2 10 12 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5ebf5fc4d413b82e1d781f5f9beed659.pdf cc25853ce84a8e2a502c1a147b024f0c PDF Text Text The 12th to 13th century Cargo Ships of Korea: Proof of Medieval Maritime Transportation Found in Taean waters, Korea Jong-guk Shin 530-839 136 Namnongro, Mokpo, Jeonnam, Korea Email: sjk1203@ocp.go.kr Abstract This paper is about the wrecked ships found in Tae-an, Korea, and the ongoing investigation. Four cargo ships of the Middle Ages were excavated from Taean, Korea during 2007 - 2011. Three of these four ships were found in a 1 km radius, as such, this sea area is famous for sinking ships since ancient times. Among the found relics were wooden tablets describing the origin of the cargoes, the receiver, types of cargoes and quantity was found. These wooden tablets were the first of its kind found in a Korean wrecked ship, which provide specific historical facts. The four wrecked ships found in adjacent place, were wrecked during the transportation of products from a production area in the mid-southern part of Korea, where a capital city was located at one time. One ship was transporting tens of thousands of porcelain, while the other three were transporting a small quantity of porcelain and foodstuffs. Key words: Tae-an waters, Medieval maritime, Transportation, Taean Shipwreck, Yellow Sea coast Introduction The Taean Peninsula is a prominent area of the Yellow Sea coast. It is known for its rough seas; in the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910 AD) they tried to build a canal to change the seaway, since many cargo vessels transporting taxed grains had wrecked. In particular, they had to pass through between Gauido and Gwansugak across the route between Sinjindo and Anheungseong to transport tax grain from the south of Yangkwang Province. This is where marine accidents happened frequently, so uring the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392 AD) this place was known as “Nanhangnyang”, a waterway dangerous to pass( Anheungnyang since Joseon) and considered it as one of the most dangerous sea areas including Uldolmok in Jindo, Sondolmok in Kanghwa Island, and Indangsu in Seohae Province. For this reason, from the Goryeo Dynasty the excavation work for canals was conducted to keep cargo vessels safer. The following shows the situation of marine accidents in the early Joseon. Although all of these accidents did not occur in the Taean waters, most of them are considered involved in this area. 1 � Ship Accident Statistics during 1395 to 1455 (for 60 years) (a total of 200 ships; loss of grain-15,800 bags of rice) As a part of an effort to overcome these frequent sinking accidents of cargo vessels, they had attempted the excavation of canals since the Goryeo period, to develop new routes in order not to pass through Anheungnyang. The first attempt was in 1134, which was at the Gulpo Canal passing between Cheonsu Bay and Garorim Bay. This canal was planned as a total of 7km sluiceway. They succeeded in excavating 4 km, but failed because of the bedrock in the way. It was resumed in 1391, but was ultimately uncompleted. The second Fig. 1 Shipping places and destination of attempt made was the Uihang Canal, between medieval Korea. (NRIMCH) Uihang-ri and Mohang-ri, Sowon-myeon, Taean-gun in 1521 during the Joseon Era. They mobilized 3,000 people to excavate but eventually the project was abandoned. The region of Anheungnyang, Taean, was the standard ship course that they had to pass through to transport tax grain of Jeolla and Gyeongsang Provinces, the breadbasket of Korea; by ship, but as there were many barriers to sailing the region such as strong tides, rocks, winds and thick fog. About 80 anchor stones were discovered in 200 x 100 m area between Mado and Geunheung where tidal currents were relatively weak and the winds were manageable while exploring the Mado waters from 2009 to 2012. These anchor stones were used for anchoring premodern ships and tied to wooden anchors. With nearly 100 anchor stones found in that part of the Mado Sea area implies that this place used as an anchorage over a long period. The 12th to 13th Century Shipwrecks Found in the Taean Waters The Taean Shipwreck, a porcelain carrier, was investigated between 2007 and 2008, and the Mado 1, 2 and 3 Shipwrecks were excavated consecutively between 2009 and 2011 in the Taean waters, this place became where most of the underwater 2 �archeological surveys were actively conducted in Korea recently. These shipwrecks are located within a radius of 4km, dating to the early 12th century to the end of the 13th century and dating within the Goryeo Dynasty Period. The Taean Shipwreck The Taean Shipwreck had sunk while transporting porcelain made in the famous ceramic producing area in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, from the then capital city at that time. In a space of 12 m east to west and 8 m south to north, approximately 25,000 pieces of porcelains loaded in five stories were recovered, and external boards of the ship framed in 4 levels appeared in the bottom. It is inferred that the reason there is no bottom plank, compared to both bottom plank and external plank are identified usually in the other vessels, is that at the time of sinking the vessel was completely tilted a port or a starboard and settled on the seabed. It was likely that the other prow, stern and bottom parts disappeared, except for a part of the external plank in one side pressed by the heavy porcelain after sinking. The excavated relics from the Taean Shipwreck include 34 wooden tablets, 23,760 porcelains, 9 pieces of earthenware, 2 iron pots, including bamboo baskets, bronze bowls and anchor stones. Porcelain was the major cargo of the ship. On the wooden tablets were a list of recipients, and the other things were items that the crew used. Most important among these artifacts are the wooden tablets. Even though wooden tablets Fig. 2 Canals and shipwrecks in Taean were also identified in the Sinan Ship (the first peninsula. (NRIMCH) Korean ship excavated underwater ship) the ship was of the Yuan Dynasty, China, and it was the first time that wooden tablets were discovered from a sunken ship operating in Korea. Since the wooden tablets recorded the kinds of cargo, quantity, shipping places, destinations, recipients and shipment times, they offers critical clues to specifically figure out the historical features of the ship. Brief examples of the tablets are as follows: 3 �○ wooden tablet 1: (the front side) “I send 80 pieces/packs of pottery to the house of a government official (隊正 仁守) in Gaegyeong from Tamjin (place name).” “We load the same amount as mentioned above. Captain’s signature/ Tamjin-hyeon as the shipping place (Kangjin, located in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at present), a recipient called Daejeong Insu in the Goryeo’s capital, Gaegyeong (present Gaeseong), pottery as a kind of cargo, and 80 pieces or packs as the amount of cargo were inscribed there. ○ wooden tablet 2: (the front) “I offer this to Daegyeong Choi”/a Daegyeong (a highranking title of the official of jeong 3 pum to jong 3 pum) having his last name of Choi ○ wooden tablet 3: (the front) “I offer pottery to Jangmyeong Yu /a Jangmyeong (title of the office) having his last name of Yu. ○ wooden tablet 4: As the result of wiggle match, combining dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating of wooden tablet/the body of the ship where year marked, if we consider the ship was made of wood cut down between 1126 and 1150 and the porcelain was made between the early and mid-12th century in terms of pottery chronology, the Year of the Swine was ascertained to be 1131, and eventually the Taean Shipwreck was assumed to be wrecked while transporting cargo in 1131. Thus, we could specifically grasp historical facts of the sunken ship through the wooden tablets discovered from the Taean Shipwreck. However, as only 4 levels of the external planks remain out of the hull, it is hard to comprehend the structure of the ship. 4 �The Mado Shipwreck No.1 The Mado Shipwreck No.1 was found in 2009, and was investigated in the same year. The sea area where the ship was wrecked is about 15 to 20 m deep and is affected by the strongest tides in the harbor. The remaining conditions of the hull were relatively fine; 7 rows of bottoms, 2 levels of port, 3 levels of starboard, and stem, although not framed, were identified. The port and starboard Fig. 3 Wooden tablets of shipwrecks. remains, in term of cross section of the bottom (NRIMCH) of the ship almost maintains level, and in terms of longitudinal section the ship has raked forward. Artifacts found comprised of nearly 300 pieces of porcelain, 49 pieces of earthenware, 69 wooden tablets, 9 bamboo trays, 6 wooden combs, 2 bamboo baskets, 13 bronze spoons, 3 iron pots. This shipwreck was a cargo ship having transported mainly grains such as rice seed, buckwheat and bean. Other foodstuffs such as fish bones and Korean sauces inside earthenware jars were found as well. Unlike the porcelain carrier Taean shipwreck, the Mado Shipwreck No.1 was mostly a grain carrier. The shipments of the Mado No. 2 and 3 shipwrecks seem to have transported grains such as rice in the remainder but the center of hull, and earthenware jars containing food such as Korean sauces, porcelain for merchandise, and craftworks such as bamboo trays in the central part. A lot of wooden tablets were also excavated in these ships. Major items are as follows: ○ wooden tablet 1 : “I offer these produce to Choi Gwang in February 19, the Year of the Dragon (1208): 10 bags of millet and 3 bags of buckwheat harvested in the field, and 2 bags of fermented soybean lumps; 10 mals (approximately 34L) of produce are put in each bag.” ○ wooden tablet 2 : “I offer this produce to Honorary Army Commander Yun Gi-hwa in Capital from Juksan-hyeon in December 28, the Year of the Hare (1207): 3 bags of millet harvested in the field. 20 mals (approximately 68L) a bag” 5 �○ wooden tablet 3: “I offer this to Nangjung Choi (a government official in jeong 5 pum post having his last name Choi): a jar of salted fish”. ○ wooden tablet 4: “I offer 24 bags of white rice harvested in a new field in Hoejin-hyeon (now Naju city)”. ○ wooden tablet 5: “I offer these to Army Commander Kim Sun-yeong. 6 bags of rice harvested in the field”. We can understand concretely about the Mado shipwreck No.1 through the contents of the wooden tablets. First, regarding freight shipping and departure date, as a result of comparing with Kim Sun-yeong, a figure appearing in “History of the Goryeo Dynasty Period”, a historical book on Goryeo, we can find out that the period of shipping was around October 1207 to February 19th, 1208, and the departure date was not later than February 19th. The places of shipping identified in wooden tablets are at present Haenam-gun, Naju-si, Jangheung-gun and Yeongam-gun in South Jeolla Province, and the recipients were persons of high position, including Army Commander Kim Sunyeong, Nangjung Choi, Kwon Geuk-pyeong and Yun Bang-jun. In the kinds of cargo, well-polished rice, unpolished rice seed, millet, buckwheat, bean, fermented soybean lump, salted fish, salted mackerel, salted crabs, bamboo tray and comb are verified in the wooden tablets. In particular, as all recipients of the grains were individuals, the freight was almost for rent. Therefore, the Mado 1 doesn’t seem to be a state cargo ship but a private one transporting grains, food and craftworks of South Jeolla region where there were private lands of the then influential persons residing in capital. The Mado Shipwreck No. 2 The Mado shipwreck No.2 was discovered in 2009 in process of trial excavation and fully excavated in 2010. 2 levels of external planks of the port, 7 rows of bottoms and 5 levels of external planks of the starboard remain; it listed 25 degrees to starboard in terms of cross section yet it was almost level between stem and stern. We removed soil layers by checking exposed relics. There are 5 layers into the Mado Shipwreck No.2. The first layer was the surface of the mud; the second is the state that base blocks expose stacks of grain; the third is the side where bridging, vessels for living, and earthenware and porcelain for cargo in the central part are exposed after removing the 6 �base blocks; the fourth is the side where the hull is completely exposed; and the fifth is the state after salvaging the hull. Fig. 4 Plans of Mado shipwreck No. 2. (left: Fig. 5 Plans of Mado shipwreck No. 3. (left: 3-1 second layer plan, right: third layer plan). layer plan, right : 3-2 layer plan). (NRIMCH) (NRIMCH) The area where the Mado No. 2 sank is not an area that has active sedimentation, since there were not many collapsed timbers of the upper part. Relics from the upper part, the external planks of port and starboard, stem and stern seem to have been all washed away. We see the entrance of the vessel as the second section and the central part as the third section, the bridging and base blocks for loading grain were found in the second, fourth and fifth spaces, and grains such as rice seed were identified in the exposed upper side of base block, so grains probably was loaded in the second, fourth and fifth sections. A mast was installed in the central part of the end of the third section, and there is an area to make a fire comprised of fragments of roof tiles, stones and clay to port. Iron pots that sailors used, big jars containing water, dinnerware, spoons and bamboo baskets were excavated around the “fireplace”, and there were jars for salted fish, 2 mae-byeong (a type of jar), a pack of cups and overlapped iron pots assumed as freight were recovered in the second section. In the last (sixth) section a millstone was recovered. The excavated relics from the Mado No. 2 are: 157 pieces of porcelain, 28 pieces of earthenware, 58 wooden tablets, 8 bronze spoons, 4 bronze bowls, 8 iron pots, bamboo baskets, and grains such as rice seed, millet, buckwheat, wild sesame, and bean. 7 �Similarly, we can find out the places of shipment, recipients and date of the wreck through the contents of the wooden tablets. The places of shipment were Gochang-gun and Jeongeup of North Jeolla, Korea, and the recipients were government officials residing in capital, whose names are Lee Geuk-seo, Yu Ja-ryang and Oh Mun-bu. The sailing time is not correct, but it can be assumed to be approximately 1200 to 1213 CE in the light of records on the persons above. Freight carried included polished rice, beans, malt, fermented soybean lumps, salted fish, honey, sesame oil, and some iron pots. Like the Mado No.1 shipwreck, we can see this shipwreck as a cargo ship that mainly carried grains, including food and other craftworks of the North Jeolla region, where there was private lands of influential people living in the capital. The Mado Shipwreck No. 3 The Mado Shipwreck No. 3 was investigated in 2011 and holds the best state of its hull among the regions’ shipwrecks discovered. The maximum height of the ship is 2.8 m; 10 levels of port, 9 levels of starboard, and 5 rows of bottoms remain; body of the ship tilted 8 to 12 degrees to port and about 5 degrees to bow. The reason that the Mado No. 3 remains are well preserved is in the position of sinking. The area where the Mado No.3 was discovered was about 200m from shore, and as it is surrounded by land and islands like the Mado No.2. There is almost no tide and it is a place used for a refuge area in storms even today. It is also an area where there is active sedimentation. We can guess why the Mado No. 2 and 3 sank although they already arrived at refuge. The Mado No. 3 was excavated in four sections. The first section is a state that clay is removed up to around – 60cm, with lumbers for loading grain and wooden relics were recovered from this side. The second section is the exposed side where the ship framework collapsed, where fragments assumed to be a deck board of the upper part and the upper external boards collapsed. The third section is comprised of shipped or used relics at –180 to 250 cm depth. The upper area in the section is classified as 3-1 and the lower part as 3-2.The inside of the hull is divided into six sections; from the bow, the first space was too steep to ship goods. In the second, fourth and fifth sections, a bridging and base block for loading grain was recovered, as well as some grains. The sixth section of the stern part is the narrowest space, where bamboo boxes containing shark jerky, baskets and earthenware jars were loaded. Grains are found in the port and 8 �southern areas along with earthenware in the third section the central part (where a mast is installed), yet these grains seem to have flowed into this section from the second and fourth sections while the ship wrecked. Particularly, there is a space only for earthenware jars in about 70 cm section of the central part from the second section, from which about 20 pieces of earthenware were excavated. A fire place for cooking was installed in the southwest corner in the 3-2 side of the third section; earthenware goods are loaded in two rows north; iron pots and earthen goods in the central part; and about 50 bronze containers such as bowls, plates and spoons (9) were identified around the starboard side and right lower side corner. From the bow, the first section was the space unfit for use due to the inclination of the bottom part, a large amount of grains were onboard in the second, fourth and fifth section, and additional cargoes were loaded in the sixth section. And in the center of the third section, there was a fireplace and a living space for crew dinnerware and cooking containers. Earthenware jars containing salted fish for freight were also loaded. In the Mado No. 3 various relics were recovered, including 50 pieces of earthenware, 41 pieces of porcelain, 35 wooden tablets, 2 iron pots, 43 bronze tableware, 9 bronze spoons, 7 wooden combs, fabrics, janggi (Korean chess) pieces, 12 antlers, and grains such as rice, buckwheat, millet and barley. The facts that we can know through the wooden tablets are that the shipping place of the Mado No. 3 was Yeosu-city of southeast area of South Jeolla Province, and individual recipients were Shin Yun-hwa, Yu Cheon-u and Kim Jun, among whom especially Kim Jun was a man of supreme power who seized power of the Goryeo at that time. Unlike the other ships, individuals as well as state institutions appear as the recipients; Jeonmin in charge of the reforming land system, Jungbang-ubeon and U-sambeon-byeolcho were military departments in nature, and Dogwan, in charge of documents on slaves and lawsuit. Barley, salted abalone viscera, salted mussel, abalone, shark jerky, peasant, fish oil, and dog meat jerky are verified as the kind of freight in the wooden tablets. We can find out that the Mado No. 3 sunk between 1265 and 1268 through the comparison of persons’ names on the wooden tablets and historical records. 9 �Conclusions The number of the sunken ships excavated in the sea of Korea by now is 12, and all of them fall under the Goryeo Period (10th to 14th centuries). Thus, it can be said that in the Goryeo maritime transportation at home and abroad was the most active. These four cargo vessels of the Goryeo period were discovered in Taean waters, over recent years, and they give more abundant proof of maritime transportation in the region than anything else among the sunken ships of the time e.g. the data of the ship structure, the pottery, grains, food and articles of the crew. The most significant finds are the wooden tablets inscribed with specific information of the cargo. As these wooden tablets sometimes have records on the shipping time as well as the shipping places, recipients, kinds and quantity, we can figure out historical facts of the shipwrecks. Cargo ships of Goryeo investigated by now are classified into two kinds according to the kinds of freight. One is a porcelain carrier, which was a vessel transporting porcelain made in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, the then major porcelain-producing area, mostly to the central region where the capital was located. The Taean Ship represents one of these types, as well as the Wando Ship and the Sibidongpado Ship. These pottery carriers seem to have shipped only porcelain and earthenware usually, not other freight. The other type of ship is identified as a grain carrier, represented by the wrecks Mado No.1, 2 and 3. For convenience sake, we can call it a grain carrier, but in these vessels various goods were shipped, not only grains but also various foods such as salted fish, fermented soybean lumps, Korean sauces, jars of honey and sesame oil, craftworks such as bamboo trays, combs, bronze vessels, iron pots, porcelain and fabrics, and raw material for handcrafts such as antlers. In the light of Mado No. 2 and 3, it is thought that the method of shipping cargo such as food and craftwork was in the central part of the ship, or in the central part and in the stern part, and grains were commonly shipped in the other sections. These sunken ships were generally estimated to be between 13 to 20 m long and more than 2.5 m high, but it is not certain; a mast was installed in the central part in terms of ship structure; and the floor was flat. A simple cooking facility was located in the central part where the mast was installed, and articles for the sailors, food and craftworks seem to have been packed there as well. It is not certain yet 10 �whether these ships were operated officially by the state, by influential persons or by a merchant group. Acknowledgements I am thankful to everyone who participated in the underwater excavation on Taean Shipwreck and Mado Shipwreck No. 1, 2, 3 projects. Also, I appreciate to Mr. Sung-Tae Lim and Gwang-Hee Hong who were supposed to join in 2014 APCONF. I have deep gratitude to Mr. Seojin Kim who helped me a lot and all of my colleagues of the NRIMCH. References NRIMCH., 2009. Taean Treasure ship, Report of the Research of Antiquities of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 17. NRIMCH., 2010. Taean Mado Shipwreck No.1, Report of the Research of Antiquities of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 20. NRIMCH., 2011. Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 2, Report of the Research of Antiquities of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 22. NRIMCH., 2012, Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 3, Report of the Research of Antiquities of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 27. Shin Jong-guk is senior curator (40 years old) serving at National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, the Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea. He has excavated 3 shipwrecks of the Goryeo Dynasty as a team leader of the underwater excavation and investigated from 2010 to 2013 and participated in the marine exploration in various places of Korea. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The 12th to 13th century Cargo Ships of Korea: Proof of Medieval Maritime Transportation Found in Taean waters, Korea Description An account of the resource This paper is about the wrecked ships found in Tae-an, Korea, and the ongoing investigation. Four cargo ships of the Middle Ages were excavated from Taean, Korea during 2007 - 2011. Three of these four ships were found in a 1 km radius, as such, this sea area is famous for sinking ships since ancient times. Among the found relics were wooden tablets describing the origin of the cargoes, the receiver, types of cargoes and quantity was found. These wooden tablets were the first of its kind found in a Korean wrecked ship, which provide specific historical facts. The four wrecked ships found in adjacent place, were wrecked during the transportation of products from a production area in the mid-southern part of Korea, where a capital city was located at one time. One ship was transporting tens of thousands of porcelain, while the other three were transporting a small quantity of porcelain and foodstuffs. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jong-guk Shin, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b9289d86897ce8fb8377070c26fb8c6c.pdf fd02242cb2a6259f3ace223f5079cf84 PDF Text Text Portuguese Naus on Namban Screens: A study of the first European ships on paintings from the late 16th to early 17th centuries in Japan Kotaro Yamafune Texas A&M University, College Station USA 77843 Email: goldfloor@tamu.edu Abstract Namban screens, a well-known Japanese art form, were painted by skillful Japanese artists from the late 16th century to the 17th centuries. Approximately 90 of these screens have been handed down up to the present. Not only they show some important historical scenes of European commercial activities in the Far East for the first time, but they also depict representational pictures of Portuguese ships during the Age of Discovery. Although the ships’ images on the screens are roughly acceptable, the details are often strangely anachronistic. The same images could be found in some Western maps in the 16th century. Judging from the similarity, perhaps, Japanese painters, who had never seen actual ships themselves in ports, did manage to copy the images from ones on those maps, which were brought to Japan by the wellknownTensho embassy. This was the first Japanese embassy that was sent to Europe; the diplomats left Japan in 1582 and arrived at Portugal in 1584. They met with Pope Gregory XIII and his successor, Pope Sixtus V, in Rome, and then returned back to their homeland in 1590. In the following year the embassy members succeeded in seeing HideyoshiToyotomi, who was the leading political ruler in Japan at that time. They gave him some souvenirs from Europe, including the maps. It seems that some official court painters had a chance to see those gifts, from where Japanese artists could have obtained an idea of the ships’ images that appear in the Namban screens. Keywords:Namban Screen, Japan, Portugal, Ships, Naus, Introduction In the early 14th century, Japan was introduced to the European world as an Island of Gold by the Venetian explorer Marco Polo. Portuguese sailors finally reached these far away lands in 1543, more than 200 years after Marco Polo’s first publication and the introduction of Zipangu. In the following century, Portuguese merchants enjoyed the lucrative Japanese trade. Today, we know a lot about this first interaction between the Europeans and Japanese from both contemporary Latin and Japanese chronicles and journals; however, among all primary sources, the most intriguing and visually-pleasing information appears on Namban screens, a famous Japanese art form, which was 1 �produced at the end of the 16th century throughout the and 17th century in Japan (Fig. 1). Namban screens are regarded as the first Japanese artworks that depicted Europeans and their ships visiting Japan. The original goal of the author’s research was to identify the Portuguese ships that travelled to the Far East and to illuminate Fig. 1 Namban Screen: Version A of Kyushu National Museum their nature and the details (Important Cultural Property). Top is Right Panel and Bottom is Left Panel (154.5 X 363.2 cm each). (M. Sakamoto) of their upper structures. However, during this research, the author recognized that the ships that were depicted on many of the screens were implausible representations of oceangoing ships, and that some of the ships represented on the screens looked very similar to the ships represented in contemporary European art. While considering these facts, the author realized that one important historical event might be the 16th century link between Japan and Europe. Namban Screens Namban screens were produced by various artists from the end of 16th century and throughout 17th century (Sakamoto, 2008). The word “Namban” was derived from the old Chinese worldview. In ancient China, its inhabitants considered their country to be the center of the world, and the only civilized nation on earth. Chinese people called surrounding regions “Hokuteki”, “Toui”, “Seikai”, and “Namban”; or Northern Savages, Eastern Savages, Western Savages, and Southern Savages (Sakamoto, 2008). By the 16th century, these terms were also in use in Japan, and the Europeans who came to Japan from the southern sea were called Namban people. 2 �The Namban people first met the Japanese in 1543, when three Portuguese merchants drifted into one of the southwestern small islands of Japan on a Chinese junk. Soon after the discovery of Marco Polo’s legendary islands, European merchants and missionaries began to visit Japan regular bases. This interaction with the Western World caused cultural changes far beyond the introduction of firearms. One important realm where European influence can be observed is that of the Japanese art. New trends in Japanese art appeared at the end of the 16th century and throughout the 17th century (Sakamoto, 2008). In addition, many Japanese artists drew Portuguese people and ships in their paintings. Namban screens were a part of this. More than 90 screens survive, produced primarily between the end of the 16th century and throughout the 17th century. Some of the earliest screens were painted by well-known artists, known as the Kano-school (Sakamoto, 2008). In 2008, the most complete inventory so far was published in a book, NambanByobu Shusei (Sakamoto, 2008). Ships Portuguese Nau The most important element relevant to this study that can be seen on Namban screens are the European ships, the main subject of the present research. The ships on the screens represent Portuguese merchantmen; Portuguese naus was probably the most common type of European merchant ship to sail in Asia at that time, and were employed in the China and Japan trade (Okamoto, 1955; Sukeno, 1960). Naus grew in size during the 16th century and were engaged on the East India route. By the beginning of the 17th century the overall size of the East India naus was larger than ever, at about 1,100 tons of displacement, while bow and stern castles were lowered for better sailing performance (Castro, 2005). Ships on the Namban Screens From the 90 surviving Namban screens, we can discern several different typologies of ships. As often happens in the art of the western world, it appears that Japanese artists sometime drew their Namban ships based on ships that they saw on other Namban screens, rather than from seeing the actual ships (Russell, 1983). An analysis of the collection of screens suggests that through a sequence of copying older images, the accuracy and detail of the Namban ships gradually deteriorated. Fortunately, several 3 �scholars of Japanese Art History and connoisseurs of Japanese art have studied all known Namban screens and completed brief timelines of screen production (Sakamoto, 2008). The timelines are based on the screen’s historical accounts and the styles of painting. Fig. 2 NambanShips on Namban Screen (Version aof Kobe City Museum, Naizen Version [Late 16th – Early 17th century] by Kano Naizen). (M. Sakamoto) When analyzed in this light, most images of ships on the screens seem to be copies of previous images, often from other screens. The author made a catalog of all 73 ship images known, and classified them according to their quality and date of production. Fifteen groups or families were identified, seemingly 15 strings of copies of 15 original images. Once it was completed, this catalog allowed the author to make a surprising statement: none of these 15 ship types seems to have been painted directly from observation of actual European vessels in Japanese ports. Questions Question1: Why are the Depictions of the Ships so Inaccurate? The first and biggest question about the origin of the Namban screens pertains to the inaccuracy of the ship representations. The most conspicuous mistakes are the implausible widths of the hull planks, which when scaled properly sometimes reach approximately two meters in width (Fig. 2). No less inconspicuous are the rigging arrangements. Although most ships display masts, yards, sometimes sails, and most times some standing rigging supporting the masts, the quality of the rigging 4 �representations is always bad and diminishes in time. For instance, ships represented after the 1630s rarely display ratlines. Running rigging is rarely represented, and in a few cases ships do not even have masts and yards. Other interesting mistakes can be observed on the representations of gun ports. By the 16th century, most European merchant ships were armed. The primary weapons of these vessels were heavy guns, since naval battles were shifting from hand-to-hand combat into bombardment battles, and indeed many of ships display cannons. However, these are represented as simple pipes protruding from the hull planking, instead of the muzzles of cannons and gun ports represented in contemporaneous European iconography. These are gross mistakes that are in obvious contrast with the quality of the representations of houses, trees, or persons, in the same screen. Namban ships seem to be depicted with less attention to accuracy than many other features in these screens. Most Japanese scholars explain this lack of accuracy by saying that Namban ships were not an important portion of the screens and that artists might stylize the ships because it did not really matter much for the end result (Okamoto, 1955; Sakamoto, 2008). However, this explanation is not acceptable because all other features on the screens were depicted in minute detail, as we can see for instance on people’s faces, houses, trees, and even the waves of the sea. Moreover, many of the early screens were produced by the Kano school, one of the most famous groups of artists in Japanese history. The Kano school was composed predominantly of the master Kano’s lineage. Their painting techniques and styles were only taught to close family members and other relatives (Matsuki, 1994; Takeda, 1995). The Kano school appeared in the 15th century and continued until the 19th century. During these 400 years its artists produced many works of art that have been labeled National Treasures and Important Properties of Japan (Yamashita, 2004). Kano school masters served many Tennou, Daimyo, Taiko, Shogun, and other powerful authorities in each period of Japan’s history. The fame of the Kano school reached its peak in the Azuchi-Momoyama Era (15671600), when Nobunaga Oda and HideyoshiToyotomi ruled Japan. The Japanese culture of this era was named the Azuchi-Momoyama Culture, and the paintings produced by Kano school artists represent masterpieces ofAzuchi-Momoyama arts 5 �(Kano, 2007). The Kano school’s art is characterized by precision and attention to details, and precisely for this reason it is interesting to analyze the reasons behind the poor representations of ships on their screens. Question 2: Anachronism: Beginning of the Production Another relevant question that arose during the analysis of the Namban screens concerns the period of their production. Specialists believe that one of the earliest pieces may have been produced as early as the 1590s. Nonetheless, the Portuguese had begun their Japanese trade in the 1550s, and there are good documental sources that suggest that they used Portuguese-built ships. In the later part of 16th century, the Portuguese visited Nagasaki and Hirado annually, sometimes even other ports around Kyushu. Japanese people, including artists, had many opportunities to see actual Portuguese vessels. Nobody knows why there are no contemporary depictions of European ships by Japanese artists until the Namban screens appeared. Moreover, most of the surviving Namban screens were actually produced between the 1620s and the 1640s. By this time more than half of foreign trading vessels had been replaced by Japanese Shu-in Ships, and Chinese cargo carriers. Both Japanese and Chinese merchants used junk-type vessels on this trade (Nagazumi, 2001). The conception, structure, and configuration of the junks were very different from those of European vessels (Green and Kim, 1989; Green and Burningham, 1998). Moreover, when Ieyasu opened his country to foreign trade, he concentrated it in Nagasaki and Hirado, in order to manage all the incoming and outgoing vessels. This fact certainly limited the number of people who actually saw European ships at anchor with their own eyes, even though large numbers of Namban screens were produced during this period. Several more screens were painted after the third Shogun Iemitsu prohibited all foreign trade, except that with Dutch and Chinese merchants at Dejima. Originality of the Ships on Namban Screens These circumstances suggest that the ships represented in Namban screens were not drawn from the real ships, but copied from illustrations of ships. The later representations seem to have been largely copied from earlier, similar screens, but the origin of the earlier depictions, represented on the screens produced by the Kano school in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, are harder to pinpoint. For the reasons 6 �exposed above, it seems likely that Portuguese ships were a rare sight in Japanese harbors most of the time. By the time they were first painted, these were largely unknown in Japan. The author has seen, however, vessels similar to those represented on the Namban screens on other contemporary images: European maps of the Age of Discovery. Hypothesis: From European Maps to Namban Screens The author has studied world maps produced in Europe during the 16th and early 17th centuries, and found vessels similar to each one of the types shown on the screens as depictions of Namban ships (Fig. 3). The similarities between these drawings are often worth notice, sometimes striking, and it appears likely that all European vessels represented on Namban screens were copied from the decorative ships shown on late 16th century European maps. In the 16th century cartography encompassed a number of disciplines that aimed at the production of accurate maps, and many of these disciplines were scientific in their nature. In this period maps were updated regularly, every time explorers returned from their voyages with news of discoveries. But knowledge of the world was incomplete and the blank spaces were often illustrated with appropriated drawings, depicting the flora and fauna, or the peoples inhabiting the lands represented, and often the seas were embellished with representations of the ships of their time (Unger, 2010). The trend of depicting ships on maps became fashionable in the middle of 16th century, and the fashion reached its zenith in the work of the competent French cartographers of the Dieppe school. From this period onwards, the oceans of most of the world maps were filled with small ships and imaginary creatures (Swift, 2006; Wigal, 2007). This fashion continued well into the 17th century, when the greater amount of geographic information available produced a style shift into precise depictions of the interior of continents. European artists drew good and bad images of ships on the maps being made in their time. Sometimes the quality of the ships represented on 16th century maps is excellent, other times ships maps are simplified and stylized, often for lack of space. The rigging was especially simplified due to the small scale at which it was sometimes represented. It is almost certain that Japanese artists copied these images, often without ever having seen the actual ships, let alone understanding the complex arrangement of the rigging. 7 �This fact explains the mistakes on Namban screen paintings described in previous sections of this work, especially in the rigging of the Namban ships. Fig. 3 Iconography of Ships from 16th Century’s European Maps. Author: M. Swift. (A) From Ortelius’s 1595 Map of Japan; (B) From Ortelius’sAmericaeSive Novi Orvis, Nova Descriptio; (C) From Hondius’sMap of the Islands of the East Indies; (D) From Ortelius’sAmericaeSive Novi Orvis, Nova Description; (E) From John Goghe’sMap of Ireland, 1567; (F) From Ortelius’ TheatrumOrbisTerrarum, 1595; (G) From Pierre Desceliers’s (Cartographer of the Dieppe-school) Map of the World, 1550; (H) From John Goghe’sMap of Ireland, 1567; (I) Diego Homen’sMap of the Indian Ocean, 1558; (J) From Ortelius’s 1595 Map of Japan; (K) From Pierre Desceliers’s (Cartographer of the Dieppe-school) Map of the World, 1550; (L) Johannes and Martin’s Map of Americas, 1520. 8 �Discussion: The Origin of Namban Screens We know that many European art works were brought to Japan once trade with Portuguese merchants began (Nishimura, 1958). The primary purpose of this influx of European artworks was to spread Christianity. Missionaries brought European religious paintings and non-religious paintings to Japan and some taught European art techniques to Japanese artists, in order to help the Japanese paint religious figures themselves. In 1583, the Jesuit missionary Giovanni Niccolo came to Japan and opened a European Art School (Nishimura, 1958). As a result, Japanese Christian painters developed a particular style and imitating European painting became an art form between 1592 and 1615 (Nishimura, 1958). Some of the pieces of art produced in this period survive today. Well known examples are: Taisei-Oko-Kiba-Zu (drawing of the western kings on horses), Yonkakoku-Tojo-Byobu (screen with pictures of four capitals),Rebanto-Kaisen-Zu (screen with the battle of Levant), or Sekaizu-Byobu (World map screen) (Fig. 4). It is likely that a large number of European paintings and prints came to Japan around the period in which the Namban screens were produced. Moreover, Japanese painters also produced world maps around this time. Today, 20 of those world map screens survive in Japan (Kirishitan Bunka Kenkyukai, 1964), and three or four display small ships. Since Japan did not have the knowledge to produce original world maps based on the sea voyages or its own mariners, it is certain that these maps were copies of European world maps. According to Taku Nakamura (Kirishitan Bunka Kenkyukai, 1964), a scholar who carefully studied Namban world map screens, they were all produced from the late 16th century and throughout the 17th century. Fig. 4 Sekaizu-Byobu (Kobe City Museum Version). (T. Miyoshi,and K. Onoda) 9 �Nishimura believes that this influx of European artworks was largely a result of the Tensho Embassy (Nishimura, 1958). The Tensho Embassy was welcomed by Pope Gregory XIII and by many Italian city states, because their arrival in Rome meant that Christianity had reached the edge of the known world (Wakakuwa, 2008). On the way back to Lisbon from Rome, the Embassy visited Padua. While there, a nobleman presented four expensive books to them. Two of these books were CivitatesOrbisTerrarum and TheatrumOrbisTerrarum (Nishimura, 1958; Fróis et al., 1941). CivitatesOrbisTerrarum (Cities of the World) is a book that compiles drawings of cities, maps of several regions of the world, and its people (Braun et al., 2008) (Fig. 5). TheatrumOrbisTerrarum is the so-called first world atlas (Broecke, 1996) (Fig. 6). Both books have hundreds of depictions of small ships, most very accurate and seemingly typical of each region. The Tensho Embassy returned to Japan in 1590. However, they had to stay in Nagasaki for three years before Hideyoshi permitted them to visit the capital in 1593. While they were staying in Nagasaki, many Daimyos and merchants visited them to hear stories of the travels to Rome. Fróis noted that the visitors enjoyed the European maps and globes Finally, allowed (Wakakuwa, in to 1593, visit they 2008). were Hideyoshi’s palace. This visit was the march of Capitão-mor and the scene Fig. 5: CivitatesOrbisTerrarum. (A) Lisbon. (B) Venice. (C) that is depicted Rome. (D) Constantinople. (G. Braun,F.Hogenberg, S.Fussel, Namban Screens. and B.Taschen) 10 on many �An interesting additional fact is that Naizen Kano, who drew one of the earliest Namban Screens, served as Hideyoshi’s painter (Yamashita, 2004; Kano, 2007). Perhaps he witnessed the reception of the returning Tensho Embassy? Or perhaps Taiko Hideyoshi asked him to paint the original screen? These are merely the author’s hypotheses, but they would tie these important events and artwork together in a simple way. Fig. 6: TheatrumOrbisTerrarum. (A) World Map, 1570. (B) World Map, 1586. (C) Americas, 1570. (D) Italy, 1570. (E) Northern Europe, 1570. (F) Asia, 1567 and 1570. (M. P. R. V. D. Broecke) 11 �Conclusion Not all the Namban ships were necessarily based on ships from CivitatesOrbisTerrarum and TheatrumOrbisTerrarum. We don’t know what other European sources were available in Japan at the time. The members of the Tensho Embassy were invited to many Italian cities, for instance, Florence, before Rome, and after that other cities, including Milano, Venice, Padua (where they received the books already mentioned). There were many printed books and images in Italy at the time. As mentioned above, maps with drawings of cities and ships were common as a result of the flourishing of the Dieppe-school decades earlier. It is likely that the four Japanese members of the Tensho Embassy purchased or were given maps and paintings for their Christian fellows in Japan and for Japanese rulers, like Hideyoshi. And it is likely that other European missionaries and merchants also brought maps and paintings to Japan. Historical records tell us that the members of the Tensho Embassy brought maps and globes to Nagasaki, Japan, although there are no historical accounts describing the members of the Tensho Embassy presenting maps to Hideyoshi. The records say that “among the gifts, Hideyoshi liked an Arabian horse.” But it is a fact that it was after this visit that Hideyoshi’s personal artist and his school produced the first Namban screens. Whether or not this is true, the Namban screens are still rightly considered Japanese Important Cultural Property and records of the first interactions between Europe and Japan, between West and Eastern Christians, and represent an interesting symbiosis between Renaissance European and Japanese traditional arts. References Braun, G., Hogenberg, F., Fussel, S., and Taschen, B., 2008.CivitatesOrbisTerrarum = Cities of the World: 363 Engravings Revolutionize the View of the World: Complete Edition of the Colour Plates of 1572-1617. Taschen, Colongne. Broecke, M. P. R. V. D., 1996. Ortelius Atlas Maps: An Illustrated Guide. HES Publishers, Utrecht. Castro, F. V. D., 2005. The Pepper Wreck: a Portuguese Indiaman at the Mouth of the Tagus River. Texas A & M University Press, College Station. Frois, L., Okamoto, Y., Bernard, H., and Pinto, J. A.,1941 Kyushu Sanko Keno Shisetsu Koki (The Travel of the Tensho Embassy). Toyodo, Tokyo (in Japanese). 12 �Green. J., and Kim Z.G., 1989. The Shinan and Wando Sites, Korea: Further Information. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 18 (4): 33-41. Green.J., and Burningham, N., 1998. The Ship from Quanzhou, Fujian Province, People’s Republic of China. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27 (4): 277301. Kano, H., 2007. MomoyamaKaiga no Bi: Tensai,Isai, Kisai no KareinaruSekai (The Beauty of Momoyama Paintings). Heibonsha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Kirishitan Bunka Kenkyukai., 1964. KirishitanKenkyu Dai 9-shu (Study of The Japanese Christian). Yoshikawa Kobunkan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Matsuki, H., 1994. Goyoeshi Kano-ke no Chi to Chikara (Power and Lineage of KanoSchool). Kodansha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Miyoshi, T., and Onoda, K., 1999.ZusetsuSekaiKochizuKorekushon(Collection of Cartography). KawadeShobo Shin-sha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Nagazumi, Y., 2001. Shuin-sen (Red-Seal Ships). Yoshikawa Kobunkan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Nishimura, T., 1958.NanbanBijutsu (Namban Arts). Kodan-sha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Okamoto, Y., 1955. NanbanByobuko (Namban Trade). Sho Shin-sha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Russell, M., 1983.Visions of the Sea: Hendrick C. Vroom and the Origins of Dutch Marine Painting. Leiden University Press, Leiden. Sakamoto, M. (Ed.), 2008.NanbanByobu Shusei (Inventory of the Namban Screens). Chuo KooronBijutsuShuppan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Sukeno, K., 1960. KirishitanFudoki. BekkanKenkyuhen (Study of Japanese Christians). Hobunkan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Swift, M., 2006.Mapping the World.Chartwell Books, Edison. Takeda, T., 1995.Kano-ha Kaigashi (Arts of Kano-school). Yoshikawa Kobunkan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Unger, R. W., 2010. Ships on Maps: Pictures of Power in Renaissance Europe. Houndsmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, New York. Wakakuwa, M., 2008.KuatoroRagattsi: TenshoShonenShisetsu to Sekai Teikoku 2 (The Tensho Embassy and the Portuguese World Empire). Shuei-sha, Tokyo (in Japanese). 13 �Wigal, D., 2007.Historic Maritime Maps.Confidential Concepts, New York. Yamashita, Y., (Ed.), 2004. Kano-ha Ketteiban (Art of Kano-school).Heibon-sha, Tokyo, Japan (in Japanese). Biography Kotaro Yamafune completed his BA in History at Hosei University (Japan) in 2006 and started his MA in the Nautical Archaeology Program at Texas A&M University in 2009and completed his MA in 2012. His research interests are Portuguese shipbuilding and seafaring in the 16th and the 17th centuries and the reconstruction of the Medieval and Post Medieval shipwrecks. He is currently (2014) enrolled in the Nautical Archaeology Program as a PhD student. His dissertation focuses on the 3D reconstruction of Portuguese India trading ships of the 16th and 17th centuries. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portuguese Naus on Namban Screens: A study of the first European ships on paintings from the late 16th to early 17th centuries in Japan Description An account of the resource Namban screens, a well-known Japanese art form, were painted by skillful Japanese artists from the late 16th century to the 17th centuries. Approximately 90 of these screens have been handed down up to the present. Not only they show some important historical scenes of European commercial activities in the Far East for the first time, but they also depict representational pictures of Portuguese ships during the Age of Discovery. Although the ships’ images on the screens are roughly acceptable, the details are often strangely anachronistic. The same images could be found in some Western maps in the 16th century. Judging from the similarity, perhaps, Japanese painters, who had never seen actual ships themselves in ports, did manage to copy the images from ones on those maps, which were brought to Japan by the wellknownTensho embassy. This was the first Japanese embassy that was sent to Europe; the diplomats left Japan in 1582 and arrived at Portugal in 1584. They met with Pope Gregory XIII and his successor, Pope Sixtus V, in Rome, and then returned back to their homeland in 1590. In the following year the embassy members succeeded in seeing HideyoshiToyotomi, who was the leading political ruler in Japan at that time. They gave him some souvenirs from Europe, including the maps. It seems that some official court painters had a chance to see those gifts, from where Japanese artists could have obtained an idea of the ships’ images that appear in the Namban screens. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotaro Yamafune, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014