.
2
�In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the arrival of Europeans would increase the
volume of trade off the southern Chinese coast. The Spanish settled in the Philippines and
massively imported, in 'Manila galleons', coins minted with silver mined in Mexico and
Peru. To absorb this silver, the Chinese developed a very active trade with the Philippines,
reaching as far as the Sultanate of Jolo.
Navigation to the Philippines
The Sulu Sea, south of the Philippine archipelago, between Mindanao, Borneo and the
Moluccas, was an area of passage and exchange, certainly from the Tang period on (618907). According to Chinese written sources, one of the main routes to reach Borneo, a
junction of major shipping routes (Manguin, 2001: 8), utilised the interior sea of the
archipelago and thus provided opportunities for interaction with the local populations. The
Shung Feng Hsiang Sung7 states that starting from the southern ports, navigators could
choose from two routes: the western coastal route, along the coast of China until the
Malay Peninsula and then into the Indian Ocean, or the maritime route to the east, across
the South China Sea to the islands of Luzon and Mindoro, then continuing along the east
coast of Palawan to reach either Balambagan, Borneo and Java, or the Celebes or Maluku.
Before the end of the seventeenth century written sources do not mention a route along
the west coast of Palawan.
But it is precisely in this
“Palawan Passage” that
the
junks
Investigator,
Breaker,
Lena,
and
Royal Captain shoal were
found, providing evidence
of a “Nanhai Trade” route
along the west coast of the
island (Goddio et al., 1987;
Fig. 1 View of the junk Lena during excavations. (© Christoph Gerigk Goddio et al., 2002).
and Franck Goddio/FEFNA).
3
�Merchandise and cargoes
The Chu-fan-chi, written by Zhao Rugua, inspector of trade in Fujiang Province in the early
thirteenth century (Southern Song), describes the lands visited by Chinese merchants and
also gives valuable information on the products traded8. Silks and ceramics were the main
goods sold or bartered in exchange for spices, fragrant products and medicines. Luxury
goods were very present: fine beads, precious stones, ivory, precious woods, etc. The
Chinese reports from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which describe tributes sent
from the Philippines to the Ming court, list substantially identical products. The excavations
of the junks offer unique insight of this international Asiatic trade, and most especially an
overview of Chinese ceramic production for export (Goddio, et al., 1987: 22-73; Goddio et
al., 2002; Dizon and Orillaneda 2002; Orillaneda, 2008).
Under the Song Dynasty (960-1276), the production of ceramics is clearly motivated by
intellectual and aesthetic concerns (Breaker). The conquest of China by the Mongols in
the thirteenth century, and then the “Tartar peace”, favoured the reopening of the great
trade routes by land and sea. The ports of southern China, such as Guangzhou,
Quanzhou or Whenzou, exported Qinghai and shufu porcelain, as well as celadon and
4
�stoneware (Investigator). In return, the Chinese probably imported, amongst other goods,
a form of prepared cobalt from the region of Kashan in Persia, which, in the workshops in
Jingdezhen, produced large quantities of “blue and white”, in many forms and styles, in the
late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (Lena, Española, Santa Cruz).
The cargo of the junk Lena (Figs. 1-2) is dominated by Chinese porcelain from the last
decade of the fifteenth century (the reign of Emperor Hongzhi), mainly decorated in
underglaze cobalt blue, some white monochrome pieces sometimes incised with floral
motifs, a dish exceptionally richly decorated with enamel overglaze, and some fragments
of fahua porcelain and stoneware with “celadon” glaze. Much of this material is similar to
that in the collections of the Topkapi Saray in Istanbul and the sanctuary of Ardebil in Iran.
Beyond the typological study of the ceramics, there is the question of the destination of the
Lena. The large “blue and white” and celadon dishes, from the workshops of potters in
Jingdezhen and Longqan are generally considered to be export ceramics for the Middleeastern market. The jugs, bottles, large boxes, and the writing cases could confirm this
hypothesis. However, the numerous Thai celadon, the large brown glazed jars, and some
porcelain never noticed in the Near and Middle East, together with woks, basins and
bronze bracelets suggest that an Asian destination is most probable. Moreover, since
Islam, already installed in the Indonesian archipelago, had entered the Pacific Islands at
the end of the 15th century, it is conceivable that the Lena was sailing towards one of the
sultanates in the region9. In the beginning of the sixteenth century two types of porcelain
predominate. The first keeps the classic designs but the composition tightens and often
becomes overloaded, the blue has a grey tone, and the glaze is clouded (San Isidro). The
second category, made for a Muslim clientele is decorated with Arabic and Persian
characters. These are small pieces designed for the use of a scholar. In the last quarter of
the sixteenth century, quality deteriorates – the clay is less fine, the drawing crude, the
blue is less intense – like the china in the Royal Captain shoal, certainly intended for
markets in South East Asia.
As evidenced from both texts and archaeology, beads formed a traditional part of the
“Nanhai trade”. The Lena and the Santa Cruz transported many thousands of beads of
different sizes, shapes and colours, fired in the Tao Maenam Noi kilns and packaged in
small ovoid jars from Sawankhalok (Goddio et al., 2002). Several hundred have been
5
�uncovered during excavations of the Royal Captain shoal (Goddio et al., 1987: 74-75).
While the typology of these beads is not sufficient to identify their place of production,
chemical analysis indicates a significant proportion of lead and barium, which could
suggest a Chinese origin10. Ethnological studies conducted since the late nineteenth
century, particularly in Borneo and the Philippines, have recorded that the beads, used for
a long time and in large quantities, were often from China11.
The metal objects allow us to
see the regularity of this trade
over the centuries (Goddio et
al., 1987: 76-81; Goddio et al.,
2002: 235-248). All the junks,
from
the
sixteenth
eleventh
centuries,
to
the
carried
cast iron ingots and pans.
Wrought iron needles were
Fig. 3 Ceramics stacked in the hold compartments in the junk also found in a small porcelain
Santa Cruz. (© Christoph Gerigk and Franck Goddio/FEFNA)
“blue and white” vase carried
on the Lena. Needles were traditionally exported by China, as still recorded at the end of
the sixteenth century by the governor of Manila, Antonio de Morga. In addition, more than
180 tin ingots were distributed within the junk. The production of this metal was located
east of Sumatra, on the island of Banca, on the Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands.
Textual sources indicate that the tin was imported at Calamian Islands, Busuanga and the
Palawan region. Among the recurring finds are bronze gongs, were sold throughout South
East Asia by the Chinese (Wang Ta-Yuan, Tao-i Chih-Lioh, 1350). Some thirty years after
the sinking of the junks Lena and Santa Cruz, Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan
during his visit to the Sultan of the island of Cebu, Homahon, reported several Chinese
bronze gongs of Chinese origin12.
The quantity of ivory loaded on the Lena has been estimated at a minimum of eighty tusks
of various sizes and weights (Goddio et al., 2002: 249). Written sources provide details
about the trade in this product from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and Coromandel.
6
�During the Song Dynasty, its importation was heavily taxed, and it had to be made
available to the official market and could only be purchased by licensed traders. The cargo
of the Lena also contained combs and precious lacquer boxes.
Cargo stowage and organization
The remains of the junks evidences contribute to determine stowage techniques and cargo
organization (Figs. 3-4). The Lena shows us that ceramics, selected by shape and not by
decoration, were stacked in the hold compartments. No trace of protective cases has been
found; only residual bark and rice straw used as packing materials. The Santa Cruz had
sub-compartments formed by a small bamboo fence, held by poles, wooden hurdles and
bamboo links (Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming). One characteristic of the cargo of the
wreck of the Lena is the accumulation of small globular jars with the green glaze of
Sawankhalok from the kilns of Satchanaloi. In one compartment of the ship, 297 of them
remained stacked against each other. It is to be noted that the porcelain was not packed in
jars (Goddio et al., 2002: 1-41). Jars of glazed clay, which the Chinese were the first to be
able to make, were however the appropriate packaging for the transport of fragile goods.
From the eighth to the sixteenth century, Chinese ceramics exported overseas were
nested inside each other
and then stacked in jars. In
the estuary of the Pearl
River
fishermen
have
recovered Tang Dynasty
(617-907) jars, used to
package bowls and pots.
Excavation
of
the
junk
Breaker correlates the data
from Pinszhou Ketan on
merchant
ships
loading Fig. 4 Stowage of the cargo in the junk Santa Cruz. (© Christoph
during the Sung (960-1279). Gerigk and Franck Goddio / FEFNA)
7
�Naval Architecture
Analysis of the junks discovered in the Philippines began to fill the gaps left by standard
documentation. The junk Lena display a hull bottom 18 meters long and 5 meters wide –
overall length being estimated at 24 m, that of a medium-sized vessel (Goddio et al., 2002:
1-41). Unfortunately, a thick layer of concretion, product of iron ingots shipment now
welded
to
the
remains,
complicated the study. The hull,
23
strakes
of
which
are
preserved, is double, confirming
Marco Polo's observation that
Chinese junks had “a hull with a
double skin formed by two
superposed planks throughout
the length of the ship, carefully
caulked with tow on both sides
and held together with good iron Fig. 5 Prow of the junk Santa Cruz. (© Christoph Gerigk and
nails”. The ship has a hull with
Franck Goddio/FEFNA)
planks, made of Shorea sp., which are fully assembled from the freeboard, using small
cylindrical tenons of Palaquium sp., spaced at eleven to twelve centimetres. The planks
are fitted edge to edge and cut so that they fit into each other. To form the strake, the
planks are joined with “Jupiter scarfs”. The absence of ribs is not surprising; texts and
archaeological excavations show a subdivision of the hold with perpendicular bulkheads
constituting the transverse frame of the boat.
Discovered off the west coast of Luzon, the merchant junk Santa Cruz, also from the Ming
Dynasty, late fifteenth century, has a hull 80% preserved under the waterline (Fig. 5). This
rare state of preservation is partly due to sand burial and partly to wood species used for
the construction and known to be chemically and physically water resistant, as the long
lasting Vitex sp., Verbenaceae, the shipworms-proof Mimusops sp., Sapotaceae or the rotproof Afzelia sp., Caesalpiniaceae. Teakwood also contributed, since its oleoresin is
abrasion-resistant and helped preventing corrosion of the nails. With three masts and a
compartmented hold acting as frame, decked and supporting a castle, its length is about
8
�25 m with a 5.8 m width. A detailed study of the construction techniques has been made
(Fig. 6) (Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming).
Fig. 6 Plan of the junk Santa Cruz. Transverse bulkheads with compartmented hold serving as frame. (©
Patrice Sandrin and Franck Goddio/FEFNA)
Discussion
The case of the Santa Cruz
In considering the details of construction and their assumed assembly methods, points of
analysis related to the evolution of naval technology appear, as the contamination of one
technique by another, the coexistence of different processes of construction, etc. Thus, the
Santa Cruz architectural study opens up the question of the nature of shipping in the China
Sea before Portuguese and Spanish galleons arrival, showing the originality of certain
techniques, and an efficiency and technology perfectly adapted to intra-Asian maritime
trade organization.
9
�Vessel architecture, date and nature of unearthed material as well as shipwreck location
(west of the island of Luzon), make it highly to be a “Chinese” wreck – in the broadest
sense of the term, namely travelling to or from China. Certainly built outside of China –
most likely in the Philippines – it was loaded with an eclectic cargo of goods from all the
major production centres of the Celestial Empire, collected in the harbour warehouses of
southern China, but also Siam, Vietnam and elsewhere, before travelling to their final
markets .The junk was as “Chinese” as the ships in the western Mediterranean from the
imperial era were “Roman”.
The junk was also “Chinese” in its construction, with a hull shaped as a piece of split
bamboo, transverse bulkheads with a compartmented hold serving as frame, hull planks
joined with iron nails but also, following the traditional hybrid Southern China Sea style,
with the keel playing an essential structural role, and using timber of tropical origin. All the
wood species used in the construction of the Santa Cruz are found in the Philippine
archipelago and most of the islands in the South China Sea, but not in China. The
merchants who had chartered it therefore could not belong to the provinces of Fujian and
Guangdong, sailing on ships built in China. The essentially “Chinese” architecture seems
to rule out the possibility that it was chartered by the peoples of South East Asia, very
active on the eastern route between Melaka and Manila Bay (Reid, 1996: 34-35), but who
sailed on craft built with local traditional techniques (Manguin, 2001).
Ultimately, given the assumed departure port of the ship, wrecked off the coast of Luzon,
and the fact that its ceramics all date from a period when the prohibition to build ships and
trade abroad was strictly applied by the Ming, it is highly unlikely that the ship and its
charterers were of continental origin. It is much more likely that they belonged to a
Chinese community located in the commercial towns of the archipelago. Certainly made in
collaboration with local shipbuilders, the junk benefited from their particular expertise. Its
construction is consistent with a “tendency to crossing, identified in shipbuilding technology
evolution, with a new type of ship in archaeological sites from between the fourteenth and
sixteenth centuries, probably coinciding with the increasing role played by Chinese trade
and ‘merchant adventurers’ in Southeast Asia” (Manguin, 2001: 15).
The Santa Cruz marks out the final phase of the intra-Asian trade in the late fifteenth
century Chinese “Mediterranean”, before the sixteenth century “globalization”, when a new
10
�global geography emerges from expanding traffic and desires for domination. While this
future changes did not effect the Santa Cruz, it is poignant to note that it was wrecked a
few miles northwest of Manila, the future Spanish colony that would be installed on the
already well established maritime trade route. Is it possible that Manila (Luzon), on the
eastern “Nanhai Trade” route played the same role as Maleka, on the western route?
Before the Spanish conquest, Maleka took advantage of the Chinese emperor's closure of
the seas. Located on a key point of Chinese Eastern trade route, the city was well placed
to assert itself as an unavoidable stop for the tributary exchanges between Asia SouthEast and China, and as a regional depot for goods travelling to or from the Empire13. Like
the Portuguese in Maleka in 1511, the Spaniards were not mistaking in settling down in
Manila in 1571 in order to become the preferred trading partner of China. It was there,
even before the lifting of the Ming ban in 1567, that Fujian merchants, deprived of their
main source of income, foreign trade, rushed to build junks capable of transporting goods
from both China and South East Asia.
Conservation
While hulls remain in situ, excavated artefacts are conserved in land. If some have been
sent overseas for treatment, most of them have been treated in Manila, in partnership
which the National Museum. Experts have been called sporadically for interventions, but
all the long-term tasks, as desalinisation process, are in charged of local staff, with good
maintenance and very good results. It is noticeable that standard European treatments
for metals protection have to be reinforced to fit with the Philippines very high relative
humidity, while ceramics will benefit of a low risk of salt crystallisation due to the same
factor.
In-situ preservation is facilitated by usually calm deep water and sand burial but
cyclones and pillars are a threat (i.e. pillars damaged the Lena site before excavation
and stole the metal foils maintaining reburial sand on the Santa Cruz site). The Lena
hull was reburied under 150 centimetres of sand, from the site itself, with no system to
maintain the sand in position. Last checking on the Santa Cruz site shows that the sand
was still in position despite the lack of holding devices.
Given the complexity, the cost and the constraints of waterlogged ship conservation,
there are no current plans to unbury and treat the hulls. Even with recent developments
11
�in waterlogged wood conservation, raising a ship should not become a standard
operation unless it’s under direct destruction threat. Iron-saturated wood of the Lena
would still be a nightmare to conserve. Researches may eventually solve problems due
to iron sulphates, consolidation products, and sensibility to relative humidity. Currently,
we better stand with in-situ conservation and scientific data compilation.
Endnotes
1
Geophysical surveys notably led to the discovery of junk San Isidro. Goddio et al., 1997.
2
As for the Royal Captain shoal (Goddio et al., 1987).
3
As for the junks Breaker, Lena and Santa Cruz (Goddio et al. 1997; Goddio et al. 2002; Goddio
and Fabre, forthcoming).
4
Named after the site of their discovery.
5
Official “tribute” trade did not prohibit trade market exchange. Lam, in Goddio et al, 2002: 50. In
particular, in the early fifteenth century, the Muslim city-states that developed in Southeast Asia
became prosperous thanks to embassies sent to China which wove strong economic ties with the
continental power, i.e.: Brunei. Karim Osman, 2001: 21-22.
6
The official history of the Ming dynasty. Quotes from Lam, in Goddio et al, 2002: 52.
7
An anonymous compilation written in 1430, with additions in 1571, the Shun Feng Hsiang Sung is
one of the most important sources for sea routes followed between South China and the
Indonesian archipelago, the Malabar Coast, Yemen, the Red Sea, the Sunda Islands or the Sulu
Sea. Shun Feng Sung Hsiang, Laud MS, Or 145, Bodleian Library, Oxford. Needham, 1971: 581;
Mills, 1979.
8
Hirth and Rockhill, 1911
9
In the fifteenth century, relations between China and Brunei developed considerably. At the end of
the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century, Brunei experienced a golden age
and became the hub of the region, collecting at its port most of the forest products of western
Borneo, as well as those of the neighbouring Muslim communities of Sulu and Mindanao. Karim
Osman, 2001: 20; Manguin, 2001: 9-10.
10
Spectrographic analysis has also shown the role of metal oxides in the colouration of the beads.
However one should be cautious as bacterial reduction following the shipwreck might have
changed the colour of the beads by reducing the metal oxides in the paste.
11
We know the extremely important role that the beads played and continue to play in the lives of
indigenous people of Borneo. The Philippines also imported glass beads, just as they did porcelain,
gold, lead and iron needles (Rugua Zhao Chu-fan-chi, 40 trad. Hirth & Rockhill, 1911). The
distribution of these beads has been identified in the archaeological sites along the western side of
Luzon and the south-western fringe of the Philippines.
12
�12
Pigafetta, Voyage autour du monde, Ms. Fr. 24224 B.N. Paris. Musical or ritual instrument, and a
sign of opulence, gongs were also used on boats to sound the hour and to announce the arrival of
a trading junk to the local population. Among the metal objects discovered not directly related to
trade were the guns found on the Lena, of great significance for the study of the armament carried
by Asian ships and its technology, especially before the arrival of Europeans (Goddio et al., 2002:
237-241). Three staff guns were found during the excavations of the Santa Cruz (Goddio and
Fabre, forthcoming).
13
Not to mention Brunei and Banten on in the South China Sea which played an important role in
international trade, being termini for navigation in the South China Sea.
References
Dizon, E., Orillaneda, R. 2002. Ming Blue and Whites from Shipwrecks in the
Phillippines. In Yuan and Ming Blue and White Ware from Jiangxi. Jiangxi Provincial
Museum and the Art Museum: 211-223.
Goddio, F. et al. 1987. La fouille de la jonque du Royal Captain shoal. Dossiers
d’Histoire et Archéologie 113. Paris.
Goddio, F., Desroches, J.-P., Crick, M., 1997. Weisses Gold. Göttingen.
Goddio, F., Crick, M., Pierson, S., Scott, R., Lam, P.Y.K., 2002. Lost at sea, The
strange route of the Lena shoal Junk. London.
Goddio, F., Fabre, D. (dir.), forthcoming. The Ming Dynasty Santa Cruz junk shipwreck
in the Philippines. Oxford.
Hirth, F., Rockhill, W., 1911. Zhao Rugua, Chu-fan-chi. Saint Petersburg.
Karim, Pg. Dr., Osman, Pg. Haji, 2001. L’épave de Brunei et sa contribution à l’histoire
maritime de Brunei. In M. L’Hour (dir.), La mémoire engloutie de Brunei. t. 2. Paris: 1927.
Manguin, P.-Y., 2001. Réseaux marchands et navires en mer de Chine méridionale. In
M. L’Hour (dir.), La mémoire engloutie de Brunei. t. 2. Paris: 7-17.
Mills, J.V. 1979. Chinese navigators in Insulinde about A.D. 1500. Archipel 18: 37-62.
Needham, J., 1971. Science and Civilization in China. Cambridge.
Orillaneda, B.C., 2008. The Santa Cruz, Zambales Shipwreck Ceramics: Understanding
Southeast Asian Ceramic trade during the late 15th Century C.E. University of the
Philippines. Diliman Quezon City.
Reid, A., 1996. Sojourners and settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese. St.
Leonard.
13
�Biography
Franck Goddio is the founder and president of the Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical
Archaeology (FEFNA), Manila, of the Institut Européen d’Archéologie Sous-Marine
(IEASM), Paris, and co-founder of the Oxford Center for Maritime Archaeology. Under
his direction the FEFNA excavated wrecks in the Philippines in collaboration with the
National Museum of the Philippines : trading junks and native boats dating from the 11th
to the 16th century, Spanish galleons – the San Diego (1600) and the San José (1794)
–, vessels of the British East India Company – the Griffin (1761) and the Royal Captain
(1773).
David Fabre is Doctor in Archaeology, he graduated from Montpellier University in 2003
and has participated to numerous archaeological excavations in France and elsewhere
the world, specifically in Egypt which he concentrated on maritime trade shipwrecks. In
2004, he joined European Institute of Underwater Archaeology (IEASM), directed by
Franck Goddio. He coordinate the publication of the junk Santa Cruz – discovered in the
Philippines by The Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA, Manila) in
collaboration with the National Museum of the Philippines.
Marie-Amande Coignard is graduated from Sorbonne University Master degree in
archaeological artefacts conservation. After holding internships in France, Greece and
Western Australia, she worked mainly on underwater archaeological heritage, in France
(Arles, Roman boat excavation and conservation; Marseille, museum artefacts and
Roman boats conservation), in Egypt (Alexandria, underwater excavation artefacts),
and in the Philippines (Manilla, mainly Santa Cruz junk artefacts). After a winter-over in
Antarctica, working on historical frozen heritage, Marie-Amande is currently conserving
another antique shipwreck at ARC-Nucleart conservation centre.
14
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia
Subject
The topic of the resource
Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session.
Description
An account of the resource
The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions.
UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex.
The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation.
This session will discuss:
• Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH.
• The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries.
• The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries.
• Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Nia Hasanah
Document
A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
On-going archaeological researches on shipwrecked junks in the Philippines
Description
An account of the resource
The Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA) have been working with the National Museum of the Philippines for twenty-eight years. The researches aim at illustrating the maritime history of the Philippines through excavations and studies of shipwrecks lying in their territorial waters. This presentation on junks focuses on a case study, with few conservation points. Some of the junks have been discovered during a systematic research campaign alongside historical trade routes. Some excavations have also been performed at the request of the National Museum. Our knowledge of the “Nanhai trade†is enhanced by the cargoes study: a large panel of Asian production disclosing a dynamic network of cultural influences and commercial exchanges lasting from the 11th to the 16th centuries. Some historical maritime trading roads have been revealed. The Santa Cruz junk, late 15th century, is representative of a transitional time in Nanhai maritime trade. In a way, this ship is a landmark of the last inter-Asian trading phase in the Chinese “Mediterranean†area, before the 16th century “globalizationâ€. In addition, the Santa Cruz hull’s condition enabled completion of the existing documentation and a larger scale reflexion on cargo stowage and shipbuilding process. Specific analyses on construction details and hypothesis on assembly methods result in original data on the evolution of nautical techniques and on reciprocal influence and co- existence of shipbuilding technologies. Hence, the construction study contributes to the renewal of Nanhai maritime transport understanding, as it shows some original characteristic and a perfect appropriateness to inter-Asian maritime trade organization.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Franck Goddio
David Fabre
Marie-Amande Coignard, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.)
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
5/15/2014
Asia-Pac Session 12 2014
-
https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/608496afb48de4ebb85a75ab461d190f.mp4
a11545042455212c6d07d4862e081b4d
Dublin Core
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Title
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Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia
Subject
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Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session.
Description
An account of the resource
The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions.
UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex.
The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation.
This session will discuss:
• Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH.
• The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries.
• The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries.
• Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries.
Creator
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Nia Hasanah
Moving Image
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah
Description
An account of the resource
The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions.
UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex.
The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation.
This session will discuss:
• Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH.
• The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries.
• The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries.
• Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Nia Hasanah
Date
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6/12/2014
Asia-Pac Session 12 2014