1 10 12 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0db38065a79da7a7775cd9bd20808d9e.pdf 89409eca6338d1458e02f3fb125cd6db PDF Text Text Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia An interview with Session Chair, Akifumi Iwabuchi, 1. Why did you choose to organize this session? In 2011 Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, to which Session 9 organizers belong, organized an independent session by the same title as session 9 (“History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia”) at the first Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Manila. At that time, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology had the session, together with the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology in Fukuoka, Japan. However, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology has decided to organize one session by itself alone in Hawaii. I am extremely happy to have eleven presenters at Session 9, not only from Japan, but also from China, Korea, and the U.S. 2. What did you hope to gain from it? Since the 1950’s, the Mediterranean Sea in Europe has been, in a sense, the centre of underwater archaeology. Because of some political reasons, indeed, underwater archaeology in Asian region has been underdeveloped, but in terms of maritime history, as we all know, Asian waters are as important as the Mediterranean Sea. Recently some scholars have named Asian waters between East and Southeast Asia the “Asian Mediterranean.” In the very near future, presumably, this area also will be another world-centre of underwater archaeology. I hope that this Session 9 will trigger off the new era of maritime archaeology in Asia. 3. How does your session fit into the overall theme of the conference? As far as I understand, this conference treats the management and protection strategies of underwater cultural heritage, the regional cooperation, and the technical and ethical issues related to underwater archaeology in the Asia-Pacific region. As we see, papers and presentations at Session 9 well succeeded in widely covering these themes concerning East Asia. �4. What do you hope to see accomplished in your research area (as represented by the papers in this session) over the next ten or more years? Because of some political reasons, as I told, underwater archaeology has been underdeveloped in East Asia. Perhaps even still it is so owing to territorial disputes over the sea in Asian waters. On the other hand, however, to study underwater cultural heritage has no national boundaries. Fortunately in Japan, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology has just become a member university of UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network. It is the only one member university from the Asian region. For example, if the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage in Korea, the National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage in China, and my university in Japan could work together in the field of underwater archaeology, the famous quote “the pen is mightier than the sword” will be materialized in this region. 5. What are some of the greatest challenges that your research area (as represented by the papers in this session) faces at this time? Among East Asian and Southeast Asian countries, still only Cambodia has ratified the UNESCO 2001 convention. In contrast, nearly 50 other nations worldwide have already ratified this convention. Even in Asia, including Japan, underwater archaeologists cannot work without referring to the UNESCO convention. I am not a politician, but hopefully every Asian government will start considering ratification for future international cooperation. 6. Are there any areas (geographic, thematic, or otherwise) within your topic (as represented by the papers in this session) that you feel are underrepresented? In Japan, we have just started to discuss how to deal with Japanese shipwrecks during the First and the Second World Wars and human remains therein. According to the UNESCO convention, all shipwrecks from World War II are not considered underwater cultural heritage until 2045, but many underwater archaeologists have already worked �them in the Pacific region. I think it is high time that underwater archaeologists in countries concerned including Japan could establish an international research body or organization for studying the shipwrecks as underwater cultural heritage. 7. What do you suggest to draw more attention to those areas? In particular, at such an international gathering we will have to discuss how to treat human remains from war shipwrecks. different from Japanese philosophy. As for them, Christianity is completely According to the traditional Japanese belief, human remains will never become underwater cultural heritage. 8. Any other comments you would like to make. Although this conference is titled “Asia-Pacific Regional Conference”, unfortunately, there are no Chinese, Koreans, or Japanese belonging to their home academic institutions on the organizing committee of APCONF 2014. Furthermore, Pacific island nations such as Federated States of Micronesia or Tonga are also underrepresented. Hopefully, the organizing committee of APCONF 2017 will have some East Asian or Pacific representation within the structure. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Akifumi Iwabuchi. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi and Tatsuya Nakada Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/14a22bbdef906f20b90585d8b01a489d.pdf ef7d221a7079bbb5e0f64cb5d7d1da36 PDF Text Text Underwater Cultural Heritage Conservation and the Convention Practice in China Fan Yiran National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Beijing People’s Republic of China, 100029 Email: fanyiran@vip.sina.com Abstract China has large number and various types of underwater cultural heritage resources, which altogether forms an essential part of China’s cultural heritage. In order to manage such valuable cultural resources, the nation has been playing the most important, leading role and this state-led working mode is enabled through supports from all aspects: organizational, legal, financial and institutional. Starting from 1970s, underwater archaeology went from foreshore to coastal waters then to high seas. Currently, more than a hundred wreck sites have also been located in Chinese waters. Several submerged ancient town remains and burial sites were also discovered. UCH conservation is entering into a spanking new stage of expanding and transformation. Through years of learning, comparison and practical experiences, one has to admit that China has done quite a good job in preserving its underwater cultural heritage resources. However, problems also exist. By now, China’s policy towards UCH conservation is “centered on coastal areas, underline inshore waters, begin surveys in internal waters and get ready for high seas. China sincerely hopes to facilitate more international cooperative projects, and actively take part in the global UCH conservation campaign. Keywords: UCH, Underwater Cultural Heirtage, UCH in China, Convention Practice, Nanhai I, Nan’ao I, Underwater Archaeology, White Crane Underwater Museum Introduction As we all know, China is famous for her long and brilliant culture. Possesses over 18000 kilometers’ coastline, nearly 300 square kilometers’ coastal areas and territorial sea and more than 30 square kilometers’ inland waters, China is a nation with great sea power. Its long navigation history and developed water transportation and trade system, as well as the world famous Grand Canal and Maritime Silk Road, made China a country of abundant underwater cultural heritage. At the present day, we are gradually developing a proper way of UCH protection in China. Current situation of UCH Conservation in China In China, conservation and management of UCH is led by the central government, with 1 �support from authorities of all levels. Cross-sector cooperation is also pervasive in this process. However, the real business started rather late, in March 1987, state administration of cultural heritage directed the establishment of the underwater archaeology team, with support from various relevant governmental department and organizations. Later in November, a research department on underwater archaeology was formed within the National History Museum of China (Wu, 2007). The country’s underwater archaeology began from that moment. At the same time, relevant laws and regulations provided all actions a solid legal basis. In 1989, following the “Law of the Peoples Republic of China on Protection of Cultural Relics”1, the state council enacted the “Regulation Republic of of the Peoples China on Conservation and Management Fig. 1 Recent Underwater Archaeological exploration 2 organized by the Center. (National Center of Underwater of Underwater Cultural Relics” , Cultural Heritage) which has been the foundation of all UCH conservation works in China for more than 20 years. As the situations are becoming different day by day, relevant authorities are working actively for an updated version of the regulation. All this time, the government has obtained great results in fighting criminals since a range of activities fighting against looting and vandalism according to the regulation has been proved effective. In today’s China, the State Administration of Cultural heritage3 (SACH) is the leader of UCH conservation team, while the National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Fig. 1), directly under SACH’s leadership, is the only national and newly established research organization specially focusing on underwater archeology and UCH conservation. The National Conservation Center for Underwater Cultural Heritage was established in 2009 (National Center of UCH of China , 2013), consisting of the Administration Office (Secretary Office), Technique & Equipment Department, Institute of Underwater 2 �Archaeology, Underwater Cultural Relics Protection and Conservation Department, branch organizations are also under construction in Ningbo, Qingdao, Wuhan and Fujian. The Center nicely played its function, actively developed UCH conservation, research and excavation projects, and got fully confirmations from SACH, and local governments and institutes. It marked that UCH has got a new position as the important content of the national cultural heritage and museum undertakings, and a new chance of focused promotion and rapid development. Generally, the Center is responsible for the works below: - Undertakes daily communication and coordination among ministries for national UCH conservation issues; - Organizes, coordinates and implements national UCH surveys, excavations, conservation, preservation, scientific research and trainings; - Draws up national UCH conservation plans, undertakes researches on related legislation, protocols standards; - Undertakes the management, research and development of UCH conservation technical equipment; - Carries on the management of the Nanhai UCH base and Xisha Archaeological Workstation, and provides guidance on professional works of local UCH offices; - Facilitates and enables public outreach, international exchange and cooperation of UCH conservation; - Carries on other tasks assigned by SACH. Other than the Center, a national level organization, most coastal provinces have established their own institutions and organizations working for underwater archeology and UCH conservation, like the well-known Guangdong Maritime Silk Road Museum 4 and the Quanzhou Maritime Museum in Fujian Province 5. As components of the UCH protection army in China, all these organizations and institutions greatly improved our professional abilities and standards. The government also paid great attention to professional training. SACH has held 5 professional underwater archeological training courses successively before 2009. And in more recent time, in order to satisfy this expanding field, the Center has helped SACH with one underwater archeology training courses and two relic preservation 3 �training course (Fig. 2). As a result, there are now over 100 underwater archeology professionals and over 40 restoration/preservation professionals. They work in different coastal cities, but can be gathered together when needed, which buys insurance for the overall UCH conservation work. Financially, the state government has always been very generous in funding works related to conservation and management of UCH. Local government also often paid big money since they consider successful conservation and management of native cultural heritage underwater is in Fig. 2 First Underwater Archaeological Training a way an effective method to Programme. (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage) uncover local history, enhance local identity and pass on significant cultural remains to future generations. And a fund guarantee mechanism where the central government dominants and local government facilitates has been well established. Aiming at bring UCH business forward; China funded its very first underwater archaeology work ship in 2011. The SACH and the Center organized and coordinated the design and the construction of the ship. This ship, with a displacement of 930 tons and designed draft of 2.7 meters, is going to have its maiden trip in April 2014 (Fig. 3). Development of such a wide range field needs insight on international trend, which, China has always been paying attention to. For 20 years, China has been actively working with countries like Korea, Japan, Italy, France and Indonesia and so on. During the process of international cooperation, our research ability has been greatly improved and professional team strengthened. Experts from abroad were often invited for talks, conferences and projects. UCH Conservation in China: The Convention Spirit Practitioner The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, published on 2 Nov, 2001, provided worldwide UCH conservation a scientific and formal reference, 4 �and oriented its development international cooperation. towards The convention is also significant in terms of its philosophy: emphasizes the transformation of underwater archaeology into underwater cultural heritage; draws attention to public education; underlines the importance of in-situ conservation and minimal intervention as well as pays respects to human remains. Although currently not being a contracting party of the convention, China, nevertheless, has already taken part in conserving underwater cultural heritage. With quite a few major UCH projects undertaking, this country is a true practitioner of the convention as it will be outlined in the following Fig. 3 Underwater Archaeology Workshop. (National Center of Underwater Cultural In-situ Practice in China: The White Crane Heritage) section. Underwater Museum6 An outstanding example of in-situ UCH conservation is the construction of the White Crane Underwater Museum in Chong Qing (Fig. 4). This museum is by far the only museum built in-situ built on a submerged site. Visitors can get 40 m underwater through a corridor. Neither the site nor its surrounding environment had been greatly changed, and this practice was widely recognized. The Ridge of White Crane (Baiheliang), a naturally formed sandstone bridge, locates in Yangzi River and can only be seen in winter. It shows us 72 years of water level from 763 AD over 1200 years from now. In order to keep the site original and integrated, we successfully made the museum despite of the difficulties (Gao, 2012). Practice on Increasing Public Awareness. Following the convention’s notion of increasing public awareness, Chinese put lots of efforts in presentation and interpretation of UCH through effective management approaches. The convention requires UCH to be made accessible for the public, 5 �especially for school education, and that is exactly what they did for the late Song dynasty wreck South China Sea I. The Maritime Silk Road Museum7 of Guangdong is a museum themed on this wreck and associated remains, since its opening in 2009; it has welcomed over a million visitors of different types, making it a definite landmark of the community. Authorized Salvage Excavation: Salvage as a Whole and In-situ Excavation Although the Convention believes insitu conservation is the first option, but first choice does not necessarily to be the priority. If the reason is sufficient and urgent, partially or fully excavation becomes a priority ahead of in-situ conservation. Because of illegal Fig. 4 The White Crane Underwater Museum. smuggling and destruction associated (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage) with these illegal practices, we conducted the scientific excavation by the authorization of the government, and creatively began the method of “salvage as a whole and exhibit and excavate in-doors” of large shipwrecks. “Nanhai I” was found in 1989 during the China-Japan cooperated investigation of shipwrecks in South China Sea (Fig. 5). It is one of the few Song dynasty ship found well preserved, thus with significant historical value. However, because it was located in the open sea, and it was difficult to monitor, it had been looted and partially destroyed over the years. The successfully salvage of “Nanhai I” as a whole was a good attempt of the comprehensive implementation of underwater archaeology, relic conservation and maritime engineering. It is a strong evidence of the multi-fields, multi-departments UCH cooperation in China, as well as the best interpretation and scientific development of authority and integrity (Wei, 2008). “Nan’ao I” was located in “Nan’ao” waters of Guangdong, miles from the seashore (Fig. 6). Since it had been looted and destroyed for many times in the past, we decided to do the excavation. The project started in Sep. of 2009, though excavations happen in 6 �2010/2011 and 2012. More than 30 underwater archaeologists and over 10 specialized conservators cooperated to finish the work, 3 professionals from Korea were also invited. The team had mastered the distribution of the shipwreck and the structure, the shipwreck heads north, leans east, 2485 cm in length, widest section was 750 cm, 25 boards. Cargos involve pottery and ceramic, metallic and organic relics. The basic structure is complete, 26 thousands artifacts were lifted, sampled big amount of different soils, remains of animals and plants, metal goods, and etc., did the comprehensive research of scientific archaeology, animal archaeology and plant archaeology. The maritime geological environment was mastered though sonar scans. The team established an iron conservation frame after the excavation was over in 2012, to conserve the main body of the site in-situ (Chen, 2012). Fig. 5 “Nanhai I” Shipwreck inside Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage) Fight against Commercial Speculation and Trade Chinese government actively carries out underwater cultural heritage protection; 7 �meanwhile contribute to manage multi-sectorial cooperation, to crack down on destruction of the underwater cultural heritage, such as looting activities. antiques Due to the flourishing of market in China and worldwide, the illegal activities such as smuggling and looting of underwater cultural relics have gone from bad to worse among Chinese coastal areas. Fig. 6 Brown Glazed Porcelain from “Nan’ao I” wreck site. To relieve the serious (National Center of Underwater Cultural situation, Heritage) Chinese government has taken a variety of methods. In recent years, in Hainan, Guangdong, Fujian province, the local police uncovered several crimes on underwater cultural heritage. For instance, in Pingtan county of Fujian province, the local police uncovered 11 cases of relics crimes, detained 40 people believed to be involved in the operations, and recovered 1700 pieces of historical artifacts, namely porcelain. In 2010, Chinese State Administration of Cultural Heritage and the State Oceanic Administration signed "The cooperation framework agreement of underwater cultural heritage protection”, the two sides will jointly carry out eight aspects actions, such as underwater cultural heritage protection strategy and planning, underwater archaeology, underwater cultural relics law enforcement patrol and so on. At the same time we also actively explore the integrated use of modern technology, including GPS, GIS and RS technology, security and monitoring technology. In 2010, for example, we launched China's first underwater cultural heritage monitoring security pilot project – Banyang reef I unmanned monitoring system, in which Buoy monitoring system, sit bottom monitoring, the anti-frogman sonar and unmanned aerial vehicle cooperative monitoring, 3G network monitoring, passive sonar underwater monitoring technology solutions were proposed (Fan, 2013). At the same time the system discussed the combination of technology defense and human defense, as well as the improvement of laws and regulations. The system laid a solid foundation of underwater cultural heritage monitoring, to strengthen the importance of 8 �security monitoring work in underwater cultural heritage protection. Conclusion Currently, more than a hundred wreck sites have been located in Chinese waters. Several submerged ancient town remains and burial sites were also discovered. UCH conservation is entering into a promising new stage of expansion and transformation. We can summarize this process into five aspects: 1. Academic and practical development from underwater archaeology alone to sophisticated UCH conservation and management (Ding and Fan, 2013); 2. Working area getting from foreshore to coastal waters then to high seas; 3. Projects implementation starting to include more stakeholders, departments and organizations; 4. UCH conservation turning from academic and governmental behavior into a business involving the public; 5. Developments emphasizing on diversified and in-depth international cooperation Through years of learning, comparison and practical experiences, one has to admit that China has done quite a good job in preserving its underwater cultural heritage resources. However, problems also exist. Firstly, top-down system and professional training makes UCH conservation easy to manage. But traditional maritime culture and outdated legal protection somehow negatively affect our work. Secondly, the concept of underwater archaeology and underwater cultural heritage has not been clearly defined, which led to bias in actual field work. At the same time, ideas and philosophies of the Convention have not draw enough attention in Chinese academia. Third, in terms of research method and theories on UCH conservation and management, there is still a big gap between Chinese and advanced international standards. Meanwhile, diving skills received too much attention from professionals. Balance should be achieved although current results are encouraging. Finally, in spite of being a focus of attention worldwide, China’s UCH conservation and management works have not become an organic component of this multinational field of study. By now, China’s policy towards UCH conservation is “centered on coastal areas, underline inshore waters, start surveys in internal waters and prepare for high seas. China sincerely hopes to facilitate more 9 �international cooperative projects, and to actively take part in the global UCH conservation campaign. Acknowledgement Sincere thanks to the conference committee for inviting and providing an opportunity for me to share the ideas and knowledge of UCH conservation business in China with experts and professionals from different countries. Also I would like to thank my colleagues, Liu shuguang, Chai xiaoming and Sunjian and so on, they gave me huge support in writing this article. So as my daughter and husband, I would not be able to spend time and energy in work without their care and understanding. Endnote 1 See English version here: http://www.sach.gov.cn/art/2007/10/29/art_1591_58336.html See English version here: http://www.law-lib.com/lawhtm/1989/6039.htm 3 See website here: http://www.sach.gov.cn/ 4 http://www.msrmuseum.com/index.aspx 5 http://www.qzhjg.com/ 6 http://www.cqbhl.com.cn/ 7 See: http://www.msrmuseum.com/index.aspx 2 References Chen, R., 2012. Nao'ao I in Eyes of Site Manager Cuiyong. Ding, J., and Fan, Y., 2013. A Few Issues on Underwater Archaeology. China Cultural Heritage Scientific Research . Fan, Y., 2013. Safty Monitoring of UCH in China. Cultural Relics in Southern China . Gao, Y., 2012. Constructon of the White Crane Museum and UCH Management. Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) . National Center of UCH of China. 2013. Introduction to National Center of UCH of China, retrieved 01 20, 2014, from Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage: http://www.cach.org.cn/tabid/169/InfoID/577/frtid/167/Default.aspx Wei, J., 2008. "Nanhai I" Shipwreck Archaeology and UCH Management. Cultural Heritage . Wu, Chunming., 2007. Maritime Archaeology. Beijing, Science Press China. Biography Fan Yiran worked as a news reporter, and started to cover live broadcast of underwater cultural heritage conservation fieldwork since 2000. She changed her career later in 2005 and stepped into UCH business in 2009. She is now working in the National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage as the director of the general office. Yiran is the first female underwater news reporter in China. And after her transformation into an underwater archaeologist, she participated in various UCH conservation projects including “Nanhai I” and “Nan’ao I” wreck sites and has led series of UCH survey project in Liaoning, Tianjin and Hebei. 10 �11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Cultural Heritage Conservation and the Convention Practice in China Description An account of the resource China has large number and various types of underwater cultural heritage resources, which altogether forms an essential part of China’s cultural heritage. In order to manage such valuable cultural resources, the nation has been playing the most important, leading role and this state-led working mode is enabled through supports from all aspects: organizational, legal, financial and institutional. Starting from 1970s, underwater archaeology went from foreshore to coastal waters then to high seas. Currently, more than a hundred wreck sites have also been located in Chinese waters. Several submerged ancient town remains and burial sites were also discovered. UCH conservation is entering into a spanking new stage of expanding and transformation. Through years of learning, comparison and practical experiences, one has to admit that China has done quite a good job in preserving its underwater cultural heritage resources. However, problems also exist. By now, China’s policy towards UCH conservation is “centered on coastal areas, underline inshore waters, begin surveys in internal waters and get ready for high seas. China sincerely hopes to facilitate more international cooperative projects, and actively take part in the global UCH conservation campaign. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fan Yiran, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/eb52ee3672269843aa46edc861a0066a.pdf 011526e0bd94b666e598385a8fcde3d7 PDF Text Text Stone Tidal Weirs, Underwater Cultural Heritage or Not? Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan, 135-8533 Email: iwabuchi@kaiyodai.ac.jp Abstract The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale in semicircular, half-quadrilateral, or almost linear shape. At the flood tide these weirs are submerged beneath the sea, while they emerge into full view at the ebb. Using with nets or tridents, fishermen, inside the weirs at low tides, catch fish that fails to escape because of the stone walls. They could be observed in the Pacific or the Yap Islands, in the Indian Ocean or the east African coast, and in the Atlantic or Oleron and Ré Islands. The UNESCO’s 2001 Convention regards this weir as underwater cultural heritage, because it has been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years; stone tidal weirs have been built in France since the 11th century and a historical record notes that one weir in the Ryukyu Islands was built in the 17th century. In Japan every weir is considered not to be buried cultural property or cultural heritage investigated by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset studied by anthropologists, according to its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties. Even now in many countries stone tidal weirs are continuously built or restored by locals. Owing to the contemporary trait, it is not easy to preserve them under the name of underwater cultural heritage. Sometimes their bases were constructed several hundred years ago while their upper parts were repaired very recently. Key words: stone weir, tide, fish trap, underwater cultural heritage, 2001 Convention Introduction The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks, boulders, or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale (Fig. 1), in semicircular, circular, half-quadrilateral, horseshoe, keyhole, or almost linear shape. At the flow tide it is completely submerged beneath the sea, while at the ebb, in particular during the spring tide, it gives its entire figure on the tidal zone. Then, fishermen step into such weirs in order to catch fish, which fails to escape from them owing to the stone walls, by hand or with small fishing gears such as hand-nets or tridents (Fig. 2). Occasionally, some opening spaces between stone walls or tunnels under each wall are cut through a weir for the purpose of being drained water easily and being gathered preys; outside such spaces or tunnels, fishing nets, gratings, or basket traps are usually 1 �set. The passive fishing gear of stone tidal weir, which operates only on the strength of tidal amplitude, is different from the active fishing gear of fish fence or trapped chamber, which guides the fish into the specially arranged ends or labyrinths where they are trapped (Gabriel et al., 2005). Fig. 1 Stone Tidal Weir in Japan. (A. Iwabuchi) Usually, however, we cannot draw a hard and fast line between those two kinds of gears. Some stone tidal weirs have pectinate fish fences which project from their walls, and some have labyrinths at their outer tips. A Wide Distribution Stone tidal weirs could widely be observed all over the world, viz. in tidal zones of western Japan, southern Korea, Formosa, Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Polynesia, Melanesia, the Indian Ocean, and Europe. In Kyushu Island and its adjacent small islands of western Japan, stone tidal weirs are named ishihibi or sukki. Around Ariake Bay of Kyushu Island, approximately 200 weirs did exist around 1707, and then until recently no less than 100 stone tidal weirs were still on active service. The most famous one was ‘Bora-zukki’ or ‘Mullet Tidal Weir’, which was filled up innumerable mullet in 1881; there is a stone monument in commemoration of this event on the seashore near this stone tidal weir’s ruin. In the Ryukyu or Okinawa Islands, they are named kaki, which used to number about 100 (Iwabuchi, 2012a). In 1972, there were 27 stone tidal weirs around Kohama Island: 7were still on active service, 11 were abandoned, and 9 were left only their traces. Other than the last 9 disappeared weirs, however, it is said that many small stone tidal weirs which has already faded completely out from sight seem to have existed before. In this isle of the Ryukyu Islands some stone tidal weirs have semicircular shape and some have linear one. The length of stone walls varies in stone tidal weirs; the longest wall is approximately 800 m, while the shortest one is 200 m (Yano et al., 2002). Generally in Japan, including this isle, stone tidal weirs are owned not by professional fishers but by local peasants. 2 �In southern Korea, the stone tidal weirs are called dŏksal, sŏkpangryŏm, sŏkchŏn, or wŏn. Although they used to be important at Korean traditional fishery, their number has already decreased to an extreme. Around Jeju Island in the Korea Strait, 4 stone tidal weirs are still being used, in particular, for the sake of catching anchovies. In Formosa around the Penghu Islands, there are still approximately 500 stone tidal weirs named chioh-ho. In terms of their types, they could be divided into three. The first consists of traditional semicircular or horseshoe-shaped stone tidal weirs. The second is composed ofstone tidal weirs, each of which has several pectinate Fig. 2 Japanese Fisher. (A. Iwabuchi) short stone walls extended inward from an original stone wall; these short walls serve for driving fish as well as for dividing a stone tidal weir into several parts with each family’s fishing right. The last type is stone tidal weirs, each of which has at its tip a labyrinth as fish trap. In the Penghu Islands, the golden age of stone tidal weirs, which used to one of the most important fishing methods at coastal villages there, was 100 years ago, but their economic or social value has already been diminished mainly because of modern onshore fishery. Nowadays their touristic and educational purposes are more stressed (Tawa, 2007). In Southeast Asia, stone tidal weirs are reported to be in the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. In the Philippines, the stone tidal weirs named atob around the Visaya Islands already existed at the beginning of the 20th century, and then still in the 1970’s new weirs kept being built or old weirs kept being restored (Tawa, 2007). Eastern Indonesia seems perhaps to be the world-centre of stone tidal weirs: 3 �Stone walls in tidal areas can be used in a similar manner, as is done in Indonesia (western Flores). There, a wall is built in the shallow water parallel to the sea shore. As in some of the Japanese stone walls, there are passages through which the fish can enter with the flood, but they are prevented from escaping on the ebb tide. The outlets are closed and the fish remain in the water-filled channel behind the walls until they are collected (Gabriel et al., 2005). In Indonesia, fish fences set in the form of labyrinths, made of brushwood, are ubiquitous on tidal zones, and stone tidal weirs as primordial type of such fish fences are still widely used; new ones are also continuously built by locals, in particular, when famine strikes maritime settlements. Almost all islands of Micronesia, including the Caroline, Palau, or Gilbert Islands, used to have millions of stone tidal weirs around them. In the Chuuk Islands the stone tidal weirs are named maai and in the Yap Islands aech. In the former, there are three types, i.e. conventional semicircular type, tennis racket-shaped one, and inverted keyhole-shaped one. In the last type, the seaward open side of each weir seems to be closed by fishing nets or trap baskets when the tide is on the ebb. In the Yap Islands, the stone circle of the Chuuk’s second type is transformed into the boomerang-shaped or arrow-shaped stone circle, inside which people catch fish at the ebb. There, however, some do not have ‘racket’ shafts lying perpendicular to the shoreline. In olden times, moreover, there inverted triangular stone weirs seem to have existed; as the outward bottom of each triangle did not possess any stone walls, locals set nets or trap baskets when the tide was outgoing (Tawa, 2007). They say that possibly more than a thousand years or more ago these weirs were built, and from 700 to 800 stone tidal weirs have been documented (Guérin et al., 2010), but with reducing island population after Europeans arrived those stone tidal weirs began falling away into disuse. At the end of the last century, many seemed to have been abandoned and never been repaired again. In the Hawaii Islands, the stone tidal weirs are called loko ‘umeiki. There, there are also many fishponds named lokokuapa, of which shapes are entirely similar to conventional stone tidal weirs. Some fishponds are built across the mouth of a small bay or between two points of land, and some semicircular-shaped ones are built independently on seashores in order to be raised fish such as mullet or milkfish. Contrariwise, each stone tidal weir is surrounded by a low wall that is submerged at the high tide and has opening, 4 �walled on each side like lanes, leading in or out of the weir (Nishimura, 1981). In Rarotonga Island of the Cook Islands every tidal weir is also used as fish trap into which fish is driven toward nets between boulders by locals, although its detail is not clear. There it is named pā (Takeda, 1993), which originally means an eel weir in the Maori language. The Maori of New Zealand uses even today stone walls for their eel fishery; these are not artificial, but built by nature by the strong wave of the sea (Gabriel et al., 2005). Around many islands in Torres Strait as well as around Cape York at Melanesia, numerous stone tidal weirs could be observed, and they represent the most obvious fishing technique utilized in this area. On the eastern aspect of the large fringing reefs of a few of the western islands, but notably in the eastern islands, long low walls of unworked boulders of stone were built, or rather piled up, to a height of three or four feet. These walls enclosed large irregular areas of the reef, graz(W.), sai (E.). During the north-west monsoon, when the sea is calm on the lee-side of the island, large numbers of fish swim over the walls at high tide, they are prevented by the low night tide from escaping and so fall an easy prey (Haddon, 1912). Of the Eastern Islands around Darnley Island there are 34 stone tidal weirs, and in Stephens Island there are 23. Some have at their tips protruding navels without labyrinth where a lot of fish gather at the ebb (Barham, 2000). Similar navels are reported from stone tidal weirs of the Ryukyu Islands or of southern Korea. Around the Indian Ocean, much information upon stone tidal weirs is not available. It is said that the Mascarene Islands (Yabuuchi, 1978) and the Lakshadweep Islands have stone tidal weirs. In the latter, the stone tidal weirs are called padhi; as their open ends face the lagoon while the seaward ends are usually closed, fish that tries to leave the lagoon during receding tide enters and remains in the enclosure. They are family owned properties which are acquired by inheritance (Anand, 1996). Along the East African coast, there seem to be stone tidal weirs. Coast Bushmen and pastoral Hottentots are reported to have constructed and used stone tidal weirs (Nishimura, 1981). Near the towns of Stilbaai and Arniston in South Africa there are stone tidal weirs (Parthesius, 2011), but the relation between these weirs and ones by Bushman and Hottentots is obscure. Along the western coast of Africa, stone tidal weirs are constructed by natives, such as Guineans (Gabriel et al., 2005), but we do not really know much about them. 5 �There are many stone tidal weirs in Scotland (Bowens, 2009) or in western France. Ré, Aix, and Oleron Islands off the western coast of mainland France would be the European centre of stone tidal weirs. In Oleron Island there were about 40 stone tidal weirs at the end of the 19th century (Bithoneau et al., 1993), while in Ré Island there were something over beginning of 30 the weirs at the 15th century, approximately 140 in the latter part of the 19th century, and only 14 at the end of the 20th century. A French stone tidal weir is named l'écluseàpoissons and weirs are les éclusesàpoissons, but all tidal weirs have their own proper names. The largest stone tidal weir at Fig. 3 ‘Mouffet’ in Ré Island. (A. Iwabuchi) Ré Island, whose length is about 1000 m, is named 'Mouffet' or 'Skunk' (Fig. 3), and the smallest one, whose length is about 300 m only, is 'Le Petit-Port' or 'Small Port'. Every weir is collectively owned by local peasants who catch fish at time assigned as separately with a hand-net or a trident inside his weir sometimes in the daytime and sometimes at night. One stone tidal weirs named 'La Belle-Pointe' is equipped a metal basket trap, as replica of an old wooden basket, on the outer side of a drain gap between the stone walls (Fig. 4). Fish caught is only for domestic consumption; it is never on the distribution channel to commercial fish markets (Iwabuchi, 2002). Stone Tidal Weirs and the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention Article 1-1 of the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage provides that ‘underwater cultural heritage’ means all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been 6 �partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years. First of all, all stone tidal weirs are partially or totally under water periodically, and so they do correspond to the first half of the above definition. However, not all stone tidal weirs are more than 100 years old. Indigenous people in Southeast Asia or in the Pacific are still constructing new weirs every day. Owing to ecological conditions, nonetheless, they seem not to build stone tidal weirs on completely virgin tidal zones. They always build them exactly on traces for old weirs or, at least, on tidal zones which used to have millions of old stone tidal weirs. These days, in other words, most locals are, not constructing, but repairing old weirs every day. According to A. C. Haddon, no native within the memory of man ever made a stone tidal weir around Torres strait, and all they can do now is to repair them (Haddon, 1912). Fig. 4 ‘Le Petit-Port’ in Ré Island. (A. Iwabuchi) It is within the bounds of possibility that only the lower parts or stones of a new tidal weir or its basement are more than 100 years old. However, it is extremely difficult to guess 7 �how old even its base is, mainly because no written historical material is recorded for almost all stone tidal weirs. Some anthropologists insist that the stone tidal weir itself is considered a very old fishing method, and some existing today date back to early Neolithic times, and even to the pre-Sapiens phase of human evolution (Nishimura, 1968). It is true that contemporary foragers are also using a kind of stone tidal weir. Canadian Eskimo, for example, uses not only fish traps but also stone tidal weirs named haput’. This horseshoe-shaped weir is built at a river mouth. Its stone wall seems to be extremely low, in comparison with Taiwanese or French walls, but it is completely submerged at the high tide and then at the ebb foragers go into the weir, which has depth 60 cm only, to catch charr. Similarly, northwest coast Indians used to build stone tidal weirs, in particular, at river mouths (Stewart, 1993). It is said that Australian aborigines also use stone tidal weirs. Impounding shallow enclosure of boulder fences were formerly in use among them, although Hornell classifies this technology as fish trap, not as stone tidal weir (Hornell, 1950). Nevertheless, stone tidal weirs among primitive foragers are rather smaller-scaled than modern tidal weirs observed in Japan, Formosa, or France. Very few written records say that the large-scaled stone tidal weirs were all constructed during the feudal age. In Ré Island, stone tidal weirs were started to be constructed at the 11th century or at the Middle Age (Boucard, 1984). In Kyushu Island of western Japan their golden age was around 1707; the local feudal lord imposed corvée to the peasants to construct or restore large-scaled stone tidal weirs. In the Ryukyu Islands, there is one historical document written in 1824 telling us that a female priest who was granted an official court rank by the lord of Ryukyu kingdom mobilized commoners by royal decree to build a stone tidal weir whose length was about 1200 m around the 17th century (Nishimura, 1975; 1981). In Korea and Formosa, there is no evidence that the class of rulers played a large role in constructing stone tidal weirs, but usually all the villagers seem to have turned out in full force for restoring or building them. Without substantial labour power, it would not have succeeded in constructing large-scaled stone weirs. In the Hawaii islands as well, the remarkably well-preserved chain of offshore fishponds is a leftover of local chiefs, and the ponds are raised fish to feed the ruling class (Nishimura, 1981). Indeed, for example, the Torres Strait Islands do not have any feudal systems, but at 8 �least the society is not a band-based foraging one but a horticultural chiefdom. At those coastal hamlets there seem to have been powerful builders or chiefs who had mobilized villagers in order to construct or repair stone tidal weirs (Haddon, 1912). Building stone tidal weirs might have something to with the population growth as well as with the pressure on food production, with which people in power had normally to cope. In the Yap Islands, the peak of stone tidal weirs seems to have been at the beginning of the 19th century, when they had the largest population. These stone tidal weirs at the chiefdom level would not look directly to link up with ones at the band level, although their method and concept could ‘take place sometimes in antiquity’ (Barham, 2000). Judging from instances from the Far East and the South Pacific, it is morally certain that almost all stone tidal weirs, or at least their bases, all over the worldat present might have been constructed more than 100 years ago. Perhaps, however, weirs which we could see these days could date back only to not more than several hundred years ago, not to more than 100 thousand years.In short, most stone tidal weirs may not be objects of prehistoric character, but important human sites, structures, buildings, or artifacts together with their archaeological and natural context. How to Protect Stone Tidal Weirs Although stone tidal weirs are still being constructed or restored in remote regions on the earth, they are quickly disappearing, being destroyed, or being abandoned, in particular, in civilized countries. Nowadays, first of all, stone tidal weirs cannot catch fish as much as in olden times, because of the intensification of modern fishery on their outsides. Owners of stone tidal weirs are normally local peasants, while onshore fishing are conducted by professional fishers who think weirs as fish stealing traps or as shipping obstacles. Secondly, the modern coastal management for tourism or for industrialization is not always happy with stone tidal weirs which occupy the huge area of tidal zones. For many hotels or fishers stone tidal weirs are only eyesores and real pains in the neck; in actual practice tourists’ water motorcycles as well as commercial fishing boats sometimes split on stone tidal weirs. On the contrary, however, the new movements, in which locals make good use of stone tidal weirs for tourism or for activity aimed at enlivening coastal communities, have just begun on grassroots levels, although they are still minor. In France' Association de défense des eclusesà poissons 9 �de l'île de Ré'or in Japan ‘Ishihimi Summit’ has been organized to plan events, for instance, so tourists could experience fishing inside stone tidal weirs, or to restore old weirs jointly. On national levels, on the other hand, the conservation activity or management of stone tidal weirs as underwater cultural heritage has not been started yet. Even in France, which has already ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention, we have never heard that the Département des recherchesarchéologiquessubaquatiqueset sous-marines were doing research upon stone tidal weirs in western France. In Japan, some stone tidal weirs are under the control of the domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, but they are not to be buried cultural property, which is normally studied by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset or cultural landscape, which is always studied by anthropologists or by folklorists. Famous Mongolian shipwrecks of northern Kyushu Island are, of course, designated as buried cultural property. In 2006, owing to the bureaucratic sectionalism, not the Agent for Cultural Affairs, but the Fisheries Agency was designated two stone tidal weirs in Japan as selections of 100 historical and cultural heritage sites and heirlooms related to fisheries and fishing villages which we would like to hand down to future generations. However, both central government offices would not plan to excavate either bases of any stone tidal weirs or traces of their old ruins to identify, for instance, when they were built or how large they used to be, because no Japanese civil servant regards them as study object of archaeology, i.e. underwater cultural heritage. Conclusion In Japan a research group from Waseda University, Tokyo, which was directed by an anthropologist, started its academic investigation upon stone tidal weirs in 1956, which might be the world-first comprehensive field survey on them. However, no introductory book to underwater archaeology does not mention this important research. On the other hand, all books give the detailed description of the Swedish Vasa project which began in the same year. Even in Japan, no underwater archeological booklet treats this historical research activity, while all do the salvage of the wreck of Kaiyo-maru at northern Japan which began in 1974. Besides as for stone tidal weirs themselves, only two introductory books to underwater archaeology have referred to them unusually: one 10 �is in English (Bowens, 2009), and the other is in Japanese (Iwabuchi, 2012b). Indeed, underwater archeologists have not much been interested in stone tidal weirs, partly because they have been or are concerned about conventional shipwrecks, and partly because stone tidal weirs have mainly been studied, not by archaeologists, but by anthropologists, by folklorists, or by geographers. As mentioned before, nevertheless, the stone tidal weir does be true underwater cultural heritage according to the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention. Stone tidal weirs are as important as shipwrecks such as the Uluburun or the Sinan ship. References Anand, P. E. V., 1996. Fishing Methods in Lakshadweep. Infofish International, Vol. 3: 57-65. Barham, A. J., 2000. Late Holocene Maritime Societies in the Torres Strait Islands, Northern Australia. In S. O’Connor and P. Veth (Eds.), East of Wallace’s Line, Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam: 223-314. Bithoneau, R., and Morisset, C., 1993. Les éclusesàpoissons de l'îled'Oleron. Les Cahiers d'Oleron, (2nd edition), Vol. 10: 5-9 Boucard, J., 1984. Les éclusesàpoisonsdansl'île de Ré. Rupella, La Rochelle. Bowens, A., (Ed.), 2009. Underwater Archaeology. Blackwell, Oxford, (2nd edition). Gabriel, O., Lange, K., Dahm, E.,and Wendt, T., (Eds.), 2005. Fish Catching Methods of the World, Blackwell, Oxford, (4th edition). Guérin, U., Egger, B., and Penalva, V., (Eds), 2010. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania. UNESCO, Paris. Haddon, A. C., 1912. Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, Vol. 4 (Arts and Crafts), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hornell, J., 1950. Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Iwabuchi, A., 2002. Stone Tidal Weirs at Ré Island of Western France. Proceedings of the Lecture Meeting at Tokyo University of Mercantile Marine, Vol. 50: 45-48 (in Japanese). Iwabuchi, A., 2012a. Stone Tidal Weirs. In Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Ed.), The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: the Nansei Islands, the Asian Research Institute of 11 �Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka: 97-99 (in Japanese). Iwabuchi, A., 2012b. The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage. Kagaku-dojin, Kyoto (in Japanese). Nishimura, A., 1968. Primitive Fishing Methods. In A. Smith (Ed.), Ryukyuan Culture and Society, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: 67-77. Nishimura, A., 1975. Cultural and Social Change in the Modes of Ownership of Stone Tidal Weirs. In R. W. Casteel and G. I. Quimby (Eds.), Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific, Mouton Publishers, The Hague: 77-88. Nishimura, A., 1981. Maritime Counterpart to Megalithic Culture on Land. Journal de la Société des Océanistes, Vol. 37: 255-266. Parthesius, R., 2011. Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? In M. Staniforth, J. Craig, S. C. Jago-on, B. Orillaneda and L. Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 Nov. 2011, Manila: 641-651. Stewart, H., 1993. A Tidal Stone Weir in the Arctic. The Historical Review, Vol. 128: 6479 (in Japanese). Takeda, J., 1993. Offerings from the Sea. Shiosai, Vol. 9: 48-51 (in Japanese). Tawa, M., 2007. Stone Tidal Weirs. Hosei University Press, Tokyo (in Japanese). Yabuuchi, Y., 1978. A Basic Written Material of Fishing Anthropology and its Complementary Study. Kazama-shobo, Tokyo (in Japanese). Yano, T., Nakamura, T.and Yamazaki, M., 2002.The Stone Tidal Weirs in Kohama Island, Ryukyu. Waseda Studies in Human Sciences, Vol. 15 (1): 47-83 (in Japanese). Biography Akifumi Iwabuchi is professor of Marine Culturology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, being also a director of the Japan Society for Nautical Research and ARIUA, ICOMOS-ICUCH delegate for Japan, and INA research associate. He received his PhD from the University of Oxford in 1990. His publications include The People of the Alas Valley (Clarendon Press, 1994) and The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage (Kagaku-dojin, 2012). His university, UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unit win Network member, is the only one academic institution, teaching and studying nautical archaeology, inside Japan; to PhD candidates from foreign countries the governmental scholarship schemes are available. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Stone Tidal Weirs, Underwater Cultural Heritage or Not? Description An account of the resource The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale in semicircular, half-quadrilateral, or almost linear shape. At the flood tide these weirs are submerged beneath the sea, while they emerge into full view at the ebb. Using with nets or tridents, fishermen, inside the weirs at low tides, catch fish that fails to escape because of the stone walls. They could be observed in the Pacific or the Yap Islands, in the Indian Ocean or the east African coast, and in the Atlantic or Oleron and Ré Islands. The UNESCO’s 2001 Convention regards this weir as underwater cultural heritage, because it has been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years; stone tidal weirs have been built in France since the 11th century and a historical record notes that one weir in the Ryukyu Islands was built in the 17th century. In Japan every weir is considered not to be buried cultural property or cultural heritage investigated by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset studied by anthropologists, according to its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties. Even now in many countries stone tidal weirs are continuously built or restored by locals. Owing to the contemporary trait, it is not easy to preserve them under the name of underwater cultural heritage. Sometimes their bases were constructed several hundred years ago while their upper parts were repaired very recently. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/231744352e9eb7e78476d7891b3fa1e9.pdf 4c85726b986801e0aa27851018bd6a3b PDF Text Text Distributional Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage and its Experimental Presentation in the Ryukyu Archipelago Chiaki Katagiri Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Naha, Japan, 900-0006 Email: katgiric@pref.okinawa.lg.jp Yuji Yamamoto Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka, Japan, 812-0041 Email: yamamoto@f-creer.com Yumiko Nakanishi, Osaka Prefectural Government, Osaka, Japan, 559-0034 Email: NakanishiYum@mbox.pref.osaka.lg.jp Abstract The Ryukyu Archipelago is located at the northwestern Pacific, between the islands of Formosa and Kyushu of southern Japan. It consists of 199 islands of all dimensions and the total range of its accurate distribution lengthen is approximately 1,200 km. Since the first human beings settled down on the archipelago during the Pleistocene, they have been living close by the sea there. The local populations have recognized maritime resources as a main and important nutritious food since the prehistoric era, while the Ryukyu kingdom used to be prosperous unprecedentedly in terms of seaborne oversea trade among Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. In the Ryukyu archipelago, the distributional survey of underwater cultural heritage has lately been conducted by the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and Kagoshima University, in order to assess its numbers, typologies, actual conditions, and so on. According to the research, 235 sites of underwater or maritime cultural heritage have already been confirmed: 9 shipwrecks, 33 submerged ports, 15 places where boat cargos are scattered on the seabed, 72 places where old boat cargos and other remains are found along the coasts, 30 stone anchors and cargos on land, 28 quarries, 45 stone tidal weirs, and 3 salt works. In 2011, as a result of the survey, an underwater cultural heritage presentation or guidance tour was carried out in Kume Island. Presumably, this experimental trial will lead the public to having the sense to acknowledge and protect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Key words: Ryukyu Archipelago, Ryukyu Kingdom, Transit trade, Distributional Survey, Open day Introduction The Ryukyu Archipelago consists of 199 islands of various sizes ranging about 1,200 km between Kyushu Island, the southernmost island of the Japanese Archipelago, and 1 �Taiwan in the northwestern coastal Pacific. The first humans reached there in the late Pleistocene and have long been living a life highly connected to the sea since then. Marine resources had been their major food source in prehistory, and the islands have prospered because of overseas exchanges using ships and the sea from the Gusuku Period to the Sanzan Period (from the latter half of 11thcentury to 1429 AD). The tidal zone was actively utilized for production activities until 1879, when the Ryukyu Kingdom became an independent state. Recent research accumulation revealed the numbers and types of underwater cultural heritage in this region by the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Kagoshima University, Tokai University and Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, and so on. It is notable that such researches include a whole series of different kinds of methods, such as collection of oral histories, interviews, archival researches, walking survey of the coastal area and the seabed, and the like. Based on the results of such researches, we have an underwater site open day in Kumejima Island in Okinawa for its experimental presentation on 11th September 2011 and 28th September 2013. On those days, we invited the willing public to visit and see underwater sites under the supervision and Fig. 1 Location of Archipelago. (C. Katagiri) guidance by the experts. The Ohajima Underwater Ryukyu Site was selected for the subject of this experimental presentation as it was the most suitable site on many reasons. We have collected the data regarding the interest of the visitors, trying to justify the validity of the method we have adopted. The research aims to lead to the protection and utilization of underwater cultural heritage. Types and numbers of the sites holding Underwater Cultural Heritage As shown in the Table 1, the area of sea around the Ryukyu Archipelago holds a wide variety of underwater cultural heritage. 9 shipwreck sites, 15 seabed artifact scattering sites (loads only, no hull found), 33 submerged ports, 72 coastal artifact scattering sites, 2 �76 production sites (28 quarries, 45 stone tidal weirs, an 3 salt pans), and 30 sites with findings on land, such as stone and iron anchors are so far found and categorized. type number contents a Shipwreck sites 9 Shipwreck b Sseabed artefact scattering sites 13 Only cargo, Almost ceramics c Ports 33 artefacts of various periods d Coastal artefact scattering sites 71 artefacts of various periods e Quarries 28 Sites to cut out stone f 45 Stationary fishing gear g Soltworks 3 Sites to produced the salt h Related underwater cultural heritage 30 Aimost Anchor of the ship Ⅰ Sites due to the marine accidents Ⅱ　Site formed by the frequent use of the sae and coasal areas Ⅲ　Sites due to production activities Ⅳ　Others Stone tidal weirs 合計 232 Table 1.Aggregation of Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Ryukyu Island. (C. Katagiri) Sites due to the Marine Accidents Shipwreck sites (a): Often only the wreckage and pieces of ships found. They are disturbed by natural phenomena like a typhoon or human disturbance like recovery after having been stranded or sunk. Seabed artifact scattering sites (b): Generally formed by loads thrown away from the ships, but sometimes caused by the wreck. Hard to distinguish either unless wrecked hull pieces are found. Sites formed by the Frequent Use of the Sea and Coastal Areas Ports(c): Proving that the area had been used as a port, with anchors and artifacts of various periods are found. Occasionally formed by the ship anchored there which accidentally sunk? Coastal artifact scattering sites (d): Formed as a result of utilization of the coastal area those who were living in the settlements there, such as cooking and discarding which are distinguished from the ports. Sites due to Production Activities Found in the tidal zone. Quarries (e) are well-recognized and well-preserved while salt pans(g) and stone tidal weirs(f) formed with the small pebbles piled are not preserved in a good state. Such structures are meant to be constantly used and repaired, and will be naturally destroyed once stopped being used. Many sites of this kind had been existed 3 �in the past, but the numbers dramatically decreased and hardly seen now. It is exigency to record those sites. Others Artifacts that used to be on the seabed are often recovered on land and conserved as cultural properties (h). Stone and iron anchors often apply to this case providing the clue to the identification of the ships sailing in the area at that time. Major characteristics of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Region Table 2 shows an overview of typical underwater cultural heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago and Fig. 2, Representative underwater cultural heritage of the Ryukyu archipelago. Underwater Cultural Heritage Related to Overseas Trades during the Gusuku Period (between the 12th and 13th Centuries AD) The Amamioshima-kurazaki underwater site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 2, Ukenson Board of Education, 1999) and the Kumejima- nakanohama underwater site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.13, Miyagi et al., 2004; Tezuka et al., 2005; Katagiri, 2007) are known to be holding underwater cultural heritage formed by the shipwreck or the load discarded from the ship, dated back to the latter half of the 12th century to the 13th century. In both cases, Chinese ceramics are densely found on the seabed, which provide a great deal of information related to the trading in the early Gusuku Period. Fig. 2Representative Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Ryukyu Archipelago. (C. Katagiri) 4 �Underwater Cultural Heritage Related to Overseas Trade from the Sanzan Period (the 14th Century AD) to the Ryukyu Kingdom Period (from 1429 AD to 1879) From the latter half of the 14th century to the beginning of the 15th century, a crucial turning point in the history of the region occurred regarding the transition of political power when the sovereign was centered during the establishment of the Ryukyu Kingdom. Ohajima Underwater site in Kumejima Island is one of the major sites during this period (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.12, Miyagi et al., 2004; Tezuka et al., 2008; Katagiri, 2007). Large amount of celadon of the early Ming Dynasty China is found. Moreover, 2 Chinese stone anchors have been identified in Kumejima Island. Kumejima Island and the surrounding sea area must have played a significant role in oversea trades during the early Gusuku Period and Sanzan Period, proved by the density of underwater sites and stone anchors dated back then.The Ryukyu Kingdom was in its heyday from the 15th century to the mid 16th century. The king resided in Shuri-jo Castle served as the sovereign ruler and the centralized nation was formed then. Nagura-shitadaru site (Underwater site) dated back to the mid to late 15th century is located in Ishigakijima Island and large amount of Chinese celadon discovered from the site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 22, Sakishima Culture Research Institute, 2009). Miyakojima Island holds Kurimajima Underwater site dated back to the first half of the 16th century. Chinese ceramics found from sites has been changing then, from the predominantly celadon before to the gorgeous flowery blue and white porcelain (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.19, Katagiri, 2009).After the invasion of the Satsuma clan in 1609, Tokara-retto Islands became a territory of Satsuma. An underwater sites indicating the maritime accident at that time is identified in Tairajima Island of Tokara-retto Islands. Clusters of Chinese porcelains of the Qing Dynasty dated to the 18th century found in the area, which would have been formed by the ship sunken or the ship loads discarded (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 1, Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economic and Humanities et al., 2010). Sunken Shipwrecks Revealing Ikoku-sen (the Western Ships) during the Last Years of the Ryukyu Kingdom In the last years of Ryukyu Kingdom, many West European ships called Ikoku-sen has constantly been around the sea area of the Ryukyu Archipelago.It is obvious that Asian 5 �intrusion and interference by the great powers of the West Europe came to influence so far as the Ryukyu Kingdom. Many shipwrecks found in the area can provide us the great deal of information on Western ships at that time. An English ship, Providence, sunken in Yaebishi in Miyakojima Island in 1776 was discovered (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.16, Katagiri, 2009). On top of the Providence, another English ship, Indian Oak, owned by East India Company sunken in 1776 was found in Chatan-cho in Chatan Oki (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.9, Nakamura, 1994). In 1853, the same year with when Mathew Calbraith Perry arrived at Uraga Port, an English ship sank off Yoshino Kaigan in Miyakojima (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.20, Katagiri, 2009) and a Dutch Ship, Van Bosse off Takada Kaigan in Taramason Village in 1857 (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.21, Katagiri, 2009). In 1872, when the Ryukyu Kingdom was inclining on verge of collapse, an English ship, Benares sank off Ginama in Kunigamison Village (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.4, Katagiri, 2013), as well as a foreign ship of unknown nationality sank off Minamiukibarujima in Uruma City (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.8, Katagiri, 2010). Wrecks and loads left by those foreign ships still remain on the seabed of those areas. Underwater Cultural Heritage Related to the Domestic Commodity Circulation within the Ryukyu Kingdom. In 1879, the Meiji Government abolished the Ryukyu Kingdom. The Kingdom became extinct on the map and came to be called “Okinawa Prefecture”. The ships called “Maran-sen” were playing significant role of carrying the supplies to many remote islands in Okinawa at that time. Agonoura Underwater site located in Zamamijima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.11, Miyagi et al., 2004), Yaebisi Underwater site Cluster in Miyakoshoto Islands (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.2-3, Katagiri, 2009), Yarabu Underwater Site in Ishigakijima Island (Fig. 2, Table2, Site No.23, Katagiri, 2010, Ono et al., 2013), Sekiseishoko Underwater site Cluster in Yaeyamashoto Islands (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.24-26, Katagiri, 2009, Ono et al.,2013) are so far identified underwater sites dated to this period. A wide variety of Tsuboya-yaki pottery produced in Naha City in Okinawajima Island are found in those sites, accompanied with some Chinese Qing Dynasty Porcelain in some cases. Those sites and artifact scatterings were formed due to the accident of the ships which were transporting pottery produced at Tsuboya in Naha City of Okinawajima Island to the smaller islands around Okinawajima Island, 6 �such as Miyako and Yaeyama Shoto Islands, either by the hull being submerged or the loads abandoned on their way. In case of Sekiseishoko Underwater site Cluster, Point No. 3 (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 26), the submerged hull is identified. Moreover, fourarmed anchors that had never seen on land in Okinawa are discovered at Yarabu Underwater site (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 23) in Ishigakijima Island, which provides us significant information to reveal the appearance and characteristics of the ships at that time (Katagiri, 2010; Ono et al., 2013). Submerged Port Sites Underwater sites showing evidence of having been the ports with frequent use are Shirasegawakako (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.14, Toma and Sakuda, 1999) and Majako (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.15, Katagiri, 2007; 2010) in Kumejima Island, Agonoura in Zamamijima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No. 11, Katagiri, 2007), Sesokojima Underwater site in Motobucho of Okinawajima Island (Fig. 2, Table Fig. 3 Landscape of Ohajima Underwater 2, Site No. 7, Katagiri, 2005). Majako Port had Site (A Large Amount of China Ceramics of the Late 14th on the Seabed) and Sea been a famous port known to be used for Area that Held a Tour. (C. Katagiri) tributary trades. There is a warehouse overseer near the site and stone anchors are found from the nearby settlement. A wide variety of artifacts dated back to from the medical to pre-modern and modern period are scattered on the coast and seabed in this area, which support that the area had long been used as a port (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.15). Combined investigations of such a site and previously mentioned Nakanohama underwater site and Ohajima underwater site that show the traces of maritime accidents will provide us with large amount of information to evaluate the site. Agonoura of Zamamijima Island is also known as a port related to the tributary trade.Many kinds of artifacts, such as the 15th century celadon, as well as the pre-modern and modern pottery produced in Okinawa, have been discovered on the seabed of the area (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.11). Sesokojima Sea area had also long been used as port on the trade route, which resulted in many artifacts findings especially on the east coast of Sesokojima Island. A 7 �stone anchor was found at Anchi-hama Beach, probing the existence of the ships anchored there (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.7, Katagiri et al., 2005). This stone anchor is relatively small, but mocking Chinese stone anchor having produced during the time of the Ryukyu Kingdom. The small stone anchors of this kind have recently been found at several places all over Okinawajima Island, which would be significant information source to reveal the structure of Maran-sen ships. Several stone anchors of this kind holding similar form were also found from the seabed off Sanko Port of Tokunoshima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.3, Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economic and Humanities et al., 2010). The area was tactically significant sea area for the port, and geographical as well as historical significance of the area are to be revealed. Production Site Production sites are generally recognized in the tidal zones. Quarries, stone tidal weirs and salt pans are the representative sites of this kind. A huge quarry in Kumejima Island of Kumejimacho (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.28, Katagiri, 2006), stone tidal weir cluster in Kohamajima Island of Taketomicho (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site Fig. 4 Tour scene of the Snorkel in Ohajima No.29, Katagiri, 2009), a salt pan in Underwater Site. (C. Katagiri) Nakijinson Village of Okinawajima Island and the like are so far identified (Fig.2, Table 2, Site No.31). Quarries are often well preserved due to its structural characteristic, while stone tidal weirs and salt pans made with small pebbles pile up are generally in disastrous preservation state. These types of sites have to be constantly used and repaired. The site, once stopped being used, would start to be reverted back to the original natural state and collapse due to the natural force of waves and tide. There had been many salt pans and stone tidal weirs in the past, which are hardly seen now. Recording of those sites is our urgent mission. 8 �No. Underwater Site Location Classification Contents Age 1 Tairashima Tokara, Tairashima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 18th 2 Kurakizaki Amami, Amami Oshima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 12-13th 3 Sankou Amami, Tokunoshima Ⅱc Port. Stone anchor Middle Ages 4 Ginama Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅰa Wreck. UK, Benares 1873 5 Emons Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅰa Wreck. USA, Emons 1945 6 Wajikaigan Okinawa, Iejima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 15th Middle Ages -Modern 7 Sesokojima Okinawa, Sesokojima Ⅱc Port. Okinawa stone anchor, China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery 8 Minamiukibarujima Okinawa, Minamiukibarujima Ⅰa Ｗｒｅｃｋ 1876 9 Indian Oak Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅰa Wreck. UK, Indian Oak 1840 10 Nahakou Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics Middle Ages-modern 11 Agonoura Okinawa, Kerama, Zamamijima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery Middle Ages-modern 12 Oha Okinawa, Kumejima,Ohajima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics Late14th 13 Nakanohama Okinawa, Kumejima, Hatenohama Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 12-13th 14 Sirasegawakakou Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery Middle Ages-modern 15 Majakou Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅱc Port. China Cermaics, Okinawa Pottery Middle Ages-modern 16 Yabiji,No.1 Sakishima, Miyako, Yabiji Ⅰa Wreck. UK, Providence 1776 17 Yabiji,No.2 Sakishima, Miyako, Yabiji Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery Early modern period 18 Yabiji,No.3 Sakishima, Miyako, Yabiji Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery Early modern period 19 Kurimajima Sakishima, Miyakojima, Kurimajima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics Early16th 20 Yoshinokaigan Sakishima, Miyakojima Ⅰa Wreck. UK 1853 21 Takadakaigan Sakishima, Taramajima Ⅰa Wreck. Netherlands, Van Bosse 1857 22 Nagurashitadaru Sakishima, Ishigakijima Ⅰb Boat cargos, China Ceramics 15th Early modern period 23 Yarabu Sakishima, Ishigakijima Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery. Four claw iron anchor 24 Sekiseisyouko,No1 Sakishima, Sekiseisyouko Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery, China Ceramics Early modern period 25 Sekiseisyouko,No2 Sakishima, Sekiseisyouko Ⅰb Boat cargos, Okinawa pottery Early modern period 26 Sekiseisyouko,No3 Sakishima, Sekiseisyouko Ⅰa Wreck. Okinawa pottery Early modern period-modern 27 Yomitanson,quarries Okinawa, OKinawajima Ⅲe Production sites. Quarries Early modern period-modern 28 Kumejima,kitahara,quarries Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅲe Production sites. Quarries Early modern period-modern 29 Kohamajima,stone tidal weirs Sakishima, Kohamajima Ⅲf Production sites. Stone tidal weirs Early modern period-modern 30 Iriomotejima,stone tidal weirs Sakishima, Iriomotejima Ⅲf Production sites. Stone tidal weirs Early modern period-modern 31 Wakugawa,soltworks Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅲg Production sites. Soltworks Early modern period-modern 32 Amami Oshima,stone anchors Amami, Amami Oshima Ⅳh 8China stone anchors Middle Ages 33 Uegusuku,stone anchor Okinawa, Kumejima Ⅳh China stone anchor Middle Ages 34 Yamadagusuku,stone anchor Okinawa, Okinawajima Ⅳh China stone anchor Middle Ages 35 Taramajima,stock anchor Sakishima, Taramajima Ⅳh Western Europe Stock anchor Early modern period 36 Yoshino,stone material Sakishima, Miyakojima Ⅳh Stone material Early modern period 37 Ikema,Iron products Sakishima, Miyako, Ikemajima Ⅳh Iron products Early modern period Table 2.Overview of Typical Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago. (C. Katagiri) 9 �Underwater Cultural Heritage Raised on Land There are some artifacts and parts of ship structure, which had been found on the seabed, raised on land, and then preserved and reverted to the cultural properties. Their information and use would be enhanced and its value increased by being connected with underwater cultural heritage in the area that still remains to be underwater. A stone anchor reused for the well of a Yamada Gusuku (Castle) in Onnason Village (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.34, Katagiri, 2007), iron anchors in Taramajima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.35, Katagiri, 2009), stone materials found in Yoshino Settlement in Miyakojima Island (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.36, Katagiri, 2009), iron products of Miyako-Ikemajima Island and the like are so far recognized of this kind (Fig. 2, Table 2, Site No.37). They provide us the clue to figure out the ships sailing in this sea area. Experimental Site Open Day After the 10 years of distributional survey in sea area of the Ryukyu Archipelago, as a result, we now have a rough idea about the types and quantity of underwater cultural heritage in the area. The next step forward is to search for a method for protection and utilization of such cultural heritage bore in the beautiful sea in this region with high degree of transparency formed by coral leaf. For this purpose, we have experimentally undertaken a public site open day for underwater cultural heritage around Kumejima Island in Kumejimacho (Katagiri et al., 2012). Fig. 3 shows Landscape of Ohajima underwater site and sea area that held a tour.The major attraction of the day was Ohajima Underwater Site with dense distribution of Chinese pottery dated back to between the latter half of the 14th century and beginning of the 15th century. For the better understanding of the nature and characteristics of underwater cultural heritage, we had delivered a preliminary lecture for 30 minutes before the site visit, as well as observation tour of the artifacts already raised on land, such as pottery pieces collected from the seabed at Ohajima and a stone anchor found at UeGusuku (castle) for 30 minutes. Furthermore, we organized a tour visiting related cultural heritage sites on land, such as Tenkogu Site, Kuramoto-ato Site, Majako Port Site, quarries, and the like, for an hour, which aimed at explaining why the underwater site had been formed on seabed of Ohajima. We prepared 2 ways to visit for the actual 10 �visit of Ohajima Underwater site on seabed, both of which last for about an hour. We organized 2 groups of people with 20 people each, one for visiting the site by snorkeling and the other by a glass-bottom boat for those who are not willing to go into the water. Fig. 4 shows the tour scene of snorkel in Ohajima Underwater Site. This attempt was able to establish a model case for the site open day for the public visiting underwater cultural heritage, which could be followed by the other sites in the Ryukyu Archipelago although we still have to scrutinize this case to evaluate how far the case can be applied to the other cases as well as to the wider public. Conclusion History and culture of the Ryukyu Archipelago have long been together with the sea. Due to its few resources and small areas, it is often claimed that island areas provide harsh environment for the life and survival of human-being. Nevertheless, there is a distinctive maritime culture which have overcome and formed till now. The distinctive characteristics and history of such culture has not yet been fully revealed and evaluated even now. It needs further investigations. We believe that study of underwater cultural heritage would be essential field of research for the future of this area around the Ryukyu Archipelago. The researches so far done helped us to identify a wide variety of underwater cultural heritage ranging from the medial to the pre-modern and modern period. It is also found out that most sites tend to be related to the trade, port and production activity. Now, after the distributional survey, further intensive investigation on a particular area needs to be carried out. Even though we are still facing many problems for conservation and utilization of the site, utilization of underwater cultural heritage in the Ryukyu Archipelago has a bright future, we believe. Many people from all over the world visit Okinawa to enjoy the observation of the seabed of the area by marine sports and glass-bottom boats. As it has been undertaken in Kumejima Island, the concept of establishing Seabed Site Museums is ideal way of utilization for such environment with beautiful sea in the Ryukyu Archipelago. We further intend to promote this attempt to the other sea area. Acknowledgements We are most grateful to Prof. Akifumi Iwabuchi of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology for giving us such a great opportunity to present this paper at APCONF 11 �as a session organizer, as well as to Dr. Tatsuya Nakata of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology for very useful advice. Also wish to thank Director Kenzo Hayashida of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Mr. Hiroki Miyagi of Nago City Board of Education who worked on the research project at the Ryukyu Archipelago with us, Prof. Yoshiro Watanabe of Kagoshima University, and all other friends who worked together. References Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Ed.), 2012. The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Nansei Islands. The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka (in Japanese). Kagoshima University and Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, 2010. The Report on Underwater Cultural Heritage around the Nansei Islands in Fiscal 2009. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, Vol. 3:5-31 (in Japanese). Kagoshima University and Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, 2011.The Report on Underwater Cultural Heritage around the Nansei Islands in Fiscal 2010. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, Vol. 4: 36-59 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Higa, N., and Sakihara, T., 2005. A Stone anchor found underwater near the Anchi Beach in Sesoko Island, Motobu-cho. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Vol.3: 61-70 (in Japanese）. Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2007. Distribution Survey Report of the Coastal Sites (I) – Volume on Okinawa-honto and Surrounding Islands. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2009. Distribution Survey Report of the Coastal Sites (II) – Volume on Miyako of Yaeyama. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2010. Distribution Survey Report of the Coastal Sites (III) – Site Map Volume. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., 2011. Attempt of Discovering Underwater, In Miyakojima City Board of Education (Ed.) Report on Management Plan of Nationally Designated Place of Scenic Beauty “Higashihennazaki”: 163 -168, (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Miyagi, H., Arakaki, T., Yamamoto, Y., and Watanabe, M., 2013. Research Studies of Ginama Foreign Shipwreck sites in Kunigamison, Okinawa, Japan. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Vol.6: 31-53 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Yamada, H., Sakihara, T., Nakajima, T., Miyagi, H., and Watanabe, Y., 2012.The Report of an Underwater Cultural Heritage tour in Kumejima- The Project of ‘The Museum of Underwater Cultural Heritage’. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, Vol.5: 19-36(in Japanese). 12 �Miyagi, H., Katagiri, C., Arakaki, T., and Higa, N., 2004. Preliminary investigation into discovering sunken ships in the Southwest Islands: Underwater artifacts and marine transportation. Bulletin of the Archaeological Study of Okinawa, Vol. 2: 43-60 (in Japanese). Miyagi, H., Katagiri, C., Higa, N., and Sakihara, T., 2005. Preliminary investigation into discovering sunken ships in the Southwest Islands (II): Underwater artifacts and marine transportation. Bulletin of the Archaeological Study of Okinawa, Vol. 2: 81-108 (in Japanese). Nakamura, S., 1994. Stranded site of Indian-Oak. In Chatancho Board of Education (Ed.), Chatancho no Iseki, p. 22 (in Japanese). Ono, R., Katagiri, C., Sakagami, N., Kan, H., Miyagi, H. and Yamamoto, Y., 2013 Present and future of the Underwater Cultural Heritages in the Yaeyama Islands: Perspective from the recent research of Yarabuoki, Proceedings of Yaeyama Museum, Vol. 22: 20-43 (in Japanese). Sakishima Culture Research Institute (Ed.), 2009.Report of the Joint Research Project on Nagura Shitadaru Underwater Site. Sakishima Culture Research Institute, Ishigaki (in Japanese). Tezuka, N., (Ed.), 2005.Structural Analysis of Traded Ceramic Production and Demand in Medieval Japan, Nakano-hama Beach in Kumejima Island, Okinawa, Fiscal 2003. Research Report. Aoyama Gakuin University College of Literature Department of History, Tokyo (in Japanese). Tezuka, N., (Ed.), 2008.Structural Analysis of Traded Ceramic Production and Demand in Medieval Japan, Nakano-hama Beach in Kumejima Island, Okinawa, Fiscal 20062007 Research Report. Aoyama Gakuin University College of Literature Department of History, Tokyo (in Japanese). Toma, S., and Sakuda, I., 1999. The remains Collected at the Mouth of the Shirase River in Kume Islands. Bulletin of Culture Division Education Department Okinawa Prefectural Government, No.15: 25-32(in Japanese). Ukenson Board of Education (Ed.), 1999.KurakizakiKaitei Underwater Site.(in Japanese). Watanabe, M., 2009. Report 1, Research Report on Underwater Heritage in Nansei Islands Vol. 6, document research Fiscal 2009. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, No.3: 28-29 (in Japanese). Biography Chiaki Katagiri is the chief curator of the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum. He was born in Nagano, Japan in 1976, graduated from Okinawa International University in 1999 majoring in archeology. From 2000 to 2011, he worked as a Specialist in Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center and appointed to current post in 2011. He is specializing in anthropology of the islands, carrying out anthropological and archaeological fieldwork throughout Asia. He has been actively 13 �engaged in investigation and research of underwater cultural heritage in Ryukyu Archipelago. His papers include Research Studies of Ginama Foreign Ship Wreck Sites in Kunigamison, Okinawa (2012). Yuji Yamamoto is an underwater photographer participating in several projects by Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, as well as many other underwater heritage projects. Having graduated from Fukuoka University, he was taking pictures of Paris-Dakar Rally and F-1 races. He has participated in the investigation of Takashima Underwater Remains since 1998 and successfully photographed parts of the ship hull, tetsuhau, a helmet, the bundle of arrows of Mongolian Invasion discovered in muddled water. His pictures are published serially in the diver’s monthly magazine “Gekkan Diver” since 2014. Yumiko Nakanishi is an archaeologist working at Osaka Prefectural Government. She obtained M.Phill in Archaeology at Cambridge University in 2001 and is currently a PhD candidate, specializing on heritage management and public archaeology, as well as the final phase of Kofun Period in Kinki region of Japan. She is an Expert Member of ICOMOS Committee for Archaeological Heritage Management (ICAHM). Her publication includes, Theory and praxis of Cultural Heritage Studies in England, Journal of Heritage Studies, Vol. 1: 47-5; The Great East Japan Earthquake and cultural heritage: towards an archaeology of disaster, Antiquity, Vol. 87: 258-269. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Distributional Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage and its Experimental Presentation in the Ryukyu Archipelago Description An account of the resource The Ryukyu Archipelago is located at the northwestern Pacific, between the islands of Formosa and Kyushu of southern Japan. It consists of 199 islands of all dimensions and the total range of its accurate distribution lengthen is approximately 1,200 km. Since the first human beings settled down on the archipelago during the Pleistocene, they have been living close by the sea there. The local populations have recognized maritime resources as a main and important nutritious food since the prehistoric era, while the Ryukyu kingdom used to be prosperous unprecedentedly in terms of seaborne oversea trade among Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. In the Ryukyu archipelago, the distributional survey of underwater cultural heritage has lately been conducted by the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group, the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and Kagoshima University, in order to assess its numbers, typologies, actual conditions, and so on. According to the research, 235 sites of underwater or maritime cultural heritage have already been confirmed: 9 shipwrecks, 33 submerged ports, 15 places where boat cargos are scattered on the seabed, 72 places where old boat cargos and other remains are found along the coasts, 30 stone anchors and cargos on land, 28 quarries, 45 stone tidal weirs, and 3 salt works. In 2011, as a result of the survey, an underwater cultural heritage presentation or guidance tour was carried out in Kume Island. Presumably, this experimental trial will lead the public to having the sense to acknowledge and protect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chiaki Katagiri Yuji Yamamoto Yumiko Nakanishi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e18e5e5a8709f4beba2462d73909aa3d.pdf a5f9c138ae3f59f1557c9d848cbb3566 PDF Text Text The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sea Going Sailing Junks: A Manuscript Xu Lu Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society Xiamen, 361003 People’s Republic of China Email: xuluxm2013@yahoo.com Abstract As the most important qualities of ancient Chinese sailing junks, the square bows and sterns with transverse watertight bulkhead and the lugsails with bamboo mat and strip remained the same over thousands of years. Of which, the traditional Fujian style sea going junks is one of the major vessel forms for the ocean and oversea route in ancient China. This paper make an interpretation of Fujian style sea going junks through ship form and structure, principle of design, models, choice of material, sequence of construction, painting and decoration, tools, ship-builders, and ship component remains. This study is combined with the interpretation of Chinese historical documents and drawings, foreign historical drawings, ethnographical field work on main traditional shipbuilding centers along the Fujian coast, reconstruction of traditional shipbuilding, land archaeology evidence, and especially gathers information from a newly discovered illustrated manuscript for shipbuilding. This manuscript at present is the most detailed manuscript found pertaining to the principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, measures and amounts materials used for each ship form. The purpose of this paper is to recover the historical archetypes of ancient Fujian Style Sea going sailing junks, then providing one set of helpful method to explain and identify relevant ship remains excavated in future shipwreck underwater archaeological projects. Keywords: Fujian style Sea going junks, Traditional shipbuilding, Ship remains, Naval architecture, Manuscript Introduction The traditional Fujian style sea going junks is one of the major vessel forms in ancient China. But, what did that ancient junks look like? How were they made? How were they operated and maneuvered? China’s navigation and naval architecture constitute a history of this production technology with its root in the common people. Extant historical data is rather limited and therefore regrettably slight when contrasted with the 1 �art and expertise accumulated over time and the ancient and magnificent culture that it represents. The emergence of sea-faring wooden vessels, their development, transformation and eventual disappearance had a lot to do with the political and economic conditions as well as the available natural resources at any specific time. Without question, changes in available resources as well as in sea routes entailed modifications to form, size, function, names, and even the mode of operation of these vessels. Equally, the technological development and improvement in ship design had its effects on society and the subsequent trajectory of social history. Before, domesticated shipwreck archaeology was founded in the matching and displaying of wrecks, and never went further to carry out experiments on replica and reconstructions according to ancient navigation environment perspectives. Even after researching into the history of naval architecture and ancient writings, searching through relics from different dynasties, focusing mainly on the general conditions of ship-building and the wide variety of methods of manufacturing through every historical period, we are still unable to reconstruct history in its entirety. What could be done was to set up a systematic way of collecting data; then to summarize, understand and subsequently experiment with them. With this data as the foundation, the project became to produce a series of replicas using methods of construction that had been passed down from generation to generation, so that people today can see and experience them; replicas that may allow later generations to reconstruct actual history. Only by doing so can we answer the three questions pertaining to ship-building and sea-faring history listed above, an only then can the value of research be made clear. Ship Form and Structure of Fujian Style Junks Facing Taiwan across the strait, Fujian has 3,324 km of coastline and 1,404 small islands off the coast. The way of life of the ancient Yue people, Fujian’s early inhabitants, was sea orientated with sea travel as their main means of communication. Despite the hilly landscape and mountain ranges in Fujian’s hinterland, these proved no barrier to its economic interaction with other provinces and places overseas (Fig. 1). 2 �The inland, inshore and offshore sea-faring networks linked Fujian with the outside world thereby shipping continuously ensuring and that fishing developed. Fujian’s industries In addition, Fujian was rich in natural resources such as wood, iron, tong oil (Verniciafordii seeds oil), lihui (lime obtained by burning oyster shells), rattan, hemp and lacquer. With such handy materials that could be used to build ships, ship-building prospered across the province. Viewed from a different perspective, Fujian’s coastline was full of Fig. 1 A Color Images of Fujian Style War Junk. (W. creeks and inlets. Facing the Strait of Alexander) Taiwan, it was situated where warm and cold air currents mingled. Not only was the wind strength very inconsistent, it was also where typhoons move inland from the sea during the summer and autumn. Due to this complicated natural environment, certain demands had to be met with regard to form, function and structure of ships, and to the choice of materials and skills employed in their manufacture. It is such circumstances that gave birth to vessels with V-shaped bottoms, raised flat bows, indented sterns, flaring bulwarks, framing, stern-hung, lifting rudders lowering deeply below the keel line, and wide cambered decks that eased the drainage of water. These unique environmental and cultural factors together made the Fujian style junks one of the major vessel forms in ancient China. Building Fujian style junks required standard procedures in the choosing of ship form, design, materials and construction strategy, and involved manufacturing processes such as carpentry, metal work, sewing, painting and smelting. The Southern Song dynasty seagoing ship unearthed in Houzhu in Quanzhou in 1974, the mid-Yuan dynasty Fujian merchant ship discovered in Xin’an of Korea in 1982, and the many ships found in the sea-beds in Lianjiang, Pingtan, Putien and Dongshan in Fujian province are comprised solely of those parts of the ships that were below the waterline. 3 �Therefore, they provide no information on the complete form and design of these vessels. These remains, however, do prove that during the Song and Yuan dynasties the necessary skills developed to build the three-sectioned keel, the water-tight cabins and stern-hung rudders that could be hoisted and lowered. Historical Evidence The earlier records from extant historical writings that contain information on different types of ship from the Fujian style junk series were written around the late 16th to the mid-17th century. A middle 17th century collection of the Berlin Ethnologic Museum was the earliest meticulous color image of Fujian style junks (Anonymous, mid-17th Century). A mass of Drawings of Chinese ship anchored around Matsuura and recorded by local Japanese painters since last decade of 17th century (Oba, 1972) were of great value for study. In 1796, William Alexander’s colour images are the earliest and the best realistic portrayals of Fujian style junks available to us today (Fig. 2). Domestic sources were researched as well. The Navy Abstract, written in the year of the Emperor Kangxi (1654-1722) by the regional commander Chen Liang Shi contained an iconography for Fujian style warship (Chen Liang Shi, 2002). The Taiwan Conversation by Writing, written between the years of the emperor Kangxi to Yongzheng by Huang Shu Jing, recorded parts of materials, quantities and specifications needed to build the Ganzeng types of Fujian warship (Huang Shu Jing, 1957). The Illustrated Manual of Instruction in Shipbuilding for the Navy of Fujian Province, a manuscript between the years of the emperor Yong zheng to Fig. 2 The Coast of Fujian Province and the Qianlong by anonymous writer recorded Location of Sha Po Wei. (Xu Lu) by the order of the Admiralty (Anonymous, 4 �Mid-18th listed Century), the kinds of warships in use during that time. Types like Ganzeng, Shuangpeng, Pingdi, Fazhuo, Bajiang were listed, and their peculiarities and used for different areas and condition. The Regions Formula of Fujian Sea Going Fig. 3 The Old Dockyard in Sha Po Wei inside Xiamen Gang. (Xu Lu) Warships, a woodblock edition was written in 1768 by the order of the emperor Qianlong (Anonymous, 2002). Through putting together mostly-forgotten information that have been scattered all over the world, the appearance and design of junks traceable to the Song and Yuan dynasties are visualized. These sources show wahat ancient Fujian style sea-going junks probably looked like. Ethnographical Field Investigation and Manuscripts From 2004, we began to visit the main traditional shipbuilding centers along the Fujian coast and carried out the field investigation of wooden sailing junks. We found 7 manuscripts recorded and inherited by 4 shipwright families. The Sha Po Wei inside Xiamen Gang (Old Amoy Port) is a famous traditional shipbuilding center up to the first half of the 20th century. It was comprised of more than 15 private dockyards around 3 hectares of shoreline (Fig. 3). The Chen family in one of largest and oldest dockyards in the region, the family migrating from Huian country to Xiamen Gang at least five generations ago. An illustrated manuscript of naval architecture was archived by Mr. Chen Yan Ning of this family. It is 51 pages of paper, 22.5 cm in length and 11cm wide, 6 vertical red lines to a page, badly written in the end of 1910s.The manuscript was drawn by Chen Yan Ning’s uncle, Chen Guo Zai (died in 1949), and then his son gave it to Chen Yan Ning. It contents size and cost of fourteen Fujian sea-going sailing junks, 5 �all the numbers expressed in Suzhou numerals (Table 1). It is the most detailed record so far pertaining to the principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, measures and the amount of materials used for different ship forms. One of those is Da Pa, a junk that each side of hull is printed five gun ports (Fig. 4), it is the only civil junk with gun ports in the period of the Republic of China, alias Hei Bo or Feng Wei Chuan by recorded of G. R. G. Fig. 4 The Manual of Da Pai in the Naval Worcester (Worcester, 1948) (Fig. 5). Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family. (Chen Guo Zai) Design In ancient times, master ship-builders relied on their individual experience and the knowledge passed down from previous generations. They would make patterns on the spot rather than prepare drawings with precise dimensions in advance. Traditional shipbuilding was a conservative, physically demanding profession. Apprentices were people from the lower end of society who could not afford an education. Being mostly illiterate, ship-builders’ experience and knowledge was an oral tradition, passing it down to apprentices as they worked. In those days livelihoods very much depended on such skills, so what they learned they kept to themselves and seldom disclosed. For these reasons, illustrated construction manuals were rare. When designing a new ship, Fujian shipwright would decide on the measurements:  The length of the keel (longgu) and the rise at both ends based on the intended use of the particular ship;  The location of the four main transverses – those at the front and back, behind the mast and that which defines the main cabin;  The width and depth of the ship in proportion to the length of the keel (longgu), for example, the measurement of the transverse behind the mast should be 4/10 the measurement of the keel. 6 � All other measurements such as the bottom-width of the transverse behind the mast, the top and bottom widths and locations of other transverses were then defined based on experience and according to the type, usage and other requirements of the vessel.  The height of the mast depended on the top-measurement of the transverse immediately behind. So was the size of the major sail.  Finally, measurements of width and the size and shape of the rudder post and tiller were determined. The earliest historical document about design of Fujian style junk that has been discovered up to now is a document from the early Qing dynasty. Fig. 5 Feng Wei Chuan. (G. R. G. Worcester) Models The building process started with making a model. Measurements would then be proportionately enlarged for making the ship. This was a method recorded in documents from the Song dynasty onward and continues to be used even in the present. Currently, 7 �scholars take the making of models as the means by which to conserve and record the technology used to make a particular ship, but the ship-building industry knows well that components are difficult to reduce and reproduce to scale. Hence details that scaled down would be too small to show are often omitted. Furthermore, to build a ship requires totally different skills to those required for making a model. When detailed plans and descriptions are lacking, models can at times be misleading. Model offered the possibility of experimenting with various solutions before the replica in full scale was begun. Selection of Material As far as the choice of wood is concerned, a kind of natural fir tree Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb). Hook from Fujian a mountainous area was normally used for the parts of a ship’s shell that have direct contact with the sea, such as the keel (longgu), bottom, shuishe (literally water snake), and zouma (literally running horse), the deck and transverses (gecangban, literally cabin-separating boards), and natural small-leaf camphor for other parts of the body such as cangliangzhuo (base of cabin beams) liangtou (beam-end) and gecangfuqiang (cabin-separating strengtheners). For the rudder and anchor which required harder material, kundian wood, which was grown in Guangdong and Southeast Asia was used. Wood for the mast was the most carefully selected, natural fir trees from Fujian aged 80 or more were generally used. Extant historical documents prove that tight rules governing the selection and quantity of materials to be used for ships built in imperial shipyards existed from the mid Ming. The allowances, however, seem overly lavish. With experienced folk ship-builders, measurements of all the parts would be clear in their minds as they searched for materials. Any piece of wood was to them an assembly of some parts. Ship-building uses a lot of wood, but the availability of wood is subject to specific growth cycles. A shortage of supply occurred in Fujian from the early Ming Dynasty, and with it, the cost of ships went up. Wood was then imported in large quantities from Southeast Asia (Chen Xi Yu, 1991). At the same time, some folk-shipyards moved out of Fujian. Some relocated abroad where a few expanded to substantial size. With them Fujian shipbuilding technology spread overseas. 8 �Launched 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1915 1914 Type Owner Da Shuang Zhang (Jiang) Da Gu Da Gu Da Gu Qiu Xiong Da Pai Da Pai Da Pai 口 Cao (DiaoCao？) 1906 Jin Mu Chuan Chong Wu Changshun hang Chong Wu Cheng Chuan Chong Wu Chang Shun Xiu Chuan Jiu Zhi He Shang Tou Chuan De Bao Shui Chuan Length of keel (chi/meter) 28.4/8.72 Cost (Silver Dollar) 500 22.7/6.81 28/8.4 21/6.3 35/ 10.5 31.5/9.45 21/6.3 30.5/9.15 22/6.6 30.5/9.15 30.5/9.15 27/8.1 31/9.3 20/6 500 230 Table 1. The Contents of Fourteen Fujian Junks from the Naval Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family. (Chen Guo Zai) Sequence of Construction Traditional production starts with establishing the keel (longgu), fixing transverses (longuyiban, literally dragon bone wing-boards), parts of bottom planking, gecangban, biban (bilge Keel), wen (stabilizer), lianggung (upper ribs), then the intermediate ribs between the transverses, and finally, the remaining bottom planking. After these, work on the weather deck begins. First the boards along the bulwarks, followed with shishe on the exterior of the bulwarks, shuixianmen (literally narcissus door) and then the bulwarks. The dragon-eye is usually installed on an auspicious day chosen by the boatman. When the making of the ship’s hull is finished, the filling or Lihui (Caulking) and all sewing work too come to completion. Before the new ship is launched, the exterior of the shell is first covered with a mixture of rice soup and lihui to protect against shipworms. The owner selects a date and time for the launching after which the mast is set up and the sails bent on. This pattern of ship-building is traditional for many 9 �areas along China’s coastline and continues to be used even up to the present. Scholars named it chuankefa, literally the Chinese frame first system. The modern Chinese building techniques for large wooden ships begins with the keel, then erects the frames or ribs and the bottom planking before completing the side planking. This method of ship-building first appeared in Shi Ryukyu Lu (Diplomatic Mission to Ryukyu) written by the Ming dynasty diplomat Xia ZI yang in 1606 (Xia Ziyang, 1970). Painting and Decoration That part of hull below the water-line is usually covered with baikehui (lime from white s hells). The flares (tuolang ban, wave-lifting boards near the bow) are also first covered with lime before painting the figure that characterizes Fujian junks with a solution made of glue, tung oil and natural color pigments. Some Fujian junks even come with a carved head of a lion at the bow. Dragon eyes on the bulwarks near the bow are usually made of camphor. Particular rules govern the size and shape of these eyes: the ratio between the keel length and eye should be 110:4; eyes for fishing boats should look downwards t o signal the search for catches while eyes for merchant ships should look at the route a head. Mulong (wooden dragon), i.e., loach poles (qiuyuji) are painted on the bulwarks n ear the stern, a seabird (muyi) on the yingban (the oval-shaped sern facing), and at the bottom of the yingban is the board which carries the ship’s registration number. Accordi ng to legend, qiuyuji, muyi bird and Matsu (Goddess of the Sea) are the three treasures that watch over the safety of ships. A statue of Matsu or a paper charm as its substitute may be placed in a sanctuary in the after part of the poop. Tools Confucius says, “Good tools are a prerequisite to the successful completion of a job”. For the execution of specific tasks, special tools are required, such as axes, chisels, saws, files, tweezers, awls, knives, rulers and modou (ink markers) used by carpenters, and hammers, large tweezers, sickles, paint-brushes, truncheons for working with lime are used by other workers. Axe: triangular in shape, the axe is the most important tool in ship-building. In traditional ship-building, the qualification of ship-building masters is measured by the number of years he has used an axe. Adze: shaped like a hoe, it is also named guangfu (smooth-out, or faying axe) meaning 10 �that it is used for smoothing out or faying in parts. Saw: for cutting raw materials into boards. Plane: for smoothening out wood surfaces. Lu Ban ruler: also known as “wengong ruler”, which, according to legend, was a system of measurement invented by Lu Ban following Daoist truth and the laws of the Eight Diagrams. With birth, aging, sickness, death and suffering as the basis, the ruler is divided into 8 parts named cai, beng, yi, li, guan, li, hai and ben. When using the ruler, cai is the top and beng the end, and it is important also to avoid the inauspicious and adopt what is auspicious. Modou: that part which serves as a container of ink is called mochi (ink-well) which holds cotton wool soaked in ink. There is a line reel at the end. Cotton thread comes through from the modou and is also soaked with ink. To use the modou, the cotton thread is first fastened to the piece of wood which requires marking at each end, and by gently pulling the thread outwards near the center and then letting it go, a clear and distinct ink line appears on a raw piece of wood or boards measuring several meters. Caulking iron: made of wrought iron and steel for the teeth. An iron loop forms part of the wooden handle and is used for mixing hemp, rattan and lime and inserting the mixture into crevices. Shipbuilders Over the centuries, ship-builders coming from Fuzhou, Quanzhou and Zhangzhou slowly gathered in Fujian. Apprenticeship generally started at the age of 11 or 12. Those who joined the profession were mostly members of ship-builders’ families; their children, cousins or relatives. No less than 3 years of training were necessary. In the beginning, apprentices were not allowed to handle the axe and helped only in menial duties such as mending or minor repair work. Only after a number of years of training, when students had picked up sufficient knowledge and skills from their masters, were they allowed to work on important components such as keels, helms and masts before they became masters. There is a common saying, “Master of a particular shipyard builds ships exclusive to that shipyard”. Each shipyard had its unique ship form. Generation after generation of ship-builders inherited the skills, expertise and 11 �experience passed to them by their predecessors, which over time established a given set of practices and forms. Crossed the Pacific Voyages In Donnelly’s Chinese Junks and Other Native Craft, he listed three most important crossed the Pacific voyages have been taken by type of Fuzhou pole junk and another one was make by Xiamen fishing junk.     “Keying”: length of 48.7 m, Hong Kong to London, 1848. “Whangho”: length of 30 m, Shanghai to San Pedro, 1906. “Ningbo”: length of 42 m, Shanghai to San Pedro, 1912. “Amoy”: length of 21.03 m, Xiamen to Victoria, 1922. Captain Eric de Bisschop sailed a Xiamen built 12 ton gross junk Fou Po II in the southwestern Pacific Ocean and East Indian Ocean. In 1955, a Fuzhou style cargo junk with a length of 23 m, Free China, sailed from Taiwan to San Francisco. In 2008, our experimental replica of Fujian Style warship “Princess Tai Ping” sailed form Xiamen to San Francisco and Hawaii. Conclusions Unlike shipbuilding in other indigenous areas, the Chinese shipbuilding tradition changed a little through all the time, the structure of square bows and sterns with transverse watertight bulkhead and lugsails with bamboo mat and strip showed little change over thousands of years, and the last successors of traditional shipbuilding are alive. Western classifying studies of Chinese sailboats in the early of 20th century just based on the field investigations and the interviews with the successors of traditional naval architecture, such as the great achievements of François-Edmond Paris, Louis Audemard, Barbosa Carmona, Donnelly Ivon, G. R. G. Worcester and Etienne Sigaut, etc. It is last chance to be invested promptly on ethnographical field work investigation for Fujian coast traditional shipbuilding centers. The Naval Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family provided most detailed database so far, yielding valuable information pertaining to principle of design, a modulus system, main unit data, and measures used for typical ship forms of traditional Fujian style sea going sailing junks. ~There are still 3 shipwrights alive in Sha Po Wei, a valuable ethnographic resource, soon to be lost. 12 �Therefore, historical and archaeological projects need to be invested into promptly to recover the historical archetypes of ancient Fujian Style Sea going junks, which will provide helpful methods to explain and identify relevant ship remains excavated in future shipwreck underwater archaeological projects. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to all members of CSJES, the last craftsmen of traditional Fujian naval architecture and seamanship, who provided their invaluable experience and knowledge. I must also express my sincere thanks to Dr. Jia Hao and Miss Jia Xiaofan. Dr. jiahao helped me to search relevant historical materials and Miss Jia xiaofan revised the article format. References Chen Guo Zai., 1919. The Naval Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family, Manuscript (private collection), Xiamen. Anonymous, Mid-17th Century. The Island of Formosa (painted on parchment). Collection of Berlin Ethnological Museum, Berlin. Oba, Osamu., 1972. About Drawings of Chinese Ship Kept in Matsuura Historical Museum, Hirato: The Referential Material of Chinese Merchant Ship in the Era of Edo. Memo 5 of Research Institute of East and West Academicals Studies of Kansai University, Osaka suita: 13-49. Chen Liang Shi., 2002. The Navy Abstract (Shui Shi Ji Yao), Reprinted from the Original in Late 17th Century. Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai: 329-337. Anonymous, Mid-18th Century. The Illustrated Manual of Instruction in Shipbuilding for the Navy of Fujian Province (Min Sheng Shui Shi Ge Biao Zhen Xie Ying Zhan Shao Chuan Zhi Tu Ji), Manuscript. Anonymous, 2002. The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Fu Jian Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), (Reprinted from the Woodblock Edition in 1768). Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Huang Shu Jing., 1957. The Taiwan Conversation by Writing (Chi Kan Bi Tan), Reprinted from the Original in Early 18th Century. Business Bank, Taipei: 35-37. 13 Economic Academe of Taiwan �Worcester, G. R. G., 1948. A Classification of the Principal Chinese Sea-going Junks (south of the Yangtze). Shanghai Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, Shanghai: 66-67. Chen Xi Yu, 1991. Chinese Sailing Junks and Overseas Trade. Xiamen University Press, Xiamen: 114-127. Xia Zi Yang, 1970. Shi Ryukyu Lu (Diplomatic Mission to Ryukyu), (Reprinted from the Original in 1606). Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei: 235. Biography Xu Lu is the initiator and director of Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society (CSJES), an exclusive institute focus on protect and study ancient Chinese naval architecture and nautical navigation. He also is commissioner of China Maritime History Studies Association. As a maritime archaeologist special in the field of junks, he spent over a decade on field work to investigate and ethnographic study the last traditional sailing craft still be built and operating in China, wrote and released numerous academic papers. He led an experimental archaeological ship-reconstructions project in 2007, Princess Taiping, a junk replica sailed across the Pacific. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sea Going Sailing Junks: A Manuscript Description An account of the resource As the most important qualities of ancient Chinese sailing junks, the square bows and sterns with transverse watertight bulkhead and the lugsails with bamboo mat and strip remained the same over thousands of years. Of which, the traditional Fujian style sea going junks is one of the major vessel forms for the ocean and oversea route in ancient China. This paper make an interpretation of Fujian style sea going junks through ship form and structure, principle of design, models, choice of material, sequence of construction, painting and decoration, tools, ship-builders, and ship component remains. This study is combined with the interpretation of Chinese historical documents and drawings, foreign historical drawings, ethnographical field work on main traditional shipbuilding centers along the Fujian coast, reconstruction of traditional shipbuilding, land archaeology evidence, and especially gathers information from a newly discovered illustrated manuscript for shipbuilding. This manuscript at present is the most detailed manuscript found pertaining to the principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, measures and amounts materials used for each ship form. The purpose of this paper is to recover the historical archetypes of ancient Fujian Style Sea going sailing junks, then providing one set of helpful method to explain and identify relevant ship remains excavated in future shipwreck underwater archaeological projects. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3a56ec375721c034b2f9ad7c1004906e.pdf 8600b4d8264937914de2fe128bdea2ce PDF Text Text Examining Coastal Shipping Processes around Shodo Island during the Tokugawa Period Kotaro Mogi Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, 610-0394 Email: moooosha@gmail.com Hiroomi Tsumura Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, 610-0394 Email: Tsumura_Mobile@htsumura.msoutlookonline.net Abstract Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. The processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians have studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical document exits. In order to throw light upon seaborne stone transportation from Shodo Island to Osaka, therefore, underwater surveys around this island were carried out on seabed As a result, many submerged wall stones, as well as a submerged stone called “Kamome Ishi”, on which an old stone post was stood, succeeded in being found on the bottom of the sea; this mooring post is said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle, and these waters could serve the most important mooring port of Shodo Island for wall stone transportation. To prove this historic event, a tide simulation on the basis of survey data was analyzed and a reconstructed model for mooring and loading wall stones around the mooring post was hypothesized, which was verified by current fieldworks. Although millions of mariners have been working in the Seto inland sea since the ancient times, a new maritime and navigational technique seems to be emerged from Shodo Island and its surroundings early in the 17th century. Key words: Shodo Island, Tokugawa Period, Kamome Ishi, Seto inland sea, Yaana Introduction This paper will examine the shipping processes of stone used to build Osaka Castle's wall in the Tokugawa period. Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. This entrepôt has been recognized coastal areas of the Seto inland including Settu Ashiya or Mikage other than Shodo Island. It is discussed from historical and archaeological viewpoints through analysis of castle history about the actual conditions of "job site" as processing stone and the "daimyos" who managed it. It 1 �may be said that the east Seto Inland sea where Shodo Island is located is a "field of action", having various cultural landscapes since ancient times. Above all, in this field, cultural behavior mainly on "the stone" has been carried out. For instance, the fabrication methods of chipped stone tools called "Setouchi blade" in antiquity, was the stone used for Osaka castle's wall in the medieval period, and contemporary stones used for modern building. It goes without saying that "the stone" used as tools to support local life continue supporting our culture now. "The stone" is the remarkable keyword if we intend to establish a cultural landscape in the eastern Seto inland sea. Based on the above, in this study, "the stone" that is constructing Osaka castle's wall as the target, we want to reevaluate the technical examination. Thus far, the processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians has studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical documents exit. Therefore, the focus of this study is evaluating and examining the shipping process by carrying out an underwater investigation which has not been done in a conventional study. The research area is the Tenguiwaiso job site located at Iwagatani, on east coast in Shodo Island. We attempt a construction of the data from the basis of an environmental view point by cyclopedically analyzing the whole area between the shore and the sea. There are few similar examples of the practice of using of the underwater archaeology in such a manner. Particularly, the direction through such practices can bring up new questions, and it becomes a methodological approach to propose the clarifying facts between the relations of human and technology on maritime culture. The important point in this study is how to take the sea into account. In a conventional stone wall study, it relies mostly on the political description about each daimyos who managed job site and a technical description about how to break stones or to construct the castle, however, it is necessary to interpret this as "how they shipped the stones" to assume that the people who carried and engaged it. Technical invention can overcome this special environment like a sea is a major premise used to know this environment. We estimate the technique ("the knowledge") from investigation of environment and archaeological structure. 2 �Research in Tenguiwaiso Job Site There are Minamidani, Tenguiwa, Tenguiwaiso, Tofu, Kamesaki, and Hachininishi Job sites in Iwagatani on the east coast of Shodo Island, and scattered wall stones on each sites. These sites were designated as national historical sites in 1972. The study was of a number of stones, classified with processing marks called "Yaana" in Japanese, and arranged with the carved seal of the daimyos was researched as that time. The Tenguiwaiso job site is a curved site Fig. 1 Research area division comprising of a whole shoreline of white sand (the seaside). of the project. (K. Mogi). The area is lined with ship setting stones faced with the “Yanna” seal on this beach. The Tenguiwa job site is located in the western mountains from the Tenguiwaiso job site; hence it appears that it is the geographical location where a quarry was established. Stone from the area was removed and taken to the Tenguiwaiso job site. A torrential downpour by typhoon No. 8 in 1974 caused a landslide which flowed down onto the shore. Reports that some stones fell down with this landslide has been documented. Therefore, we must take the geographical change of the site into account both before and after the disaster. Grasping the present state of it is the first priority, and the construction of such a site will be an important model to be analyzed later. Investigation Method The basic purpose of this investigation is to obtain data that is topographical and understanding the stone distribution in the whole range of the shore area (both above and below water). The number of stones and the drawings has been recorded by the administrative report, yet the information of which stones are left and in which position and environment was not documented. In this investigation, we acquired data that considered the position of stones, their location on the site and in which kind of environment they were found. In addition to all the stone distribution, it is necessary to obtain the topographical and environmental information. Acquisition Data of Topographical and Distribution of Stones on the Shore To grasp more objectively the shape and distribution of the stones, we conducted 3 �photography from a high elevation of where the stones appeared by using a 5 m, expandable surveying staff with a camera clamp attached to the upper part of the staff. We contrived a system of linking positional information (coordinates) and the photograph, to determine the scale and a direction of the photograph. Photos were taken mainly of wall stones, big stones, and granite blocks. Given the large area and multitude of objects on the site, the methodology that was used would have a more quantitative sample. By using such a scientific example, the site would be easy to reproduce. In getting a topographical data, a total station (TS) is used at every surveying site today. It calculated the distance and the height to collimation point (prism) from the machine point (TS), by collimating at a change point of topography and other points in a random order. Each position and elevation was then derived from calculated coordinate data, which made a basic contour map from the data. In addition, we acquired data which was used for the position, scale, and directional information for the photographical surveying mentioned above. To understand the geographical feature, it could help verify the distribution of stones under each kind of environment, and allowed us to determine where the natural and artificial topographies lied on the site. Acquisition data of topographical and distribution of stones underwater Based on the results of the investigation in 2012, we determined the rough distribution of stones in all underwater areas by viewing via snorkeling. By this confirmation, we divided the area where stones were distributed conspicuously, Fig. 2 "Kamome Ishi". (K. Mogi) and subsequently investigated these areas (Fig. 1). Between each area was a sandy area where stones had not been observed. There is a submerged rock of approximately 3 m in height named "Kamome Ishi" (Fig. 2), on which an old stone post stood at research area II in the open circle of Fig. 1. In local transition, it may be a mooring post that was said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle. "Kamome Ishi" was examined mainly in 2012. It was hypothesized as a mooring post and modeled as such, however, it was not conclusive, 4 �thus a reevaluation of the area was deemed necessary. Each section was then divided up via measuring tape into 50×50 m blocks. We then checked the distribution of the stones by scanning the bottom of the sea using animation photography (HERO3 of GoPro). A mark was made at every 1m interval, and at each interval, a photo was taken (Fig. 3). A gap in the image when it was composed was the blurring of the camera position, and the bob weight on the camera was taken in the angle of view. It blurred at the time of photography by setting up an angle to deserve gaps of image, and we compensated for this (Fig. 4). The process provided direction, scale and position of the image by yielding a coordinate on the initial point, middle point, and terminal point on each 1 m measurement line. Based on such a procedure, we acquired consistent underwater data sets to collate with the topographical data gathered from the shoreline. The acquisition method of the underwater topographical data was used as well as the surveying method at the shore area stated earlier. We measured the topography at random to the spot about 300 m ahead from the shore. Collimation (prism) attached top of the measurement staff, Fig. 3 Underwater Photographing Method. (K. Mogi) calculated distance and height of the collimation point from the machine point (TS). We stabilized the collimation and the staff by two scuba divers and one snorkeler manning each at bottom of the sea position, middle position, and surface of the water position. The diver at the sea bed selected a change point of the topography at approximately 5-10 m and at random, and the diver at the surface determined the direction of movement. In addition, a research member on the ship acted as contact to the operator on the shore. Each position and elevation of collimation are derived from calculated coordinate data, it matched data of the shore area, and made a basic contour model. The measurements between the ship using sonar or multi-beam is common for an ocean study and the method of making a counter 5 �map at the bottom of the sea, is necessary completion with the land since this area is the full coastal zone in this study. For that reason, we think that bringing a land method into practice underwater brings yields valuable information, since we are able to obtain data with a more detailed approach using such a method. Reduction and Analysis of Acquisition Data Topographical Data in the Shore and the Underwater To coordinate topographical data at the shore and the underwater area using the practice mentioned above and extract latitude and longitude, we made a topographical map (contour) of the whole research area by Kriging method used in Fig. 4 Method of Control and Revision of the geology (Fig. 5). Reproduction of the Camera Position. (K. Mogi) shore and the seafloor topography was compiled to match and supplement both data sets of these environments. In consideration of Fig. 5, the shore topography makes curves like a bow and in perspective we know that it formed a gentle topography to measure points at the off side at approximately 300 m. In addition, the shore area represents a beach with a sandwiched concavity in both the north and the south of the site. The port and the breakwater have shore protection at present. From a narrower perspective, it is confirmed that the large shallow area in the north coastal zone, and the irregular sequences on the contour line which in the center of coastal zone are consistent with the location of "Kamome Ishi". Please note that the two dales in the northeast side (the shore side) from its area. This has been confirmed on site; the erosion traces by the wave could be seen on the lower part it. These two dales formed a geographical placement that suggests relation with the Tenguiwa job site as a quarry located in the mountains place of the northeast side. Additionally, the dale topography is around a 10 m deep on the southeast side. This 6 �may be a part of the site influenced by the disaster in 1974; it could show which area was affected my observing mudflow sediment. Depending upon the size of the disaster, the landslide sediments left traces we can observe. Yet the sediment is not present. It is possible that the landslide sediment disappeared via the erosion of water from the disaster. Undoubtedly, an area along the shore that is predominantly affected by waves, tidal flow, and topography, it is obvious that the natural and physical phenomenon such as the erosion forms chaotic natural molding for the beach topography and the landscape. However, it does not lead to the generalization of the natural phenomenon in the shore area when compared with a study of hydrology or engineering science in the region these days, so it is suggested that a "Critical transition" occurred (Marten Scheffer, 2009) which represents dramatic chaos on the site which change some parameters. To consider such a background, while taking a wave and a flow of the sea into account, it must push forward by discussing this as an interpretation of the shipping process based on the analysis of the data. Distribution of Stones in the Shore and Underwater Area To coordinate the distribution of stones from both on the shore and underwater, we digitized the shape of Fig. 5 Topographical Map in Shore and under Water. each stone via enforced geometry (K. Mogi) correction, stored in a GIS (Geographic Information System). It distinguished the stones from the sand, and other objects (e.g. noise) by checking color tone and image, and subsequently made a distribution map of the stones (Fig. 6). We are analyzing it now, making a distribution map of stones in the whole investigation area. Stones left on the job site without being carried to Osaka castle were labelled as "Unfortunate Stones". Nevertheless, it is strange that many of the stones were recorded underwater. It has our assumption that the stones underwater were stones which fell into the sea, and were left without being recovered. This practice could have propelled the myth of "the fall of the castle" used in local folklore. To understand it better, see Fig. 7 �5, where stones are concentrated, appearing that they have a consistent arrangement. As mentioned before, the sandy area is devoid of stones. The distribution of stones would be scattered everywhere in a more random pattern if they were not picked up because it would mean "the fall of the castle". Therefore, in this study, we doubt the claim of these stones being called" Unfortunate Stones", and put forward the theory that the distribution of stones underwater as "intentional". Suggestion of the Shipping Process First, as the examination of "Kamome Ishi" (Fig. 2) mentioned above, authors have tried modeling the shipping process completely dependent on high and low tides. In particular, because it made a hole in the top surface of "Kamome Ishi" and a stone pillar was embedded in it, it was assumed as a mooring post. The "Moyai" in the Sea of Japan is a similar example, and it could be said that the “Kamome Ishi” has a similar structure to the mooring post. However, including an example of the Sea of Japan, the mooring post for ships docking at old ports was typically made in most of the sea cliffs or the wave cut bench which have an enclosed cape or a cliff facing the sea. In contrast, the "Kamome Ishi" is located in the sea at approximately 2 m depth on the average. It is unique that the post is placed directly ahead of the shore. Authors have measured and investigated the "Kamome Ishi" from 2012, and examined and evaluated its function. Assuming the "Kamome Ishi" serves the function of mooring a ship, it becomes necessary that the post is always higher than the height of the water surface. Tidal analysis was conducted on the region between the years 1619 CE (the year the Osaka castle began construction) to 1630 CE (the year the Osaka castle was completed). The data allowed us to deduce that waves never surpassed more than upper parts on "Kamome Ishi" of approximately 320 cm height. Therefore the stone pillar was always higher than water surface. From this, it could be said to some degree of certainty that the "Kamome Ishi" did indeed function as a mooring post. One interpretation in this is, viz. A ship, such as a flatboat arrived between the land and the "Kamome Ishi" at high tide. It then it moored the ship using its anchor and the stone pillar of "Kamome Ishi". The ship ran aground at low tide and used a board as a gangplank between the land and the ship. After loading the stones it waited until high tide (when the ship refloated), and started sailing. This process is an assumed hypothesis. Since historical documents and records are poor 8 �pertaining to shipping or transporting this material, we can only hypothesize a scenario such as this one. Secondary, the authors paid close attention to the near shore current system in the area. The shore topography forms the curves like a large bow over the area. Generally, the near shore current system forms a circulatory system where the shore is nearer than the sea area as has the relatively same flow as the shore ward currents flowing onto shore, Long shore currents flow along the shore, while Rip currents flow seaward from the shoreline. Rip currents have a particularly strong flow in the near shore current system and forms a regular circulating flow style. Depending on this system, the cusp topography which formed the arch-formed shoreline was affected rhythmically occur and has been confirmed in the Tenguiwaiso job site where the team investigated. It was often chosen as a place ("current") to begin rowing unconsciously, so that a big wave is hard to flow at the place that Rip currents are being produced. Therefore, we can consider that a ship laden with the Osaka castle wall stones starting to sail through the mechanism of the Rip currents. . The conditions that Rip current occur and concentrates are a sandy coast, a shoreline bended into an arc form, a surface wave flow on top of sandy coast, and a near structure such as breakwaters which stuck out from shore. Based on the above information and the checked topography in Tenguiwaiso (Fig. 5), these are very present in this environment. There are two dales on the northeast side of the shore area. These two dales play a big role in the Rip currents' formation. Looking at the topography data, the sandy coast topography formed a fold, not a straight line. On the other hand, while the wave characteristically diffracts to Fig. 6 Distribution Map of Stones. (K. Mogi) the shallow direction, it is concentrated on a pointed part topographically. Hence, we can understand this two dales have topographical characteristics to form Rip current. Where the "Kamome Ishi" is located, it 9 �forms a line at right angles to the shore. An Irregular sequence is observed near this rock and "Kamome Ishi" by topographical data (Fig. 5). In particular, Rip currents are particularly faster near the structure, so it is our opinion that a ship moored at the "Kamome Ishi" can benefit from these extra rapid Rip currents. In light of these Rip currents and topography data, it was suggested that the ships landing here exploit this process when sailing from I and II in Fig. 1 in particular. Conclusion This paper examined coastal shipping process of wall stones by evaluating environment around the area and investigating underwater structure and stones. And we gave a new suggestion against it was inarticulate manner. Although it may not wish that is over a level of "the interpretation", it is necessary more procedural analysis that mainly investigation or field work and method to the interpretation in case of treating such several ways and estimations are accomplished. There are still a lot of challenges for the future; however we think that can give a new suggestion for the wall stones study mainly political and technical. It is necessary to let method of investigation and environmental evaluation more deepen hereafter. Acknowledgements My heartfelt appreciation goes to Prof. Tsumura whose comments and suggestions were of inestimable value for my study. I am also indebt to Prof. Iwabuchi, Prof. Nakada and anonymous reviewers whose comments made contribution to my thesis. References Board of Education in Utsumi town., 1979. Conservation Management of A Historical Site Osaka Castle's Wall Stones Job Site, Kagawa: 4-7, 17-19, (in Japanese). Hiroomi, T., 2013. "Cultural Landscape" of Maritime People Understanding from Investigated Underwater Archaeological Feature in Tenguiwaiso. Symposium of Stones Attraction Creating in Shodo Island, in Ministry of Strategy and Finance Shodo island Kagawa: 61-67, (in Japanese). Kotaro, M., and Yuichi, T., 2013. Tide Simulation and Inquiring of Shipping Process in Coastal Zone, Shodoshima. The 30th Annual Meeting of the Japan Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Abstracts, in Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Hirosaki: 118-119, (in Japanese). 10 �Kyoji, Y., 2002. About Mooring port remaining Moroyose Fishing port. Board of Education in Hamasaka town Press, Hyogo: 5-11, (in Japanese). Marten, S., 2009. Critical Transition in Nature and Society. Princeton University Press, New Jersey: 11-15. Yuichi, T., Tappei, M., Keisuke, F., and Kotaro, M. 2013. Application of Scanning Surveying Technique for Archaeological Features Using Phtogrammetry. The 30th Annual Meeting of the Japan Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Abstracts, in Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Hirosaki: 146-147, (in Japanese). Biography Kotaro Mogi is perusing his Masters in the Graduate School of Culture and Information Science at Doshisha University in Japan. He is interested in Spatiotemporal Informatics, Cultural Anthropology, Maritime Archaeology, and Information Science. Especially, study is that interaction water environment including sea and human in principal objective, and human behavior in the space. It is intended to evaluate the human behavior from the information to be provided the investigation in underwater cultural heritage and analysis environment around it. Main research areas are the Seto inland Sea, Egypt, Motosu Lake, and Maldives. Hioomi Tsumura is the Associate Professor in Faculty of Culture and Information Science, and Director of the Research Center for Knowledge Science in cultural heritage, Doshisha University in Japan. He is specialized in are Spatiotemporal Informatics and Human ecology. His past work includes: The E-way into the four Dimensions of Cultural Heritage (Archeopress, 2004), Site-Catchment Analysis of Prehistoric Settlements by Reconstructing Paleoenvironments with GIS; "GIS-Based Studies in the Humanities and Social Science" (Taylor and Francis, 2005), and "Geography Information Science Dictionary" (Asakura Press, 2004). 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Examining Coastal Shipping Processes around Shodo Island during the Tokugawa Period Description An account of the resource Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. The processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians have studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical document exits. In order to throw light upon seaborne stone transportation from Shodo Island to Osaka, therefore, underwater surveys around this island were carried out on seabed As a result, many submerged wall stones, as well as a submerged stone called “Kamome Ishi”, on which an old stone post was stood, succeeded in being found on the bottom of the sea; this mooring post is said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle, and these waters could serve the most important mooring port of Shodo Island for wall stone transportation. To prove this historic event, a tide simulation on the basis of survey data was analyzed and a reconstructed model for mooring and loading wall stones around the mooring post was hypothesized, which was verified by current fieldworks. Although millions of mariners have been working in the Seto inland sea since the ancient times, a new maritime and navigational technique seems to be emerged from Shodo Island and its surroundings early in the 17th century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotaro Mogi Hiroomi Tsumura, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5df9542e49a1a96ed071953c9f25e37e.pdf 4b58a84e44c5e29fe9889c508195279c PDF Text Text The Cultural Property of Military Forts on the Sea or Kai-hou in Tokyo Bay: From the viewpoint of underwater cultural heritage Tatsuya Nakada Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan, 108-8477 Email: picono@kaiyodia.ac.jp Toshiaki Hayashibara Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology,Fukuoka, Japan, 812-0041 Email: underwater03@gmail.com Abstract At the end of the 19th century the Japanese government built several military forts on the sea or artificial islands inside Tokyo bay in order to defend its capital from foreign sea powers. Three outer forts or Kai-hou, which were between the cape of Kannon, the cape of Huttsu, and Saruis land, formed the first naval defensive line. The first fort started to be constructed in 1881, and then finished in 1890. The second was built between 1889 and 1914, and the third between 1892 and 1921. Among three, only the third one does not exist anymore. In 2000 the governmental demolition project of the third fort began mainly because of the congested seaborne traffic, and was completed in 2007. During the work, some of its building materials were salvaged, which have been exhibited in a city park since 2006; they are now Yokosuka-City-Designated Important Cultural Properties. The underwater structures of the fort were also removed and reconstructed in a council owned ground; in 2013 they were also registered as the above-mentioned cultural properties. On the other hand, the first fort is now owned and charged by the ministry of finance and the second by the ministry of land, infrastructure, transport and tourism. Although both have already been registered as Sites Which Contain Buried Cultural Properties by the local educational committee, the governmental restoration work of the second fort is under way without any legal procedures in conformity with the Japanese domestic law of Act on Protection of Cultural Properties. Key words: Kai-hou, Tokyo Bay, Taisho Period, Protection of Cultural Properties, Archaeological Heritage Site Introduction Kai-hou means fort on the sea. On the same ground that in the last period of Edo gun batteries on the sea called O-daiba (o is an honorific title which is added before noun for shogunate or its related organizations or facilities) was constructed to defend the capital, Meiji Government constructed three Kaihous on the sea located in the middle of Tokyo Bay. They could be regarded as Underwater Cultural Heritage. As two kaihous of three are designated as archaeological Heritage Sites in accordance with Act on Protection of 1 �Cultural Properties, the treatment of them shall be abided by the Act. Kai-hous in Tokyo bay (Military Forts on the Sea or Kai-hous) They are artificial islands on the sea with defensive facilities including gun batteries constructed to defend Tokyo from Meiji to Taisho period (the late 19th century to the early 20th century). After three forts on the sea were built, the army had resided there. never fired in the actual war. The cannons were After the Great Kanto earthquake of 1923, the alteration of national defensive policy made Kai-hous unnecessary. They have been let Fig. 1 A Bird's Eye View of Tokyo Bay. (T. Hayashibara) alone for a long time. The Construction Technology of Kai-hou in Tokyo Bay Perceived foreign vessels had come to frequently appear offshore Japan at the end of Edo period; the necessity of coastal defense was urged. Particularly Perry's squadron’s visit to Uraga obliged Edo Shogunate to defend Tokyo bay. The first defensive and inspection line from Cape Kenzaki to Cape Sunosaki intended to confirm the purpose of arrival of ships and ordered them to expel from Edo bay, and the second defensive line from the cape Kannon to the cape Huttsu intended to sink them simultaneously by all forts around the line in case of invading across the line (Fig. 1).The first artificial fort (Shinagawa O-daiba) was constructed near the coastline of Edo Castle. Though at first 12 forts were scheduled to be construct, only 6 forts were built due to finance and technical problems. The line between the cape Huttsu in Chiba Prefecture and the cape Kannon in Kanagawa prefecture “to repel” foreign vessels at the end of Edo Period had geopolitical merits of the narrowest sea area in Tokyo bay. Meiji government had also determined to construct artificial lands or forts on the sea. The each distance among forts called Kai-hous was approximately 2.5 km considering shot-range at that time. Having been used enormous amount of stone or sand, they were gathered and transported from Chiba and Kanagawa prefectures. A variety of techniques such as construction technology of Shinagawa O-daiba, traditional masonry technique and most 2 �advanced engineering works or diving technology (such as helmet type of diving apparatus) were used at the construction. Because of deep water (about 40m around the third Kai-hou) and too fast current, construction work sometimes ran into difficulties and took a toll of lives. However it took 43 years for the construction of Kai-hous to complete works. The History and Situation of Kai-hous in Tokyo Bay The first Kai-hou is located at the westward 2.3km offshore Futtu city of Chiba prefecture, and belongs to the Ministry of Finance. Its area is 23,000m 2 at high tide. The depth of water is around 1-3 m. As it is not preserved, sand used as its base appears exposed and neglected; some structures have collapsed (Fig. 2 and 3). The second Kai-hou is located at the further westward offshore 2.5 km from the first Kai-hou offshore the Cape Futtsu. Its area is 41,000m2 at high tide. The depth of water is around 8-10 m. The second Kai-hou also seems to have been neglected. Having been equipped with radar and used for emergency drills, recently the ministry of land, infrastructure, transport and tourism (hereinafter MILT) has maintained and reused the second Kai-hou. Fig. 2 The Whole View of the first Kai-hou. Fig. 3 Several Parts of Military Facilities (Google Earth) Collapsed on the Side of the first Kai-hou. (T. Hayashibara) The third Kai-hou is located at the northward offshore 2.5 km from the Cape of Kannon. Its area was 26,000m2 at high tide. The depth of water is the deepest of all Kai-hous at around 40m. Although it took 30 years to complete the construction, one third of the third Kai-hou was submerged due to Great Kanto earthquake of 1923. Since these became obstacles on navigation route, the removal project was implemented in 2000- 3 �2007. All structures seen on the surface of the sea were moved away. Though we cannot confirm, underwater remains (basic parts of the structure) appear to be intact. Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties and Kai-hous Archaeological Heritage Site Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties (1950) adopted the legal terminology “buried cultural property” for the first time as a conception including ruins or relics. As long as underwater objects are found within the territorial sea, raised objects or artifacts could be treated as “buried cultural property” (Cabinet Legislation Bureau, September 18th, 1960). Then archaeological heritage sites would be delimited by arbitrary zoning around the areas which could contain “buried cultural property” or ruins. In case of the first and second Kai-hous, historical facts are evident. Among Shinagawa O-daibas which is historically and technically relevant to Kai-hous, the third and sixth O-daibas were designated as National historic site in 1926 by Historical Spot, Scenic Beauty and Natural Monument Preservation Law (1919). In 1995, the Agency for Cultural Affairs referred to heritage of industrial modernization as a type of cultural property due to a revision of the criteria of the designation for Historical Spot, Scenic Beauty and Natural Monument. Therefore the legal range of cultural property was extended from mid-Meiji era to end of WW II. In August 1 of 2002, Cultural Properties Department proclaimed that it surveyed to register Tokyo bay gun battery ruins as heritage of industrial modernization. It selected Motosu gun battery, the first and the second Kai-hous from a body of Tokyo bay gun battery ruins as “heritage of industrial modernization”. Research products could nominate as national historic site. In April 30 of 2003, Futtsu City Council of Cultural Property confirmed that the proposal of designation of historic sites should be embodied within the year on the memorandum titled “Respecting the Protection and Practical Utilization of the first Kai-hou and the Cape Futtsu” (Kosaka, 2004). Although more than 20 years have elapsed since then, the report is yet to be published. According to “the distributive map of ruins in Futtsu City” made in March 1975 for the first time, all Motosu gun batteries, the first and second Kai-hous weren’t registered as archaeological heritage sites. It was not until 1987 that the first and second Kai-hous were not only registered in “Map of Ruins,” but also Motosu gun Battery was registered in “the map.” Motosu gun battery, the first and second Kai-hous 4 �were registered in “the distributive map of ruins in Chiba prefecture” (March2000). Consequently the construction works shall be notified within 60 days in compliance with articles 92-95 of Act on Protection of Cultural Properties. In July 2010, it turned out that a branch office of MILT destroyed considerable parts of the second Kai-hou registered as archaeological heritage site. Worried the second Kaihou might collapse by typhoon or earthquake, the construction began in 2007 so as to remove obstacles on navigation routes. A section chief of Tokyo Bay Waterway Office told that no report was given from Third Regional Coast Guard Headquarters who owns the second Kai-hou, we didn’t perceive the second Kai-hou was included in Archaeological Heritage Site. In the meantime it was revealed that the construction was the whole renovation of the second Kai-hou, and Futtsu City Council of Cultural Property held an urgent meeting in July2010.We inquired the Chiba Prefecture Board of Education about this problem, and the Board replied as follows. First concerning the well-known archaeological heritage site registered as “the second Kai-hou,” the construction had been carried out without any notification or consultation for both prefecture and city Board of Education. Secondly, as regards the third Kai-hou, Tokyo Bay Waterway Office removed the sunken rocks and tried to record the state of ruins and to open the information to the public 2000 to 2007. Thirdly, as regards the construction of the second Kai-hou, a request paper (August 11, 2010) which stipulated the fact that many people in Futtsu committed to this construction was submitted to Tokyo Bay Waterway Office. The Different Treatment of Kai-hous by Different Administration Both the first and second Kai-hous have the Futtu city’s land register. These registers were decided as the matter respecting the jurisdiction of Kai-hous (decree 72) (Takahashi, 2004a). The third Kai-hou belonged to Yokosuka city. When sunken rocks were removed due to safe navigation, its land register was erased prior to the construction. Since 35% of the third Kai-hou became sunken debris, the underwater structures up to the depth of 23m from the surface were removed in 2007. This construction raised so called “Large-sized Barracks” from plenty of remains in February 2005. This was transported to Umikaze Park owned by Yokosuka city in February 2006, it is 5 �permanently open to the public since March 1 of 2006 (Fig. 4). A Body, which developed into NPO in February 2009, posed a problem about the conservation of the third Kai-hou remains in January 2007. There were some remains raised other than “Large-sized Barracks.” The Body held a symposium on the relocation to Oppama of other remains of the third Kai-hou in July 2007. “Large-sized Barracks” was designated as important cultural properties by Yokosuka city in March 10 of 2009. Regarding this chance as the best timing, the NPO consulted with MILT about the treatment of remains of third Kai-hou. Thus three remains named Observation Station, Searchlight and Side Storage Room were determined to be selected and relocated them to City Ground in Natsui land. After this construction was carried out in 2010, three underwater remains were open to the public in April in the following year. Then the NPO moved to get the designation of remains exhibited at Oppama as important cultural property. Designation of cultural properties by Agency for Cultural Affairs is of great use when citizens make applications for subsidy. Consequently three structures were additionally designated as important cultural properties. It is worthy of notice that Tokyo Fig. 4 Large-sized Barracks of the 3rd Kai- Bay Waterway Office was willing to disclose houRaised in February, 2005 is Permanently Open to the Public in Umikaze Park of their own actual conditions exposed by the Yokosuka City. (T. Nakada) removal construction to citizens. This suggests that the office recorded certainly information of building technology through observing remains raised (Takahashi, 2004a). “The construction History of the Third Kai-houin Tokyo bay” (a volume of 630 pages) published in March2010 by Tokyo Bay Waterway Office based upon lots of information is the precious and exhaustive document record. World Heritage and Kai-hous Etuko Takahashi who was one of authors of “The construction History of the Third Kaihou in Tokyo bay” stated that though a body of gun batteries in Tokyo bay including Shinagawa O-daiba deserved World Heritage, the current state remained seriously critical (Asahi Shimbun, 2009). Such a point of view is extremely significant. Because 6 �viewing or estimating Kai-hous in light of world heritage never permits different treatment of remains by the different authorities. Moreover from a view of World Heritage, historic remains including Kai-hous must be perceived as “in totality; the conditions of integrity to properties” (Operational Guidelines of the World Heritage Convention, para. 89). In fact, the first, second and third Kai-hous are constructed like arc shape between Cape Huttu and Saruis land. This could be overviewed as a landmark of the entrance of Tokyo bay, as Sumihisa Takahashi (1927-2005) emphasized repeatedly. He proposed the first Kai-houand Motosu gun battery at the end of the Cape Futtsu be regarded as Historic sites (Takahashi, 2002). In this sense, the expression of “Kai-hou three brothers” by the chief Kazuo Kosaka of Tokyo Bay Fort Fan Club is very symbolic. As regards the raised relics other than remains transported to Umikaze park, he stated it was desirable that Futtsu city conserve the rest of the raised relics which have historical relation with the first, second and third Kai-hous. This shows eloquently his deep insight. The idea of Kosaka and World Heritage Convention seems almost the same. The subjects of the convention are monuments, architectural works, elements or structures of an archaeological nature etc., which are of “outstanding universal value” from the historical point of view (articles 1 and 2). The Basic scheme of the Convention is to draw up the World Heritage List (article 11). The registration of the list is examined and decided based on applications by each state parties. The World Heritage Committee were created in order to examine such applications in detail. The World Heritage Committee drew up the global strategy in 1994. It mentioned new types of heritage such as cultural landscape, industrial heritage and modern architecture that had not ever been designated. Japan also added a new type of cultural property called cultural landscape to Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties in April2005. Its definition articulates “indispensable subjects to understand our lives or livelihood selected from lives or livelihood of people living in the region and landscape formed by its cultural climate” (article 2.1.5). Japanese provisional list have been drawn up by Agency for Cultural Affairs based upon the opinion of Council for Cultural Affairs. World cultural heritage special committee has made reference to the operational guidelines accepting proposals of prefectures and municipalities since 2007. It is 7 �expected that such selection is based on not political but purely archaeological examination. Fig. 5 The Whole View of the 2nd Kai-hou in Fig. 6 The Whole View of the second Kai-hou. (S. February, 2000. (Tokyo Bay Fort Fan Club) Takayama) Administrative tasks about Kai-hous The proposal to the First and the Second Kai-hous Before the destruction of considerable parts of the second Kai-hou was revealed, in the regular prefectural assembly in 2008 Mitsuru Yoshimoto proposed that the first and second Kai-hous be world heritage. In the assembly, when he questioned about survey of Agency for Cultural Affairs, the chief of board of education replied that although the first and second Kai-hous were selected as one of 50 sites and indeed the research was carried out, the report remains to be published as of February 2004. When Yoshimoto questioned whether a body of Tokyo bay forts should be registered and conserved as world heritage, the chief of board of education replied that the registration of world heritage needed the designation of national historic in advance (Yoshimoto, 2008). In the assembly in December 2010 soon after the destruction of the second Kai-hou was revealed, when Yoshimoto inquired whether the report was published, the chief of board of education replied that as of February 2011 it had not been published. Though Chiba Prefectural Board of Education alleged the report would decide the significance of the first and second Kai-hous (Yoshimoto, 2011), as of January 2014 it has yet to be published. The Present Conditions and Problems on the Second Kai-hou As the second Kai-hou has let alone for about 70 years since its abandonment, it has fallen into ruin (Fig. 5). The revetment protection and restoration works were 8 �implemented as “Renewal Project” by MLIT in 2007, some works were completed in 2013 (Fig. 6). However, in the construction, due to insufficient cooperation between project executors and administrative officers, the advance archaeological research was not implemented in conformity with Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties (Tokyo Bay Waterway office). When we participated in a marine inspection in 2012, we confirmed the state covered with concretes to rivet the coastline. The fact that the legal archaeological research was not implemented means that regardless of registration of archaeological heritage sites, “the degree of importance as cultural heritage” is never verified. Therefore researches to get hold of the current state and pick up poor information of remains is strongly required. It is desirable that such researches be carried out and the researchers publicly disseminate their products. The Treatment as Cultural Property of Parts of Foundations Left behind under the Third Kai-hou The depth of water of the third Kai-hou is around 40m. That of the second Kai-hou is only 1-4 m. The construction period of the third Kai-hou was much longer than that of the second Kai-hou. The amount of stones and sand used by the construction was approximately 16 times larger than that of the first Kai-hou, and about 4 times larger than that of the second Kai-hou. It is remarkable that underwater basic structures are still left behind on the seabed. Although we have not confirmed, it would be natural that the underwater basic parts be preserved in situ. Nobody can mention this information. Though Board of Education of Yokosuka city seems unaware of the fact, these remains are underwater cultural heritage. These remains were constructed about 120 years ago. These structures should be valued as not separate remains but integral part of the third Kai-hou. Such an understanding would enable us to learn the actual conditions of marine engineering works. However, it seems difficult that we implement archaeological researches to confirm the actual state. Because the sea area of the third Kai-hou is important point due to heavy traffic, and the depth of water is about 40 m. Accordingly we require the authorities to recognize underwater basic remains. Conclusion At the opening of a NHK TV program (August 31 of 2013) titled “Megaquake: the revival of Great Kanto earthquake,” “an artificial island” from the sky view was introduced as a marine important place for seismic observation or anti-terrorism policy. Seemingly the 9 �foundation of the island was covered with sand, so never did we dream that the island is underwater cultural heritage. However we assert the island is none other than the second Kai-hou. The fact that this historically important island was introduced as quite different island seems to have changed even the original value of the island. The construction technology of Kai-hous under turbulent times in the early years of Meiji era was excellent enough to have been required the transfer to the United States when it planned to construct Kai-hou in Chesapeak bay (Committee for Publishing a Construction History of Tokyo bay the third Kai-hou, 2005). A document titled “Matters respecting the construction of Kai-hou in Tokyo bay: An inquiry from US ambassador” (July 1906) was found in Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Japan inquired whether US also own the document in reply. That’s why an unknown history between Japan and US was revealed. In July 2003, Tokyo Bay Waterway Office found the official document in the US National Archives and Records Administration. These facts show that an appraisal which Japan solely devoted itself to import is not necessarily right. Japan had already exported the world highest level of technology to the US at that time. Yokosuka city consulted with the Agency for Cultural Affairs in May 2013 to designate Saruis land as national historic site based on Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties. The city has been trying to maintain it as a park since it was transferred from the government in 2007. As Takahashi and Kosaka pointed out, if we regard a body of batteries including Kai-hous as one package “in totality”, the designation of only one part as historic site could also contribute to “the totality” provided in the World Heritage Convention. A statement on national historical site submitted to the Agency for Cultural Affairs in 2014 is expected. References The Asahi Shimbun., August 25th, 2007, (in Japanese). The Asahi Shimbun., November 12th, 2009, (in Japanese). The Asahi Shimbun; Chiba(Ed.), July 29th, 2010, (in Japanese). Odawara Modern History Study (Ed.), 2012.Regional History of the South Kanto in Early Modern Japan: from the Perspective of Sun-Zu-So. Iwata Shoin, Tokyo, (in Japanese). Kosaka, K., 2004. Response of the Futtsu city to Tokyo bay Kai-hou. Journal of Tokyo 10 �Bay Science, Vol.2 (2): 65-66, (in Japanese). Tokyo Bay Waterway Office (Ed.), 2003. Mio (Fairway): the Changing Tokyo bay. Tokyo Bay Waterway Office, Yokosuka, (in Japanese). Committee for Publishing a Construction History of Tokyo bay the third Kai-hou (Ed.), 2005. Construction History of the third Kai-houin Tokyo bay. Tokyo Bay Waterway Office, Yokosuka, (in Japanese). Tokyo Bay Waterway Office (2013). Homepage, retrieval December 15, 2013. Fromhttp://www.pa.ktr.mlit.go.jp/wankou/jigyou_syoukai/dai2kai.htm. Liberal Democratic Party of Chiba (Ed.), January 14th, 2008. To Register the first and the second Kai-hou on the World Heritage List, Yoshimoto Mitsuru Prefectural Assembly Report, Chiba, (in Japanese). Liberal Democratic Party of Chiba (Ed.), February 1st, 2011. Revetment Repair Construction of the second Kai-hou is Being Enforced, Yoshimoto Mitsuru Prefectural Assembly Report, Chiba, (in Japanese). Johoji, A., 1971. Fortification History in Japan. Hara Shobou, Tokyo, (in Japanese). Takahashi, S., 2002. KyouSho(a memorial writing) for Professor Numata Makoto, the Chairman of the Society for Tokyo Bay Science. Journal of Tokyo Bay science, Vol. 1 (6): 184-85, (in Japanese). Takahashi, S., 2004a.A Thought on Kai-hou viewed Tokyo Bay Science. Journal of Tokyo Bay science, Vol. 2 (2): 48-49, (in Japanese). Takahashi, S., 2004b.the Cape Futtsu is Kai-mon (sea gate) of Tokyo Bay. Journal of Tokyo Bay science, Vol.2 (3): 108, (in Japanese). Chiba Prefectural Board of Education (Ed.), 2000.A Distributive Map of Buried Cultural Property in Chiba (4 volumes), Nagareyama, (in Japanese). Nagai, N., 2013. Shinagawa Daiba as Underwater Cultural Heritage. Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Ed.), The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: the Pacific Ocean. The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka, (in Japanese). Futtsu City Board of Education (Ed.), 1987.the Distribution Map of Buried Cultural Property in Futtsu city. Futtsu, (in Japanese). Yokosuka City (Ed.), 2009. The New History of Yokosuka City: Special Edition Cultural 11 �Heritage. Yokosuka City, (in Japanese). Yokosuka City (Ed.), 2012. The New History of Yokosuka City: Special Edition Military Affairs. Yokosuka City, (in Japanese). Biography Tatsuya Nakada (b. 1969) is an associate professor of Graduate School of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. He is a member of the board of Association for regional and Cultural Studies. His specialty is International Law, inter alia Law of the Sea. His main themes most particularly include “Fishery Subsidies and International Fisheries Law” and “Archaeological Heritage Management and UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage”. In the process of emerging of international community laws, recently he has been always considering how well such laws should be incorporated into Japanese legal system. Toshiaki Hayashibara (1960) has completed master's degree at Graduate School of Literature of Toyo University. He is a member of the board of Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology. His specialty is archaeology; his main themes include Japanese prehistory bronze ware research, underwater cultural heritage and Archaeological Heritage Management. In the process of participating in underwater cultural heritage research all over Japan, he has most gradually come to have his doubts about treatments of underwater cultural heritage by Japanese management of archaeological heritage. Recently he has been actively giving presentations on underwater cultural heritage and Archaeological Heritage Management. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Cultural Property of Military Forts on the Sea or Kai-hou in Tokyo Bay: From the viewpoint of underwater cultural heritage Description An account of the resource At the end of the 19th century the Japanese government built several military forts on the sea or artificial islands inside Tokyo bay in order to defend its capital from foreign sea powers. Three outer forts or Kai-hou, which were between the cape of Kannon, the cape of Huttsu, and Saruis land, formed the first naval defensive line. The first fort started to be constructed in 1881, and then finished in 1890. The second was built between 1889 and 1914, and the third between 1892 and 1921. Among three, only the third one does not exist anymore. In 2000 the governmental demolition project of the third fort began mainly because of the congested seaborne traffic, and was completed in 2007. During the work, some of its building materials were salvaged, which have been exhibited in a city park since 2006; they are now Yokosuka-City-Designated Important Cultural Properties. The underwater structures of the fort were also removed and reconstructed in a council owned ground; in 2013 they were also registered as the above-mentioned cultural properties. On the other hand, the first fort is now owned and charged by the ministry of finance and the second by the ministry of land, infrastructure, transport and tourism. Although both have already been registered as Sites Which Contain Buried Cultural Properties by the local educational committee, the governmental restoration work of the second fort is under way without any legal procedures in conformity with the Japanese domestic law of Act on Protection of Cultural Properties. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tatsuya Nakada Toshiaki Hayashibara, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/30be8c594a6dcf9b9795653867c8c44c.pdf f1201a47b83389a459e6091035bf016d PDF Text Text Submerged Archaeological Sites in the Lake Biwa, Japan Hisashi Nakagawa University of Shiga Prefecture Hikone Japan, 522-8533 Email: nakagawa134@gmail.com Abstract Lake Biwa, the largest in Japan, is in the heart of Shiga Prefecture, occupying an area of 670 square kilometers. Because the lake has about 4,000,000 years of history, it has been closely related to local people's everyday lives which have largely depended upon its freshwater and fishery resources. In addition, it has served as a strategic zone for waterborne transportation for many years in Japanese chronicles. According to an old proverb, those who succeed in controlling Shiga Prefecture could reign the world. Geologically, on the other hand, the poor subsoil of the lakeside has frequently caused large-scaled landslides by earthquakes, as well as the high fluctuation of the water level and strandline due to climate change; many villages and settlements are said to have been submerged beneath the lake. At present, as many as 90 underwater archaeological sites have already been identified in the Lake Biwa by the researchers. Those sites vary in type; from shell mounds during the prehistoric era to material remains of dwellings or bridge piers of the modern period. As a leading research body, the Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage and academic organizations such as the University of Shiga Prefecture have long investigated and researched these areas. Here we present the newest research results with some future plans for preserving the archaeological sites around Lake Biwa in order to inform the world academic circle of them. Keywords: Japan, Underwater archaeology, Lake Biwa, Shiga, Earthquake Introduction Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan. It occurred in the Ueno basin approximately 60 km away from where it lies today, moved by sedimentation and diastrophism over 4 million years ago. About 400,000 to 300,000 years ago, it arrived at its current position. The Lake had never been connected to the sea in history, and a rich and unique ecosystem exists. There are more than one thousands of animals and plants that inhabit the ecosystem and the many endemic species exist here now. Many people gathered these resources for a long time. More than 90 underwater archaeological sites are known (Fig. 1), and it becomes approximately 120 sites if 1 �incorporated with lakefront ones. About half of those sites is from the Jomon period (Prehistoric era in Japan). Huge shell mounds are found here therefore people at the time strongly depended upon the Lake. In the historical age, Lake Biwa comes to play a socially important role due to its geographical characteristics. Mainly, it links the capital city (Kyoto) to the eastern and northern country. One must travel through the Shiga Prefecture to go between the two areas and cross the “Kara-bridge”. In many cases, the bridge was often reconstructed over the years, and it is Fig. 1 Distribution Map of the Sites. discovered through excavation and old historical (H. Nakagawa) documents. However, water transport was the most important means for carrying supplies and materials, therefore, many ports flourished and a lot of people and information came through here from all over the country. From such a social importance, it was said that those who succeed in controlling Shiga Prefecture could reign the world and persons of power always put this lake under their control. For example, the ancient government constructed large barrows (an ancient burial mound, square at the front and rounded in the rear) near the lake, and made it local symbols (Youda, 2007). Nobunaga Oda (1535-1582) who was the most famous person living in the Age of Civil Wars constructed the Azuchi-Castle in the shore mountain as a base of the national unification. Similarly, he made vassals construct castles (Sakamoto-Castle, Nagahama-Castle, and Oomizo-Castle), and ruled the water transport (Nakai, 1997). Of course, many ordinary people gathered and established villages and engaged in fishery and transport and others. On the other hand, the poor subsoil of the lakesides has frequently caused large-scale landslides by earthquakes and many villages and settlements are said to have been submerged beneath the lake. In addition, approximately 460 rivers flow into this lake, but its only discharge is the Seta-River; therefore, the water level is greatly fluctuated by the sedimentation situation of riverbed. 2 �The History of the Underwater Archeology around Lake Biwa In Japan, underwater archaeology lags behind compared with other maritime nations. However, the Shiga Prefecture is known as an area where the concern is exceptionally high. The history of the Shiga Prefecture’s underwater archaeology can be divided into 3 terms. Term Ⅰ: Pioneering Studies (From Early Modern times to 1960s) In Japan, concern about underwater cultural heritage goes back to the Edo period. The Edo period is the early modern times of Japanese history (1603-1868). Mr. Sekitei Kiuchi was a collector of unusual stones and came from Shiga Prefecture. While recording the collected stones in his writings a stone spear was given to him. The spear was raised by fisherman, and this record is the first concern about the underwater cultural heritage of Japan. The first academic concern is in 1928. Prof. Sadahiko Shimada had been set out to examine the origin of underwater archaeological sites; for example, the Tsuduraosaki-bottom site is well-known (Shimada, 1928). After that, Ph.D. Yoshio Oe rendered distinguished service. He was from Shiga Prefecture and made an effort for prevention of the scattering of relics raised from the Tsuduraosaki-bottom site. Moreover, he introduced underwater archeology to Japan for the first time, and typified underwater archaeological sites (Oe, 1950). As a result of these achievements, he is known as the "Father of Underwater Archaeology of Japan". As previously stated, the Tsuduraosaki-bottom site attracted attention most in those days. This site is unique; it is at a depth between 10 and 80 m, but almost all of other sites are between 1 and 10 m. Incidentally, the water level is converted into the standard water level (T. P: 84.371 m) because it keeps changing every day in Lake Biwa. In 1924, at the end of the Taisho period, Jomon wares (straw-rope pattern pottery) were raised by fisherman, which interested archaeologists. In addition, Yayoi period potteries and ancient potteries, dating between approximately 2,800 to 900 years ago, were raised. Approximately 140 potteries were recovered presently, and many complete shapes are included. Various hypotheses about origin of this site are suggested. For example, (a) The hypothesis that land sites were washed out by a rise in water level, (b) The hypothesis of pottery being thrown away that was used in facilities on the lakefront, (c) The hypothesis to be burial at sea, (d) The hypothesis that the ground sank by an earthquake, however, the 3 �issue is not yet settled (Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum, 2009). TermⅡ: Progress of the Investigation and Study with Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program (Since 1972 to 1997) The Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program was carried out for the purpose of exploring water resources and the maintaining the social infrastructure. They constructed a breakwater and dredged for a lake-line. However, it was evident that many underwater archaeological sites will be destroyed by these developments; therefore, many investigations were carried out by Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage. Many techniques were accumulated in these investigations, for example, excavation via airlift, and underwater photography greatly contributed to the development of underwater archaeology in Japan. The investigation method was to make the underwater sites dry up using steel boards and a drainage pump, labelled as the "Lake Biwa method" produced especially good results (Fig. 2). Finally, more than 200 investigations were carried out over a total excavation l area of 240,000 square kilometers. Fig. 2 Excavating by "Lake Biwa Method" in The Awazu-bottom site is one of the most Harie-Shore Site. (Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum) famous sites that were excavated at this time by the "Lake Biwa method". This site is the largest fresh water shell mound in Japan, and located in depth of water of approximately 2 to 3 m. Three shell mounds are known, but only the No. 3 shell mound was excavated. All shells, earth and sand were sorted by floatation; therefore, small remains were collected in this manner. The site is mainly attributed to the early phase of the middle of Jomon period (ca. 4,500 BC). As well as shellfish and animal bones, many foodstuffs were excavated. For example, there are nuts such as chestnut and buckeye, plants such as gourd and perilla which form a layer, therefore a lifestyle of hunting and gathering was restored. In addition, organic materials such as net baskets, lacquering products and earthenware vessels of various parts of Japan were recovered. As a result, the Awazu-bottom site became an historical source of the highest value in the Jomon period (Shiga Prefectural Association for 4 �Cultural Heritage, 1997). The Kara-bridge site located on the bottom of Seta-River is the only river flowing out of the lake. Excavation and research was carried out by the "Lake Biwa method". The bridge piers were discovered during this excavation research, and as a result of studying, it was found that the remains of that stage are from the Zinshin-Civil-War (672 AD); it was the biggest war in Japanese ancient history. After that, other remains were confirmed off the coast and a full-scale excavation by the diving team was carried out from a view of flood prevention and the ship navigation. As a result of this, the bridge piers, including the Nara period (710-794 AD), the Kamakura period (1185-1333 AD), the Muromachi period (1336-1573 AD), and the Edo period were excavated. This bridge was a strategic point which connects the eastern and northern country to the capital city (Kyoto) since ancient times, and old historical documents inform us that the bridge was a battle setting many times over; these descriptions were supported by excavation and research (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 1992). The Harie-shore site, located 200 to 400 m off of the lakefront, was considered mainly an early Yayoi period site. The Yayoi period (ca. 300 BC-250 AD) is one of the prehistoric eras in Japan next to the Jomon period. In the investigation, a full picture of village was excavated and the discovery of the earthquake traces attracted attention. The earthquake was estimated at a magnitude of approximately 7.5, with sand boiling and liquefaction phenomena destroying the remains; this is regarded as reason for the village extinction (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 1990). The Akanoi-bay sites locate from lakefront to bottom of the lake. Approximately 80 pieces of tiles, old coins, and other items were excavated from the lakefront, and these remains date to the Asuka period (592-710 AD). It is thought that this site resembles a loss of cargo or a sinking of the ship were made this situation since almost all tiles were unused and heaped up. There are few sunken ships in this Lake except for the prehistoric times; therefore, this site is important for looking into ancient water transport (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 1998). 5 �TermⅢ：After the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program (Since 1992 ～) A variety of investigative organizations did work here after the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program. In particular, the investigation conducted by the University of Shiga Prefecture is important. Lake Biwa has legends; villages and settlements that once existed here yet now submerged on the bottom of the lake. PhD Hiromichi Hayashi had legends since 1992. investigated the For example, the Naoesengen site was portrayed in old drawing in 1291 (Kamakura period), and it was traced to the Edo period (Fig. 3). Currently, a part of the land disappeared, therefore it is said that it sank down by an Fig. 3 Old Drawing of Naoesengen Site and its earthquake. In his research, for example, Environs. (T. Hayashi and others) pottery and tiles of the 12th century were recovered. In addition, a barrow from the 7th 8th centuries and the wreckage of the stone wall in the 18th century was discovered from a depth between of 1.4 m to 4.1 m. The existence of barrows were portrayed in the old drawing, therefore the discovery was the important evidence for proving the legend. At the same time, PhD Toshitaka Kamai (Disaster Prevention Research Institute Kyoto University) and Assoc. PhD Tsuyoshi Hraguchi (Graduate School of Science / Faculty of Science Osaka City University) carried out the joint investigations, and as a result of this, traces of the earthquake were confirmed from on the land and bottom of the lake. The same traces were confirmed from other sites, for example Shimosakahamasengen site and Mitsuyasengen site. It made clear that many underwater archaeological sites on the bottom of Lake Biwa were formed by local landslides (Lateral Flow – Ground flow due to liquefaction) that occur due to earthquakes. In addition, these investigations were important activities for educational institutions. Currently, there are few institutions where students can learn underwater archaeology in Japan. Nevertheless, students have participated as staff in these investigations, and the 6 �author received a degree in the discipline since a university admission. As a result of such steady instructional activity, a research group with which author acts as a representative continues this investigation. As other example, Okinoshiraisi, a remote and lonely rock island, was investigated by ARIUA (Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology) and Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology. The island is located at the center of Lake Biwa, therefore, sailors had regarded it as traffic sign since ancient times. Currently, the clear archaeological remains have not been found, yet future study on the island is expected. In addition, a joint-investigation by PhD Kenichi Yano (Archaeology) and PhD Sadao Kawamura (Engineering) of Ritsumeikan University was carried out in the Tsuduraosakibottom site. It attracted a significant amount of attention since the investigation is connected with advanced robot development and technology. Fig. 4 The Exhumation Situation of Glazed Pottery of the Early 10th Century. (H. Nakagawa) Fig. 5 The Exhumation Situation of a Part of FiveRing Pagoda. (H. Nakagawa) A Short Study of the Legends of Submerged Villages The East Japan Earthquake Disaster, which occurred on March 3, 2011 made scholars research the remains of the disaster and investigate old historical documents about the natural disaster. Because of this, the legends of submerged villages attract attention. I would like to show materials based on the latest investigation, and perform a short study. The Society for Underwater Archaeological Sites in Lake Biwa, was inaugurated in 2011 by graduate and university students, and has been dedicated to the investigation of the Nishihamasengen site. The site has a legend; a village called Nishihama existed here 7 �once, but it was submerged in the bottom of Lake Biwa by a severe earthquake between 1460 to 1466 CE. We performed the site survey by scuba diving and skin diving, and finally, investigated offshore 250 m, a range of lakefront line approximately 800 m, at a depth of approximately 1 to 2 m. At present, more than 200 pieces of pottery (Fig. 4), the wreckages of pillars, and a graveyard of the medieval period have been found. The pillars are considered to be what once was fences and sheds (Nakagawa, 2012) (Nakagawa, 2013). The fences were made not only with timbers but with bamboo, and the buildings were made with only timber. Additionally, all of timbers were thin; less than 10 cm in diameter, which is a notable peculiarity. As the reason for this, it is believed that the buildings were not houses, but were sheds. We will carry out an additional investigation in the near future, to examine it in greater detail. The extent of graveyard area is 38 m in the east-west direction and 26 m in the north-south direction, and there are approximately 16 simple graves and that were constructed by rocks and stones. The stone statue, Amitabha Tathagata and a part of Five-ring pagoda (Fig. 5) was found, made by granite and a small plate of unglazed earthenware was offered on the graves. In addition, household goods, big earthenware pots and earthenware mortars and other material were excavated. The materials indicating the last period of this site are earthenware goods and stone statues; the last settlement patterns date the site to is the latter half of 15th century to early 16th century. From these result, I would like to examine the origin of this site. The water level in the 15th century to 16th century is considered to be 84 m to first half of 85 m (Hayashi, H., Kamai, T., and Haraguchi, T., 2012). The graveyard and pillars are located at 83.1 m above sea level or less, in addition, the remains of the houses built on piles in lakes are not prevalent in this region. Therefore, same as the legend, it is regarded that this village, which was on the land, was submerged via ground change caused by an earthquake. However, the year that an earthquake occurred seems to be different from the legend. According to the legend, the Nishihamasengen site submerged into bottom of the lake in the middle of the 15th century, yet, relics of the 16th century were recovered. Because of this, when we corroborate the old historical documents, a severe earthquake which is estimated to be magnitude 7.8 in 1586 was written down; swas called the Tensho-Severe-Earthquake, and occurred on January 18, 1586 (Iida, 8 �1987). According to the documents, there were 1000 houses in this region. Half of the houses were destroyed by fire, and the other half were destroyed by collapse, therefore it is assumed that the Nishihamasengen site was caused by this earthquake. Many sites which were damaged by this earthquake were investigated. For example, the Shimosakahamasengen site, located to southeast 2.2 km of the Nishihamasengen site, was caused by the earthquake and in past investigations and old photographs, remains of submerged wells, and withered Japanese cedar via submergence were observed. Additionally, a part of the Nagahama-Castle, located between Nishihamasengen site and Shimosakahamasengen site, was submerged by this earthquake, and was recorded in old historical documents. As a result of these, the possibility that a largescale landslide occurred over more than 2.2 km of the lakefront line and more than 500 m offshore is arguable. However, such a historical disaster record is not reflected by former disaster prevention plans. This is an important problem about the disaster prevention for not only Shiga Prefecture but also all of Japan due to our large shoreline. Problems and Prospects As mention above, many sites have been investigated for many years in Lake Biwa, and Shiga Prefecture is admired as an advanced area of underwater archaeology in Japan. However, the area still has many problems. Some examples will be highlighted below, as well as addressing some of the future plans for the area. At first, the problems about the research organization exist. There is no public research organization and technically no research worker who works on the underwater archaeology in Shiga prefecture now. In other words the current investigations are carried out by a few university teachers and graduate students. In connection with this, educational problems exist. There are few universities which teach underwater archaeology in Japan, and there is even no course offered in Shiga Prefecture. The investigation by the University of Shiga Prefecture is outside the regular academic Fig. 6 Current Condition of Nagasone-Port Site. curriculum, and it is carried out by the author 9 (H. Nakagawa) �and volunteer students; therefore the longevity of the program is in danger. The legal recognition of sites is a concern as well. For example, the initial sites survey is a basic excavation for material and research when sites are threatened by development. Sites that are not registered as such, excavation cannot be conducted. In Shiga Prefecture, many underwater archaeological sites are registered more than other local self–governing bodies; nevertheless, there is an imbalance between registered and unregistered sites. For example, most of the port sites which can be dated to a period by old historical documents are not registered. One example among many is the Nagasone-port site located in Hikone City. There is at least one breakwater remnant and five pier remnants 1 kilometer away from Hikone Castle. We can confirm their appearances easily when we look around Lake Biwa from the lakefront (Fig. 6). It is considered that a part of these were constructed in the early Edo period from the old historical documents, but it is not recorded on the site register. Needless to say, Japan has not ratified the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage; therefore there are many positions between each local self–governing bodies where they recorded on modern period sites. Registering sites dated to after the early modern times are entrusted to local self–governing bodies. Nevertheless, Hikone City aims at making Hikone Castle a World Heritage, and it was asserted that they are a castle town as well as a castle (Hikone City HP). However, it is problem that even the Nagasone-port site, which is clearly part of castle town, was not recorded as a site. It is clear from this example that underwater archaeological sites are held to a lower regard than land sites. Yet all is not lost, things look like they are moving forward positively. For example, associated old historical documents about Lake Biwa are being compiled, and research is being conducted. Many sites exist in the shallows at a depth between 1 and 5 meters. Because of this, we are able to investigate these sites easily by skin diving or beach diving. The shallower the water, the more we can ensure safety, meanwhile, the basic techniques do not change with the depth. Accordingly, I think Lake Biwa a great area to learn the technical aspects of underwater archaeology. The establishment of a longterm study system by the public institution is necessary in the future, and a cooperation system with an organization inside and outside of the prefecture will be necessary, as 10 �well. Conclusion Until recently, underwater archaeology had not been recognized sufficiently as a field of archaeology, in Japan. However recently, it is attracting attention because of the discovery of sunken Mongolian Invasion Ships in the Takashima-Kouzaki site. Taking advantage of this, it is expected that Japanese underwater archaeology will develop greatly. Lake Biwa is the field which has been known since the old days in Japan but it is almost obscure worldwide. However, many sites exist in the area, therefore it an indispensable field for developing the Japanese underwater archaeological program. It is an unexpected delight if I can tell the attraction of Lake Biwa to world researchers through this paper. Acknowledgment I wish to express my appreciation for Prof. Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi, Prof. Tatsuya Nakada, and the Publications Committee of APCONF 2014, as they gave me the opportunity of writing this article and of presenting it in Hawaii. References Hayashi, H., Kamai, T., and Haraguchi, T., 2012. The Sunken Villages on the Bottom of Lake by Earthquakes. Sunrise-shuppan, Shiga (in Japanese). Iida, K., 1987. The Archives of Tensho-Severe-Earthquake. Nagoya-daigaku- shuppankai, Nagoya (in Japanese). Nakagawa, H., 2012. Summary Report of Nishihamasengen Site. In Kamei, W., Takeda, S., Yamane, S., Hirose, J., and Oohashi, M (Eds.), Human Cultures, Vol. 31. The University of Shiga Prefecture School of Human Cultures, Shiga (in Japanese): 60-69. Nakagawa, H., 2013. Natural Science Analysis of Nishihamasengen Site. In Kamei, W., Miyao, M., Hirose, J., Oguri, Y., and Oohashi. M., (Eds.), Human Cultures, Vol.33. The University of Shiga Prefecture School of Human Cultures, Shiga (in Japanese):73-82 Nakai, H., 1997. The Castles in Omi. Sunrise-shuppan, Shiga (in Japanese). Oe, Y., 1950. Introduction into Prehistoric Potteries on the Bottom of Lake Biwa. Gakuzidou-shuppan, Kyoto (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1990. Excavation Research in 1989, Shiga (in Japanese). 11 Summary Report of �Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1992. Kara-Bridge Site. Shiga (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1997. Awazu-Bottom Site No.3 shell mounds, Shiga (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1998. Akanoi-Bay Site. Shiga (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum., 2009. The World of Underwater Archaeolog,. Shiga (in Japanese). Shimada, S., 1928. The Prehistoric Omi. Meicho-shuppan, Tokyo, (in Japanese). Youda, M., 2007. The Barrows and the Many Groups of Barrows Surround with Lake Biwa. Sunrise-shuppan (in Japanese). Hikone City (2013). Hikone City Homepage. Retrieval December 15, 2013. From http://www.city.hikone.shiga.jp/hikonejo/heritage/houkoku.html. Biography Hisashi Nakagawa was born in Aichi Prefecture in 1988. During the undergraduate level, he learned underwater archaeology and was supervised by Prof. Hiromichi Hayashi at the University of Shiga Prefecture (2007-2011). Prof. Hayashi did study underwater archaeology from Prof. Yoshio Oe, who is respected as the "Father of Underwater Archeology in Japan". With the retirement of Prof. Hayashi, he has succeeded to the research around Lake Biwa since 2011. In 2013 he completed the master program (Human Culture) at the University of Shiga Prefecture, and then since 2013 he has been a PhD candidate in the same university, and a Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Submerged Archaeological Sites in the Lake Biwa, Japan Description An account of the resource Lake Biwa, the largest in Japan, is in the heart of Shiga Prefecture, occupying an area of 670 square kilometers. Because the lake has about 4,000,000 years of history, it has been closely related to local people's everyday lives which have largely depended upon its freshwater and fishery resources. In addition, it has served as a strategic zone for waterborne transportation for many years in Japanese chronicles. According to an old proverb, those who succeed in controlling Shiga Prefecture could reign the world. Geologically, on the other hand, the poor subsoil of the lakeside has frequently caused large-scaled landslides by earthquakes, as well as the high fluctuation of the water level and strandline due to climate change; many villages and settlements are said to have been submerged beneath the lake. At present, as many as 90 underwater archaeological sites have already been identified in the Lake Biwa by the researchers. Those sites vary in type; from shell mounds during the prehistoric era to material remains of dwellings or bridge piers of the modern period. As a leading research body, the Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage and academic organizations such as the University of Shiga Prefecture have long investigated and researched these areas. Here we present the newest research results with some future plans for preserving the archaeological sites around Lake Biwa in order to inform the world academic circle of them. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hisashi Nakagawa, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8a28bdda763226e8bfa6dee88d912eb4.pdf 4f33f4f0723bee9c2fdc6f0bcb73f000 PDF Text Text First Discovery and Mapping of Early Modern Grapnel Anchors in Ishigaki Island and Cultural Resource Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Okinawa Rintaro Ono Tokai University Shizuoka Japan, 424-8610 Email: rintaro@tokai-u.jp Hironobu Kan Okayama University Okayama Japan, 700-8530 Email: kan@cc.okayama-u.ac.jp Norimitsu Sakagami Tokai University Shizuoka Japan, 424-8610 Email: sakagami@scc.u-tokai.ac.jp Masayuki Nagao National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology Tsukuba Japan, 305-8567 Email: nagao-masayuki@aist.go.jp Chiaki Katagiri Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum Naha Japan, 900-0006 Email: katgiric@pref.okinawa.lg.jp Abstract Yarabuoki site, which contains iron grapnel anchors and early modern Okinawa ceramic jars in 12 to 32 m depth off the western Coast of Ishigaki Island, was discovered by a local diver and reported to Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center. In 2010, the Center conducted a distributional survey to confirm the site and its location. Although the survey found and pictured seven numbers of grapnel anchors that were first findings of this type in Okinawa area, the previous study did not record each position and the accurate depth of these artifacts and the site character such as shipwreck site or discarded shipping loads site is yet unclear. With such background and tasks, our team has conducted underwater archaeological research to record each location of grapnel anchors and ceramic jars using GPS. Furthermore, Kan and Nagao conducted a broadband multibeam survey around the Yarabuoki site and visualized the bathymetric 1 �results at a lateral grid resolution of 1m. This will enable us to create a threedimensional site map to plot the artifacts, while Sakagami (Tokai University) developed a low-cost and human-portable underwater robot to explore and record high resolution video of underwater sites, and the robot successfully worked during our surveys. Our paper reports the results and outcomes of the research at Yarabuoki site and other underwater sites in Ishigaki and the Yaeyama Islands and discusses the early modern marine transportations in Okinawa or the Ryukyu Islands. We also discuss the future possibility for cultural resource management of underwater cultural heritages in the Yaeyama and Okinawa. Keywords: Broadband multibeam survey, Okinawa, Yaeyama Islands, Yarabeoki site, Grapnel anchors, Cultural resource management Introduction The Academic and social interests on underwater cultural heritage is currently increasing in Japan. In 2011, for example, the Takashima site in Nagasaki Prefecture (in Kyushu Island) where the 13th century original Yuan ships from China were firstly discovered became the first National historical heritage of an underwater site. In such current movement, one of the hottest areas with increasing number of underwater archaeological surveys and underwater cultural heritages is Okinawa or Ryukyu Archipelago. The archipelago consists of 199 islands of various sizes and ranges about 1,200 km between Kyushu Island at its north end and Taiwan in its south end (see also Katagiri et al., in this volume). In fact, in the past 10 years surveys and researches by Kagoshima University and the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group (2010, 2011), the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center, the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum (e.g. Katagiri 2007, 2009, 2010; Miyagi et al., 2005), and the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (2013) have discovered and confirmed over 100 of underwater archaeological sites in relatively good condition. Yarabuoki site in Ishigaki Island is one of these newly discovered sites. The site produces a total of seven iron grapnel anchors and early modern Okinawa ceramic jars in 12 to 32 m of depth off the western coast of Ishigaki Island, which is the most populated island with the local capital city in the Yaeyama Islands (Fig. 1). Other major islands in the Yaeyama Islands are Iriomote Island, Taketomi Island, and Kuroshima 2 �Island etc, and other underwater archaeological sites are located off the coast of these islands (see also Fig. 1). In this paper, we report the recent results and outcomes of our underwater archaeological research at Yarabuoki site and discuss the early modern maritime transportations in Okinawa or the Ryukyu Archipelago. We also report and discuss our practices on cultural 1 Fig. 1 Locations of Underwater Archaeological resource management of underwater Sites in the Yaeyama Islands. (R. Ono) cultural heritages in the Yaeyama Islands and Okinawa. Discovery and Mapping of Yarabuoki Site In 2009, Yarabuoki site was firstly discovered by a local professional diver (Mr. Seiji Fujii) who has operated diving services over 30 years in Ishigaki Island. He reported the location of this site to the Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center. In 2010, Katagiri (2010) conducted the first survey as the chief investigator from the Center with assistance of the Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Study Group (2011) to confirm the total of seven iron grapnel anchors of various sizes and numbers of early modern Okinawa pottery jars (Tsuboya-Yaki) in 2010. However, these previous surveys did not measure the detail location of each anchor and pottery jars, hence it was discussed whether the site could be classified as a sort of port/anchorage site or possible shipwreck site. In terms of dating the site, we could roughly estimate these artifacts belong to the early modern times between the 17th to 19th centuries (mainly Edo period in Japan), though it was hard to provide an exact date of these artifacts. With these background and research questions, we have conducted an interdisciplinary underwater research with multiple methodologies including GPS position coordinating and archaeological analysis of each artifact (Ono and Katagiri), a broadband multibeam survey searching (Kan and Nagao), and recording high-resolution video of the site and survey progress by a human-portable underwater robot (Sakagami). This interdisciplinary research is part of the larger-scale study project “Coastal Area 3 �Capability Enhancement in Southeast Asia” (headed by Dr. Satoshi Ishikawa) by the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Fig. 2 A Human-portable Underwater Robot Made and Used in Our Kyoto, Japan, and the Research. (R. Ono) robot (Fig. 2) was originally planned and made for this research project in low-cost value by Sakagami at Tokai University. Surveys were conducted in November 2012, August 2013, and November 2013. During these researches, GPS position coordinates and exact depth of all the seven iron grapnel anchors and the clustered area with ceramic jars were measured. Table 1 shows each position coordinate and depth of anchors and ceramics, while Figure 3 is the bathymetric map provided by Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GIS) with each location of artifacts plotted. As shown in Figure 3, the GIS bathymetric map is only mapped in 10m scale level and it is yet hard to locate the exact position of each artifact with this map. Concerning such mapping problem, Kan and Nagao conducted a broadband multibeam survey around the Yarabuoki site to visualize the bathymetric results at a lateral grid resolution of 1m during our research. Although the complete map is not come out in this moment, such map should enable us to create a three-dimensional site map to plotting the artifacts in much detail and exact position in the final stage of our research. Description of Grapnel Anchors and Ceramic Jars As shown in Figure 3 map, the distribution area of the grapnel anchors can be mainly separated into two zones as (1) eastern zone and (2) western zone. Each zone have about 400 m away in distance, hence it is highly Fig. 3 The GIS Bathymetric Map with Plotted possible that these seven grapnel anchors Each Location of Artifacts. (R. Ono) 4 �Fig. 4 The Iron Grapnel Anchors in Yarabuoki site. (Y. Yamamoto) 5 �could belong to more than two ships rather than a single ship. Such possibility might be also supported by the existence of various sizes of anchors in the site. Concerning the clustered area of ceramic jars, these jars are distributed close to the No. 1, 2, and 3 grapnel anchors, and there might have been any relationships with these anchors and jars. Here, we firstly introduce the condition and form of each grapnel anchors and ceramic jars, then discuss the possible age and character of the site from various aspects. No. 1 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.1 anchor shank is 1.97 m in length. All the four arms left in good condition, while two of them are buried in the sandy bottom (Fig. 4A). The width of joint base with shank and arm is about 20 cm and its cross section is square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm and no arm ring attached. No. 2 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.2 anchor is a bit smaller than No.1 as its shank is about 1.8 m in length. All the four arms left with good condition, while two of them are buried in the sandy bottom (Fig. 4B). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be estimated as square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 3 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.3 anchor is much smaller as its shank is about 1.5 m in length. Among the four arms, two of them are buried in the sandy bottom, while other two are expose only its point part. Both of these exposed arm points are not complete and broken (Fig. 4C). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be confirmed as square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 4 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.4 anchor is one of the smallest as its shank is about 1.2 m in length. Among the four arms, two of them are buried in the sandy bottom, while other two are expose only its point part. Both of these exposed arm points are not complete and broken (Fig. 4D). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be confirmed as square size. The width of shank point is 6 �about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 5 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.5 anchor shank is 1.6 m in length and almost. Among the four arms, two of them are buried in the sandy bottom, while other two are exposed in good condition as complete form (Fig. 4E). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be estimated as square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 6 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.6 anchor shank is about 1.65 m in length. Among the four arms, two of them are buried in the sandy bottom, while other two are exposed only its point part. Both of these exposed arm points are not complete and broken (Fig. 4F). The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be confirmed as square size. The width of shank point is about 15 cm with an arm ring attached. No. 7 Grapnel Anchor The size of No.7 anchor shank is about 2.05 m in length. Among the four arms, three of them are exposed in good condition as complete form (Fig. 4G), while another one is buried in the rocky bottom. The width of joint base with shank and arm is now surrounded by corals but its cross section can be confirmed as square size. The width of shank point is about 20 cm with an arm ring (30cm in diameter) attached. Pottery Jars As shown in Table 1, these pottery jars locate close from No. 1 to 3 grapnel anchors and about 20 m in depth. In total of 12 jars are recently confirmed with some variety in size from about 40 cm up to 100 cm in height. Yet, all of these jars are similar in form and source material, and can be identified as early modern Okinawa pottery jars called “tsuboya-yaki” in local name and originally made in Okinawa Island (Fig. 5A). We measured the detail size and location of all of these jar but did not salvaged and kept them in the original position except one small jar (Fig. 5B) which was not fixed with coral or rocky bottom and easily movable. This salvaged jar is now kept in the Okinawa Prefectural Museum for further archaeological analysis to indentify the original production location and exact date of these jars. 7 �Fig. 5 The Early Modern Okinawa Pottery Jars in Yarabuoki site. (Y. Yamamoto) Discussions and Future Perspectives Early modern maritime transportations in Okinawa As described and discussed in previous chapters, the seven grapnel anchors are variety in size and its shape. Among these, No.1 to 4 anchors are basically distributed in eastern zone with pottery jars, while the other No. 5 to 7 anchors are located in western zone in the site around 13-32 m in depth. Such distribution patterns of the anchors tentatively indicate that more than two ships dropped their anchors around the site. In the Yaeyama Isands, including Ishigaki Island, there is no record of public port in historic times or during the Ryukyu Kingdom Period (from 1429 AD to 1879), and most of trading or loading activities were possibly done in off-coast by use of small boats (e.g. Oohama, 1999). With such situation, large size ships were basically anchored inside bays such as Nagura bay in western coast of Ishigaki or some anchorage points where they could avoid strong winds and waves. Yarabuoki site is located in the northern coast of Yarabu peninsula next to the large Nagura bay is also known as one of these anchorage points from historic times. In fact, there were some historical records of anchorage by drifting ships in local historic documents during the 17th to 19th centuries. Based on these historic facts, these grapnel anchors could belong to ships originally from Okinawa Island (where the capital of Ryukyu Kingdom located), Satsuma in 8 �Kyushu Island (where had occupied the Ryukyu Kingdom since 1609), or mainland China (during the Chin Dynasty) to visit in some purposes or drift off by accident to Ishigaki Island. However, there were no grapnel anchors discovered or kept in Okinawa except these seven anchors from Yarabuoki site. This fact can be the possible hint to estimate the types and origins of ships that equipped or loaded these anchors and pottery jars. There are no historical records either that mentioning what types of anchors were equipped with the local ships during the Ryukyu Kingdom period. The major ship types in Okinawa during the early modern times were “Shinko-sen” as the largest sized junk typed ship for international trading mainly with China (Ming and Chin Dynasty) and “Maran-sen” as the middle to small sized wooden ship for domestic trading mainly inside the territory of the Ryukyu Kingdom. The types of anchor equipped in these ships are unclear since no historic documents or records were discovered except a drawing of the old Ryukyu trading port (Naha city) on folding screen in the early 19th century (owned by Urasoko City Museum). Some Shinko-sen ships and the equipped anchors were drown in the folding screen, though these anchors are not grapnel and its material seems like wood and not iron (Katagiri, 2011). On the other hand, iron grapnel anchors were major anchors for Japanese style wooden ship called “Kai sen” and “Benzaisen” (sen=ship) during the Edo period after the 16th century. These early modern ships are usually equipped 6 to 8 different size of iron grapnel anchors identified as the first anchor to the eighth anchor. The first anchor was usually the largest, while the eighth anchor was the smallest among them (e.g. Kojima, 2012). For example, the largest sized-class wooden ship “Sengoku sen” (sen=1000, goku/koku = basic unit of volume used during the Edo period) which had over 278 kL/m3 loading capacity, was usually equipped with a fist anchor of over 2-3 m length and 300-400 kg weight. Based on these historical backgrounds and the size variety of Yarabuoki grapnel anchors between 2.0 to 1.2 m in length, it is possible that these anchors were equipped with Sengoku-sen class Japanese style wooden ship. Another possibility is visits of Chinese ships to Ishigaki and other islands in the Yaeyama since the early modern Chinese ships also usually equipped iron grapnel anchors. However, considering that all 9 �the pottery jars in Yarabuoki site are Tsuboya-yaki as the early modern Okinawa jars originally produced in Naha City in Okinawa Island, it is highly possible that at least the No. 1 to 3 grapnel anchors could be equipped with Japanese style wooden ship(s), probably from Satsuma in Kyushu Island since most of this type of ships in Okinawa were mainly from Satsuma after 1609 when the Ryukyu Kingdom was dominated by Satsuma. According to another drawing of the old Naha port on a folding screen from the 19th century (owned by Okinawa Prefectural Museum), there are some Satsuma ships equipped with iron grapnel anchor (Katagiri, 2011). Although it is yet unclear in which types of ships these anchors were used, we estimate some of them could belong to Satsuma ship(s). For further investigation and dating of these anchors and exact ships anchored in Yarabuoki, we need much detail analysis including accurate measuring of each anchor and comparative study of early modern iron anchors in China and Kyushu particularly Satsuma. In terms of the site type, there are still two possibilities as (1) the site also contains shipwreck(s) or (2) the site is just scattered seabed artifacts site with only anchors and pottery jars and no shipwreck (Ono et al., 2013). Although it is required to discover part of the shipwreck(s) to identify Yarabuoki as shipwreck site in future study, we consider that the distribution pattern as No.1 to 3 anchors are concentrated with clustered pottery jars in their center position may indicate the presence of a shipwreck. To confirm such possibility, further surveys including test excavation around the area are required. Use and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritages in Okinawa Lastly, regarding the use and management of underwater cultural heritages in the Yaeyama Islands or Okinawa Archipelago, we strongly consider there is great potential for cultural resource management of underwater cultural heritage in the Yaeyama or Okinawa. Since Okinawa Archipelago including the Yaeyama Islands locate in subtropic climatic zone with developed coral reefs in Japan, these islands, particularly the Yaeyama, located in the southern part of Okinawa, are the most popular diving area in Japan. Because of such environmental and social backgrounds, there is great potential for the use and management of underwater cultural heritages including Yarabuoki site as cultural, educational and tourism resources that the local community can properly manage and conserve (see also Ono et al., 2013). Our interdisciplinary underwater 10 �research and current surveys reported here can be considered as the first stage for this initiative of use and management of underwater cultural heritages in the Yaeyama and Okinawa in the near future. This work is important as an initial stage because it is essential to identify underwater archaeological or historical sites put forward the significance of cultural heritage in order to manage them. For the second stage, we should report and spread research outcomes to the public, particularly to the local community. Concerning this stage, we have also tried to report our research outcomes and information to the local schools, the museum and public offices after our first survey. With such outreach activities, the local museum (Ishigaki City Yaeyama Museum) held a special exhibition focusing on the underwater cultural heritage of the Yaeyama Islands, including Yarabuoki site and exhibited many of our research outcomes. The robot designed and tested by Sakagami during the surveys of 2013 was also exhibited. For the third stage, we consider the significance of operating educational and cultural programs to tell the historical or archaeological significance and future potentials of underwater cultural heritage to the local young generations (school students). With such reason, we also tried to operate the educational program for school students (mainly Junior high school and High school students) to make small-sized low-cost underwater robots to investigate shallow underwater in near shore coral reef zone in Ishigaki Island. As the robot could be one of the key tools to attract the student’s interest, trigger their curiosity and increase interest on underwater and underwater cultural heritage, Sakagami has leaded the program since 2012. In November 2013, we also conducted co-research in Yarabuoki site with some local high school students who had joined the robot making program. During this co-research program, the diving team members conducted their research of some anchors and pottery jars in the site, while Sakagami supervised the students on how to manage and operate the human-portable underwater robot for the observation of the underwater cultural heritage and underwater survey activity. Following such educational practices, we also held some town meetings in Ishigaki city to invite the school teachers, students, and local members of Educational board to openly discuss about the possibility of the underwater cultural heritages around Ishigaki Island and its potential use for further educational and cultural program. All of these trials and practices seem to have worked to get the local community involved and 11 �to increase their interests in our research and underwater cultural heritage as well. Now, our next target is to create the local society and its core members who want to join and continue to conserve their underwater cultural heritages as educational, cultural and tourism resources. As also mentioned by other Japanese scholars (e.g. Iwabuchi, 2012; Katagiri et al., 2010, Katagiri et al., in this volume), the concept of establishing Seabed Site Museums can be one of the ideal ways to accomplish our final goal for the use and management of underwater cultural heritage in the Yaeyama and Ryukyu Archipelago in the near future. Table 1 GPS Position Coordinate and Depth of Anchors and Ceramics. (R. Ono) Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge Mr. Seiji Fujii, Mr. Yuji Yamamoto, Mr. Toshiaki Hayashibara, Dr. Shiro Takemura, Mz. Yumiko Ogawa, Mr. Naoshi Inabatani, and Mr. Takehiro Furuse for their considerable support and assistance of our research in the Yaeyama Islands. The underwater research of the Yarabeoki site was funded by The Research Institute of Humanity and Nature, Japan. All the underwater pictures here were taken and provided by Mr. Yuji Yamamoto. Lastly, we are greatly indebted to Dr. Akihumi Iwabuchi and Dr. Tatsuya Nakata for their kind support and useful comments to our first draft as the session organizers. 12 �References Iwabuchi, A., 2012. The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage. Kagaku-dojin, Kyoto (in Japanese). Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economics and Humanities and Association for Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Studies, 2010. The report 1: A research report of the underwater cultural heritages in Nansei Islands in 2009. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, No. 3: 5-31 (in Japanese). Kagoshima University, The Faculty of Law, Economics and Humanities and Association for Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Studies, 2011. The report 4: A research report of the underwater cultural heritages in Nansei Islands in 2010. The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies, No. 4: 36-59 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2007.Enganchiikiisekibunpuchousagaihou (I) – Okinawa hontooyobishuhenrito hen. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2009. Enganchiikiisekibunpuchousagaihou (II) – Miyako Yaeyama hen. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre, Naha. (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., (Ed.), 2010. Enganchiikiisekibunpuchousagaihou (III) – gaiyoisekichizu hen. Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Centre, Naha (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., 2011. Iron Anchors discovered in Nansei Islands. In The Faculty of Law, Economics and Humanities and Association for Nansei Islands Underwater Cultural Heritage Studies (Ed.), The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Nansei Islands. The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka, 136-141 (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., Yamada, H., Sakihara, T., Nakajima, T., Miyagi, H., and Watanabe, Y., 2012. The Report of an Underwater Cultural Heritage Tour in Kumejima –The Project of ‘The Museum of Underwater Cultural Heritage’. Bulletin of the Museum, Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum, No. 5: 19-36 (in Japanese). Kojima, R., 2012, Areal Characters of Japanese Style Ships during the Early Modern Times. In H. Okamoto (Ed.), Difference and Similarity of Ship Culture in Eastern Asia: Perspectives from the Early Modern Ryukyu and Comparative Study, Kansai University, Osaka: 103-121 (in Japanese). 13 �Miyagi, H., Katagiri, C., Higa, N., and Sakihara, T., 2005. Preliminary Investigation into Discovering Sunken Ships in the Southwest Islands (II): Underwater Artifacts and marine Transportation. Bulletin of the Archaeological Study of Okinawa, No. 2: 81-108 (in Japanese). Ono, R., Katagiri, C., Sakagami, N., Kan, H., Miyagi, H. and Yamamoto, Y., 2013. Present and Future of the Underwater Cultural Heritages in the Yaeyama Islands: Perspective from the Recent Research of Yarabuoki. Proceedings of Yaeyama Museum, Vol. 22: 20-43 (in Japanese). Oohama, E., 1999.The Archaeology in the Yaeyama Islands. The Yaeyama Prehistoric Culture and Research Institution, Ishigaki (in Japanese). Biography Rintaro Ono is an Associate Professor in the School of Marine Science and Technologies at Tokai University, Japan. He has conducted numbers of archaeological fieldworks in Island Southeast Asia, the Pacific islands, and Okinawa. The primary focus of his research is development of the human’s maritime adaptation, maritime networking and resource exploitation in island ecosystem. Hironobu Kan is a Professor in the Graduate School of Education / Graduate School of Natural Sciences, Okayama University, Japan. The primary focus of his current research is Coral Reef Geomorphology using Multibeam Bathymetric Echo Sounder and SCUBA Diving Surveys. Norimitsu Sakagami is an Associate Professor in the School of Marine Science and Technologies at Tokai University, Japan. The primary focuses of his research are motion control of surface vehicles, underwater vehicles, environmental monitoring systems, and linear control systems etc. Masayuki Nagao is a Senior Researcher in the Institute of Geology and Geoinformationat, The National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan. The primary focus of his current research is Coral Reef Geomorphology using Multibeam Bathymetric Echo Sounder and SCUBA Diving Surveys. Chiaki Katagiri is the chief curator of the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum. He has been actively engaged in investigation and research of underwater cultural heritage in Ryukyu Archipelago. His papers include Research Studies of Ginama Foreign Shipwreck sites in Kunigamison, Okinawa (2012). 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource First Discovery and Mapping of Early Modern Grapnel Anchors in Ishigaki Island and Cultural Resource Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Okinawa Description An account of the resource Yarabuoki site, which contains iron grapnel anchors and early modern Okinawa ceramic jars in 12 to 32 m depth off the western Coast of Ishigaki Island, was discovered by a local diver and reported to Okinawa Prefectural Archaeological Center. In 2010, the Center conducted a distributional survey to confirm the site and its location. Although the survey found and pictured seven numbers of grapnel anchors that were first findings of this type in Okinawa area, the previous study did not record each position and the accurate depth of these artifacts and the site character such as shipwreck site or discarded shipping loads site is yet unclear. With such background and tasks, our team has conducted underwater archaeological research to record each location of grapnel anchors and ceramic jars using GPS. Furthermore, Kan and Nagao conducted a broadband multibeam survey around the Yarabuoki site and visualized the bathymetric 2 results at a lateral grid resolution of 1m. This will enable us to create a three- dimensional site map to plot the artifacts, while Sakagami (Tokai University) developed a low-cost and human-portable underwater robot to explore and record high resolution video of underwater sites, and the robot successfully worked during our surveys. Our paper reports the results and outcomes of the research at Yarabuoki site and other underwater sites in Ishigaki and the Yaeyama Islands and discusses the early modern marine transportations in Okinawa or the Ryukyu Islands. We also discuss the future possibility for cultural resource management of underwater cultural heritages in the Yaeyama and Okinawa. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rintaro Ono Hironobu Kan Norimitsu Sakagami Masayuki Nagao Chiaki Katagiri, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/64921ecbbdf9ca06dfa9e558804ebbcc.pdf 1a6f8cb37fc7d646d4e801b518ecef2c PDF Text Text The History, Status, and Future of Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Japan Randall J. Sasaki Texas A&M University College Station 77841 USA Email: shipwreckarchaeology@gmail.com Setsuo Imazu, Yuji Dainobu, and Yoshihiko Akashi Kyushu National Museum Fukuoka Japan, 818-0118 Email: imazu@kyuhaku.jp Email: dainobu@kyuhaku.jp Email: akashi@kyuhaku.jp Abstract Underwater archaeology in Japan has a long history, as a report of artifacts from Lake Suwa in 1908, as well as discoveries at Tsuzura Ozaki site in Lake Biwa in 1924 detailed. The attempts to find the ill-fated fleet of Khubilai Khan at Takashima Island in Nagasaki prefecture began in the 1980s, but the Japanese archaeological community was slow in recognizing the importance of underwater archaeology. A number of underwater archaeological projects were conducted, but none had a lasting influence; the Japanese government has no law that specifically protects submerged sites, and there was neither government agency nor university that conducted a large scaled underwater excavation. However, several major developments suddenly took place in the past few years. In 2012, at first, following the discovery of a Chinese ship remain at Takashima Island, the Kozaki Underwater Site was registered as the first submerged national historic site. In 2013, secondly, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology published 6 volumes of “The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Report on Comprehensive Survey of Maritime Cultural Heritage”. In 2013, moreover, the Agency for Cultural Affairs formed a committee to discuss how the government should act in response to the growing importance of protecting submerged sites. These events signify the Japanese archaeological community, as well as the government, finally began to recognize the importance of underwater cultural heritage. This paper illustrates the history, current status, as well as the possible future development plan of underwater archaeological research in Japan. Keywords: The Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs, Law and Policy, Mongol Invasion, UCH Management, Database 1 �Introduction As an island nation, the ocean has always influenced the life of people living in Japan. A part of Japanese culture has been also shaped by “foreign” influences which must come from “outside the ocean.” Despite these facts, Japan is one nation that has not fully embraced the concept of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) management yet. In this brief article, the authors will propose a possible plan for initiating the management of submerged sites in the nation. To better understand this plan, a brief history of the field, recent developments of underwater archaeology, and the status of Japanese archaeological community are discussed. A brief history of Underwater Archaeology in Japan Japan possesses a long history of study of cultural relics found underwater. The discoveries of lithic from Lake Suwa in 1908, and the discovery of nearly complete pottery from Tsuzura Ozaki site at Lake Biwa in 1924 may be noted as the insipient stage of the field of underwater archaeology (Ishihara, 2000). The archaeological community debated how and why these underwater sites formed. It is interesting to note that archaeologists from a century ago had recognized the importance of submerged cultural remains. Since, a number of sites were investigated through a local municipal level but the majority of the projects were limited in scale (Hayashida, 2013). However, two projects that played an important role in the development of underwater archaeology in the country should be mentioned; sites around Lake Biwa and Takashima underwater site. The largest inland lake in Japan, Lake Biwa has been an important waterways as well as a source of water and food for the people of central Japan. Since the lakefront renovation plan was commenced in 1972, Lake Biwa became one of the focal points of UCH management in the country; over one hundred sites were investigated through this development project (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 2010). Cofferdams were built on nearly all of these sites making a dry land excavation possible (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 2010). The sites range from Jomonmidden sites to historic building structures; information gleaned through these excavations was tremendous. One important site, dated to around 4,500 years before present, is the Awazu-midden site (Tsuboi, 1994). The shell midden consisted of a layer 2 �of shells and a layer of plants alternatively bedded (Matsui and Kanehara, 2006). Such layering seen at the Awazu site has not been found on any midden sites on land; this is due to a waterlogged condition favorable for the preservation of the organic remains. Chestnuts, acorns, beans, gourds, edible burdock, and other cultigens were found within the plant layers and these plants were most likely cultivated, making the Awazu site one of the earliest that produced an evidence of extensive plant utilization in the country (Matsui and Kanehara, 2006). Japan with its acidic soil, large fluctuation of temperature, and a high annual rainfall rate, finding organic remains on a land site is rare. Thus, the potential of finding evidence of rich and extensive plant utilization of the early inhabitants of Japan is more likely to be found from underwater sites. The Takashima underwater site is a well-known historical battle site; Khubilai Khan’s fleet was destroyed here by the legendary typhoon during the Mongol invasion of Japan in 1281 (Delgado, 2010). The site has been reported by popular media, but has seen only a few scholarly publications (Takano, 2013). The history of research at Takashima extends for more than 30 years; based on historical records and local fishermen finding artifacts in their nets, the initial survey around the island was planned in the early 1980s. The project was led by a marine engineer, and various artifacts were found using a sonar system. Some of the artifacts were raised by divers; however, no remains of a vessel were found. Although professional archaeologists were not directly involved during this initial stage, the importance of the site was recognized (Matsuura City Board of Education, 2011). The Takashima underwater site was registered as a known archaeological site and thus became a protected archaeological site by the Law of Buried Cultural Property. Under this law, a site must be thoroughly investigated prior to any land development taking place. Following this initial project, a series of surveys and excavations were conducted at the island intermittently throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The board of Education at Takashima entrusted the research projects to various organizations, and the Kyushu Okinawa Society of Underwater Archaeology (now the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology: ARIUA) became the main partner of research. The rescue excavations for the harbor renovation at Kouzaki produced a large number of artifacts related to the Mongol invasion. The excavations continued, and large wooden anchors, 3 �fragments of hull remains, and weapons including ceramic bombs are just a few examples of finds made (Fig. 1). However, the discovery of a hull had to wait for a few more years (Matsuura City Board of Education, 2011). As will be discussed in detail below, the overall majority of archaeological projects in the nation are conducted through local municipalities. While the discoveries were being made, a few underwater excavations had taken place across Japan, but some projects had barely Fig. 1 Photo of the Hull Timbers waiting to be conserved at been reported. The Japanese Takashima. (Courtesy of Matsuura Board of Education and R. Agency for Cultural Affairs Sasaki) (JACA) had realized the importance of underwater archaeology and a national plan to manage such sites. Between 1989 and 1991, JACA sent interviews to all 3,245 municipal offices in the country, and a large number of offices reported the possible presence of submerged sites or artifacts recovered from their waters. Among them, 216 locations were selected for an additional survey. The result showed that only 44 of these sites were investigated (Agency for Cultural Affairs, 2000). Recent Developments A new phase of research at Takashima was initiated by the team led by Ryukyu University and the technical support provided by the Tokai University. Several seasons of remote sensing surveys identified several targets. In 2011 when divers began removing the accumulated silt on one of the targets, the remains of a Chinese vessel, perhaps more than 20 m in length, appeared. This discovery was covered extensively by Japanese media and brought underwater archaeology to the forefront of attention for many people (Ikeda, 2013). In 2012, Takashima became the first nationally registered submerged historical site; it signifies that an underwater site is now protected as one of the most important Japanese national heritage assets (Nakata, 2013). Following the 4 �discovery of intact hull remains at Takashima, JACA formed a committee to discuss how the Japanese government should act to protect submerged sites. The members various were selected specialists from including municipal officials, a vocational archaeologist, and a conservator. At this point, no specific Fig. 2 ARIUA’s Webpage Showing a Part of the Database. (K. management plan for the country Hayashida) has been decided. To provide the committee with up to date and accurate information regarding the status of managing submerged sites, Kyushu National Museum was entrusted to study how other countries in the world are managing their UCH. Another development that took place in recent years is the growth in number of academic, municipal, and vocational maritime archaeologists. Recognizing the growing importance of the field, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology became the first University in Japan to establish a course in maritime archaeology. The University initiated a number of survey projects using advanced remote-sensing technologies (Kondo and Iwabuchi, 2011). Some municipalities, including Okinawa, has developed a strong team of archaeologists that can manage the UCH in their waters. They have also conducted several outreach programs where a public can access the underwater sites (Katagiri, 2013). In the last decade, several underwater archaeology groups were formed and conducted research at submerged sites. Among them, ARIUA emerged as a leading institute. Besides their work at Takashima, the ARIUA’s underwater site database project initiated in 2009 should be equally cited as a breakthrough. They conducted an extensive evaluation of all known underwater sites in Japan. The project was also supported by various organizations, including other vocational underwater archaeological groups. This was the first time that such a comprehensive information of submerged sites was collected. ARIUA published six volumes of reports with a 5 �Table 1. Examples of part of the Database available on-line (translated into English) 6 �database of over five hundred submerged sites (Fig. 2 and Table 1) (Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, 2013). This study will be a valuable source for obtaining information regarding underwater archaeology in Japan and a foundation for future studies on the subject. Problems Concerning Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Japan There are three main problems concerning the protection of UCH in Japan. First, the underwater sites are not specifically mentioned in the laws. Second, there are no proper rules established when someone discovers a relic underwater, and third, no archaeological survey is required prior to a construction over water. Another concern, perhaps different in nature than the first three mentioned, is the lack of information regarding UCH in general. Before beginning the discussion of these problems, a current status of Japanese archaeological community will be illustrated. The law on the Protection of Buried Cultural Properties is the basis of all archaeological excavations in Japan. JACA sets the rules and guidelines for site management, and in most cases, the local Board of Education is responsible for managing local sites (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). Each municipality is responsible for maintaining a database of known sites. Once the site is listed, any development that takes place within or around the site must be excavated. The local authority decides which sites are to be listed and some municipalities take a step further by surveying. There are many Universities with programs in archaeology, but academic research within Japan is little more than 5 % of the total (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). There are a few public archaeology firms, but they are mainly limited to conducting projects in large cities. Their archaeological projects must also follow the municipal standards. The number of archaeological sites excavated - around 8,000 sites per year - may be surprising to many (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). Although many of the sites are small, the number of artifacts recovered from these sites accumulates quickly. For example, the number of sites (or perhaps it should be called “projects”) at Hakata, the historical port city in Fukuoka Prefecture in western Japan, now counts up to two hundred in number. These Hakata sites produce thousands of artifacts each. Many of the municipalities are struggling to complete the analysis of the astronomical amount of data gathered. Still, excavations 7 �take place each year while the budget and the number of specialists involved with the heritage management has been shrinking (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). In this situation, the focus of the research tends to be detailed artifact analysis (which Japanese archaeologists are one of the best in the world) and starting something new is extremely difficult. Japanese law also has a room for improvements. Although the current law does not specifically mention artifacts found underwater, the absence of the word “underwater” in the legal code should not imply that submerged sites need not be protected. Underwater sites can be protected if they are registered; the problem is how to get the site onto the list. The Takashima underwater site has been on the protected list and thus the past rescue projects were possible. Still, not having the word “underwater” may give an impression - consciously or not - that such sites are not common. The second problem, not having a set of standards when discovering an underwater site, may be a larger issue than the first problem. When a relic is found, a person should report to the local police department first. The police will then decide the fate of the found artifact. There are several ways to dispose of the finds depending on which law is applied. The best way in which to protect objects is to define them as a cultural property. In this case, the object will have the same protection as that found on land. If the police consider the artifact as a lost object, the law of lost property will be applied; the lost object may be given to the finder if no one claims ownership of it. The third problem is not having a regulation that requires archaeological survey before a development takes place over water. The archaeological community is largely unaware that such a survey does not require a large sum of money as it did in the past, and the industry is unaware of the fact that underwater sites are fairly common. One problem is the lack of information on maritime archaeology that can be found written in Japanese. In addition, a somewhat skewed and out-dated image of the field still persists. The blame should not be directed towards Japanese archaeologists, as it is our shared world heritage that we are striving to preserve. Not many people in Japan think that underwater sites are common and finding those sites are extremely difficult and expensive, if not impossible. Many think that to become an underwater archaeologist requires extensive training, and that excavations and conservation still 8 �more expensive. The information we hear about the subject primarily comes from national projects conducted in China and Korea, together with the stories of raising Vasa and Mary Rose. Considering the national budget set for archaeological research, underwater archaeology does not appear to be a practical choice. Furthermore, since it is certain that there is no job that a student can get even with a degree in hand, the study of underwater archaeology cannot be a career of choice for many. Proposed Plan There are several ways in which Japan may develop the program managing UCH. One possible way is for Japan to create a national underwater archaeological research center under JACA. This plan may be similar to the path China and Korea have taken. However, considering that the Japanese archaeological community is structured through cooperation of municipal archaeologists and a nation-wide project is rare, this plan may result in the isolation of underwater archaeologists from the rest of the “land archaeologists.” In addition, the government must first secure funding for such program. The most suitable plan for Japan is to utilize the existing infrastructure, limit any major changes, and create a system that municipal archaeologists could manage. The best management plan is one in which the main task of actual activities will be conducted through the municipal archaeologists and the existing groups of underwater archaeologists assisting the tasks. JACA will provide advice to municipalities and check the overall management of the underwater sites. The municipal archaeologists will manage the underwater sites according to the principles set by JACA. The main task will be to register new sites and perhaps organize surveys and excavations with the help of vocational underwater archaeological groups. As this scheme is only a proposal and not a completed plan, the details regarding how to incorporate the nonarchaeological community and stakeholders into the overall heritage management has not been fully debated. Along with the minor organizational arrangements, changes must be made in some of the laws; the three problems mentioned in the section above must be solved. The current cultural heritage law is an effective way to protect underwater sites, even it does not mention the word “underwater” specifically. JACA may distribute to each municipality an addendum explaining the guidelines for managing UCH. It should be 9 �mentioned in these guidelines that objects found in submerged context should have equal protection to those found on land. In addition, a survey to find and record new archaeological sites should be encouraged. The government should set a standard procedure when someone finds a historical artifact underwater, and a note should be distributed to all authorities. A change in legislation - namely to require a survey before development takes place on water and an agreeable cooperation plan with the fishermen’s association - is needed. When there is construction over water, conducting archaeological surveys by marine engineering companies is not something out of the ordinary. Once the stake-holders realize the importance of protecting underwater sites, as they respect archaeological sites on land, installing a rule for surveys on water should not be difficult to accept. The actual “loss” for a community and the stake-holders caused by adopting the protection of UCH, we believe, is minimal; the benefit, although it may be difficult to represent in economical terms, should outweigh the malefic. The local community may feel pride in having an underwater site, or some of the representative artifacts raised from the sea may bring tourists to the area. At the same time these changes are made, more up to date and accurate information about maritime archaeology should be disseminated. Both academic and non-academic publications should be encouraged. There is a plethora of reasons why distributing a current status of the study need to be promoted. To give one example, the Japanese archaeological community has already realized that raising and conserving a nearly complete vessel is not practical; however, it is a surprise to the Japanese public, as well as archaeologists, that the study of underwater archaeology is no longer about excavating sunken vessels. Once the archaeological community realizes that a project that raises an entire vessel is not a norm, and the coexistence of development with a long-term management of underwater sites is the current trend, a meaningful discussion of how the nation should protect submerged sites can begin. In addition to academic publications, the study of UCH should be introduced to a wider audience through popular publications and media. The stakeholders, including construction companies and the fisheries cooperatives, are the most likely groups that will be directly involved with UCH. Without the proper understanding of the value of artifacts found underwater by these groups, a protection of UCH will be difficult to achieve. 10 �Conclusions In this brief article, the history and current status of UCH in Japan was discussed. Based on the discussion, a possible plan on UCH management was proposed. Despite a long history of people being interested in relics found underwater, the Japanese archaeological community was largely indifferent to the development of UCH management around the globe. To bring about change in the Japanese archaeological community may take some effort, but the benefit of the proposed approach is that it does not require an extensive change in how the archaeological community is organized, nor does it requires a large budget. It also preserves the existing, and growing, underwater archaeological groups in the nation. Although this is one proposed solution, we believe it will bring more in depth and meaningful discussion on how to manage UCH in Japan. Acknowledgment This paper was written by the members of a group led by Kyushu National Museum entrusted to create a report for the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs on a current trend of UCH management in the world. This is only a proposal generated by the authors’ personal views and does not reflect the opinion or the plan of the Japanese government nor any institutions. References Agency for Cultural Affairs., 2000. Considering Methods for the Protection of Archaeological Sites: Underwater Sites. Agency for Cultural Affairs, Tokyo (in Japanese). Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology., 2013. The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology (Vol. 1-6). Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka (in Japanese). Delgado, J., 2010. Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet: In Search of a Legendary Armada. University of California Press, Berkeley. Hayashida, K., 2013. Underwater Archaeological Sites in Japan. Archaeology Quarterly, Vol. 123: 20-23 (in Japanese). Ikeda, Y., 2013. The Excavations of the Shipwreck in the Mongolian Invasions; the Underwater Archaeological Research of the Takashima Kouzaki Seabed Site. The Archaeological Journal, Vol. 641: 24-28 (in Japanese). 11 �Ishihara, W., 2000. The History of Underwater Archaeology in Japan. In Agency for Cultural Affairs (Ed.), Considering Methods for the Protection of Archaeological Site: Underwater Sites, Agency for Cultural Affairs. Tokyo: 5-22 (in Japanese). Japanese Archaeological Association. 2012. Archaeologia Japonica Vol. 64: Annual Report of the Japanese Archaeological Studies and Excavations (Fiscal year 2011). The Japanese Archaeological Association, Tokyo (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., 2013. The Research Agenda and Vision for Future. In The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Nansei Islands. Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka: 216-237 (in Japanese). Kondo, H., and Iwabuchi, A., 2011. Deepwater Archaeology off Tobishima Island of Northern Japan. In Mark Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Proceedings, Manila: 251-259. Matsui, A., and Kanehara, M., 2006. The Question of Prehistoric Plant Husbandry during the Jomon Period in Japan. World Archaeology, Vol. 38 (2): 259-73 (in Japanese). Matsuura City Board of Education., 2011. Matsuura City Takashima Underwater Site: Summary of Research (Matsuura City Cultural Property Investigation Report), No. 4. Matsuura City Board of Education, Matsuura, Nagaski (in Japanese). Nakata, A., 2013. Historical Site Designated by the Site “The Takashima Kouzaki Ruins.” The Archaeological Journal, Vol. 641: 8-13 (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 2010. World of Underwater Archaeology at Lake Biwa. Sunrise Publishing, Hikone, Shiga (in Japanese). Takano, S., 2013. Takashima Island (The Research Results of Japanese Underwater Archaeology). Archaeology Quarterly, Vol. 123: 34-36 (in Japanese). Tsuboi, K., 1994. The Lake of Jomon: Discussions on the Awazu Shell Midden of Lake Biwa. Yuzankaku, Tokyo (in Japanese). 12 �Biography Randall J. Sasaki a PhD candidate at Texas A&M University, Sasaki is also working as a city archaeologist in Fukuoka City. His main interest has been traditional East Asian shipbuilding technology, particularly from the Chinese Yuan (Mongol) dynasty period. He conducted a timber recording project at the Takashima underwater site and also led a survey team at the Bach Dang River Naval Battle Site in Vietnam. He has been working on promoting importance of Underwater Cultural Heritage to the Japanese public; a popular book he published became one of the best seller titles on the subject in Japan. Setsuo Imazu has received his doctorate from Aoyama Gakuin University. He has worked at Fukushima Museum and Archaeological Institute of Kashihara at Nara. In 2005, he was invited to the newly created Kyushu National Museum. Currently he is the Director of Museum Science Division. He specializes in conservation, mainly focusing on treatment of waterlogged wood. He has published in various scholarly articles in Japan and other countries. Yuji Dainobu received his BA in History of Western Art from the International Christian University in 1977, Maitrise in History of Western Art from Universite Catholique de Louvain (Belgium) in 1980, and MA in History of Eastern Art from Kyushu University in 1983. He worked as a research assistant at the Faculty of Letters at Kyushu University in 1983, and later as a curator at Tokyo National Museum until 2004. He has joined Kyushu National Museum in 2004. He has organized many exhibitions including Tibetan Art, Liao Art, HIRAYAMA Ikuo and World Cultural Heritage. He has published many articles on Buddhist art and Silk Roads. Yoshihiko Akashi studied archaeology at Meiji University. His career includes working at Kyushu Historical Museum. His current position is the Director of Exhibition Division at Kyushu National Museum. He has published a number of scholarly articles on Japanese forts, or mountain castle, and also on the study of international commerce and relationship in ancient Asia. He is also interested in ancient Korean ceramics and decorated Kofun (painted tumuli). 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The History, Status, and Future of Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Japan Description An account of the resource Underwater archaeology in Japan has a long history, as a report of artifacts from Lake Suwa in 1908, as well as discoveries at Tsuzura Ozaki site in Lake Biwa in 1924 detailed. The attempts to find the ill-fated fleet of Khubilai Khan at Takashima Island in Nagasaki prefecture began in the 1980s, but the Japanese archaeological community was slow in recognizing the importance of underwater archaeology. A number of underwater archaeological projects were conducted, but none had a lasting influence; the Japanese government has no law that specifically protects submerged sites, and there was neither government agency nor university that conducted a large scaled underwater excavation. However, several major developments suddenly took place in the past few years. In 2012, at first, following the discovery of a Chinese ship remain at Takashima Island, the Kozaki Underwater Site was registered as the first submerged national historic site. In 2013, secondly, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology published 6 volumes of “The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Report on Comprehensive Survey of Maritime Cultural Heritage”. In 2013, moreover, the Agency for Cultural Affairs formed a committee to discuss how the government should act in response to the growing importance of protecting submerged sites. These events signify the Japanese archaeological community, as well as the government, finally began to recognize the importance of underwater cultural heritage. This paper illustrates the history, current status, as well as the possible future development plan of underwater archaeological research in Japan. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randall J. Sasaki Setsuo Imazu Yuji Dainobu Yoshihiko Akashi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014